FLM201 Film Genre: Understanding Types of Film (Study Guide)

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Course Development Team

Head of Programme : Khoo Sim Eng Course Developer(s) : Khoo Sim Eng Technical Writer : Maybel Heng, ETP

No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the Educational Technology & Production, Singapore University of Social Sciences.

ISBN 978-981-47-6093-5

Educational Technology & Production Singapore University of Social Sciences 463 Clementi Road Singapore 599494

How to cite this Study Guide (MLA): Khoo, Sim Eng. FLM201 Film Genre: Understanding Types of Film (Study Guide). Singapore University of Social Sciences, 2021.

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Table of Contents

Course Guide 1. Welcome...... CG-2

2. Course Description and Aims...... CG-3

3. Learning Outcomes...... CG-6

4. Learning Material...... CG-7

5. Assessment Overview...... CG-8

6. Course Schedule...... CG-10

7. Learning Mode...... CG-11

Study Unit 1: Introduction to Film Genre Learning Outcomes...... SU1-2

Overview...... SU1-3

Chapter 1: Defining Genre...... SU1-4

Summary...... SU1-17

Formative Assessment...... SU1-18

Works Cited...... SU1-27

Study Unit 2: The Western, Action Film, and Comedy Learning Outcomes...... SU2-2

Overview...... SU2-3

Chapter 2: The Western, Action Film, and Comedy...... SU2-4

i Table of Contents

Formative Assessment...... SU2-17

Works Cited...... SU2-25

Study Unit 3: Drama, Crime Film, and Film Noir Learning Outcomes...... SU3-2

Overview...... SU3-3

Chapter 3: Drama, Crime Film, and Film Noir...... SU3-4

Formative Assessment...... SU3-19

Works Cited...... SU3-26

Study Unit 4: Horror, Science Fiction, and Fantasy Learning Outcomes...... SU4-2

Overview...... SU4-3

Chapter 4: Horror, Science Fiction, and Fantasy...... SU4-4

Formative Assessment...... SU4-15

Works Cited...... SU4-24

Study Unit 5: Musical, War Film, Epic, and Documentary Learning Outcomes...... SU5-2

Overview...... SU5-3

Chapter 5: The Musical, The War Film, Epic Film, and Documentary...... SU5-4

Formative Assessment...... SU5-19

Works Cited...... SU5-28

ii Table of Contents

Study Unit 6: Film Genre: Conclusion Learning Outcomes...... SU6-2

Overview...... SU6-3

Chapter 6: Film Genre: Conclusion...... SU6-4

Summary...... SU6-14

Formative Assessment...... SU6-16

Further Reading...... SU6-24

Works Cited...... SU6-25

iii Table of Contents

iv List of Figures

List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Roger Ebert’s 4-star rating is unusual, as ratings usually have an odd number of stars. In his system, a film gets four stars if he felt it was excellent, while a film of very low quality would get only half a star or even no star if it was morally reprehensible...... SU1-6

Figure 1.2 Two movie posters for Citizen Kane illustrate the different ways in which the film is marketed and perceived...... SU1-10

Figure 2.1 This image of cowboys in Monument Valley in Arizona/Utah captures the vast space of the frontier and the isolation of the men who traverse it, dependent on each other and their trusty horses...... SU2-6

Figure 2.2 The film Brokeback Mountain is set in the twentieth century and uses the convention of the rugged Western landscape to represent freedom; it is only in the remote mountain spaces that the two men are free to truly be themselves and express their love for each other...... SU2-6

Figure 2.3 Theatrical poster for Star Wars (dir. George Lucas, 1977). Illustration by Tom Jung. Theatrical poster for The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (dir. Peter Jackson, 2001). Design by BLT Communications, LLC. Theatrical poster for Tropic Thunder (dir. Ben Stiller, 2008). Design by BLT Communications, LLC...... SU2-7

Figure 2.4 Slap sticks or batocci...... SU2-11

Figure 2.5 Romantic comedies are very predictable: boy meets girl; many things occur to separate them, and eventually boy and girl are reunited. There is often a group of quirky supporting characters who provide humour and commentary...... SU2-14

v List of Figures

Figure 2.6 Jackie Chan and Chris Tucker in action-comedy-buddy cop film Rush Hour encapsulate a form of physical comedy that shows off martial arts while also eliciting laughs. British actor Rowan Atkinson is another physical comedian...... SU2-15

Figure 2.7 A team of horses pull the DeLorean in an iconic setting used in many Westerns. This intertextual scene expects audiences to recognise elements of the Western, which makes the futuristic DeLorean more comic because it is so out of place...... SU2-16

Figure 3.1 Spielberg shot Schindler’s List in black and white to get a documentary feel. In this scene, the rare use of colour for the little girl’s coat draws attention to her plight as the Jews are being rounded up...... SU3-5

Figure 3.2 Pather Panchali featured amateur actors and was shot on location. The film follows the life of the protagonist, Apu, who lives in poverty in a village in Bengal in the early 20th century...... SU3-6

Figure 3.3 Spotlight is about an investigative journalist unit that looks into cases of child abuse in Boston that have been systematically covered up by the Roman Catholic Church. Based on true accounts, this film does what drama does best: it tells a compelling human story with good acting in a realistic setting...... SU3-6

