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The following extensive outline of the 2016-2017 Academic Decathlon materials is intended ONLY for the use of Valencia High School Acacdemic Decathlon students. The purpose of creating this document is to provide decathletes with a portable and flexible access to the guide. Dates have been coded so that they might be referenced in various chronological configurations. While decathletes are free to create as many variations of this outline as they choose, they are not to share it with anyone outside the team.

Footnotes have been used as a way of adding commentary, clarification, and general engagement with the guide. Please read the footnotes because they may help you in understanding some of the more difficult interpretive (as opposed to merely factual) issues in the guide materials. Please use this outline as a way of engaging the materials with your own thoughts and ideas.

Social Science Outline World War II

Introduction: - meshing the ideologies of race and nation1 - the 2nd Thirty Years’ War? I. THE ROOTS AND CAUSES OF WORLD WAR II (15%) [pp. 4-17] A. The Treaty of Versailles2 [p.6] 1. Western Views a. Italy’s quest for Habsburg territory b. Great Britain 1) maintain sea dominance 2) return Europe to balance of power3 c. France 1) reparations based on fact that it has suffered most damage during the war 2) security against the possibility of a reemerging German militarism d. US quest for “peace without victors” and new world order4 1) democratic governments5 2) free international trade 3) reduced armaments 4) League of Nations 5) buffer against communism6 6) self-determination e. 1905197 final version as product of Clemenceau, Wilson, and Lloyd George8 1) uneasy compromise between French punitive and US idealistic perspectives 2) Germany a) stripped of all colonial holdings b) limitations on size of armed forces c) surrendered territory to i. France9

1 The real context of the war was the collapse of the liberal political and economic order that had emerged in the course of the 19th century. People had largely lost faith in both capitalism and democracy in the context of the Great Depression. The alternative orders of fascism and communism had become more appealing and set themselves on a collision course in their quest for global domination. Communism represented class-based internationalism, whereas fascism represented race-based nationalism. Both fascism and communism have been correlated under the general concept of totalitarianism because of the way in which adherence to a particular ideology permeated all political, social and cultural institutions. 2 The guide notes that “. . . neither the Central Powers nor Russia were allowed to participate in the negotiations to put together the final treaty with Germany.” It is not entirely clear what the guide intends in this statement. Unconditional surrender means that a defeated power or powers must simply abide by the terms dictated by the victors. What is “significant” about this? More problematic is the reference to “Russia”. By January, 1919, the Bolsheviks had been firmly entrenched for more than a year. It is technically not even appropriate to reference anything other than the Soviet Union. The Soviets had made their peace with Germany on 190303, with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. 3 The effort to ensure that no single continental power would dominate the landmass of Europe was a consistent feature of British policy, dating back at least to the Napoleonic Wars and policies it embraced in the Treaty of Vienna in 1815. 4 These principles were encoded in Wilson’s “Fourteen Points”. Georges Clemenceau on them: “Mr. Wilson bores me with his Fourteen Points; why, God Almighty has only ten!” 5 It should be noted that many of the democratic governments were created based on the principle of national self-determination among the successor states of the end of the Austrian, Russian, and Ottoman Empires. 6 This motive violated many of the nationality principles embraced by Wilson. Both Romania and Poland were strengthened in this way so as to limit the threat posed by the USSR. 7 All dates have been coded so as to facilitate cross-referencing by day, month, year, or any combination thereof. 190519 means May 19, 1919, with year indicated first, then month, then day. Have fun with this. For example, if you want to know what happened in WW II on the day of your birthday and your birthday is December, you only need to do a document search for 1207! Or, you can play the game: “What happened today in World War II?” in relation to that particular day. 8 Note that the picture on page 6 identifies the “Big Four”. This is the language of much of the history, but it is clear that Orlando was not very “big” in either sense of the word. 9 most notably Alsace-Lorraine 1 ii. Poland10 d) $33 billion in reparations (determined in 1921) e) Article 231, the War Guilt Clause11 f. The League of Nations (Article I) 2. German Views a. the resignation of Philipp Scheidemann and cabinet in protest of terms of the Treaty b. new chancellor, Gustav Bauer, signed on 19062812 3. Flaws of Versailles a. the absence of13 1) Germany 2) Russia b. Italy resentful over limited territorial gains c. Poland and Czechoslovakia with large German minorities d. the “burden” of reparations14 e. the weaknesses of the League of Nations15 B. The Rise of Totalitarianism [p.8] 1. Mussolini and Fascism16 a. Key features of Fascist ideology and practices 1) militant nationalism 2) state as a) building block of society b) core of political ideology 3) rejection of liberalism’s emphasis on individual’s role in politics 4) opposed democracy as a) weak b) ineffectual 5) Social Darwinist principles embracing violence as measure of strength 6) society as “organic” entity bridging natural divisions through strength of supreme leader a) social divisions b) economic divisions 7) violence as crucial in developing strength 8) persecution of opponents and “outsiders” 9) focus on youth and energy17 10) propaganda a) based on new technologies i. film ii. radio b) apparent contradiction embracing future and greatness of past i. general rejection of traditions18 ii. Roman Empire as model

10 The Polish Corridor granted access to the Baltic Sea despite its violation of the principle of German self-determination. It was felt that a landlocked Poland would suffer both economically and militarily without this. Czechoslovakia received the Sudetenland, despite the clear numeric predominance of Germans in these historically Habsburg lands. 11 It should be noted that the War Guilt clause has largely been misinterpreted by people who have not seriously studied the matter; and it was certainly used by stab-in-the-back propagandists in interwar Germany. Quoting William Keylor, an expert on these matters: “Inserted at the behest of an American representative on the Reparation Commission, John Foster Dulles, this article was designed to protect Germany against any Allied claims for reimbursement for the total costs of the war: Germany was to be held morally responsible for the war and its consequences but legally liable only for the narrowly defined damages specified in the treaty.” Keylor further asserts that the term “war guilt” nowhere appears in the Treaty of Versailles and the language used in Versailles is stated in the subsequent, separate treaties for Austrian, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey. “Yet the myth of the “war guild clause,” repeated by successive governments in the 1920s and later used to good effect by Hitler, was to become as great a source of resentment in Germany as were the actual financial exactions.” Keylor, pp. 79-80. 12 It is commonly understood that the resignation of Wilhelm II was largely motivated by an effort to disassociate the monarchy in particular and German conservatism in general from the consequences of World War I. The Social Democratic Party of Germany was thus saddled with the reparations regime as well as with the myths of the “stab-in-the-back” theory and the “war guilt” clause. 13 The guide’s point here is very doubtful. The matter of Germany and “Russia” [sic] has already been discussed in an earlier footnote. Does the guide truly believe that either Germany or the USSR would have been constructive contributors to the post-war settlement? 14 The alleged burden of reparations has also been challenged by many economic historians. By any measure, the treaty that Germany got was mild. It was certainly more favorable than the one imposed on France in 1870 as well as the terms of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty. 15 Of course, the major weakness (but not a fatal one) was the absence of the US in its deliberations. The US failure to assert either economic or military leadership in the post-war world was one that FDR and Truman remedied somewhat at the end of WW II. 16 The guide notes Mussolini’s origins in Marxism, dating back to his family’s ties to similar movements. Mussolini is named after Benito Juarez, one of the major figures of modern Mexico linked to major social and constitutional progressivism. 17 It should also be noted the embrace of new technologies, especially those associated with speed and flight. This becomes part of the industrial character of fascism that permeates not only its politics, but its artistic expression as well. The artistic expression is associated with “Futurism”. Carlo Carra was among its leading figures. 2 a. salute b. imperial eagle c. fasces as symbol of collective power of state b. Key event prior to 1938-39 1) The crisis of 1922: fear of Bolshevik takeover a) factory strikes b) land confiscations 2) The March on Rome (221022-29) a) Blackshirts: paramilitary units that operated outside the law to threaten the socialists19 b) King Victor Emmanuel III invited Mussolini to head coalition instead of opposing march 3) BM undermined constitutional order a) Acerbo Law of 1923 granted 2/3 of parliament seats to party with largest share of votes >25% b) provided legal cover to depriving citizens of constitutional rights c) fully fascist regime established by 1925 4) the Lateran Pact of 1929 accommodated Catholic Church a) recognized Vatican as independent city-state b) Catholicism as official religion of Italy c) compensated Church for land confiscations of earlier governments20 5) Imperial expansion in 1930s a) invasion of Ethiopia in (351003)21 b) difficult to conquer Ethiopia despite i. aerial bombardment ii. poison gas c) failure of League of Nations encouraged others to challenge its authority d) annexation of Albania (390412) 6) Rome-Berlin Axis (361101) a) collaboration with Francisco Franco in Spanish Civil War (360718 - 390401) b) working jointly with Germany in support of monarchists and Falange c) Soviets supported Republicans, but especially its communist faction 7) Joined Anti-Comintern Pact of 1936 in 1937, jointly focused against USSR (361125) 2. Stalin and the Soviet Union a. Key characteristics of Stalinism 1) cult of personality a) infallible leader b) leader embodied state and its ideology c) unlike fascism, leader principle not part of ideology 2) methods: terror and violence 3) three central ideas a) socialism in one country i. focus on USSR rather than global revolution elsewhere ii. rapid industrialization through collectivization a. population dislocations b. death and imprisonment of tens of thousands b) economic development and modernization as top priority c) vast bureaucracy i. oversaw all aspects of Soviet life ii. set up realms of institutional competition that could be manipulated from the top b. Key events prior to 1938-39 1) 1928 introduction of first Five-year plan a) goals i. move people into industrial work and off of farms ii. enhance power of the state b) methods: production targets for key industrial goods i. steel ii. coal iii. tractors 2) collectivization as key component of 1st five-year plan a) small farms consolidated into larger-state-run farms b) state compelled production quotas c) peasant resistance resulted in i. massive executions ii. famine killing an estimated 7 million from 1930-1933 d) industrial goals met at large human cost 3) the show trials, 1936-1938

18 So far, the guide appears to want to avoid the compliant role that the Roman Catholic church played in the rise and sustenance of fascism throughout Europe. The Italian Church was most certainly too comfortable with the ideology of Mussolini. 19 The counterpart to Blackshirts in Italy were the German Brownshirts. In both cases they provided the basis for a “shadow” army fully devoted to each’s respective leader. 20 The guide does not mention the Pact’s provisions to preserve the special status of Catholic schools throughout Italy. This, and the preservation of the banking and industrial elites shows the truly conservative nature of the fascist regime in Italy. Similar institutional privileges were provided by Hitler. 21 the other “independent” country of Africa at the time was Liberia, a virtual slave colony of the Firestone rubber company. 3 a) focused on high-ranking party officials b) audiences i. live ii. broadcast over state-controlled radio c) public confessions as result of i. torture ii. abuse22 d) 680,000 executed e) one million died in the Gulags f) execution of many top-ranking officers in Red Army g) principal supplier of equipment to Loyalist Spanish Republicans 3. Hitler and Nazi Germany23 a. The Beer Hall Putsch (11/1923) 1) inspired by March on Rome (10/22) 2) City of Munich in State of Bavaria in Southern Germany 3) failure upon refusal of state government troops to abandon vows to proper order 4) Hitler convicted of treason, but minimal sentence by sympathetic judge24 5) five year sentence ended after one year of time served, during which Mein Kampf was written a) blueprint for Nazi Party b) plan for legal takeover of German government b. The Great Depression and National Socialism in Germany 1) began in the United States25 2) Germany hit hardest a) unemployment b) political instability 3) Depression as opportunity for Hitler to fulfill vision of Mein Kampf a) social appeal to i. middle class ii. youth b) September 1930 elections NSDAP with 107 seats c) January 1932 as largest single party in government d) 1/30/33, Hitler named chancellor26 with collusion of German conservatives c. Key characteristics of National Socialism 1) territorial growth in Eastern Europe a) vast farmlands b) rich resources 2) German superiority and the need for lebensraum 3) scrap Versailles Peace Treaty 4) leader as embodiment of will of the nation 5) theory of Nazism more racially-oriented than Italian Fascism a) eradication of undesirables i. Jews ii. homosexuals iii. Romas (gypsies) iv. disabled a. physical

