University of Greenwich School of Education and Training Research and Enterprise Seminars
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The Authenticity of Metaphors of Transformational Leadership in Further Education
DR JILL JAMESON Director of Research, School of Education and Training University of Greenwich
Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, University of Warwick, 6-9 September 2006
Abstract
How important is the question of authenticity in the rhetoric about transformational leadership in further education (FE)? How genuinely does the metaphorical language of ‘transformation’, as employed in common usage in leadership situations and in prior literature on leadership relate to the realities of institutional life as experienced by teachers, support staff, students and the clients of FE colleges? Do metaphors of transformation in everyday use relate to reality in further education organisations or are they a guise? Is the current interest in ‘transformational leadership’ misplaced, or does this concept really point the way to a reinvigorated potential for improved leadership and management situations in the sector? In the post-heroic era of a performative ‘audit culture’, how helpful are rhetorical models of transformational leadership to help bring about better organisations? The question of authenticity in leadership, much researched in prior literature, is a key issue to be addressed in establishing models of effective, genuine organisational leadership. This research seminar paper is a report in progress from a phenomenological research study investigating the question of metaphors of leadership employed in the learning and skills sector. A series of interviews were carried out with learning and skills sector leaders in 2004-06. An on-line questionnaire on leadership has been distributed to a range of staff in FE colleges and a documentary analysis of recent policy and research papers relevant to leadership in FE has been conducted, to investigate metaphors of leadership in common usage. A model for the analysis of metaphorical usage in the sector relating to leadership has been piloted. Data derived from the research were analysed using HyperResearch and Tropes Zoom software, to determine the meanings of prevailing metaphors of transformational leadership used in interviews relating to further education. These results are being further analysed with reference to the question of authenticity in transformational leadership, to establish recommendations for improved leadership. Interim results indicate that self-transcendent, ‘other-directed’ forms of leadership may have the potential to result in improvements in management in the sector. The book relating to the research (Jameson, 2006) will be followed up by a further publication (Jameson and McNay, 2007) and continuing studies on leadership development in FE.
Introduction
The metaphorical language of ‘transformation’ has been employed in common usage in a number of studies about leadership situations in further education (FE), in prior literature on leadership (Bass and Avolio, 1994) and on leadership and management studies more generally in post-compulsory education (Briggs, 2001, 2002, Iszatt et al., 2004, Jameson, 2005, 2006, Lumby, 2001, Lumby et al., 2004, 2005, Simkins and Lumby, 2002, Simkins, 2005, Smith, 2005). Such usages more or less relate to the realities of institutional life as experienced by teachers, support staff, students and the clients of educational institutions, depending on the study itself, its rigour and complexity of perceptions, the audiences for the studies, and the ways in which multiple realities in FE relating to leadership are and can be perceived.
Whether metaphors of transformation in everyday usage relate to reality in further education organisations within the learning and skills sector or are a guise for something else less appealing is therefore a question fit for many different answers. The short-form, catch-all response, not terribly revealing in itself, would be, ‘sometimes they do, sometimes they don’t. This doesn’t take us very far. So perhaps we need to work around the question a bit first to explore this landscape somewhat first.
The current interest in ‘transformational leadership’ has grown up in the post-heroic era of a performative ‘audit culture’ in FE since incorporation in 1993, in which rhetorical models of transformational leadership are appealing in the generalised stampede to help bring about better organisations quickly without too much pain, lest your institution be closed as a ‘failing college’. ‘Just add water to transform’ toolkits for improvement through rapid, visionary changes have always been popular, and in the current era of ‘mass reality show home improvement lifestyle’ television, otherwise termed the ‘McDonaldization of education’, they have achieved a new fame for the public seeking to learn from what Andrew Morris (Jameson, 2006) somewhat critically calls the ‘gurus of leadership’.
In the wake of the Foster Review of FE (2005) and the initial leadership research and development work of the Centre for Excellence in Leadership (2003-6), much attention is therefore now being paid to the question of improving leadership and management across the UK learning and skills sector, particularly in FE, to address the succession crisis in leadership now looming (CEL, 2004). Within this, models of transformational and distributed leadership have been seen as potentially more useful and attractive than transactional leadership practices for the achievement of greater empowerment of staff and higher quality performance outcomes within a more collegial framework. However, prior research has found that transactional leadership is in fact more frequently in evidence in FE colleges in terms of the actual behaviour of leaders and managers, although ‘transformational’ leadership is regarded as more visionary and appealing (Lumby et al., 2005).
The question of authenticity in leadership, much researched in prior literature, is a key issue to be addressed in establishing models of effective, genuine organisational leadership. This research reports from an ongoing phenomenological research study being funded by the Centre for Excellence in Leadership and the Emerald Fund during 2005-6. The study is investigating the question of metaphors of leadership employed in the learning and skills sector. A series of interviews were carried out with learning and skills sector leaders in 2004-06. An on-line questionnaire on leadership has also been distributed to a range of staff in FE colleges and a documentary analysis of recent policy and research papers relevant to leadership in further education has been conducted, to investigate metaphors of leadership in common usage.
A model for the analysis of metaphorical usage in the sector relating to leadership has been piloted. Data derived from the research are being analysed, to determine prevailing metaphors of transformational leadership relating to further education. These results are being analysed with reference to the question of authenticity in transformational leadership, to establish recommendations for improved sectoral leadership in the future. The process of this research will be discussed with seminar participants. The published book relating to this research, Leadership in Post-compulsory Education: Inspiring Leaders of the Future (Jameson, 2006) and a further book currently in the process of authorship (Jameson and McNay, 2007) will be available in due course if participants are interested in learning more about this work and reading case studies of the leaders interviewed.