Figure 3.4 Crime films do not have an instantly recognisable look the way a western does, but this iconic image of Marlon Brando as Mafia crime lord Don Vito Corleone has attained legendary status...... SU3-9

Figure 3.5 The film Léon: The Professional portrays a hitman in a sympathetic light when he finds himself the guardian of a twelve-year-old girl whose family has been murdered by a corrupt cop...... SU3-10

Figure 3.6 This now classic image from a German silent horror film, The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, encapsulates the style of Expressionism...... SU3-12

vi List of Figures

Figure 3.7 This image features some of the visual characteristics of film noir. Note the fedora, which casts shadows on actor Robert Mitchum’s face. He is also wearing a trench coat, which suggests he has wrapped himself in armour. He is smoking, which allows for artistic clouds of smoke that further obscure the characters. Actress Jane Greer plays the femme fatale who will later shoot and kill him before being killed herself. Overall, the lighting is moody and filled with shadow...... SU3-13

Figure 4.1 Slasher horror film Scream is credited with revitalising the horror genre with its cast of characters who are aware of the horror film clichés and who try to avoid (with little success) being brutally murdered by a masked killer...... SU4-6

Figure 4.2 An evil spirit climbs out of the television in Ringu, a film that is a reaction to the way technology threatens to become omnipresent. The film is also striking for its portrayal of transgressive females who are punished for failing to conform to gender conventions...... SU4-6

Figure 4.3 In this image, the cool blues and the uncluttered mise-en-scène help convey the vastness of space. The human figures in the foreground stand confidently, trusting in their technology and ingenuity to negotiate this alien environment...... SU4-9

Figure 4.4 In Avatar, the Na’vi live on a moon called Pandora, which has stunning landscapes and many different kinds of plants and animals. The environment is not simply a backdrop in this movie; it has an essential role that gives the film a strong ecological message...... SU4-9

Figure 4.5 The Princess Bride incorporates many of the elements of a classic fantasy: a medieval setting, a young hero who goes on a quest, a beautiful princess, and sword fights. It also has an innocent, joyful spirit that makes this an enduring fantasy movie...... SU4-11

vii List of Figures

Figure 4.6 Pan’s Labyrinth is a dark fantasy that is set in 1944, five years after the Spanish Civil War; it features a faun, fairy guides, the king of the underworld, and commentary on war, prejudice, and the importance of standing up for one’s principles and beliefs...... SU4-12

Figure 5.1 In the wildly fantastic and satirical “We Both Reached for the Gun” sequence, slimy lawyer Billy Flynn (Richard Gere) and Roxie Hart (Renee Zellweger) are at Roxie’s press conference. Billy is imagined as a ventriloquist and God-like puppet master, with Roxie as his dummy for whom Billy dictates a new version of the truth. Billy cleverly manipulates the reporters into siding with Roxie, and the audience sees him handling the puppet strings with consummate ease. The musical sequence thus adds a layer of meaning to the scene, showing how Billy plays the press and coaches Roxie so that she comes across as a sympathetic victim even though she is a murderer...... SU5-7

Figure 5.2 Animated musical Beauty and the Beast has the advantage of being able to feature non-human characters; they are sympathetic, engaging, essential to the development of the story, and a good example of how integrated musicals try to make the musical sequences a natural part of the story. This film was the first animated feature film to ever be nominated for Best Picture...... SU5-7

Figure 5.3 This scene, dubbed the Odessa Steps sequence, is from one of the most iconic moments in film. It depicts the massacre of unarmed civilians by soldiers who ruthlessly shoot into the terrified crowd of men, women, and children; its portrayal of violence was considered graphic for its time. This scene also introduced montage, using film editing in an innovative and powerful way...... SU5-10

Figure 5.4 Glory tells the story of the 54th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, one of the first African-American units that fought during the Civil War. Prior to this film, few people had known African-Americans had a combat role in the Civil War...... SU5-10

viii List of Figures

Figure 5.5 So many epics were set in Biblical times or involved Romans and other sword-wielding warriors that the term “sword-and-sandals” is often used for this sub-genre. The image above is of the famous chariot scene from Ben-Hur, which took five weeks to film and used 15,000 extras...... SU5-12

Figure 5.6 The Last Emperor is an epic biography of Puyi, the last Emperor of China. It is the first European film that was allowed to film in the Forbidden City and required over 18,000 extras. It was nominated for nine Academy Awards and won all of them...... SU5-13

Figure 5.7 Public domain image from Man with a Movie Camera by Dziga Vertov. Made in 1929, this experimental silent documentary film was named the best documentary of all time by Sight and Sound in 2014. You can easily find it on the Internet. Here also is an interesting feature on the film, by Kyle Kallgren:...... SU5-13