22 many confessed not out of cowardice but due to threats levied against family members by secret policy. 23 The origins of Nazism are more deeply-rooted than the guide indicates. The important point to note here is that Anton Drexler led the specifically German variant of the Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (DAP). His background as a locksmith links him to the general group of small businessmen and craft workers who specially suffered in the general course of industrialization and the transition to large- scale commercial businesses (such as department stores) that undermined the old business order that was smaller scaled and local in nature. The Guide’s assertion that the German Army’s Political Department designated Hitler to “make sure it [i.e. the DAP] posed no serious threat to the stability of the German state” is far too kind to the German Army. The German Army, too, was looking for a way to limit the rising influence of the two Marxist variants, socialism and communism. Hitler was sent not to ascertain threats to the German state but rather to channel this movement and the social class is represented into an alternative mass movement that could better mesh with German conservatism. Indeed, when Hitler renamed the DAP in 1920 by adding the oxymoronic Nationalsozialistische to it, the appeal was to those German workers who fell outside of the political institutions that had been built by both the German Communist Party (KPD) and the German Socialist Party (SPD). While it is true that anti-Semitism reached new heights after World War I, its roots were much deeper. It is important to note that the portion of Jews in the German population was rather small. In Austria, the birth home of Hitler, the number of Jews and hence the levels of anti-Semitism were much more deeply rooted. Also, note the role of officers pictured as defendants in the Beer Hall Putsch. Especially important names in that picture are Frick, Ludendorff, and Roehm. 24 Communists and Socialists charged with similar crimes were invariably given maximum sentences. Even the SDP government of Friedrich Ebert summarily executed the communists Rosa Luxembourg and Karl Liebknecht with the assistance of the Brownshirts. 25 Claiming that the Depression started in the US is a very questionable assertion the validity of which can only be maintained by ignoring the persistent economic weakness of Germany in the entire decade. 26 this is the parliamentary equivalent of Prime Minister 4 b. mental b) horrific method to eliminate “racially” inferior27 d. Key events prior to 1938-1939 1) The Reichstag fire (2/27/33) as justification for suspension of constitution a) blamed on Communists without conclusive proof b) Enabling Act 28 i. no constitution for four years ii. all political parties outlawed 2) Establishment of the Nazi state a) 3/1933, political prisoners sent to Dachau, the first concentration camp b) labor unions disbanded and folded into one state-controlled union c) strikes declared illegal d) schools focused on teaching specific Nazi ideology e) national groups formed i. Hitler Youth ii. League of German Girls 3) Quest for racial purity a) The Nuremberg Laws i. stripped Jews of citizenship ii. excluded Jews from public life iii. defined Jewishness in official, racial terms iv. forbade marriage (and even dating) between Germans and Jews v. deprived Jews of a. Property ownership b. civil service jobs c. professional i. lawyers ii. professors b) Kristallnacht as response to assassination of Nazi official by Polish Jew (11/9/38) i. destruction of a. synagogues b. businesses ii. precursor to subsequent repressions 4) Hitler’s foreign policy a) informed military of main goals i. rearmament ii. disregard Versailles iii. expansion to east b) 10/33 withdrawal from League of Nations c) 3/35 open announcement of intent to violate military provisions of Versailles i. expansion of military ii. compulsory military service iii. rebuild Luftwaffe iv. 360307 movement into Rhineland, with remilitarization v. French and British without response d) 1936 intervention in Spanish Civil War as basis for scrimmaging blitzkrieg tactics: especially the Stuka dive bomber e) 1936 formal alignment with Japan in the Anti-Comintern Pact 4. Militarism in Japan a. Army and society 1) WWI enhanced Japan’s global position a) 1902 British alliance with Japan29 b) obtained German colonies in Asia as part of Versailles “mandates” i. Pacific ii. Chinese coast 2) adoption of liberal political and economic system in the 1920s a) universal male suffrage in 1925 b) relatively healthy economy lessened traditional influence of i. army ii. navy 3) dark shadows looming in Japanese society a) general distrust of the West i. traditional society vs. western models of industrialization ii. Meiji Restoration of 1868 as effort to merge tradition and modernity b) continued influence of Navy and Army i. conflict with civilian government ii. context of Depression intensified army opposition to civilian government30

27 It is clear from the above list that the matter was not exclusively one of race but also of genetics more broadly. 28 The decisive vote for handing Hitler this unfettered power was made by the Roman Catholic Center party. The main victim of the Enabling Act was the SPD, whose members were immediately imprisoned in the earliest concentration camps. 29 This in the context of the 1905 Russo-Japanese war, foretelling deep crisis within the Czarist empire. 30 missing from this rather superficial discussion of Japanese militarism was the role played by industrial conglomerates known as Zaibatsu. A more detailed study of Japanese militarism would note the heavy influence of German/Prussian conservative ideals on the 5 b. Key events prior to 193731 1) army officials demanded expansion into Manchuria in order to maintain access to valuable resource base adjacent to colonized Korea 2) Japan able to exploit inherent weaknesses evident in China by 1931 3) lack of Chinese central authority led to regional Chinese elites and officers operating independently of Chiang Kai-shek 4) Manchurian ruler Chang Hsueh-liang “ruled outside the control of the Nationalist government” 32 5) The Mukden Incident (310918) led to creation of Manchuko in 9/32 a) pretext: Japanese officials blame Chiang for destruction of Japanese railroad despite having staged the event themselves b) invasion and conquest completed by 1/32 c) Manchuko ruled by Puyi, last ruler of Qing dynasty, but who operated as puppet of Japanese interests33 C. Crises of 1938-1939 [p.15] 1. Anschluss with Austria (380311-13)34 a. forbidden under Versailles b. 380200 Hitler forced Austrian government to appoint pro-Nazi officials c. government resistance triggered intervention 1) organized protests by Nazis 2) threatened military action d. moves compelled resignation of Chancellor Schuschnigg e. Arthur Seys-Inquart installed by Hitler to oversee transition to unification (Anschluss) f. German troops entered on 380313 with little resistance from Austrians g. British and French unprepared for move and unwilling to declare war in response to this treaty violation 2. Munich crisis (380929) a. Sudetenland as border region dominated by ethnic Germans b. annexation would fulfill goal of uniting all German peoples under Nazi rule35 c. Hitler used pretext of discrimination by the Czech government to demand Sudetenland or face war d. Czech government refused to hand land over on claims of its strategic importance e. Munich Conference 1) Neville Chamberlain (British PM) 2) Edouard Daladier (French PM) 3) Hitler 4) Mussolini with Ciano (Italian Foreign Minister) f. appeasement 1) mainly the work of Chamberlain 2) many in France and Britain relieved at avoiding war 3) Hitler furious that he had not gotten war, plans next move against Poland36 4) British air force provided with a year respite to expand and modernize37 g. Hitler ultimately annexed the rest of Czechoslovakia in violation of Munich on 39031538 3. Hitler and Poland a. the Polish corridor created to ensure that Poland was not landlocked in relation to the Baltic 1) separated East Prussia from Germany proper 2) included a “large number” of ethnic Germans b. Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact ensured that Germany would not have to fight two-front war (390823) 1) Stalin’s motive: preserve Soviet security in relation to West’s weak response to fascist threat 2) secret provisions entailing a partition of Poland 3) Hitler assumed France and Britain would not rise to challenge move against Poland c. Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact as expedient move by Hitler manner in which the political economy of Japan emerged. There was certainly something of a “military-industrial complex” in Japan that brought together many industries and investors with the military. The major difference between Japan and the fascist countries, in other words, was the absence of a leader figure comparable to Hitler and Mussolini. Emperor Hirohito played the role of a transcendent monarch couched in the religious traditions of Shintoism. The militarism and racism inherent in fascism was otherwise prominent in Japan as well. 31 Note that the defining date for the European war in the Guide is 1938, but for Asia it is 1937 due to the importance of the formal invasion of China that occurred in that year. 32 “Nationalist” is the common term associated with the political movement headed by China Kai-shek. 33 The basis of a beautiful 1987 film by the Italian director Bernardo Bertolucci, entitled The Last Emperor of China. 34 The dates for this event are noted in the chronology on pp. 93-99. I would encourage you to copy and post these pages on the wall of your bedroom or wherever you would see them constantly! 35 This is technically not a correct assertion. There were still substantial communities of Germans in Polish territories as well (e.g. the Baltic corridor). 36 In the extensive reading I have done on this, no one has ever claimed that Hitler was disappointed that he was not able to fight at this time. The natural fortress of the Sudetenland Mountains would have not been an easy conquest in light of many tactical factors as well as the distinct possibility that it may have reconfigured the diplomacy of the situation so as to bring not only England and France into the conflict but also the Soviet Union. The Czechs had the best-equipped army in Eastern Europe. No one can seriously claim that the military situation of France and Britain had not been fundamentally undermined by the loss of the Sudetenland and a serious threat of a two-front war. 37 This, too, is a very difficult argument to accept. While it is true that Britain took this time to improve its military capability, it is folly to argue that this additional time was a major factor in the appeasement strategy. 38 That total absorption of lands that had nothing whatsoever to do with Hitler’s specious claim to unite the German nation showed the true intent of Hitler’s program of lebensraum. 6 1) 8/39 Hitler demanded plebiscite to allow Germans a) in corridor to determine their allegiance b) return “free city” of Danzig to be reincorporated into Germany 2) Hitler had issued orders for army to be ready to invade by 9/1/39 3) Polish government used non-aggression treaties with France and Britain as basis for resistance 4) Hitler authorization (390831) and German invasion on (390901) D. Section I Summary [p. 16] II. THE WAR IN EUROPE (30%) [pp. 18-45] A. 1939 [p. 18] 1. Attack on Poland a. two-pronged attack 1) Army Group South moved NE toward Warsaw 2) Army Group North a) closed Polish corridor b) swung behind Warsaw to prevent Polish retreat east b. 1st example of Blitzkrieg 1) Term used by subsequent historian and contemporary journalists 2) characterized tactics of Wehrmacht 3) massed armor units (tanks) 4) supported by close air support 5) subversive tactics to punch holed in enemy lines 6) infantry mopped up remnants of enemy forces 7) varied from campaign to campaign a) Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe coordination limited in Poland b) later campaigns better integrated air and land campaigns c. scale of Polish campaign 1) 54 divisions 2) 1.5 million men 3) 2,000 aircraft d. Polish resistance 1) scale a) 30 divisions b) 1 million men c) 313 aircraft 2) limited materials a) armored b) mechanized 3) sequence of Polish defeat a) 390906 Germans halfway to Warsaw b) 390907 Polish army organization in disarray c) 390917 Soviets invaded Eastern Poland i. in fulfillment of secret provisions of Molotov-Ribbentrop ii. on claim to be rescuing Russians living in Eastern Poland39 e. consequences for Poland 1) London exile government coordinated Polish assistance to allies 2) the Katyn Forest massacre (400401 – 400531) a) 22,000 Polish nationals executed i. mostly officers ii. also members of intelligentsia b) Soviets secret police operating under orders from Stalin and Politburo 3) Germans discovered and publicized mass graves in 1943 4) Poles requested Red Cross investigation into massacre 5) Stalin used Polish request as basis to sever relations with government-in-exile 6) the 4th Partition of Poland (390927) f. casualties 1) Poland a) 70,000 dead b) 30,000 wounded c) 700,000 prisoners40 2) Germany a) 11,000 dead b) 30,000 wounded c) 3,400 MIA41 g. perception of German victory in the West 1) F and GB conclude that Germany stronger than anticipated 2) USA considers whether or not to get involved 2. “The Phoney War” a. Weather forced Hitler to postpone attack on France 1) 391009 ordered assault for mid-November 2) two reasons for delay

39 My recollection is that the Soviets also justified their invasion on the assertion that the Polish government had collapsed. 40 Note that the number of prisoners was 7 times that total of dead and wounded combined. 41 Note that the number of wounded and missing was 3 times the number of dead. 7 a) poor weather b) commanders unsure troops capable of quick turnaround 3) invasion postponed to late May of 1940 a) better weather helped German advantage in air power b) troops fully ready for turnaround b. French and British quandary on war strategy 1) neither wanted aggressive action 2) preference for WWI economic blockade 3) but blockade would require enforcement via war 4) result: no real action in Western Europe in 1939 5) lack of action resulted in “Phoney War” aka Sitzkrieg.42 c. The Sitzkrieg involved some naval engagements 1) Germany had sent warships to Atlantic prior to 390901 a) two battleships b) 16 U-boats 2) despite some successes, Germany did not gain advantage at sea a) Royal Oak sunk at Royal Navy base on 391014 i. base at Scapa Flor, Scotland ii. sunk by Uboat b) many merchant ships sunk 3) early Allied successes at sea: Graf 43 Spee sunk off coast of Argentina and Uruguay d. British successes in intelligence: the Enigma story44 1) German ciphering machine used for naval radio traffic 2) Polish intelligence had begun to crack code by 1939 3) Germans had believed code was uncrackable 4) Ultra program as vital element in ultimate war victory, especially in relation to submarine warfare 3. The Winter War a. Soviet invasion of Finland 391130 – 400312 1) after demand for border concessions to protect Leningrad 2) Finnish refusal began Winter war b. Soviet forces struggled 1) despite advantages a) manpower b) equipment 2) due to a) lack of experienced officers as a result of Stalin’s purges b) difficulties operating in Finnish countryside c. Moscow Peace Treaty ultimately signed on 400312 1) Finland ceded a) large territory b) economic resources 2) Soviet gains greater than initial demands in 3911 d. Soviets with limited victory 1) high casualties 2) damage to international reputation a) US b) Great Britain 3) coupled with move into Poland (390917) further showed aggressiveness 4) opinions of Red Army capabilities also lowered e. British and French decided to not send Finnish aid through Scandinavia upon announcement of Treaty 1) potential threat to Swedish iron ores 2) nevertheless contributed to German decision to invade Norway on 400409 f. collapse of Edouard Daladier’s government triggered by failure of Winter War g. rise of weaker Laval government 4. American Neutrality in 1939 a. disunity in US over severity of Hitler’s threat: isolationism 1) unclear on US role in world 2) tendency to focus on Western Hemisphere b. isolationism as a product of the disappointing results of World War I 1) varieties of isolationists a) religious grounds b) humanitarian pacifism 2) distrust of war-profiteering based on 1935 Nye Committee (Senate Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry) 3) strong distrust of British Empire and other European powers c. the legal expression of isolationism: four major Neutrality Acts between 1935 and 1939 1) The Neutrality Act of 1935 a) forbade export of munitions to belligerent nations once president declared state of war 42 Sitz is the German word for “sit”. Thus the notion of fighting a war while sitting. 43 Graf is the German word for Count of Earl. Thus this ship was named after a German nobleman. 44 This is truly a fascinating aspect of the war and has been the basis of two amazing films, Enigma and The Imitation Game. The program itself was only declassified in the 1990s and thus could not have been the basis for a very informative film story prior to that. The Imitation Game, focused on the life of the brilliant, autistic, and homosexual Alan Turing (played by Benedict Cumberbatch), is one of the truly great films of recent memory. 8 b) restricted use of US ports by belligerent submarines c) president to declare that Americans travelling of ships of belligerents did so at own risk45 d) limited to six-month period 2) 1936 revision of Neutrality Act a) forbade lending money to belligerents b) set to expire on 370501 3) the 1937 act as product of compromise between FDR and Congressional isolationists a) forbidden i. US citizens’ travelling on ships of belligerent nations ii. arming of US merchant vessels b) allowed for cash-and-carry i. US government and companies could sell war material BUT NOT LETHAL WEAPONS ii. all transactions had to be a. in cash so as to avoid expansive indebtedness that influenced US entry into WWI b. materials had to be transported by belligerent nations at discretion of president 4) 1939 Act forced additional changes to US neutrality a) Americans increasingly concerned with Hitler’s Germany and thus away from total isolation b) favored support for Allies short of direct US involvement c) sale of arms now allowed on cash-and-carry basis clearly favored F and B d) isolationists received total ban on US ships entering war zones e) major step toward accommodating FDR’s increasing concern of US involvement in the European war B. 1940 [p. 21] 1. Prelude to the Attack on France a. German invasion of Denmark and Norway 400409 1) purpose: a) secure iron supply from Sweden b) thwart Allied efforts to get foothold on G’s northern flank 2) minimal resistance by Danes led to quick collapse and a) G control of entrance to Baltic Sea b) G air power closer to Norway 3) tougher fight in Norway that lasted two months until 400609 b. evaluating the Scandinavian campaign 1) major German accomplishment allowed G submarines to bypass British blockade of Baltic 2) major drawback was need to station sizable force allotment in Norway a) invasion cost G whole fleet of surface ships b) Uboat basing not as valuable as originally thought c. collapse of British government 1) Neville Chamberlain forced to resign in face of perceived failure in war effort 2) Winston Churchill selected as new PM 2. The Attack on France a. Case Yellow 400510 1) primary assault on France 2) included G forays to secure flanks of assault a) Belgium collapsed early due to failure to coordinate defense with F and B i. Belgium legitimately feared its army would be used to shield F and B ii. F and B saw G assault primarily through Belgium as in WWI b) Netherlands, which resulted in Dutch government fleeing to GB on 400513 b. F defense based on security illusion of Maginot Line 1) defensive forts not designed to elicit counterattack 2) once forts bypassed, they became ineffective 3) moreover, line of forts did not extend along entirety of eastern border a) 250 mile span of border along Ardennes Forest unprotected b) span result of i. F lacked funds to extend fully ii. F feared that building fortress along shared border would convince the Belgian government was being abandoned by F46 c) F felt that it would be difficult for G to move large numbers of troops thru gap 4) F suffering from political upheaval a) Edouard Daladier resigned in 400319 (?)47 b) ongoing F political crisis in the weeks prior to G invasion c. G strategy was to lure F and B to Belgium and then swing behind them through Ardennes 1) clash along Meuse R between F and G (040513 – 040515) caused F and B to think Ardennes was the diversion 2) Erwin Rommel broke thru F defenses and advanced thru F countryside (040515) 3) success in Ardennes caused entire Allied defense to falter and increased G success in Belgium 4) much of G success caused by F panic d. The Dunkirk evacuation (400526)