Methodology
This research investigates the phenomenon of leadership in further education: using a phenomenological case study model. It has initially used lengthy interviews to collect data in a questionnaire developed to investigate this concept. Ten semi-structured interviews were held with acknowledged successful leaders in the post-compulsory/further education sector (PCET/FE) during 2004-05. These interviews were transcribed and developed into case studies from which models of leadership relating to each interviewee were written up and published (Jameson, 2006). From the interviews and the literature relating to leadership in PCET/FE, a tentative model to analyse metaphors of leadership was developed relating to
2 the question of authenticity in leadership. Initial qualitative analysis and coding of the interviews has been carried out using HyperResearch and a second round of analysis using Tropes Zoom V6.2 semantic search engine has begun.. Simultaneously, an on-line questionnaire on leadership in the learning and skills sector has been prepared and been trialled to triangulate the data received in the interviews and from prior literature. Following feedback on the pilot questionnaire, the final questionnaire will now be distributed throughout the further education sector. The results will be analysed in relation to the prior data collected in the interviews held during 2004-05 and a series of follow-up interviews will be arranged to take forward the concepts emerging.
The provisionality of ‘authenticity?’
‘ Authenticity’ tends to mean that which is genuine, credible and legitimate. ‘Authentic’ artefacts, antiques or signatures, for example, are ‘bona fide’ items that are original, whose provenance has been tested as reliable and verified. A quality that determines whether an article is valued as ‘authentic’, ‘truthful’ or ‘real’ may sometimes be one of historical association, or it may be a quality of scarcity or particular uniqueness: for example, an original item signed by an historically significant person. The saying, ‘the real McCoy’ describes a popular conception of this kind of uniqueness, referring to something which is a genuine article, as opposed to a fake copy or counterfeit, or to a unique person, rather than to an imposter.i
This ideal of authenticity has been radically challenged by post-structuralist and post-modernist thinkers during several past decades regarding the privileging of any notion of essentialism or uniqueness of any individual artefact, composition or person. Andy Warhol attempted to demonstrate the endless repeatability of art, questioning the presence of any ‘originality?’. Philosophical difficulties surrounding the whole idea of ‘originality?’ are considerable. Concepts of ‘originality?’ are problematic in the context, for example, of literary and media studies: we are familiar with the great difficulties involved in determining where the concept of a ‘copy’ begins and ends, what is real and what is not. In a post-post- structuralist and post-modernist world, the distinction between what is ‘real’ and what is ‘simulated’ or ‘copied’ is blurred: the hyperreality of modern fiction becomes a unifying nothingness in which all distinctions between what is real and what is unreal or hyperreal, what is the original and what is a copy are lost. Where can we go from here?
In a prior research project which investigated the concept of ‘originality’ amongst three variables relating to student multimedia composition in education (Jameson, 1999), I examined the polarity between composition works which were more or less ‘original’, intentionally ‘owned’ by the learner or were personally significant to them, versus those which were unadapted derivative work lacking significance for the learner, for example irrelevant glamorous art products posted inappropriately into a composition. The idea of ‘integrated composition’ versus ‘annotated text’ (Hay, 1994) relates to this – a multimedia composition which is more or less spontaneously inventive in the interconnection and integration of concepts relevant to the writer’s purposes can be contrasted with one that is merely spuriously novel. A focus on ‘connectionism’ and ‘P-creativity’ (psychological creativity, see Boden, 1994) as opposed to absolute uniqueness or ‘H-creativity’ (historically unique creativity), together with a relative bracketing of the term ‘authenticity’ indicating its constant provisionality, is a way perhaps in which to resurrect from post-post-modernist ashes some semblance of a concept of the ‘authentic’, some idea of a situated context in which unique historical moments happen and real people live. In recognition of the provisionality and indeterminancy of ‘originality?’ in a world of the simulacra, a constantly copied world in which the simulated has replaced the real in an endless playing out of re-semblances, however, we should probably note that ‘authenticity?’ requires an actual or implied question mark.
Even when discussing this idea in relation to education and leadership studies, in which there has been less problem and much interest recently in the question of authenticity, we need to recognise that concepts of ‘authenticity?’ are provisional, problematic, shifting and constantly being challenged. The concept of a kind of playful ‘creative connectionism’, an ability spontaneously to connect and integrate received concepts with a lively inventiveness and honesty, therefore begins to demonstrate a new kind of bracketed ‘authenticity?’ constantly aware of its own relative meanings, its variability and provisionality.
Authenticity in leadership: ‘other-connected’ findings
3 In leadership terms, Michie and Gooty (2005) observe that researchers have previously regarded ‘authentic leaders’ as those who are “guided by a set of values … oriented toward doing what’s right and fair for all stakeholders (Bass and Steidlmeier, 1999; Luthans and Avolio, 2003; May, Chan, Hodges, and Avolio, 2003).” Michie and Gooty (ibid) note that authentic leaders “strive to do what is right and fair for all stakeholders and may willingly sacrifice self-interests for the collective good of their work unit, organization, community, or entire society (Bass and Steidlmeier, 1999; Burns, 1978; Howell and Avolio, 1992; Luthans and Avolio, 2003).” They found (ibid) that authentic leaders can be identified
1. 'fit' is optimising 60. building in long-term effects 127. dreams 2. 'ourself' as a community 128. drift 61. building of wisdom 129. drive me 3. 'parenting' the organisation 62. built around delivery 130. drivers machinery 131. driving ambition to be the 4. 'stickability with' of 63. bums on seats best leadership 64. can always be better 132. driving things forward in a 5. 'we' as organisation 65. can't distribute blame positive way 6. a corridor between worlds 66. career move ambition 133. dullness of our experience of 67. championing role life 7. a fine line but never advice 68. child's orchestra 134. dysfunctional organisations 69. clear insight 8. a logically layered 70. closed system 135. each member a valued asset relationship 71. cloying 9. a process 72. co-labouring 136. early industrial paradigm of 10. a second chance institution 73. collaborative industrial relations 74. collaborative point of 137. easy ride in life 11. a structure which is universal working 138. easy to find populations 75. college exists to serve its 12. a toolkit community 139. economic and educational 13. absolutely honest public 76. coloured political meanings disadvantage service 140. economic independence 14. accountability 77. communities of people 15. accountable 141. economic skills learning 16. achievement measures 78. community interdependence flaunted 142. edgy 17. achieving ambitions 79. community of professionals 143. education industry 18. active openness for the 144. election cycle community 80. community of service 145. emancipatory effects of 19. Actually it needn't be like 81. concept-construct learning this it has to be better represented by people 146. embedded in values 20. adventurous college 82. conduct experiments 147. embedding flexibility 21. adversarial industrial 83. congruence with things 148. embraced by members of relations organisation 22. age of responsibility 84. connectedness 149. employee 23. ailing 85. constructing capability 150. end of the line 24. aliveness of the institution 151. end of the story 86. context for management 152. engineering approach 25. all members college are 153. engineering infrastructure partners in success or failure 87. continuous enjoyment and satisfaction 154. enlightened beings 26. all one story 88. continuous improvement 155. enterprise 27. all one thing 156. epitaph 28. allow light and fresh air to 89. contribution to community 157. equity come into your unit 158. establishing clarity of 29. always up there with the men 90. convential apparatus of purpose management 159. ethical 30. an all round weak institution 91. corrupt 160. evidence of improvement 92. country's best college 31. ancestral 93. crass decisions 161. exam system 32. animation 94. crazy roles 162. excellence 33. answerable 95. create a structure to set up 163. excellent leadership 34. antagonism about authority boundary 164. excellent managers 96. creating a vision 165. exciting job in the world 35. appalling macho leadership 97. creative culture 98. creativity 166. exploration about themselves 36. arise 99. cultural deep widespread 37. art is part and parcel of problem 167. exposing yourself everydayness 100. culture 168. extraordinary rigidities 38. articulated 101. cut to the chase 39. arts provide the conduit for 102. dahlia 169. eye off the ball journey 103. deeply held 170. failure for college 40. AS nightmare 104. defiant mindset 171. fairness 41. authentic 105. delivering the goods 172. fairness-come-justice 42. bad faith 106. delivery machinery 173. falling off a log 43. being a beginner all the time 107. depth of values 174. family as an instrument of 108. design approach oppression 44. being a learner 109. designing a programme 175. fashion-following 45. being in a place which is 176. FE 'adaptive layer' in responsive and sensitive 110. designing the way forward education 177. FE is a fabulous place to be 46. being integral 111. destination 47. benchmark student success 112. developing a culture 178. feeding and watering things 113. developing interior worlds that are growing 48. bidding processes of govt 179. female influence Fig. 1 – Codes derived from the analysis of segments of metaphorical usage in interviews with ten ‘successful’ leaders in the learning and skills sector through their adherence to “self-transcending behaviors … they are intrinsically motivated to be consistent with high-end, other-regarding values ….. shaped and developed throughout the leaders’ life
4 experiences (Bass and Steidlmeier, 1999; Luthans and Avolio, 2003).” Authenticity in a number of recent prior leadership works therefore relates to a quality of genuineness or truthfulness linked to self- transcendent actions in which leaders put the interests of those they serve above their own ego-serving interests.
In my interviews with ten ‘successful’post-compulsory education leaders during 2004-05, I observed that the concept of ‘values-driven’ leadership was a key factor which interviewees cited as one that constantly drove forward their actions. Such self-transcendent values included an over-riding interest in student success and staff welfare as being the most important motivating factors for leaders’ actions.
Findings from HyperResearch and Tropes Zoom From the analysis of text relating to metaphors used in interviews with ten leaders generally acknowledged to be operating at the ‘successful’ end of the leadership and management continuum, using HyperResearch, 604 initial coding segments were derived (see Fig. 1 for a snapshot of some of the initial codings and segments of text). Building from these codes, Tropes Zoom semantic search software was then used to determine the extent to which segments of text in which metaphors were used expressed subjective or objective opinions. The following were the findings from the analysis of the overall results, indicating that the leaders interviewed were far more interested in talking about objective states of affairs than about their own subjective views:
File Word Objective Subjective appendix codes tropes.doc 1863 0,12346 0,03918
Further analysis was carried out using the same textual segments to determine the extent to which leaders were using ‘factive’ (expressing actions) ‘stative’ (expressing states or concepts of possession) ‘reflexive’ (express concepts about states, actions, people, concepts, objects, feelings, etc.) or ‘performative’ (expressing an act through, e.g. desired intention – ‘I promise to ..’) modes of language.
The following were the findings. These initial findings indicate that the interviewed leaders in this instance were more interested in talking directly about current actions rather than in describing current or future states, or in reflecting on the situation of leadership/describing future performative intentions:
File Word Factive Stative Reflexive Performative appendix codes tropes.doc 1863 0,06656 0,03972 0,01932 0,00054
Further analysis was also carried out to determine the extent to which leaders wished to describe leadership in terms of current, past, future or other tenses. The following were the findings, indicating that leaders were predominantly interested in talking about the present. Following this, they were more interested in discussing past situations rather than future possibilities:
File Word Present Past Future Other tenses appendix codes tropes.doc 1863 0,11916 0,00644 0,00054 0,00000
For this short initial report of the analysis, a consideration was also given to the pronouns that these leaders used to discuss leadership in metaphorical terms. The following analysis using Tropes Zoom indicated that these ten leaders were most interested in talking about ‘we’ and ‘you’ with regard to leadership situations than about people who could be described as ‘they’ in relation to leadership (often referring to the people whom they would regard as ‘followers’). The interviewees were least interested in talking about themselves. They were also not at all interested in talking about hypothetical ‘others’. Since these interviews were conducted for case studies to be reported in a book, there may have been a range of factors influencing leaders’ decisions about preferring to focus in this way, but the interviewer enabled the opportunity of open responses to generalised questions.
File Word Pronoun I He We You They Somebody appendix codes tropes.doc 1863 0,03489 0,00268 0,00000 0,00429 0,00429 0,00322 0,00000
In terms of the analysis of the thematic content of the interviews, Fig. 2 reports on the detail of the themes which leaders focused on in discussing the content and situation affecting leadership in their institutions. The findings indicate a very strong interest in social groups as a topic of discussion (73
5 instances), in education as a main theme (30 instances) and in organisation (27 instances) and behaviour (23) as well as feelings (23) and characteristics (13). There is least interest in misfortune, richness, politics, property or music (all at .0001 instances).