45 This is a clear association with the role of the Lusitania incident during World War I drawing the US into that war. 46 The logic of this sentence in the guide is difficult to follow. It’s a poorly written sentence. 47 His resignation, too, was largely related to failure to aid Finland in its war with the Soviet Union. Personal commentary: this is at least in part a reflection of the foolishness of French conservatives who still saw the Soviet Union as the major threat in the weeks after Hitler’s invasion of Poland. One would think that more sensible politicians perceived Stalin’s strategy in Finland as part of his anticipated necessary defense against a potential German invasion. The diplomacy that occurred during this period would provide an excellent investigation for IB research! 9 1) G advance to coast cut off (400521) a) F troops b) British Expeditionary Force (BEF) sent in support of i. F ii. Belgium 2) B had anticipated problems and had planned Dunkirk as evacuation point 3) B withdrawal to Dunkirk caused rift b/w B and F, who claimed premature evacuation 4) evacuation: in the course of a week a) 70,000 by 400529 b) 194,000by 400531 c) 350,000 by 400603 i. B ii. F 5) major significance because BEF able to play crucial role after collapse of F e. the complete destruction of F 1) BEF withdrawal gave G 3:1 advantage in men 2) F quickly overrun despite heroic fight 3) I declaration of war worsened situation (400610), as southern border now in conflict 4) collapse of F government and surrender by Henri Philippe Petain on 400622 a) Petain as WWI hero b) harsh, but considered, surrender terms i. G to a. occupy northern F b. control Atlantic coastline c. impose harsh reparations ii. Southern F to remain nominally independent iii. F to retain colonial empire (G not able to take control in any case) iv. F to retain own Navy (which averted their voluntary relinquishment to B) f. the controversial legacy of Vichy France 1) named after new capital and referred to government of pseudo-independent south 2) Charles de Gaulle led those who refused to recognize new government and called for resistance from African colonies 3) De Gaulle became leader of Free France alternative to Vichy, thus providing basis for F claim to have been consistent ally in war effort g. emergence of civil war between Free and Vichy F 1) Vichy moved a) from democracy to authoritarian style of government b) instituted anti-Jewish policies 2) Churchill, concerned that Vichy would render navy to G, attacked F navy in Mers-el-Keber (400703) a) by i. B navy ii. B air force b) resulting in i. one battleship sunk ii. damage to five other ships iii. 1,200 French sailors killed 3) Vichy hard response to Churchill’s attack a) severed diplomatic ties b) launched attacks on British navy at Gibraltar 3. The Battle of Britain (400710 – 401031) a. Operation Sea Lion as necessary move prior to invasion of USSR 1) success of Operation Sea Lion dependent on control over English Channel air space 2) Luftwaffe ordered to achieve air superiority prior to naval and ground force use (400716) b. Britain enjoyed advantages despite its loss on continent 1) Luftwaffe’s largely improvised plan of attack a) lacked cohesion similar to German army plan for F b) allowed RAF breaks at crucial moments during fight 2) fighting on own soil allowed GB to conserve a) fuel b) pilots i. Brits rescued ii. Germans captured 3) early warning system of 50 radar stations a) stations notified of i. direction ii. altitude iii. number of attack planes b) radar refined by British i. only understood by G ii. invented by British at National Physical Laboratory iii. by 1940 Britain arguably had finest in world 4) British plane production had surpassed G by 1940 a) 600 fighters available on daily basis b) matched German numbers c. Five phases of Battle of B 1) b. for control of English Channel (400700-400800) 2) air battle over SE Britain (400813 – 400818) 10 3) G attacks on RAF airfields (400800 – 400900) 4) bombing of London (400907 – 400930) 5) minor battles to 401031 d. low margin for error on both sides 1) Hitler appears to have prematurely withdrawn from effective attacks on RAF airfields in August a) exasperated with evident stalemate b) in order to attack London c) change of G strategy gave RAF respite to recover some of its losses 2) B of Britain captured world’s imagination a) Hitler hoped bombing would break will to resist b) effect of attacks galvanized British will 3) by 400917 Hitler realized he would have to postpone planned landing 4) Luftwaffe forced to resort to night bombings to lessen the extent of their losses 5) casualties a) Britain lost 832 fighters b) G lost 668 c) G lost nearly 600 bombers 6) Hitler hoped invasion of USSR would compel Brits. to accommodate G land empire48 4. Italy and North Africa a. Mussolini’s plan for Mediterranean dominance undermined by lack of cohesive plan 1) sometimes wanted Balkan focus in Greece and Yugoslavia 2) other times sought to gain French colonies in Africa 3) still other ambitions stretched Italian power into Eastern Mediterranean b. Ultimately, Mussolini chose to challenge British forces in Egypt with hopes of capturing Suez Canal (400913) 1) despite resistance form commanders in Italian Libya 2) purpose of breaking British lifeline to India 3) I attacks in Egypt caused no serious damage to retreating B forces 4) advanced halted at Sidi Barrani, coastal town, leaving I in weak position a) long lines for i. supply ii. communication b) undefended southern flank c. British counter-attack successfully and unexpectedly set ground for GB to go on offensive 1) new tanks arrived (400915) 2) B attack in 401200 on Sidi Barrani a) forces largely from India and other Commonwealth nations b) B attack more successful than anticipated, driving I forces back to Libya rather than merely rebuking them C. 1941 [p. 25] 1. Prelude to the Invasion of the Soviet Union a. Italy’s failures hampered G planning for Soviet invasion 1) I invasion of Greece (401028) a) attempted to counter increased German influence in i. Romania ii. Hungary iii. Bulgaria b) I failure in Greece due to i. ill-equipped ii. undermanned c) Greeks i. successfully expelled I ii. claimed control of ¼ of Albania 2) G forced to intervene to save a) I from complete defeat in Greece and N. Africa b) protect flank of attack vs. USSR b. complex Balkan configuration forces G to simultaneously engage Greece and YS 1) Hitler assembled forces in Bulgaria (410100) 2) Brits moved forces into Greece (410200) 3) YS neutral government overthrown and replaced by pro-British gov’t. c. G successfully invaded YS and Greece on 410406 1) Belgrade fell on 410412 2) Greek army collapsed and Brits forced back to sea 3) subsequent G airborne campaign against Crete forced GB to 3rd withdrawal 49 d. The rise of resistance in Yugoslavia complicated G war plans 1) Chetniks (Serb loyalists) moved to hills after armistice on 410417 2) most important resistance movement was Partisans under Communist Josef Tito 2. The Attack on the Soviet Union a. Hitler’s 1) goals a) topple USSR b) seize resources

48 This was now a turn to the more traditional German aspiration for a land empire in the East consistent with Friedrich Ratzel’s Lebensraum idea. 49 i.e. Yugoslavia, Greece, and Crete 11 2) methods: meticulous but concern over having to cover so much territory b. Operation Barbarossa one of the largest military undertakings in human history50(410622) 1) Germans a) 3 million men with 500,000 additional from allied forces b) 2,700 planes in initial phases of assault 2) Soviets suffered disaster due to complete surprise of attack 3) German attack divided between 3 separate army groups a) North b) Central c) south 4) Central army impressive advance captured 600,000 Soviet troops by end of July 5) North and South gained large territories but did not inflict much damage on retreating forces 6) initial illusion of major G victory gave way to growing recovery of USSR over time 7) basic problem for G: Barbarossa planned as short campaign c. German strategy refocused , but failed to achieve knockout 1) in North vs. Leningrad (present day St. Petersburg) resulting in siege but not conquest 2) in South vs. Kiev, G captured additional 600,000 Soviet troops 3) by 411200 Soviets had begun even to push back in south 4) G forced to revise strategy once more, with renewed focus on Moscow with hopes of capture by end of 1941 5) resulting stalemate favored USSR over time d. Reasons why Soviets able to stop G 1) massive evacuation of factories to east51 2) Communist spies in Japan had informed Stalin that Japan had no intent of attacking Siberia, allowing transfer of tens of thousands of elite forces to the Western front 3) USSR had become beneficiary of Lend-Lease material aid52 a) tanks not most important53 b) most important i. artillery ii. jeeps iii. trucks 3. Germany in North Africa a. the dispatch of Afrika Korps under Erwin Rommel 1) G intervention again a product of Italian failure 2) Rommel dispatched after initial Italian rejection of G assistance (410206) 3) mission initially defensive in nature to prevent GB control of Libya 4) Rommel instead undertook successful offensive a) collapsed British front b) forced B retreat from Libya back to Egypt 5) by placing Suez under threat, German forces could move into Middle East for Southern attack on Russia 6) Stalemate made Middle East option appealing 7) option not taken because a) he had no additional troops to carry it out b) Afrika Korps had not serious reinforcements throughout its existence b. The British counteroffensives 1) Operation Battleaxe (410600) a) purpose: weaken Rommel’s position on Libyan-Egyptian border b) failed due to British uncoordinated attacks c) Rommel nearly encircled but hasty retreat averted disaster 2) Operation Crusader (411100) a) purpose: force Rommel back b) Rommel prevailed i. despite 4:1 British tank advantage ii. due to a. poor tank utilization b. attacks i. ill-timed ii. uncoordinated c. By end of 1941, Rommel still posed threat to British lifeline in Suez 4. Changing Attitudes in America a. the collapse of France caused many in the US to become more supportive of GB b. public attitude change enabled FDR to take active steps: the Destroyer for Bases Agreement (400900) 1) GB received 50 WWI era destroyers, vital in Uboat combat 2) US received leasing rights to GB possessions in Western Hemisphere