6 0073 social_group 0030 education 0027 organization 0023 behavior 0017 feeling 0013 characteristic 0012 world 0011 device 0010 cognition 0009 perception 0008 success 0007 communication 0007 life 0006 sleep 0006 time 0006 business 0005 language 0005 body 0005 system 0005 fight 0005 location 0004 work 0004 art 0004 technology 0004 culture 0004 person 0003 transport 0003 money 0003 state 0002 sport 0002 religion 0002 science 0002 way 0002 woman 0002 philosophy 0002 physics 0002 industry 0002 food 0002 law 0002 housing 0002 health 0002 plant 0001 man 0001 furnishings 0001 goods 0001 clothing 0001 entertainment 0001 air 0001 animal 0001 society 0001 family 0001 environment 0001 europe 0001 space 0001 substance 0001 music 0001 property 0001 politics 0001 richness 0001 misfortune Fig. 2 – The analysis of main themes of meanings usage from the analysis of segments of metaphorical usage in interviews with ten ‘successful’ leaders in the learning and skills sector
7 The detailed analysis of textual segments overall indicates a predominantly positive and enthusiastic, visionary approach to the subject of leadership, but also one that is clearly focused on practical action. An instance of some of the language used to describe leadership in the FE sector is the following, from a national level CEO:
‘…… for me leadership and management is a spectrum or a continuum, with a leader more able, skilled, ‘natural’, even, perhaps, at visioning, engaging in the commitment of others, co-creating and bringing about empowering environments. Fundamentally for me a leader thinks, acts and impacts more in the ‘meaning and purpose’ realms. If you like, they win hearts and minds: they generate followers, they’re highly relational. They live ‘distributed leadership’, they live ‘learning’, actually, they are in a constant inquiry, they believe in leadership at all levels, they ensure that the community, whatever it is, or that group that they work with, is doing the right things….’
Selected extract with national leader interviewed in 2004-05 (Jameson, 2006).
Discussion of findings in relation to ‘self-transcendence’ In describing the quality of ‘self-transcendence’ as a classifying feature of authenticity in leadership, Michie and Gooty note the work of Schwartz (1994) who categorised a ‘self-transcendent’ value system into “a higher-order bipolar dimension” of “self-enhancement versus self-transcendence”. Whereas ‘self- enhancement’ would be actions adding to the leaders’ own sense of self achievement through the pursuit of ego-gratifying success and dominance over others, ‘self-transcendence’ is aligned in Schwartz’s (1994) model with benevolent values in which the leader is concerned with the welfare of other people, and is truthful, responsible and loyal in serving the interests of social justice, inclusion and tolerance of other people’s views (see Fig. 3below).
Inauthentic leadership Authentic leadership
Self-enhancement Self-transcendence Power-driven Values-driven Pursuit of personal power Concern for others Self-achievement Success for welfare of all Achievement of self Achievement of group Dominance over others Cooperative relations with others Self-centredness Other-centredness Cynical manipulation of others Benevolvence towards others Personal justice Social justice Relative intolerance of other views Relative tolerance of other views
Fig. 3 – Model to analyse authentic and inauthentic leadership bipolarity in metaphorical use in further education leadership, building on Michie and Gooty (2005) and Schwartz (1994)
Using this model, we therefore observe that one way to distinguish ‘inauthentic’ from ‘authentic’ leadership is to note the extent to which the language and actions that leaders use is characterised by an explicit interest in the welfare of others. In theory, the action that results from this may be more or less effective in serving the interests of common welfare in institutions, and in benefiting ‘followers’ (as in ‘servant leadership’).
Another way, potentially, to judge authentic leadership actions, therefore, is to observe the responses of staff and students to the perceived ethos of institutions, and the extent to which transformational effects do in fact result in improved performance. Leadership which is more or less honest and genuine, in this theory, will tend to be leadership that is observably ‘other-directed’, more or less transformational, and more or less effective in resulting in improved welfare and performance (see Lumby’s 2005 research results on the relative effectiveness of transformational leadership in the FE sector).
8 Relating to the question of leadership which is ‘other-directed’, we now consider briefly prior leadership studies in the FE sector, including transformational models, and then turn to the issue of metaphorical usage in leadership studies.
Discussion - research on leadership and management in further education
Jackie Lumby noted recently (2002, 2004, 2005), in relation to research on leadership and management in post-compulsory/ further/ technical education, that the ‘field is currently underdeveloped’ (Lumby, 2002, p.8) but that there is still a strong ‘pressure’ from global factors, policy makers and inspectors ‘to make step change improvements to leadership in the sector’(Lumby, 2004:11). A number of initiatives have in recent years begun to address this situation. These include the setting up of the Centre for Excellence in Leadership (CEL) as the ‘leadership college’ for the sector in 2003-04, the CEL Leadership Qualities Framework (2004), and related recent significant research and development work by the LSC, LSDA and Learning and Skills Research Centre (LSRC) to stimulate leadership improvement initiatives linked to the education and skills policy of Success for All (2002).
The different roles played by leaders in specific sub-sectors within post-compulsory education, such as sixth form provision, adult education and training provision have also recently received increasing attention. Discussion of the role of sixth forms, for example, has emerged as formative in recent work on leadership, particularly highlighting energetic, collegiate and creative examples of leadership within some sixth form colleges. Briggs (2005:232) citing Busher and Harris (2000:109), notes that academic leadership connotes ‘shaping study programmes’ to meet national requirements, ‘knowing self: personal values, professional interests and beliefs, technical expertise’, ‘knowing colleagues’, ‘living proclaimed values and persuading colleagues to do the same’, ‘understanding the different student needs’ and ‘understanding the demands of the environment’.
There is a growing emphasis in post-compulsory education leadership studies to provide an urgent solution to the ‘succession crisis’. Large numbers of current learning and skills sector leaders at chief executive/ principal level are about to retire within the next 5-10 years. This means ‘transformational’, ‘distributed’ leadership models and the compelling issues of inclusion and diversity, as yet improperly addressed in leadership, are currently being investigated with some sense of urgency (Lumby, Harris, Morrison, Muijs, Sood, Glover and Wilson, with Briggs and Middlewood, 2005). There is a pressing need to provide more training and development for effective new leaders, and to redress the fact that as yet transactional models (getting things done) are more routinely in operation in the sector than transformational models (emphasising visionary or inspirational qualities) (Lumby et al., 2005).