50 actually, the largest by any meaningful measure 51 They had literally moved the factories in the western territories to the east beyond the Urals. What does this fact indicate about the veracity of the guide’s earlier claim that Hitler’s attack came as a total surprise to Stalin? 52 There seems to be something of reluctance in the guide to give much credit to Stalin, his generals, and the USSR in achieving the first significant blow to German military might. It should be noted that the Soviet tanks were in many ways as good as the vaunted German Panzers. The Soviet AK-47 was as effective a weapon for infantrymen as anything anyone else had. Some of these issues may come up later, but for now the guide appears to omit them. 53 The Soviets started and ended the war with the largest number of tanks of any country in the world. The quality of their tanks was also very high, and improved throughout the course of the war. Its most famous model was the T-34. 12 c. The Lend-Lease agreement made the US the “arsenal of democracy” (410110) 1) proposed legislation gave FDR authority in regards to defensive items to a) sell b) transfer title to c) exchange d) lease e) lend f) otherwise dispose of 2) defensive items could be sent to any country deemed vital to defense of the US 3) in effect made US principal supplier of countries fighting Germany d. The Atlantic Charter (410814) 1) eight points of shared commitments a) self-determination b) free trade c) international cooperation 2) stage for Atlantic Charter set by ABC-1 Conference (410300) a) US and British military officials b) key decision Europe First Strategy: focus first on Germany before turning to Japan54 e. US active participation against Germany prior to formal outbreak of war 1) use of US naval vessels to relieve German Uboat pressure on British Navy 2) US escorted British ships across Atlantic, with orders to fire on any submarine on sight 3) the sinking of U.S.S. Reuben James (destroyer) on 411031 a) escort of British convoy b) 115 US lives lost D. 1942 [p. 28] 1. The Battle of Stalingrad55 (420823 – 430131) a. by 1942 Germany had to settle for battle on only one front in Russia 1) G aware that victory or stalemate impossible in both Russia and N. Africa 2) southern Russia front chosen due to a) better weather allowed longer period for operations b) natural resources, specifically Caucasus oil56 b. In May, offensive began with intent to clear Crimean Peninsula 1) subsequent intention to move South and East in three phases 2) required more troops than available in order to protect armies from Soviet counterattacks 3) Operation Blau (420628) failed to replicate successes of 1941 due to Soviet strategic retreat a) few Soviet troops captured b) G supply lines overextended 4) Hitler ordered sudden change of strategy away from Caucasus toward Stalingrad (Volgograd) c. Stalingrad as matter of “purely personal prestige” with little tactical or strategic value: the proxy battle 1) G Sixth Army moved vs. Stalingrad in late July 2) Stalingrad as a) retreat destination for Soviet armies b) civilian fortress built by civilian laborers 3) Luftwaffe raid actually made city more favorable to Soviet tactics as ruins became fortified positions (420903) 4) house-to-house battles from September to November deteriorated both armies a) communications breakdowns between command and field units b) enormous loss of manpower 5) Hitler premature victory declaration (421108) d. Soviet Operation Uranus destroyed G Sixth Army 1) G flanks weakened by a) constant flow of forces into city b) increased dependence on Romanian troops for flank defense i. untested ii. ill-equipped 2) Operation Uranus strategy a) asserted that there were sufficient troops to hold city b) encircle G Sixth Army inside of Stalingrad 3) Soviet attack on flanks began on 421119 with armored units attacking Romanian troops to North and South 4) Sixth Army encircled five days later on 421124 5) Hitler’s muddled response

54 While the guide is accurate here, it does so in a way that is probably intentionally confusing. Obviously, the US was not at war with Japan in March of 1941. The ABC-1 conference, however, fully anticipated war with both Japan and Italy in addition to Germany. While this conference established the Europe first strategy, the guide surely exaggerates when it states that “all of its [US] attention and resources [would focus] on defeating Nazi Germany.” Germany was the certain priority, but not the exclusive concern. Of course, much of the intentional confusion here relates to the authors’ choice to use a geographic rather than a chronological narrative. Japan casts a large shadow over US relations with GB and even the USSR at this time. The guide is keeping you in the dark for good reason here. They are challenging you to put the story together. 55 Good film: Enemy at the Gates 56 Stalingrad, present-day Volgograd, had become a major industrial city in the 1930s and sat at the mid-point just north of both the Black and Caspian Seas. It is located on the Volga River, but is proximate to the Don as well. The point is that this city had great strategic, not to mention symbolic, significance. The guide, however, asserts that Stalingrad had little tactical or strategic value. 13 a) denied retreat b) plan to airdrop reinforcements on recommendation of Herman Goering, head of Luftwaffe, was unrealistic e. German forces collapse on 430202 1) failed relief effort in December 2) Soviet assault began in January 3) G with “impressive” stand for five days 4) 430131, G. forces in southern part of city surrendered57 f. casualties 1) overall Axis casualties a) 800,000 or higher (dead, wounded, or missing) b) Germans and Romanians i. 147,000 died ii. 91,000 prisoners 2) Soviet estimates a) 500,000 dead b) up to 1,100,000 casualties i. dead ii. wounded iii. missing g. consequences of Stalingrad 1) Balance of war in favor of Soviets on Eastern Front58 2) Soviets began relentless offensive 2. The First and Second Battles of El Alamein a. early 1942 respite during winter rains 1) Rommel pushed British back to Gazala line in January a) after being supplied transport planes at expense of G operations in USSR b) planes allowed for new round of attacks 2) British retreat had vulnerabilities as defenses not mutually supporting a) isolated b) could not supply support to adjoining position in case of attack b. fighting in May and June inconclusive 1) GB concentrated armored units in center of line 2) G attacked flank on 420526 vs. a) British b) Indian units 3) Rommel failed to cut GB off from northern access into Egyptian retreat a) failure due to concentrated British tanks b) Rommel retreat retained supply access to supplies and reinforcements 4) Rommel nevertheless forced GB into retreat (420605 – 420612) due to a) well-executed attacks b) British blunders shrinking tank advantage to almost nothing c. failed G attack on El Alamein in July 1) Rommel convinced Hitler to allow for invasion of Egypt despite weakness from recent fighting 2) British with strong position in El Alamein (70 miles from Alexandria) due to strong flank defense a) line to north ran to Mediterranean b) line to south ran to Qattara Depression, a salt sea that was impassable to heavy vehicles 3) thus British able to hold position d. Bernard Law Montgomery changed strategy to focus on British superiority in firepower and sheer numbers 1) appointed field commander despite victory of other generals in 1st b. of El Alamein 2) represented major shakeup in command structure vs. Rommel e. The Second Battle of El Alamein 1) Monty used summer months to build large stores of supplies 2) did not follow Rommel defeat in August with counteroffensive 3) by October, GB with large advantages a) 4:1 in men b) 3: 1 in tanks c) 4:1 in aircraft 4) Month finally launched successful offensive 421023 a) Rommel not present due to jaundice b) British numeric superiority wore down G 5) 421103 Rommel ordered retreat 6) 421104 Afrika Corps slipped away 59 f. Significance of El Alamein compares to Stalingrad in East in that G on defensive in West60

57 This is the date cited in the guide chronology for the end of the battle of Stalingrad. 58 This is a very modest way of stating the significance of this battle. This turned the tide of the war in general. Barring a major diplomatic coup, Allied victory (not just Soviet victory on the Eastern Front) was assured. 59 This is not very precise language. Does this mean that the Afrika Korps left Africa? 60 To compare the significance of El Alamein with that of Stalingrad can only be asserted by an individual only acquainted with the most superficial literature on the war written from a totally pro-American/English perspective. Please note that the casualty figures are not provided for El Alamein, because they would show the absolute insignificance of these battles in comparison with any number of battles that were occurring in the USSR. To assert that Germany was now largely on the defensive in the West is almost ridiculous. The US and Britain would make no significant advances against Germany on continental Europe until DDay (Operation Overlord) on 14 3. Operation Torch61 a. The debate over where to attack in France or Africa 1) US support for cross-Channel invasion in 1942 as quickest way to win a) supported by George C. Marshall, Army Chief –of –Staff and other military officials b) Africa option would push back Europe invasion to 1944 2) British opposition to cross-channel based on a) belief that US not sufficiently mobilized b) invasion to rely almost wholly on British manpower 3) British support for Africa focus based on a) relief on pressure in Egypt b) basis for invasion of Europe through Mediterranean 4) FDR overruled military advisors primarily for domestic political reasons on assertion that62 a) Africa invasion could happen sooner than Channel b) US public opinion needed to be rallied against Germany to favor Europe First Strategy b. the politics of Vichy government in Algeria and Morocco 1) Allies established dialogue with anti-Vichy elements in Algeria led by General Henri Giraud 2) Giraud unable to sway all Vichy forces to support Allies, resulting in difficult landing in Algeria c. Admiral Francois Darlan recognized declining German position and declared armistice with Allies 1) Allied forces with foothold on Moroccan and Algerian coast 2) Hitler’s furious response a) demanded free access to Tunisia and sent troops on 421116 b) ordered German troops to occupy southern France63because Mediterranean Coast of France now vulnerable c) purpose of troops in Tunisia was to hold control of eastern Atlas Mtns. d. Torch as the context for the rise of definitive generals64 1) George Patton65 2) Dwight Eisenhower a) overall command of Allied landings b) able mediator of relations between British and American commanders 4. The Battle of the Atlantic a. occurred in four evolutionary phases throughout the war 1) purpose: keep shipping lanes opened over the Atlantic 2) phase 1 a) 390900 – 400600 b) G submarines around GB 3) phase 2 a) 400600 – 410400 b) extended focus on eastern Atlantic c) purpose: restrict access of GB to men and materials from Africa i. central ii. southern 4) phase 3 a) 410400 – 411200: b) U-boats extend reach into central and western Atlantic 5) phase 4 a) after 411207 b) U-boats off coast of US b. effectiveness of U-boat campaign limited by production capacity of US 1) the wolf pack a) groups of submarines coordinated by radio b) attack a single convoy 2) 1942 as turning point a) 300 U-boats available b) 509,000 tons lost in November, largest since May of 1941 3) German optimism in Atlantic unwarranted due to increased production capacity a) Liberty ship could be constructed in 3 months on avg. b) production matched U-boat destruction c) 15 U-boats lost each month, representing production capacity of G c. Factors contributing to Allied victory in Atlantic by late 1942 1) British codebreakers able to reroute Allied convoys to safety 2) escort crafts more available able to quickly come to aid of convoys under attack 3) increased effectiveness of a) radar b) sonar

440606. 61 Great film, Casablanca, is considered by everyone to be one of the great films of all time. One of the themes it develops is that of the crazy politics of Vichy France in colonial Africa. 62 The guide does not mention that fact that a cross-channel invasion would be far more costly in US lives as part of FDR’s political calculations. Of course, Stalin was outraged that it was taking so long for his purported allies to significantly engage Hitler’s army. 63 This is the specific historical context of Anna Seghers’ Transit. 64 Note that a number of French, British, and American generals have been mentioned, but not a single Soviet! 65 Francis Ford Coppola, of Godfather fame, made a great biographical film of General Patton, Patton. Probably a must see considering how much attention the guide is giving to the relatively insignificant battles fought in North Africa and Italy. 15 c) depth charges 4) likely most important: development of long-range aircraft, especially the B-24 d. U-boats almost able to prevent ability of Allies to launch land invasion of Europe 1) G leaders recognized that Atlantic lost by 430500 a) despite much success prior to 1943 b) despite disruption of Lend-Lease goods to USSR b/w 1941 and 1943 2) Hitler’s goal of B. of Britain to remove GB as staging area for continental invasion E. 1945 [p. 42] 1. The Yalta Conference (450204 -450211) a. the second face-to-face meeting of Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin 1) 1st was in 1943 in Teheran 2) Yalta is former Tsarist resort on Black Sea’s Crimean Peninsula 3) FDR health raised speculation as to his effectiveness at this meeting a) recently re-elected b) failing health 4) military and political summit a) military concerns with i. final offensives in Europe ii. shift of focus to Japan b) political concerns i. postwar Germany a. occupation b. zone division ii. United Nations to replace failed League of Nations iii. the future of Poland and its government iv. the future of other liberated European nations b. the German question 1) division a) Soviets in Eastern sections b) Britain in NW section c) US in SW section along with two cities in British zone i. Bremen ii. Bremerhaven d) Churchill pushed and obtained French zone to be comprised of i. southern part of British zone ii. northern part of US zone e) Berlin, located deep in Soviet zone, divided in similar fashion 2) $20 Billion reparations a) 50% to Soviets b) 50% divided among remaining allies 3) agreement on postwar war crimes trials c. The United Nations 1) Stalin agreed to US version of Security Council veto power that restricted veto to a) substantive matters b) not procedural matters 2) Agreement on five Security Council permanent members a) US b) USSR c) Britain d) France e) China 3) 450400 set as conference date in San Francisco to write the charter d. Poland 1) territorial losses in East to be compensated by gains from German territory in West66 2) dispute over who should represent Poland a) Soviets supported Lublin Poles: a puppet government controlled by Stalin b) London Poles i. fled to Britain in 1939 ii. refused to work with Soviets because of attack in 1939 c) Yalta compromise between Lublin and London Poles i. both would be recognized ii. free elections to be held upon conclusion of war e. Japan 1) committed the USSR to fight Japan within three months of VE 2) Soviets to receive a) Kurile Islands b) return of special rights in China c) land lost to Japan in Russo-Japanese war of 1904-1905 f. The dispute over FDR’s feebleness resulted in giving too much to Stalin largely exaggerated 1) FDR only conceded those things over which it did not have real control 2) the agreements were a) products of long discussions 66 This might be considered as part of the German reparations as well. It should be noted that the eastern border coincided with the Curzon Line drawn at the end of World War I. There was little historic or ethnic justification for the territories rendered to Poland. 16 b) all considered temporary measures to secure successful end of war 3) compromise was made on the part of everyone a) FDR and Churchill on Poland b) Stalin on i. United Nations ii. Japan 2. Allied Advance in the West a. early 1945 1) US and Canadian armies forced Germany across Rhine in 450200, but unable to press advantage because Germans had destroyed bridges 2) Monty would not allow for US and Canadian movement that did not feature his troops 3) In the South, US forces had reached Cologne and Bonn by early March b. further advances in South 1) Remagen as site of key railroad bridge, captured by US on 450307 a) G demolitions failed to destroy bridge b) US forces capture bridge to gain entry point over Rhine, without orders 2) Patton moving Third Army south along west bank of Rhine, capturing 100,000 prisoners 3) Hitler’s no retreat policy meant forces unable to escape east and regroup c. the movement into central Germany 1) Ruhr area captured by early April 2) capture of 317,000 Germans revealed crumbling resistance 3) the reason why Eisenhower did not move more rapidly into Berlin: a) Soviets were closer b) would have had to be given back to Soviets in order to comply with Yalta 3. Soviet Advance in the East a. The January offensive 1) the largest accumulation of military power during the entire war a) 4 million soldiers b) 9,800 tanks c) 40,000 artillery 2) goal of offensive: seize Silesia industrial base 3) highly successful a) advancing 30 miles per day in the first days b) crossed into German territory by early February 4) the brutal behavior of Soviets on German soil as response to German brutality in Russia a) mass rape b) murder c) looting d) destruction 5) Stalin delayed move into Berlin despite being only 50 miles away by early February because a) needed to secure flanks vs. possible German counterattack b) needed to refit troops for final battle c) Yalta conference going on concurrently b. The Soviet move against Berlin (450416) 1) Hitler moves his inner circle to bunker near Reich Chancellery in mid-January 2) Germans maintained fanatical resistance c. The last days of the Third Reich 1) Soviet tanks entered Berlin suburbs on 450421, where fighting mirrored Stalingrad 2) Berlin completely encircled by 450425 3) artillery assault on city center began on 450426 prepared way for entry of a) 464,000 Soviet troops b) 1,500 tanks 4) Soviets within ¼ mile of Hitler’s bunker on 450429 5) Hitler final days67 a) dictated final testament focused on cruel ideas that had motivated him b) named Admiral Karl Donitz as successor on 450429 c) committed suicide on 450430 6) final surrender of Berlin on 450502, with heavy price paid by Soviets: 305,000 casualties (10% of total strength) 4. German Surrender a. German forces in I surrendered 450502 b. 450503 1) northern Germany 2) Netherlands 3) Denmark c. general surrender declared by Donitz on 450507, and accepted by Allies on 450510 F. Section II Summary [p. 44] III. THE WAR IN THE PACIFIC (30%) [pp. 46-72] A. 1937 [p. 46] 1. The Invasion of China as beginning of WWII in Pacific (370707) a. indicates the importance of Asian mainland as central to the narrative of the so-called Pacific War b. origins of WWII could even be dated back to J invasion of Manchuria on 310918 c. China as inviting target due to civil war between 1) Nationalist government 2) Communists led by Mao Zedong, who ultimately benefitted from Japanese involvement