Lumby (2004), rounding up models of leadership development in post-compulsory education, comments on prior research in relation to the positive aspects of transformational leadership. She sums up leadership findings by Crowther and Olsen (1997) and Leonard and Leonard (1999), noting that the transformational model, or one which is visionary in inspiring ‘transformation’ in educational organisations, has been regarded as capable of achieving greater success than ‘more formal’ approaches, and is particularly appropriate to education. Lumby reports from evidence collected in the LSRC project Leading Learning (2002-04) case studies of ten ‘effective organisations’ in the learning and skills sector that:
‘A mix of transactional, transformational and distributed styles are in operation [in these successful learning and skills sector case study organisations]. Though a transformational style is seen as most effective to improve organisational performance, line managers are more often seen as employing transactional approaches (Lumby, 2004:8) … Transformational leadership is seen as likely to be most effective in leading for and with diversity.’ Lumby (2004: 8-9).
There has also been during recent years an interest in, and growing dissatisfaction with, emerging concepts of ‘new managerialism’ in leadership studies relating to all fields in education, including in schools and colleges. The word ‘management’ has been somewhat under pressure from negative connotations during the past decade in post-compulsory education, and particularly post-incorporation 1993, in relation to concepts of ‘new managerialism’. This has been equated with autocratic and dictatorial power-driven managerial positions adopted by many senior management teams in colleges following 1993. At this time, sectoral managers were faced with the demands of operating to produce ‘more for less’, particularly in FE colleges now operating as corporate businesses functioning under a
9 rigorous market-led funding system to fulfil a range of external demands imposed initially by the Further Education Funding Council (FEFC) and later by the Learning and Skills Council (LSC).
During the above reported interviews with learning and skills case study leaders, the question of the distinction between leadership and management in the learning and skills sector came up. All interviewees clearly differentiated these concepts, but also recognised that both leadership and management are necessary for the effective running of organisations. The question of ‘managerialism’ emerged in relation to an excessive focus on targets, but mainly there was a positive recognition of the important role played by management functions. The concept of the ‘leader-manager’ is therefore a useful one, as it recognises and beneficially conjoins both of these essential dimensions relating to the strategies and operations of power in organisations. This concept is represented in various ways in the discourses employed about and in the further education sector, notably in the use of metaphor.
Metaphors and their use in leadership in FE
Metaphors have often been used in further education, both implicitly and explicitly, to conceptualise the experience of leadership, though there is little research as yet on this subject (see below). Building on prior research models in this field (Andrews and Field, 1998, Oberlechner and Mayer-Schoenberger, 2002) this research linked some of the more recent literature on leadership in FE to overt as well as apparently unconscious uses of metaphor, from a number of individual interviews carried out during 2004-05 with a range of successful leaders situated within, or linked directly to, the learning and skills sector. These leaders included people working at different levels in colleges, learning and skills agencies and related institutions, from chief executives/principals to heads of department and programme leaders.
A metaphor is a comparison of the likeness between two otherwise unlike things, in which the words ‘like’ or ‘as’ are absent, unlike in a simile. Metaphors use comparative associations in a rich cluster of related concepts to reveal deeper meanings in situations, thereby throwing light onto an area of study to reveal more about its true nature. There has been little research relating to the use of metaphors of leadership in the learning and skills sector (LSS) or, more specifically, in the further education sector. This is a gap that I argue needs redressing. Metaphor usage can powerfully convey explicit and implicit messages about the way we understand educational situations. The analysis of metaphorical use should be considered more directly and comprehensively as an area for investigation into leadership in FE and in the LSC sector more generally. Andrews and Field (1998) sum up some of the benefits of examining leadership from a metaphorical point of view:
‘The value of studying metaphors of organisational life is that they structure knowledge and experience in distinctive but partial ways. For example, thinking of an organisation as an information processing system will emphasise the flow of information, reporting relationships and hierarchies but will ignore the competitive struggle for resources an organisation might face (Morgan, 1986). They allow knowledge of one object or situation to be transferred to another (Minsky,1985), thereby providing a rich and efficient description’ (Andrews and Field, 1998).
Other studies of metaphor in relation to leadership include that of Oberlechner and Mayer-Schoenberger (2002) and Ospina and Schall (2001) examining the value of metaphor as a way of revealing and working with the mental models people implicitly adopt about leadership. The way we make sense of the world is revealed through linguistic usage. Since metaphors bring together powerful clusters of meanings in linguistic use, they can reveal some of our hidden assumptions.
Differing perspectives from implicit and explicit metaphor use
This research examined the implicit and overt metaphors of leadership that emerged during interviews carried out in 2004-05 with a range of leaders in post-compulsory education and training. During semi- structured interviews on leadership, interviewees were directly asked to provide an example of a metaphor for leadership in the learning and skills sector. Interviewees’ responses provided overt metaphors consciously used in response to a direct question about metaphors of leadership. In addition, the texts of interviews with leaders were also analysed for seemingly unconscious usage of incidental metaphorical language. For this short paper, only a few small selections of explicit and implicit metaphors in use can be reported. Further work follows on this (Jameson, 2006).
10 Implicit in existing research on leadership is an underlying metaphoral usage relating to the sector which has encompassed a range of differing perspectives, many of which are in tension with each other, situated in ongoing struggles for legitimacy, authority and power. During interviews with many leaders about leadership and management in the learning and skills sector during 2004-05, a number of metaphors about leadership, both overt and implicit, emerged during discussions. These included a tendency to view the situations in which leaders find themselves as ‘navigation through a voyage of discovery’, a ‘performance’, an art’, a ‘bank’, a ‘market’, a ‘religion’, a ‘garden’ and a ‘war’ (Jameson, 2005, 2006).
In particular, an ethical and political dimension shaped the prevailing discourses observed during interviews, words relating to ‘value’ and ‘trust’ being used. What does such metaphorical usage imply in the context of current leadership and in the context of the proposed model of ‘authentic’ or ‘other- directed’ vs. ‘inauthentic’ or ‘self-concerned’ leadership? Useful insights can be gained by examining metaphors used about leadership: such insights contribute beneficially to improvements in understanding the way in which leadership is currently viewed and practised in the further education sector.