67 Good film: Downfall 17 2. The Marco Polo Bridge Incident 370707 a. various small encounters between China and Japan occurred after creation of Manchukuo b. bridge incident occurred near city of Peking, when Chinese troops fired on Japanese unit c. after agreement of understanding the incident as a mistake, a second incident of firing on Japanese troops occurred d. J troops began withdrawal 3. expansionist officers in Japanese army compelled government to intervene in order to prevent China from a. sensing Japanese weakness and b. threatening 1) Manchukuo 2) Japanese-held Korea 3) Japan itself 4. skirmishes grew into eight-year war, even though Japan saw China venture being no more than three-month commitment 5. conflict with China created growing tensions between Japan and US a. FDR’s Quarantine Speech (371005) 1) condemned aggression of a) Japan b) Germany c) Italy 2) urged physical quarantine by other nations b. did not sway isolationists in US c. created anger among Japanese militarists seeing US as trying to form coalition against Japanese expansion d. the Panay incident worsened relations between Japan and US 1) Japanese fighters sank American gunboat apparently on purpose (371212) 2) FDR unable to restart quarantine plan because isolationists satisfied with a) Japanese apology b) Japanese promise of full restitution 6. The Rape of Nanking a. city in central-eastern China attacked in final weeks of 1937 b. two month period of 1) looting 2) raping 3) pillaging c. recorded by 1) Chinese observers 2) Westerners 3) Nazis d. tally by 380131 1) between 200,000 and 300,000 Chinese killed 2) 1/3 of city burned to ground 3) countless rapes 7. Japan caught in bottomless hole in China that became one of major reasons why Japan lost Pacific War B. 1940 [p. 47] 1. defeat of France caused Japan to strengthen bonds with Hitler 2. The Tripartite Pact (400927) as formal alliance a. signatories pictures on p. 48 1) Saburo Kurusu 2) Galeazzo Ciano (Italy) 3) Adolf Hitler b. declared new world order c. respect for each other’s spheres of influence d. J saw as security against 1) US intervention in China 2) Soviet intervention in Manchuria e. Article 3: political, economic and military assistance “when one of the three contracting powers is attacked by a power at present” 1) “not involved in the European war or 2) in the Chinese-Japanese conflict” 3. Japanese relations with Soviets strained after clashes along Manchurian and Mongolian border a. Soviet predominance in these conflicts made J hesitant to engage Soviets b. Stalin’s awareness of Japanese reluctance allowed him to remove forces from Far East to face German army 1) thanks to work of Soviet spies in Tokyo 2) forces moved in late 1941 4. Collapse of France allowed Japan to seize Indochina without a fight in 1940 a. Indochina includes modern-day 1) Vietnam 2) Laos 3) Cambodia b. Indochina valuable as operating base for airfields to be used 1) against Chinese forces in southern China 2) to cut off supply bases into China c. Indochina also rich resource base 1) rubber 2) tin 3) tungsten 4) coal 5) rice 18 5. US embargo, designed to hamper Japanese ambition, only served to accelerate Japanese army’s aggression a. summer of 1940 US had embargoed strategic materials such as aviation fuel b. Japanese seizure of Indochina caused US government to expand list of embargoed items to include scrap metal 6. Japanese suspicions of US furthered by passage of Two-Ocean Naval Expansion Act (400700) a. US Congress motivated by collapse of France and imminent collapse of Britain b. purpose of act provided for two substantial fleets in both Atlantic and Pacific c. expanded US navy by about 70% with emphasis on 1) naval aircraft 2) aircraft carriers to be expanded to 18 total d. J aware that time was on side of US due to this expansion, hastening decision to strike while J still had some naval advantages 1) J had undertaken naval expansion in 1937 2) its advantage would be lost by 411200 if no agreement could be made by then 7. 1940 thus a key year in both Europe and Asia! C. 1941 [p. 48] 1. Pearl Harbor68 a. tensions between Japan and US had built up since the turn of the century 1) competition in West Pacific 2) 1903 Joint Army and Navy Board with plans for potential enemies, with Japan among them69 b. Plan Orange illustrated the aggressive posture of the US Navy in relation to Japan in 1924 1) Army to hold key position of Manila Bay 2) Navy to assert supremacy with fleet stationed at Pearl Harbor 3) flaw in plan insofar as US aware that it would be impossible to hold Manila against full Japanese assault 4) Navy refused any compromise of assertive position of US in Western Pacific 5) Navy refusal to consider more moderate Army plan reflected lack of coordinated plan during the Pacific War 6) conflict between military branches reflected in 1939 Rainbow Plan a) approved by Joint Planning Board b) posed five hypothetical situations for American response to various coalitions of i. enemy powers ii. allied powers c) hypothetical nature reflected leadership’s uncertainty c. Plan Dog represented US Navy concession to sole dominance in Western Pacific 1) Plan resulted from Washington conference between British and US military officials in 41010070 2) plan represented balance between Pacific and Atlantic commitments, involving transfer of a) US ships to Atlantic b) British transfer to Singapore 3) concession to Singapore focus represented defeat of US Navy’s strategy based in Central Pacific d. Aggressive elements in Japanese military and government prevailed in policy debate despite appointment of moderate ambassador to US 1) J government and military increasingly unified for war 2) Admiral Numura Kichisaburo, J ambassador to US a) inclined toward peaceful settlement with US, but he had little influence in Tokyo b) worked closely with US Sec of State Cordell Hull, but neither man in position to put new offers on table e. Once the Japanese had decided for war, it was urgent to engage it as quickly as possible 1) US oil embargo induced Japanese planners to seek oil fields of a) Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) b) Malaya 2) movement against these places inevitably would have triggered war with US 3) J realized that it had to move decisively so as to avoid protracted war against US productive capacity a) attack on British in Malaya b) attack on US in Philippines c) quick seizure of Dutch East Indies 4) weather patterns and tides required that these moves had to be completed by end of December f. Admiral Yamamoto Isoroku as key planner for strategy against US 1) had spent significant time in US and understood US naval strategy well 2) challenged traditional thinking of J Navy that planned to ambush American fleet in Central Pacific in transit to assist Philippines a) plan was too complex b) multiple attacks on Philippines and Malaya would i. drain resources ii. even field against Americans 3) Yamomoto’s plan was to eliminate the threat of the American Pacific Fleet entirely g. the plan to attack Pearl Harbor 1) had been discussed as early as 1936 2) Yamomoto commissioned the definitive plan in 1941 3) plan identified two difficulties a) need to develop a shallow water torpedo that could be dropped from airplanes, achieved by 410931 b) Japanese fleet had to be within 200 miles of target without having been detected, which had been achieved by J liner in 411000 h. appointment of War Minister Hideki Tojo as Prime Minister indicated government’s decisive move to war (411016) 1) meeting on 411105 of Japanese Imperial Conference determined December date as last chance for diplomatic solution 68 Good film: Tora! Tora! Tora! 69 It should also be noted that Japan could not have been pleased with the treatment of Japanese immigrants in the US in the 19th century. Once the US had defeated Spain and had asserted itself in the Philippines as an Asian power, a confrontation with Japan became increasingly likely. 70 It is interesting that this detailed of a plan was being hammered out nearly an entire year before the actual attack on Pearl Harbor on 411207. 19 2) Yamamoto had already received permission to plan December attack in October i. Nomura given two diplomatic options to present to US 1) first was traditional J claims in Far East 2) second more promising a) J to i. stop SE Asia expansion ii. eventually evacuate Dutch East Indies b) US to i. drop embargo ii. end supplies to China 3) US response was utter refusal with proposal of a) complete Japanese abandonment of i. China ii. Indochina b) end to puppet state of Manchukuo 4) J decided for war on 411204, with 411207 as target date j. J success in Pearl Harbor the result of 1) American military failures in a) Washington b) Pearl Harbor 2) uncertainty on dates and locations of attacks that had been deciphered by US intelligence a) US had cracked J codes in project Magic b) intel knew of general plan to attack, just not the specifics c) massive radio traffic also complicated clear intel 3) precise planning and execution of Japanese Navy k. the two waves of the attack on 411207, Sunday 1) general circumstances a) six of eight J carriers that had arrived off N coast of Oahu undetected b) both waves involved i. torpedo bombers ii. dive-bombers iii. level bombers iv. fighters 2) 1st wave of 183 craft a) focused destruction i. on army Air Corps airfields a. Hickam b. Wheeler c. Bellows d. Mokuleia ii. on Marine Corps airfields a. Ewa b. Kaneohe Bay iii. Naval Air station at Ford Island b) destruction tally: 188 destroyed and 159 damaged of 400 total craft 3) 2nd wave of 170 craft launched one hour after first a) focused on American vessel at anchor, especially the eight battleships b) smoke and anti-aircraft fire made J attack more difficult c) two battleships sunk and the other six damaged 4) casualties for both waves a) 2,400 killed, mostly sailors and Marines on two battleships i. Arizona ii. Oklahoma b) 1,200 wounded c) J lost only 29 aircraft l. despite initial success, J did not achieve major goals in the attack 1) many damaged vessels able to be repaired and go on to fight another day 2) J had failed to damage a) crucial repair facilities b) fuel dumps 3) all three aircraft carriers were at sea, thus ensuring Navy’s ability to strike back 4) deathblow to isolationist movement, galvanizing wide support for entry into war 2. Offensive in the Far East a. rapid conquest by Japanese along broad front in Asia against British and American possessions 1) purpose a) establish a defensible line b) prepare for conquest of Dutch East Indies and its oil reserves 2) rapid success in smaller possessions a) Guam in Mariana Island chain fell on 411210 after two days of fighting b) Hong Kong with firm resistance until 411225 i. main British possession in China ii. fierce resistance triggered murderous Japanese rampage against a. Chinese b. British b. Japanese with tougher but ultimately successful forays into Wake Island and Thailand 20 1) Wake Island (2,000 miles west of Hawaii) a) firm resistance by American Marines and civilians defeated initial attack on 411208, sinking or damaging 6 J ships b) J reattacks on 211222, seizing islands after 1,000 casualties 2) seizure of Thailand a) purpose: preparation for larger operations against British territories i. Burma ii. Malaya b) attack by Japanese 25th Army began on 411208 i. several landings on Thai coast ii. overland attacks from bases in Indochina c) Thai government signed armistice on 411215 i. J allowed passage through Thailand ii. secret protocol for Thai declaration of war against Western powers d) J now in favorable position for movement into Burma in 420100. c. main focus of J attack was British Malaya and Singapore as well as US presence in Philippines. 1) the attack on Malaya a) led by General Tomoyuki Yamashita b) method: divide British numerically superior forces by i. carrying out numerous amphibious attacks along Malaya coastline ii. regather forces for march to Singapore 2) J aided by British tactical error in a) spreading out forces to defend as much territory as possible b) rather than concentrating forces at key locales for key battles 3) other factors in defeat of British in Singapore a) lack of air power best displayed in 411210 with Japanese sinking of key ships providing relief to Singapore i. Battleship Prince of Wales ii. battlecruiser Repulse b) defense of Malay Peninsula mainly involved troops from i. India ii. Australian 8th Division c) British troops remained mainly in Singapore 4) British position undermined in Singapore by 411231 a) Japan success attributed to i. amphibious landings that bypassed prepared defensive positions ii. crossing difficult jungle terrain with aid of Malayan locals greeting J as liberators b) main battle for Singapore ready by 420100 d. two key decisions of FDR in the effort to defend the Philippines 1) appointment of General Douglas MacArthur a) recalled from retirement b) given control of land forces i. American ii. Filipino c) MacArthur had been serving as military adviser to Filipino government d) had fostered own reputation as military genius e) appointment of MacArthur intended by FDR to dissuade J from attacking Philippines f) MacArthur rather altered American plans as stated in Plan Orange i. argued for defending Philippine coast line ii. did not focus on defense of Manila as indicated in Plan Orange 2) reinforce MacArthur’s position with B-17 “Flying Fortress” bombers a) purpose: land-based aircraft used to attack approaching naval armadas b) plan: station 300 aircraft on Philippines c) problems with plan: i. accumulation of such a force would take too much time ii. only 35 of the B-17s had arrived in Philippines by 411231 d) US aircraft caught on ground in Philippines and destroyed in initial attack 3) US defense of Philippines thus lacked a) air defense and support b) naval support as vessels traveling to Dutch East Indies to create an Allied fleet 4) Despite numerical advantage, at time of J attack on Luzon (largest island with Manila as capital) MacArthur lacked a) weapons b) supplies c) training e. MacArthur rejected plans for withdrawal to Bataan Peninsula with serious consequences 1) purpose of withdrawal to allow for protracted defense of Manila 2) Mac’s rejection based on “defeatist” attitude of withdrawal 3) Mac’s rejection resulted in termination of stockpiling for protracted defense from Bataan 4) Mac’s failure revealed soon after J attack on 411222 by two divisions 5) American failure evident by 411226, compelling Mac to retreat to Bataan despite lack of a) food b) ammunition c) medicine D. 1942 [p. 53] 1. The Fall of Singapore a. the collapse of Commonwealth resistance 1) Commonwealth forces pushed beyond causeway separating Singapore from Malaya mainland (420131) 21 2) J and Commonwealth short of supplies, but J with psychological advantage a) J with 3 worn-out infantry divisions b) General Yamashita nevertheless ordered amphibious assault on western end of Island on night of 420208-420209 3) brunt of attack in west focused vs. Australian and Indian forces incapable of serious resistance 4) British forces pinned down on eastern portion of island by 2nd J force 5) 3rd J force took control of water reservoirs 6) fighting raged for 2 days 7) order began to collapse among British and Commonwealth troops a) arson b) drunkenness c) looting 8) J restored order with brutal assault on Singaporean middle class, seen as potential source of resistance71 b. The significance of Singapore 1) destroyed the myth of white invincibility among native peoples, thus less inclined to accept British rule 2) loss of Singapore destroyed link between Australia and East Asia, forcing Australia into closer relationship with USA 3) severe loss of life, especially for a) British i. 38,000 casualties ii. 130,000 POWs b) Japanese losses only 10,000 4) most important: Japan now poised for invasion of Dutch East Indies (OIL!!!) 2. The Battle of the Java Sea a. Japan continues success into 420200 1) J began attack on Burman capital, Rangoon, which fell in May, thus representing threat to India 2) main effort in Dutch East Indies culminated in February after initiation around 411215 with focus on key islands of a) Borneo b) Java 3) Western response: ABDACOM, a) unified command (COM) structure of i. Americans ii. British iii. Dutch iv. Australia b) representing amalgamated naval force based in Java b. The Battle began at 4 p.m. on 420227, with decided Japanese advantage in both armament and proficiency 1) Java’s fall represented potential vulnerability of Australia 2) Japanese troop convoy met by ABDA fleet of a) five cruisers b) nine destroyers 3) Japanese escort of troop transports matched ABDA fleet 4) represented the largest naval engagement since WWI c. Java falls to Japan on 420312 1) failed ABDA efforts to break escort screen 2) piecemeal destructions of ABDA fleet forced retreat to Australia 3) J lands on Java after ABDA loss of ten ships 4) lessons of ABDACOM a) dismal failure of unified command structure b) showed weaknesses that would be remedied in future unified command efforts 3. The Loss of the Philippines a. J extends its reach into the Bataan peninsula 1) MacArthur withdrawal signaled to J that it was in control and a) thus replaced veteran with reserve forces b) maintained control despite being outnumbered 2:1 2) J moves prolonged fighting in Philippines 3) US and Filipinos constructed two defense lines across neck of peninsula a) 420109 J attack on eastern end of first defense allowed for filtering behind it b) entire reserve division required to protect 2nd line, to which US and Filipino forces retreated on 420122 b. J unable to break 2nd line in desperate fighting from 420126 to 420208 1) both sides with major losses due to a) fighting b) disease c) malnutrition 2) untrained forces required to fight as ad hoc units a) aircraft crews without planes b) coastal artillerymen without guns c) cooks 3) at end of fighting J called off assault after loss of more than 7,000 casualties c. The context of the “I shall return” legend of MacArthur

71 It should be noted that these middle class members of Singaporean society were likely Chinese business people tied to the trade exchange within the British Empire. It is not a surprise that the Japanese would see them as a source of distrust. Japan, of course, had been none too kind to China in the decade prior to this assault! Singapore should rather be seen as the fulcrum of British trade in Asia that linked such dynamic Chinese cities as Shanghai, Hong Kong, and even Jakarta in the Dutch realm. Shanghai basically linked China to India. 22 1) despite Japanese end of assault on 420208, it still held siege of the peninsula 2) MacArthur running defense from underground bunker on island of Corregidor a) pressed FDR for reinforcements b) promoted his role in defense while hiding real conditions of his troops 3) FDR ordered MacArthur to a) turn over command in Philippines b) move to Australia on 420311 4) FDR motivated by a) political ramifications of losing MacArthur b) need to control potential political enemy d. The context of the Bataan Death March 1) renewed J offensive on 420403 on isolated US forces surviving on 1,000 calories/day 2) US forces in Bataan surrendered in 420409, with only remaining US forces in Philippines on Corregidor 3) the fate of the soldiers who surrendered in Bataan was horrific a) J prepared for 25,000 prisoners, but instead held 98,000 i. 72,000 soldiers a. Filipinos b. US ii. 26,000 civilians b) forced march to camp in central part of Luzon without adequate i. food ii. water iii. medical aid 4) approximately 7,500 died along march a) numbers i. more than 600 Americans ii. between 6,000 and 7,000 Filipinos b) causes i. disease ii. exhaustion iii. murder 5) consequences of death march a) racial conceptions in US of Japanese as murderous brutes b) further encouraged dehumanization of enemy, and counter-atrocities e. fall of Corregidor on 420506 represented J conquest of Philippines f. J now had power over SE Asia and Central Pacific g. J poised to strike at 1) India 2) Australia 3) potentially American West Coast 4. The Doolittle Raid a. despite desperate situation by 420400, American military still capable of resistance 1) FDR’s desire to use bombing attacks on J home islands 2) plan developed to use land-based bombers which had a) longer range b) could be launched from aircraft carriers outside of J fighters72 b. Lt. Col. James Doolittle identified B-25 as best bomber for mission 1) required training for short take-offs required for launch from carrier 2) sixteen B-25s loaded on USS Hornet on 420401, after its transfer from Atlantic theatre 3) plan a) sail to within 500 miles from Tokyo b) bomb Tokyo c) land on friendly airfields in China c. Doolittle raid with little practical success but enormous psychological success 1) plan altered when confronted by large J patrol vessels 650 miles off coast of Japan 2) Admiral William Halsey launched planes early a) despite i. risk that planes could not reach Chinese destination ii. having to bomb during day rather than at night b) in order to avoid full naval confrontation with Japan 3) planes approached at treetop level for greater surprise 4) 15 of 16 bombers made it to China, where they crash-landed 5) 16th plane landed in USSR, where pilot was detained 6) success of Doolittle raid a) first good news after months of bad for home front b) J sense of invincibility undermined c) more important: forced J to move up date for offensives in Central and SW Pacific, with dire consequences 5. Internment of Japanese Americans a. the attack on Pearl Harbor focused already existing anti-Japanese sentiment on the West Coast 1) directed against thousands of a) issei – first-generation Japanese Americans b) Nisei – second-generation Japanese Americans 2) Whites feared Japanese as potential

72 It is unclear how these “land-based” bombers would be launched from carriers, thus meaning that they were no longer land based? 23 a) spies b) saboteurs 3) after Pearl Harbor, prominent Japanese-American leaders a) placed under arrest with no formal charges b) forbidden from seeing family members 4) deeper anti-Japanese roots related to envy over a) their economic success b) their preservation of culture and language and resistance to assimilation 5) Executive Order 9066 a) tasked US military with removal of all persons of Japanese ancestry on West Coast b) resulted from intensive pressure from West Coast politicians73 b. The consequences of Executive Order 9066 1) ten relocation camps spread across the American West that detained 122,000 people beginning in 420300 2) 70,000 were American citizens deprived of a) habeas corpus declaration of formal charges b) right to appeal 3) economic deprivation with confiscation of a) homes b) businesses 4) 30,000 nevertheless served in military to prove their loyalty, allowed 5) only to serve in European theatre due to fear of betrayal 6) Korematsu v. United States upheld constitutionality of detention a) arguing that rights of citizens subordinate to security interests of nation b) decision handed down in 1944 6. The Battle of the Coral Sea a. The key role of Port Moresby and the division in strategy between US Army and Navy 1) after Doolittle Raid, J hastened to secure northern sea approaches to Australia, with Port Moresby as central objective a) located on east coast of Papua New Guinea b) control would assist J in limiting Allies’ ability to move i. men ii. material 2) US naval intelligence aware of plan by 420415 and worked with Australia to stop invasion a) allied naval fleet centered on i. carriers a. Lexington b. Yorktown ii. cruisers iii. destroyers b) Allied land-based aircraft under MacArthur command 3) the rift in Army and Naval strategies due largely to Admiral Ernest King’s embrace of “Japan first” approach b. the two strategy approach to US efforts in Pacific War 1) Army focused Australia as base of operations that would move northward to Japan under MacArthur a) step one: retake Philippines b) step 2: link with Allied forces in i. Southeast Asia ii. China c) step 3: turn to Japan 2) Navy strategy focused concentrated drive through Central Pacific 3) results of these strategies a) constant competition between branches for limited resources b) two different wars rather than one concentrated effort c. Battle of Coral Sea as first aerial engagement of war that did not involve direct contact between surface vessels 1) aircraft challenged Japanese landings at Tulagi from the Yorktown on 420503 2) naval vessels began search for other ships via aerial surveillance d. battles began at sea on 420507 1) American planes sunk J light carrier Shoho 2) Japanese aircraft sank American destroyer e. continued on 420508 1) Americans heavily damaged a) Shokaku b) Zuikaku 2) Japanese damaged a) Yorktown b) Lexington f. consequences of battle: 1) both US and J removed fleets from Coral Sea 2) J felt that success of Port Moresby landing uncertain due to loss of air cover 3) Allied strategic victory a) seaborne invasion of Port Moresby abandoned b) J forced to take Moresby by overland march from northern coast of Papua New Guinea c) Shokaku and Zuikaku not available for assault on American position on Midway 7. The Battle of Midway 73 It is somewhat ironic that the great Supreme Court justice Earl Warren was one of the California politicians most responsible for this heinous act against Japanese Americans. 24 a. purpose of Japanese attack on Midway: complete the job of destroying the American Pacific Fleet 1) Admiral Yamamoto’s plan a) lure the remaining American carriers into the open and destroy them i. the Hornet ii. the Enterprise b) the lure begins by simultaneously i. creating a diversion in the Aleutian Islands ii. direct attack on Midway c) subsequent rush of Americans to defend Midway would result in destruction by undetected Japanese fleet 2) plan thwarted by American intelligence based on decrypted Japanese communications 3) subsequent American offensive directed by Admiral Chester Nimitz, Pacific Fleet Commander a) two task forces centered on the three remaining carriers74 b) position north of Midway to catch Japanese unaware75 b. The costly hesitation of Admiral Chuichi Nagumo 1) Nagumo, commander of four heavy carriers, let Japanese assault on Midway a) 420604 i. first wave of planes attacked Midway but did not achieve full success, requiring another aerial assault ii. eight search craft look for American fleet b) planned landings for 420607 postponed when 2nd wave of reserved planes had to prepare for assault on island 2) intelligence indicating single American ship east of island convinced Nagumo a) to wait for return of first wave b) prepare for full assault on island 3) first wave returned simultaneously with American naval aircraft assault on Japanese fleet c. Great American success 1) Japanese carriers caught unprepared due to recent return of 1st wave a) refueling b) rearming 2) three of the four carriers had been sunk within ten minutes, with fourth having to be scuttled due to damage 3) only Yorktown lost, sinking after three days due to battle damage 4) Nagumo fled west (toward Japan) 5) Yamamoto, commander of surface support fleet, fled east in search of Americans 6) American commanders avoided contact with Japanese by fleeing to the south a) Admiral Jack Fletcher b) Admiral Raymond Spruance d. Decisive Allied Victory and key turning point in war against Japan 1) US losses minimal a) one carrier (Yorktown) b) 147 aircraft c) 362 pilots lost 2) Japanese losses a) four carriers b) 322 aircraft c) more important than aircraft was loss of skilled pilots: 3,057 3) strategic initiative had now passed to Allies 4) the rollback of the Japanese advances began in 420600 8. Guadalcanal a. lack of European 2nd front allowed transfer of resources to Pacific war and destabilize defense perimeter 1) key: neutralizing the main Japanese naval base at Rabaul on the island of New Britain 2) method: seize key islands in southern Solomon Island chain, especially, Guadalcanal a) Guadalcanal as location of major airfield, Henderson Field b) Guadalcanal as main focus of fighting until end of conflict in 430100 b. air and sea control was vital due to need to provide support for ground troops on island 1) 420807 attack with little resistance from Japanese 2) 420808 and 420809 Japanese attack American and Australian ships covering troops a) losses for Am and Australians i. four cruisers damaged ii. destroyer damaged b) J lost only one cruiser 3) J called off attack due to unwarranted fears of American air attacks, after sudden withdrawal of US carriers after run-in with J fighters c. US heavy artillery and air power ultimately prevail after months of battle 1) Henderson Field as lifeline for Allied troops after becoming operational on 420820 2) J reinforced and resupplied troops through nighttime naval operations, providing basis for three major attacks from 420821 t0 421026 3) J attacks ultimately unsuccessful and by November, US Marine and Army units on offensive 4) J surrendered in 430100 a) J dead: 23,000 b) American deaths: 2,500 d. J enjoyed naval success, but it was insufficient to counter losses on the island 1) J superiority in a) gunnery b) tactics 2) nevertheless, Yamamoto forced to cut losses by 421115 3) US Navy losses substantial