Business, trade, marketing and economic metaphors of leadership Prevailing discourse for some years in learning and skills has been directly related to business, trade and economic linguistic usage. An increasing focus on the word ‘skills’ in governmental and quasi- governmental rhetoric has situated the discourses of FE, in particular, within a ‘commodified’ linguistic usage in which education is seen as the ‘getting’ of ‘products’ which are the courses or ‘passports’ to ‘success’. Rhetorical emphasis on ‘achievement’ for ‘everyone’ stresses a relatively unproblematic link between obtaining ‘skills’ as a possession, and gaining ‘success’. This applies particularly to further education colleges post-1993, when language routinely used in colleges began increasingly to be dominated by words and phrases ‘borrowed’ from business and economics. Driven by financial imperatives in their corporate role, colleges began increasingly to reflect linguistic usage prevalent in trade and industry. Competitive strengths of colleges were emphasised as institutions viewed their roles to be increasingly those of ‘business’ enterprises exchanging ‘products’ of courses with students in the ‘market-place of learning. Within this new focus, monetary values were emphasized, finance and marketing become dominant areas of strategic importance, and principals, formerly regarded as ‘head teachers’, became ‘chief executives’, the business-like leaders of corporations serving ‘clients’, focused on a ‘mission’ in response to the ‘market-place’.
Colleges rapidly began to employ professionals in areas such as marketing, public relations, facilities and estates management. Older concepts of the ‘student’ as a recipient of ‘teaching’ in traditional teacher- focussed, professional educational terms, began to drift towards a new language incorporating and addressing the needs of ‘the corporation’ facing outwards to ‘clients’. This new language no longer particularly distinguished whether the entity being described was an individual person or a local business needing customised training courses. A de-personalisation process ensued. Less emphasis was placed on students and teachers as human beings sharing teaching and learning within a collegiate culture, and more emphasis on ‘getting’ and ‘having’ commodified skills within a corporate market-place.
Alternative discourses of resistance – professional communities of practice The above situation did not remained unchallenged for long. A distributed model of professional leadership informed by authentic, democratic dialogue with practitioners gradually emerged in resistance to the dominance of ‘corporation-think’, with particular usefulness and relevance to post-compulsory education. The role of coalitions within professional networking and collaborative leadership (Mullen and Kochan, 2000) in the creation of ‘communities of practice’ (Lave and Wenger, 1990) in post- compulsory education provided a useful model for future development, and is reflected in discourses which utilise and build on concepts of connectivity and collaboration.
This concept takes ‘distributed leadership’ to more advanced, creative levels, viewing the coalition as ‘a dynamic and organic creative entity’ fostering ‘synergy, empowered and shared leadership, and personal and organizational transformation.’ Mullen and Kochan (2000) note that their concept of the ‘coalition’ ‘….was conceived using Bolman and Deal’s (1993: 60) advice to ‘Empower everyone: increase participation, provide support, share information, and move decision making as far down the organization as possible’ (Mullen and Kochan, 2000:187) to improve organisational operations. This means empowering leader-managers throughout the organisation in a heterachy, a ‘moveable hierarchy’ (Grint, 2004) or network of interconnected relations, rather than just viewing leadership as residing at the top of a more singular hierarchy of downwards-diminishing power.
11 Metaphors tending to signify ‘other-directed’ authenticity in leadership
Overt metaphors
During the course of interviews with leaders in post-compulsory education in 2004-05, I asked all interviewees to provide at least one metaphor for their leadership situation. This proved to be, sometimes, a slightly difficult question to answer for some leaders. Although all interviewees responded and provided a metaphor, it was not always easy to do so in some cases. Metaphors emerging overtly in the discussions are outlined in the following paragraphs.
Artistic and scientific metaphors of leadership Artistic and creative metaphors focused on leadership as an art form or a performance, whereas scientific metaphors related to investigative and experimental approaches to leadership. A number of leaders identified that in their view the job of leadership required a ‘flow’ of instinctive creative qualities, enabling spontaneous responses to difficult situations. There was a view that leadership as an art form required a conceptualisation of the role of leader as an energetic creator and proactive manipulator of the events and situations occurring in their institutions.
The ‘dance’ of leadership signified a relationship with ‘followers’ that was both respectful and mutual. A sharing of process-based activities within the professional environment emphasised that leadership was not so much an end-product, but a creative series of interactions between people at every level in a fluid ongoing movement of everyday relationships.
Metaphors selected included that of performance in a ‘music hall novelty act … as the plate spinner’. This interviewee said that this was ‘more complicated’ now ‘in the real world’ because ‘the environment is constantly changing … it’s as if in that music hall act, the stage is also moving and the audience also wants to see constant changes…. So you’re not just spinning the plates, but you’re spinning [these] in a very dynamic environment and [they’re] receiving a very different action…. To be a successful leader, you’ve got to ensure that all these extraneous movements ….are properly assessed and accommodated.’ This leader, notable for outstanding success, also cited Keith Grint’s metaphor of ‘the leader as a wheelwright’ an ‘expert crafter’ of the ‘connecting spaces’, or autonomous spaces providing freedom for individuals, as well as the things, the resources of institutions, within the organizational ‘wheel’, emphasizing the importance of ensuring distributed leadership throughout. (Grint, 2005).
Organic and environmental metaphors of leadership Organic metaphors emerged strongly during interviews with a number of interviewees. Leadership was perceived positively as a looking after a garden, as a ‘growth’ process, as the provision of a safe ‘environment’ or ‘greenhouse’ in which plants, as living organisms, were like both the courses and people within educational institutions. It was the job of the leader to be like a responsible gardener, nurturing and protecting the environment, ensuring that living beings in the garden were appropriately fed and watered. Metaphors describing the ‘living’ qualities of leadership, as opposed to the inert or ‘dead’ qualities of machinery, are traceable in these transcripts. One interviewee, discussing a recent book on leadership, compared conceptions of leadership with different levels in the sea: ‘leadership isn’t just the waves at the top, it’s the whole deep blue sea’, reinforcing the idea that leadership needed to be distributed creatively and organically.