74 Not two, because the Yorktown had been quickly repaired after Coral Sea 75 Intelligence likely let Nimitz know that the Japanese were west of the island. 25 a) two carriers b) seven cruisers c) fifteen other surface ships d) 5,000 sailors 4) J losses also significant a) two battleships b) one light carrier c) four cruisers d) seventeen other ships e) 1,700 sailors f) 500 aircraft 5) more important was psychological loss of Japanese sense of invincibility E. 1945 [p. 65] 1. Battle of Iwo Jima a. Iwo Jima as key alternative to Formosa in process of island hopping toward Japanese mainland 1) islands as important a) bases for making emergency landings b) staging base for fighters c) prevent Japan from using them as unsinkable carriers 2) Iwo Jima as 1st target a) as suggested by Nimitz to Admiral King in 441000 b) with awareness that casualties might range as high as 10,000 b. Lieutenant General Kuribayashi Tadamichi sent from Manchuria to defend Okinawa with 21,000 man garrison 1) Kuribayashi with background in US and respect for a) fighting ability of US b) overwhelming firepower 2) effectively used terrain as part of defense strategy with massive system of interconnecting a) caves b) tunnels c) bunkers d) covered tranches 3) forbade wasteful suicide charges by encouraging soldiers to hold positions as long as possible c. massive aerial and naval bombardment unable to overcome geographic advantages of Iwo Jima prior to invasion 1) aerial bombardment began in 441000 2) four days of pre-landing naval support fire 3) Mount Suribachi as natural fortress a) massive volcanic rock with sheer stonewalls overseeing entire island b) allowed Japanese to go underground during 4 days and reemerge largely unscathed d. 4th and 5th Marine Divisions assault Suribachi on 450220 1) after landing 10,000 on 450219 who were ambushed by Japanese as they make way up loose, black volcanic sand 2) Marines held and by end of day 30,000 troops had landed e. the capture of Suribachi rendered iconic by photograph of Joe Rosenthal on 450223 1) slow progress aided by use against bunker defenses of a) dynamite charges b) flamethrowers 2) small patrol from 28th Marine Division reached summit and raised flag f. despite conquest of Suribachi, island not secured until 450326 and fighting continued into 450600 1) 10 m2 conquered at great expense 2) Japanese lost all but a few hundred of their 21,000 men 3) US Marine losses a) 6,821 killed b) 20,000 wounded 2. Strategic Bombing of Japan a. Curtis LeMay put in charge of Operation Matterhorn after limited initial success of the program 1) Matterhorn as B-29 campaign of XX Bomber Command begun in 431000 a) using bases in i. India ii. China b) intended to break J ability to economically operate 2) LeMay’s reputation from European Theatre prior to appointment in summer of 1944 a) aggressive b) capable c) not likable b. LeMay instituted key tactical changes 1) switched departure point from China to Marianas for new XXI Bomber Command despite problems with a) increased distance i. J industrial cities at far end of bomber range ii. bombers would have to carry lighter loads b) weather: i. pilots had to deal with cloud cover 70% of time ii. clouds made high altitude bombing of European type inefficient 2) further tactical changes incurred once LeMay took direct control of XXI Bomber Command in 450100 a) reduced bombing altitude to 8,000 to 10,000 feet i. lower altitude meant less fuel ii. less fuel meant larger loads 26 b) altered types of ordinance, with increased use of incendiary over explosive bombs i. due to fact that low altitude precision bombing not feasible ii. area bombing required, especially considering that industrial production spread throughout Japanese cities haphazardly iii. LeMay’s tactics paralleled those used by Britain in Europe c. The firebombing of Tokyo 450309 1) 300 B-29s departing from Marianas 2) 1,600 tons of incendiaries dropped on city built largely of wood and paper 3) resulting firestorm burned for days 4) results a) 100,000 Japanese killed b) 16m2 burnt to ground c) 22 industrial targets destroyed d) US lost 26 of 300 B-29s d. Tokyo bombings establish paradigm for further US campaign in Japan, despite moral and morale consequences 1) campaign lasted for duration of the war, from 450300 to 450800 2) results a) between 250,000 and 300,000 Japanese killed b) 2.5 million homes destroyed c) 8 million refugees d) only 5 cities without major damage e) crippled i. aviation industry ii. electricity a. creation b. transmission f) did NOT induce surrender 3) moral questions intensified by nighttime bombing, but relativized by Japanese behavior in China 3. Battle of Okinawa a. The importance of Okinawa 1) 950 miles from Tokyo 2) valuable airfields 3) important anchorage point for any fleet needed for invasion of Japan 4) invasion date set for 450401, after approval in 441000 a) April Fool’s Day b) Easter Sunday b. Okinawa with even more strategic invasion challenges than Iwo Jima: the defense strategy of General Ushijima Mitsuru 1) large Japanese army and population a) 100,000 soldiers b) 450,000 civilians 2) Ushijima decided to contest US invasion at key ridges in southern part of island rather than at beach landing a) location of two of the island’s four major airfields b) combined with terrain to lessen the US advantage in artillery 3) Okinawa also had naval component absent in Iwo Jima acting on suicide missions against invasion a) aircraft b) submarines c) torpedo boats c. Ushijima’s strategy held through Operation Iceberg landing 1) two Marine regiments and two Army divisions76 2) rapid advance through northern and middle third of island 3) invasion stopped cold at Japanese defensive lines a) 7th and 96th divisions stonewalled b) additional troops unable to break through i. 1st and 6th Marines divisions ii. 27th and 77th Army Divisions d. Japanese decision to counterattack (450504) opened way for a partial American advance against the defensive front 1) J decision based on perception of American disorganization 2) J movement allowed US to utilize artillery and move into first line of defense abandoned by Japanese 3) 2nd line of defense, however, remained formidable e. Powerfully deadly battle ensued, with Japan finally defeated on 45062277 1) General Simon Bolivar Buckner78 had rejected what in retrospect looks like sound advice from subordinates a) subordinates encouraged second landing on eastern coast to i. outflank Japanese and ii. make J position untenable b) General Buckner saw as too risky 2) the results of the meat grinder approach a) US losses i. 7,700 dead ii. 32,000 wounded iii. 26,000 victims of accidents and disease b) Japanese losses included 110,000 men killed in fighting

76 that translates to as many as 4,000 Marines and 30,000 US Army infantrymen 77 Four years to the day after Operation Barbarossa 78 This is an interesting name that clearly references the great independence leader of Latin America. 27 f. delay caused by General Buckner’s caution cost Navy 1) more time in waters around Okinawa made Navy vulnerable to attacks by Japanese forces a) air b) naval 2) first major kamikaze attack occurred on 450406 a) seven ships sunk b) 17 ships damaged 3) US sank Japanese super battleship Yamato on 450407 at cost of ten craft with crews 4) destruction tally by 450622 a) American i. ten kamikaze attacks ii. 64 ships lost iii. sixty ships damaged extensively b) Japan lost 1500 pilots and their planes g. Washington dismayed by 1) fact that Okinawa battle did not bring Japan to surrender 2) ground invasion of Japan itself would dwarf challenges of taking Okinawa 4. The Potsdam Conference a. major changes in Allied leadership by the time of the Conference in Berlin suburb on 45071779 1) FDR dead, replaced by Truman 2) Churchill’s Conservative Party ousted in favor of the Labour Party under Clement Attlee b. conference principally concerned with postwar settlements of Europe, but also included concerns for Asia and Pacific 1) Truman’s goals a) reparations issue b) clear principles for occupation of Germany c) ensure Soviet fulfilment of promises made at Yalta regarding free elections in view of Red Army behavior in occupied zones 2) decision to partition Indochina80 3) British to receive surrender of Japanese in south 4) Chinese Nationalists to receive surrender of Japanese in North c. The Potsdam Declaration outlined exact expectations of Allied powers for Japanese surrender based on Casablanca principles 1) Emperor Hirohito presumably to be a) removed from throne b) tried as war criminal 2) Truman assumed some flexibility on status of emperor but Japanese either a) misinterpreted language b) chose to ignore it 3) failure of Japan to comply with Declaration would result in “prompt and utter destruction.” 4) USSR did not sign declaration because there was no official state of war with J d. The European elements of the Agreement 1) Germany a) westward shift of eastern border to compensate Poland for land rendered to USSR b) involved forceful relocation of millions of Germans c) war potential of economy severely limited d) Soviet reparations to come predominantly from Soviet Zone 2) Poland: a) recognition of Lublin government under Communist direction b) excluded London Poles e. Potsdam as source of Truman distrust of Stalin 1) seen as expansionistic as Hitler 2) Truman more assertively distrustful than FDR 5. Endgame in the Pacific [p. 70] a. Operation Downfall comprised of two stages 1) Operation Olympic involved invasion of southern island of Kyushu in 451000 2) Operation Coronet would build on Olympic by targeting Honshu with larger invasion in Spring of 1946 3) US understood that fierce resistance would come from both military as well as civilians b. War Department estimate of 500,000 to 1 million casualties weighed heavily and defined Truman response c. Trinity Test as successful conclusion to Manhattan Project on 45071681 1) Manhattan Project a) lasted three years b) cost nearly $2 billion c) purpose: create first weapon harnessing fission energy 2) joint project of scientists a) American

79 note that this is more than two months after the surrender of Germany on 450507 80 notice how, as in the Treaty of Versailles, the concern for democracy applied only to Europeans in areas in which the US and British had no control. 81 Notice that the successful test occurred one day prior to outset of Potsdam Conference. Most historians, but not this guide, regard this as a major factor explaining the rather hostile posture Truman assumed in negotiations with Stalin in Potsdam. Also, in framing the potential losses of US forces in a Japanese invasion, the guide neglects entirely the Soviet commitment made at Yalta that they would declare war against Japan within three months of the end of the war in Europe. The guide is providing a rather crude justification for the decision to drop the Atomic bombs in August without examining other complicating factors involved in the decision. Note also that the Manhattan Project involved all of the principle allies except the USSR. 28 b) British c) Canadian d. oversight of the Manhattan Project divided between 1) Brigadier General Leslie Groves under the authority of the US Army Corps of Engineers 2) J. Robert Oppehneimer a) character i. eccentric ii. brilliant b) lead civilian scientists c) key figure in solving the problem of constructing the bomb e. Manhattan Project so secret that Truman did not find out about it until the day before he assumed the presidency (450412) 1) basis of promise of utter destruction 2) decision to use based entirely on possibility of saving massive numbers of American lives f. The Hiroshima Bomb (450806) 1) Truman issued approval for use of bomb on 450727 2) Hiroshima chosen due to military value a) stockpile for military materials b) key assembling point for Japanese troops 3) bomb delivered by Enola Gay as part of squadron of three B-29s a) bomb code-named Little Boy b) other planes recorded the event 4) effects of bomb a) 1m2 immediately decimated b) resulting fires burned 4.5m2 c) 140,000 killed inclusive i. immediate ii. near-term deaths g. The USSR declared war on Japan 450808 1) after Japanese government refused to surrender under pressure from militarists 2) USSR declaration fulfilled promise made at Yalta in 450200, requiring repudiation of 194282 non-aggression pact with Japan 3) 1.6 million Soviet troops crossed border into Manchuria by 450813 4) ultimately, Japanese units driven across Yalu River into Korea, where J resistance collapsed on 450820 h. The Nagasaki Bomb (450809) 1) Fat Man 2) 74,000 immediate and near-term deaths i. Emperor Hirohito played decisive role in decision of Japan to surrender 1) 6 man counsel from Imperial Cabinet divided in half over whether to pursue negotiations 2) full cabinet in session when news of Nagasaki came through 3) Hirohito’s unprecedented intervention into debate swayed Cabinet to agree to conditional surrender a) as only option to save Japanese people b) conditioned upon his retaining symbolic role as head of the Japanese people j. World War II ends on 450902 when Japan signed official surrender aboard the USS Missouri83 1) Japan’s surrender offer to US came on 450810 2) Allies collectively accepted Japan’s surrender with understanding that a) emperor be responsible for cooperation b) ultimate political control rested in hands of Japanese people k. final costs of the Pacific War 1) Japanese losses of ca. 2.5 million 2) US losses of 365,000 3) China, with the largest losses comparable to the USSR of between 20 and 25 million, over nine years a) soldiers b) civilians F. Section III Summary [p. 72] IV. THE HOLOCAUST (10%) [pp. 73-81] A. The Roots of Nazi Anti-Semitism [p. 73] 1. Long History in Europe a. Middle Ages required special clothing such as Star of David b. Eastern European officially sanctioned massacres known as pogroms 1) Belarus 2) Ukraine 2. the pseudo-scientific roots of racism as expressed in Social Darwinism added to the religiously-based discrimination of earlier periods 3. the philosophical and literary foundations of modern anti-semitism a. Joseph Arthur, Comte de Gobineau’s 1853 Essay on the Inequality of the Human 1) divided humanity into three groups: whites, blacks, and yellows 2) argued race as the central factor in driving human development b. British-born Houston Stewart Chamberlain 1) son-in-law of anti-Semitic composer Richard Wagner84 and deep admirer of German culture 2) 1899 two-volume history, The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century a) Aryan people were basis for Europe’s greatness b) Jewish people as alien race to be excluded from a role in German history