Another observed, in relation to leadership work with alienated and disaffected adolescent students, that leadership support for such students had a beneficial impact on their lives like a ‘kind of ripple effect: that small pebble which creates that ripple which is a knock-on effect.’ Yet another interviewee compared the institution to ‘a flower’, since it had generative properties: ‘a petal can drop off without destroying the rest of the flower. So the petal drops off another one can grow its place. And if you don’t have that sense of organisational life, then you have to completely restructure things and actually disturb the soil and neglect the offshoots. But in that version of a [flower], a leaf or a petal falls off and a new leaf will grow, depending on the changes in the environment.’
Navigational metaphors of leadership A number of leaders focussed on metaphors of journey or voyaging. These metaphors encompassed the idea that colleges were like ships in the storm, of which leaders were the ‘captains’ or the ‘navigators’,
12 aiming to ensure that everyone in the vessel survived and thrived. One leader discussed the idea that students could ‘lose their way’ and might end up ‘drowning’. It was the job of the teacher-leader to throw students a ‘life-belt’ to find ‘islands of safety’. Another leader discussed the concept of learning as a journey and the process of ‘discovering’ knowledge and charting a life-course within the college as a student, aided by the ‘guides’ who were simultaneously the teachers and the academic and managerial leaders. Another interviewee said that they had ‘a holistic approach … I would say, I am on a journey as much as anyone else is on a journey.’
‘Service’ and religious models of leadership There was an emphasis on ‘service’ metaphors for leadership, on the concept that the leader is a ‘servant’ to those who are really in power, this usage challenging traditional hierarchies of power with the idea that the person who is actually in power is the one ‘servicing’ the ‘followers’. An apparently paradoxical emphasis was given in some cases to the relative powerlessness of leaders. One head of an institution noted that the people to whom educational institutions should belong are ‘the students’ – they should be the people who are regarded as most important in the college or other LSC-sector institution. A relative quietude or semi-invisible role of the leader as a ‘servant’ stressed qualities of almost religious-like devotion or dedication to the ‘cause’ or ‘mission’ of education, in which the leader was seen as ‘keeping faith’ with the mission of the institution. Most leaders interviewed drew attention to ethical aspects of leadership as being particularly important. One interviewee stressed the idea of ‘bad faith’ if those in leadership positions were exploitative.
Implicit Metaphors
In addition to the overt metaphors that interviewees cited as being formative to their self-perceived situation as an educational leader, I also observed a range of metaphors being used which were implicit. In general, perhaps because this particular group of interviewees was highly selective in terms of prior leadership performance at the ‘very good’ or ‘outstanding’ end of the scale, the metaphors used were full of richly energetic and positive meanings. There was very little that had negative connotations, with the exception, in some cases, of metaphors with machine-line connotations to describe a ‘targets regime’ under which these leaders currently operated.
One interviewee, using a creative combination of combat and environmental metaphors said, ‘I’m a fighter. I've built oases and I’ve been somewhere that actually, to be honest, brought me to my knees - I’ve just gone in with the style of, ‘I’ll fight for this and I’ll fight for that.’ The same interviewee cited the vivid metaphor for problematic governance used by Bob Garrett in his book, The Fish Rots from the Head, in relation to problems with ‘monitoring-managerial’ governing bodies. This interviewee also described using values-based exercises with staff in proactive development of a ‘map’ of understanding. The leader noted that ‘you can turn things around if you’ve got a committed team … turn it round on a safety pin, basically’. An emphasis on the strongly positive and creative role of leadership in building a healthy collaborative working environment was evident in this.
Another interviewee described leadership as a process of ‘winning hearts’, observing that the role of a top leader was often one of ‘parenting the organisation’ in nurturing ways, taking ‘care of the inner world of the organisation, as well as the outer world’. Commenting on challenges to leadership, this interviewee observed that one of the more difficult things to face was the loss of good staff who moved on ‘…that loss of memory is also a loss of desire in the organisation’.
Yet another interviewee used a transport simile to talk about the difference between good and poor leadership: ‘These things just seem to go like London buses, they do go in groups, if you haven’t got strong management, it’s weak in every regard.’ This interviewee noted that, in positive leadership situations, ‘the whole thing is moving forward. It is developing and it is growing … in the grandest sense of all, the whole thing is learning, a learning experience …. a sort of learning paradigm you are in, working out together how to do things.’ The interviewee proposed that good leaders should ‘allow light and fresh air to come into your unit’, suggesting an environmental metaphor for nurturing a healthy atmosphere for staff in the organisation.
Theoretical model of metaphor usage in leadership – a framework of clusters of meaning
So what can we learn about analysing leadership in further education in terms of metaphorical usage? We know already that the many thousands of leadership studies in the general literature on leadership are
13 packed with concepts of metaphorical usage – leadership is routinely described in terms that compare it with an orchestral performance, with an art, with machinery. The analysis of such usage has not yet been systematically studied in further education, but is a fruitful (!) new area of analysis to be investigated.
A suggested new theoretical model that can be drawn up is to identify, through linguistic content analysis via qualitative analysis software such as HyperResearch, concepts routinely being used about leadership within institutions, and, from this, to derive a pattern of clusters of meaning to reveal the hidden depths of understandings about leadership in organisations that otherwise people do not necessarily notice or identify. A framework of meanings can be drawn up to identify the characteristics that ‘followers’, in particular, are attaching to the qualities exemplified by leaders and managers within the institution, and from this framework or grid, indicators of the relative health or otherwise of institutional leadership situations can be drawn up. Metaphors relating to power struggles within the institution – for example, linguistic usage suggesting ‘turf battles’ or ‘wars’, negative concepts of ‘war’, ‘fighting’, destructive competition, illness or decline within the organisation can be utilised to situate not only the existing tensions between leadership and management and the staff of the organisation, but can also be used to reveal and work with the ‘tacit’ knowledge existing below the surface of expressed understandings.