82 My understanding is that the Soviet-Japanese non-aggression pact was signed on 410413 83 Note the coincidence that Truman hailed from Missouri. 84 Wagner is most noted for his four opera Ring Cycle, based in Nordic mythology 29 c. The Dreyfus Affair reflecting French anti-semitism85 1) 1894 Jewish Army Captain convicted of passing military secrets to the German Embassy 2) 1896 evidence exculpated Dreyfus but army refused to acknowledge its anti-semitism a) the French officer responsible for the betrayal was exonerated b) other crimes fabricated to uphold “guilt” of Dreyfus 4. the science influenced a broad political movement in support of eugenics, the betterment of society through a. selective breeding b. forced sterilization 5. the Nazis were the first to make anti-Semitism the basis for state policies based on inherent biological differences B. The Nuremburg Race Laws and Kristallnacht [p. 74] 1. Nazi Party initial goals to compel as many of the 500,000 German Jews to leave as possible through a. formal exclusion from public life b. informal encouragement of violence and intimidation 2. initial civil service law passed in 33040086 a. prohibited Jews from government positions on assertion of limited loyalty to German regime b. later expanded to include 1) judiciary 2) public medicine 3) military c. complemented by expansion into broader cultural life 1) university professors pressured to resign 2) book burnings of Jewish authors encouraged by local Nazi chapters 3. The Nuremberg Laws define Jews racially and extend exclusions into German public life (350900) a. revoked German citizenship for Jews b. prohibited sexual relations with and marriage to Germans c. defined a Jew as someone with three or four Jewish grandparents, regardless of whether 1) the individual practiced Judaism 2) or even converted to Christianity in earlier generations 4. Expansion of Nuremburg Laws extended to other races, the disabled, and into Jewish personal and business life a. genetically suspect peoples included87 1) mental disabilities 2) physical deformities 3) blacks 4) gypsies b. 1937 and 1938 expansion of pressure on Jews88 1) stripped of rights to operate public businesses 2) forced Jews to register personal property with state authorities89 3) consequence was the many Germans able to exploit vulnerability of Jews by buying their businesses at very low prices 4) state-issued identity cards a) marked with red J b) non-Jewish first names assigned a middle name to make them easier to identify i. Israel for men ii. Sara for women 5) Jewish passports declared invalid and Jews forced to apply for new passports that bore a large J 6) Jews of Polish citizenship on German eastern border forcibly evicted back into Poland 5. Kristallnacht (381109 – 381110), “spontaneous” outburst orchestrated by Nazi Party a. alleged response to murder of Nazi official in Paris by young Jewish refugee on 381108 b. reality of Nazi Party orchestration through order to local branches to make it appear spontaneous c. the attack 1) businesses smashed and looted 2) synagogues attacked and burned along with private residences 3) mob attacks on Jews in the streets 4) state arrest of 30,000 Jews and deportation to state-sponsored camps a) Dachau b) Buchenwald 5) 91 Jews killed d. only 300,000 of the 500,000 German Jews left the country, partly due to unwillingness of other countries to receive refugees 1) all of the countries at the Evian Conference in July 1938 stated that they could not take any more refugees90 2) Jews had to search desperately and widely for refuge, even to China C. Einsatzgruppen [p. 75]

85 The Dreyfus affair played an important role in the ideological foundation that underlays the modern state of Israel. The Dreyfus affair played a significant role in Theodore Herzl’s foundational work on Zionism, the 1896 Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State). 86 This was only days after Hitler assumed office. 87 It is somewhat odd here that the guide does not include reference to homosexuals (or what we call today the LGBT community) as these were a major focus of Nazi authorities as well. It may be that the Nazis did not see homosexuality as principally a genetic problem. 88 It should be noted that these expansions passed after the 1936 Olympics. It is very likely that had the Germans extended their discrimination against Jews prior to those Olympics, the US and other countries would have boycotted and Hitler would have been deprived of another propaganda victory. 89 presumably this would have included jewelry, art works, china, silverware, etc. 90 note that this conference occurred prior to Kristallnacht. 30 1. The ghettoization of Polish Jews a. war expanded Nazi anti-Semitism to all of European Jewry 1) Poland held 3 million Jews (about ½ of the total population of European Jewry) a) 1.8 million under German control after 391000 b) remainder under Soviet control in territories agreed in secret protocols of Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact 2) administrative control formally under the General Government b. the roundup of Jews under the administration of the Reich Security Main Office and its chief, Reinhard Heydrich 1) Heydrich controlled a) German police b) SS 2) done in conjunction with Jewish Councils, who were responsible for executing programs of Nazis c. policy still appears to be one of either deportation or forced emigration 2. the invasion of the Soviet Union transforms policy from ghettoization to extermination (after 410622) a. Hitler’s visit to frontlines in 410800 convinced him that a more systematic solution to the Jewish problem was necessary b. new policy executed by Einsatzgruppen 1) four task force groups 2) tasked with following behind German military and exterminating undesirables a) Jews b) Communists c) Poles c. Initial method of execution deemed inefficient and the transition to mass gassing began 1) 1.25 million killed by Spring of 1943 2) initial method involved single gunshot wound to head of people lined along a ravine 3) inefficiencies a) not all died from one wound immediately b) toll on men carrying out the shootings with increased rates of alcoholism 4) initial solution: mobile gassing vans using carbon monoxide D. The Final Solution – The Wannsee Conference91 [p. 76] 1. lack of single document indicating The Final Solution as official policy of extermination 2. decision to embrace more efficient mode of extermination appears to have been motivated by complications on Eastern Front 3. the Wannsee Conference occurred in Berlin suburb in 420120, with protocol indicating plan a. to move German Jews to the east b. that accorded with “the Fuehrer’s will.” 4. concentration camps as model for what would become extermination camps located mostly in Poland92 a. Chelmno was the first, established in 411200, using gasvans for extermination b. Treblinka, Belzec, and Sobibor as camps where approximately 1.7 million Jews executed 1) built in early 1942 2) all used permanent gas chambers instead of van system 3) victims sent to chambers upon arrival and killed by carbon monoxide c. Majdanek, site for 78,000 deaths 1) originally a POW camp built in 1941 2) expanded into death camp in 1942 with additions of a) gas chambers b) crematorium d. Auschwitz-Birkenau, the largest and most infamous 1) served as both extermination and labor camp 2) more efficient gassing agent, Zyklon-B a) pre-war pesticide b) tested on Soviet POWs and proven to be more efficient than CO 3) selection of Jews a) majority sent for execution by being told they were going for disinfection b) others i. labor ii. medical experimentation under Dr. Josef Mengele 4) the process a) bodies stripped of gold death b) hauled to crematoria for disposal by Jewish labor (sonderkommandos) 5) death tally93 a) 1.1 million Jews b) 1 million others i. Poles ii. gypsies iii. Soviet POWS 5. Could the Allies have effectively bombed the camps in 1944? a. knowledge of the camps and their atrocities were well-known by 1944

91 The Germans produced an outstanding film on this conference (Die Wannseekonferenz) that is available in English translation (subtitled). It is technically not a documentary because there were no transcripts from the conference. The dialogue was compiled from oral histories and other evidence. Of course, the definitive Auschwitz dramatization is Schindler’s List. Christopher Browning, Ordinary Men. 92 the transition from concentration camps, where war production using the slave labor of prisoners occurred, to extermination (or death camps) is one of the subthemes depicted in the amazing film, Schindler’s List. 93 Again, the guide’s neglect of the homophobia of Nazis and the targeting of homosexuals is somewhat disturbing. 31 1) British Ultra intelligence 2) resistance groups 3) escapees 4) Catholic Church 5) various other sources b. possible reasons why Allies did not act 1) Germans kept the program so secret that no one had concrete information of what was happening 2) many in the West were skeptical of the reports, finding them unbelievable as stated 3) once reality of camps certain, Allied leaders argued that best remedy was to end war ASAP 4) less plausible explanation was the inherent anti-Semitism that pervaded a) Europe b) USA c. options might have been 1) to bomb the camps 2) to bomb the rail lines leading to the camps E. The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (430419)94[p.78] 1. first mass deportations from Warsaw to Treblinka began in 420700 a. 260,000deported by 420900 b. initial deportations voluntary with promises of food c. later deportations forcible, with little protest for those remaining behind d. only 60,000 remained in ghetto after 420900, mostly 1) young adults 2) teenagers 2. Jewish resistance arose in context of deportations in relation to two dominant groups a. the Jewish Fighting Organization (ZOB) as the major underground resistance movement 1) multiple political factions made initial coordination difficult 2) Mordecai Anielewicz assumed leadership in 421100 and made cooperation greater b. Jewish Military Union (ZZW) 1) linked directly to Polish Home Army, which provided with weapons 2) held somewhat adversarial relationship with ZOB 3. ZOB and ZZW began resistance in 430100 that climaxed on 430419, despite limited access to weapons a. in wake of new round of deportations b. 430419 battle began when G forces reentered Ghetto intent on removing last residents c. ZOB scattered forces throughout ghetto d. ZZW95 centralized resistance 4. Warsaw Uprising inspired other ghetto and camp uprisings that had even less chance of success a. Germans burned entire ghetto over course of one month b. 56,000 prisoners taken with 7,000 immediately executed c. all of the uprisings set in the context of impossible success96 F. The Liberation of the Camps [p. 79] 1. Majdanek liberated by Soviets in summer of 1944 before Germans were able to destroy all evidence of its horrors 2. Soviets later liberated other camps that had been put out of action by summer of 1944 a. Sobibor b. Treblinka c. Belzec 3. Auschwitz liberated in 450100 a. scores of unburied bodies b. a few thousand living prisoners c. others forced to march from camp prior to liberation where many died of 1) exposure 2) hunger 3) execution d. remnants in the form of 1) mountains of clothes 2) shoes 3) human hair 4. Western Allies exposed to horrors of Holocaust in the spring of 1945 a. German-based camps were older camps that had more recently been re-purposed for the Final Solution97 b. Americans liberate three camps on 450400 1) Buchenwald, where uprising against camp guards managed to preserve some of the evidence of the atrocities 2) Dachau 3) Mauthausen c. British forces liberated Bergen-Belsen, where 10,000 prisoners were crippled by typhus epidemic

94 A recent film set in the context of the Ghetto uprising is The Pianist. 95 Note that the guide mistakenly references them as the ZZB. 96 The guide seems to imply that somehow the Warsaw Uprising was more reasonably based than the others. 97 The guide seems to indicate that the German camps were every bit as horrific as those in Poland. This is unlikely, at least in the larger scheme of things. The horrors of the Holocaust were largely hidden from the German population, and the inhumanity that the real death camps represented would have undermined the Nazi fiction of its civilizing mission that had been maintained in the West in general and Germany in particular. Ask yourself why it was that the main death camps were all located east of Germany. The guide is providing something of a disservice here in that it seems to suggest that the death camps were widespread and operant on German lands. 32 5. Soviet, American, and British forces all ordered film documentation of the horrors so as to provide evidence a. bodies of unburied victims stacked like cordwood b. the living were little more than skeletons due to the systematic starvation G. The Long-Term Effects of the Holocaust [p. 80] 1. World War II gave impetus to fulfilling the 1917 Balfour Declaration suggesting that Britain would work toward a Palestinian homeland for Jews 2. Britain failed to secure movement toward a Jewish state due to the growing resistance of Arabs a. Arab Resistance targeted 1) British authorities in Palestine 2) Jews b. Arab resistance forced British to limit Jewish land purchases in the Transjordan-Palestine mandate c. Jewish response to limits led to 1) Jewish armed underground 2) idea of a partitioning of Palestine into a) Jewish state b) Arab state attached to Jordan d. Arab leaders rejected partition e. Jewish leaders supported partition as means of gaining foothold 3. British efforts to restrict Jewish immigration during the war so as to avert Arab anger raised Jewish armed resistance to British rule a. Jewish response to immigration restriction 1) funding and organizing of illegal immigration 2) anger over British interception of refugee boats b. armed resistance to British broke out twice 1) 1940 2) 1944 c. British and western public opinion decidedly in favor of Jewish homeland by 1948, with British ending mandate in that year 4. UN General Assembly voted partition plan into effect on 471129 a. after partition recommendation by the UN Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) b. despite general objection of Arab world and specific objection of Palestinians 5. Arab-Israeli war breaks out soon after proclamation of state of Israel on 480514 a. new state recognized by 1) US 2) USSR 3) other world powers b. no Arab state recognized c. Arabs, led by Egypt, declared war to 1) deconstruct Jewish state 2) lay foundation for an independent Palestinian state 6. Formalization of the idea of genocide a. term first introduced in1944 by Polish-Jewish lawyer Raphael Lemkin b. definition specifically described killing of Jews by Nazis that was 1) systematic 2) targeted c. used as principal charge against many Nazi officials during war crimes trials d. idea of genocide built into framework on UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide e. signatories to convention required to 1) prevent 2) punish f. recent applications of UN Convention 1) Bosnia in late 1990s 2) Rwandan genocide of 1994 3) genocide of Cambodians by Khmer Rouge between 1975 and 1979 H. Section IV Summary [p. 81] V. Timeline of Events [p. 93] VI. Glossary [p. 100]

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