Identifying and analysing the language that leaders and followers use to described leadership both overtly and implicitly can reveal to us many things about the assumptions that people are routinely working with in LSC institutions. Clusters of meaning emerge in metaphorical concepts about leadership which are both directly and indirectly linked to the health and well-being of the organisation. The underlying tensions of the organisation reveal daily experiences of the interplay of relationships between those in power and those operating outside or in the lower ranks of hierarchical power structures. The situational and cultural factors making up the complex framework of leader-follower behaviours can be revealed more explicitly through metaphorical analysis, to enable further exploration and a potential for regeneration of ideas about leadership in situations in which, otherwise, there are few opportunities directly to lay claim to the knowledge about leadership thinking within an organisation. A metaphorical vocabulary relating to different dimensions of ‘authentic’ leadership within further education is needed which identifies insights that can be gained regarding prevalent ways of thinking about power structures underpinning our organisations. This enables us to work more easily with what is identifiably ‘authentic’ versus what is ‘inauthentic’ in leadership in ways that illuminate new insights for development. Valuable lessons can be gained for future leaders and developmental leadership programmes.
Conclusion
Building on the formative metaphor of the ‘servant-leader’, organic, living metaphors of leadership and the concept outlined above that ‘authenticity’ in leadership, although provisional, has been linked to ‘other-directedness’, we can note that the idea of ‘dutious’ service in the role of leader operates at an implicit level in a number of leaders’ concepts of their role in the further education sector. The concept of ‘service’ is linked not only to the ‘mission’ of the institution, but to the idea of ‘empowering’ others, notably the learners and the staff in further education, in ways that signify a genuinely transformative process that results more or less effectively in more productive and collaborative working relationships.
While artistic and creative metaphors focus on leadership as an art form, organic metaphors stress the ‘living’ nature of leadership and the role of leaders as gardeners or nurturers of the growth of institutions and people. If the ‘dance’ of leadership signifies a relationship with ‘followers’ that is both respectful and mutual, the sharing of process-based activities within the professional environments of colleges emphasises that leadership is not so much an end-product, but a creative series of interactions between people at every level in the fluid ongoing movement of everyday relationships.
Where does this leave us in terms of leadership within the further sector and the role of metaphorical usage relating to transformational leadership and authenticity within this? If leaders are envisaged as energetic creators of the events and situations in their institutions, they are perceived as more open to approach by followers, and also more ‘available’ in terms of negotiated processes of distributed leadership which flows through the organisation. The ‘dance’ or ‘art’ of leadership can signify proactive relationships with ‘followers’ in which shared process-based activities are carried forward in a professional and potentially transformational way. Leadership can then be envisaged not so much as a ‘fixed’ end-product, forever classified at one externally-determined point on a spectrum between
14 ‘outstanding’ and ‘very poor’, but can be transformed in positive ways, through a team-focused and ‘other-directed’ creative series of interactions between people at every level in the fluid ongoing movement of everyday relationships.
From the analysis of interim findings reported above using HyperResearch and Tropes Zoom to analyse metaphors used about leadership in further education, it was revealed that ten leaders operating at the more ‘successful’ end of the leadership continuum tended to utilise language that was more objective than subjective, was more focused on current actions rather than on reflective states or descriptions, was expressed in pronoun usage more in terms of ‘we’ and ‘you’ (i.e. ‘other-directed’) rather than self- focused, and was more about the present rather than the past, future or any other way of talking about time (e.g. provisional tenses). The leaders interviewed were clearly more preoccupied with getting things done with and for other people rather than talking about themselves or about promising vague generalities. In this sense, the practicalities with which they were concerned were transactionally focused.
However, in terms of thematic content, the analysis of textual segments relating to metaphorical usage indicates that leaders were also predominantly interested in positive, energetic and visionary ways of talking about leadership and management in the sector, and that their interests seemed to be more ‘other- directed’ rather than ‘self-focused’ in this area as well. At this stage in the analysis of this research, therefore, there is a preliminary indication that, amongst ten selected leaders operating at the more ‘successful’ dimension of FE leadership, metaphorical uses of language relating to leadership and transformation seem to be more, rather than less genuine, and more, rather than less, ‘authentic’ in the provisional sense we outlined earlier. However, this is a tentative result and further work is needed to confirm it.
The analysis is continuing, but has so far found that the examination of metaphors of ‘other-directed’ authenticity in leadership leads to new insights which can contribute beneficially to improved understandings about the way leadership is viewed and practised in the further education sector. Further developments in the theoretical model for metaphorical analysis and in the analysis of the questionnaire results to encourage the generation of new meanings and new words for leadership situations are recommended, and will follow this paper in work to be published later in 2007, as part of the Essential FE Toolkit Series (Jameson and McNay, 2007).
Acknowledgements
I thank the Centre for Excellence in Leadership and the Emerald group for funding to develop this research. This project has been funded by, but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Centre for Excellence in Leadership. The Copyright of all publications on work commissioned by CEL is owned by Inspire Learning Ltd, from whom permission should be sought before any materials are reproduced. I thank the interviewees and survey respondents from the learning and skills who participated in the detailed investigations, interviews and surveys relating to this paper, linked also with the book, Leadership in Post-Compulsory Education: Inspiring Leaders of the Future (2006). Thanks also to Continuum International Books, notably Alexandra Webster and Michael Green, for the publication of The Essential FE Toolkit Series relating to the book to be published building on this article. Thanks to Shirley Leathers, Dr Mary Clare Martin, School Research Seminar Convenor, Dr Tricia Meers, Head of School and Bill Goddard, Head of Educational Leadership and Development, of the School of Education and Training at the University of Greenwich for their support of this paper. Thanks to LSDA and other FE sector colleagues who have helped with the piloting and trialling of the questionnaire, including Dr David Collins, CBE, Principal of South Cheshire College, Professor Ian McNay, School of Education and Training, University of Greenwich, Mike Cooper formerly Regional Director South East, LSDA, and Graham Knight, consultant statistician to LSC. Particular thanks to Dame Ruth Silver, Lynne Sedgmore, CBE, John Guy, OBE, Dr Andrew Morris, Professor Daniel Khan, Bob Challis, Wendy Moss, Anne Morahan, Dr David Collins, CBE and Talmud Bah for their inspiring contributions to the field of educational leadership made in interviews relating to quotes directly used in this study.
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