Figure 5.8 The documentary 5 Broken Cameras is filmed through the perspective of a Palestinian farm labourer, Emad Burnat. He was initially filming the birth and growth of his son, Gibreel, but over a span of six years, Burnat filmed his village community’s travails in the West Bank, where Palestinian-Israeli tensions run high. Burnat worked with Israeli filmmaker Guy Davidi; in the course of filming over six years, five cameras were broken. The movie poster highlights the documentary status: it “shows life in one Palestinian village”; it is “an unflinching review of the Palestinian experience”; it is “a work that captures so many largely unreported details.” Please watch it, if you are interested to see how even this account has a particular angle designed to create a particular response...... SU5-17

ix List of Figures

x List of Lesson Recordings

List of Lesson Recordings

Film Genres...... SU1-7

Case Study: Action Movies and Marketing the Heroine...... SU2-10

Case Study: Crime Films...... SU3-10

Case Study: Horror, Science Fiction, Fantasy...... SU4-14

Case Study: The Musical...... SU5-8

Case Study: Genre—Wrapping Up...... SU6-15

xi List of Lesson Recordings

xii Course Guide

Film Genre: Understanding Types of Film FLM201 Course Guide

1. Welcome

Presenter: Cheong Li-Wen Sean

This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

Click here to watch the video. i

Welcome to the course FLM201 Film Genre: Understanding Types of Film, a 5 credit unit (CU) course.

This Study Guide will be your personal learning resource to take you through the course learning journey. The guide is divided into two main sections – the Course Guide and Study Units.

The Course Guide describes the structure for the entire course and provides you with an overview of the Study Units. It serves as a roadmap of the different learning components within the course. This Course Guide contains important information regarding the course learning outcomes, learning materials and resources, assessment breakdown and additional course information.

i https://d2jifwt31jjehd.cloudfront.net/FLM201/IntroVideo/FLM201_Intro_Video.mp4

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2. Course Description and Aims

What is genre? Why is it important? FLM201 Film Genre: Understanding Types of Film invites you to consider these questions. You will learn about how genre evolved as a result of film studios’ desire to make films quickly and efficiently, drawing on recognisable conventions that would appeal to audiences. Genre is thus connected to production, distribution, and exhibition. You will learn about intertextuality and how genres can overlap and evolve. You will explore key genres such as the Western, the drama, and science fiction, and examine how each genre has specific features or conventions that encode meaning and generate expectations about the viewing experience. The course also considers the role of genre in Singapore cinema and concludes with an assessment of how genre will continue to be relevant.

Course Structure

This course is a 5-credit unit course presented over 6 weeks.

There are six Study Units in this course. The following provides an overview of each Study Unit.

Study Unit 1 – Introduction to Film Genre

This unit helps you understand how genre developed because studios wanted to make films quickly and efficiently. You will see how genre is linked to the economic aspects of film. You will also learn about intertextuality, where texts make reference to other texts, and you will look at how film genres overlap and evolve.

Study Unit 2 – The Western, Action Film, and Comedy

This unit will focus on the Western, which is perhaps the most American of genres. It will also look at the action film and comedy, which are both highly popular genres. The unit will briefly outline the main characteristics of each genre and suggest some representative

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films. The films that you study in detail for each unit may vary each semester, so you will need to pay attention to the course plan for your semester.

Study Unit 3 – Drama, Crime Film, and Film Noir

This unit will examine three major genres: drama, the crime film, and film noir, which is sometimes considered as a sub-genre of crime film. These genres tend to deal with serious subject matter and intense emotions, and may have endings that are less than happy. The unit will briefly outline the main characteristics of each genre and suggest some representative films. The films that you study in detail for each unit may vary each semester, so you will need to pay attention to the course plan for your semester.

Study Unit 4 – Horror, Science Fiction, and Fantasy

This unit will cover three major genres: horror, science fiction, and fantasy. These three genres are often not taken seriously, as they are seen as cheap entertainment or somehow non-realist, but they do actually comment on the human condition. The unit will briefly outline the main characteristics of each genre and suggest some representative films. The films that you study in detail for each unit may vary each semester, so you will need to pay attention to the course plan for your semester.

Study Unit 5 – Musical, War Film, Epic, and Documentary

This unit will examine three genres—the musical, the war film and the epic—that require large budgets as they tend to be produced on a large scale with large casts, elaborate sets and costumes, and location shoots. The unit will also look at the documentary, which is non-fiction. The unit will briefly outline the main characteristics of each genre and suggest some representative films. The films that you study in detail for each unit may vary each semester, so you will need to pay attention to the course plan for your semester.

Study Unit 6 – Film Genre: Conclusion

This unit asks you to comment on genre in relation to Singapore film. This will help you look into the conditions of filmmaking and the connection to genre. Finally, you will

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review the various approaches for discussing genre and you will consider how genre continues to be relevant as films develop and diversify. The films that you study in detail for each unit may vary each semester, so you will need to pay attention to the course plan for your semester.

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3. Learning Outcomes

Knowledge & Understanding (Theory Component)

By the end of this course, you should be able to: • Discuss the characteristics of the major film genres. • Show, through close reading of films, the impact that genre has in creating expectations about film. • Examine films that have modified the conventions or self-reflexively played with genre. • Analyse the ways in which genre impacts marketing of films.

Key Skills (Practical Component)

By the end of this course, you should be able to:

• Explain the significance of conventions in film genre and support the discussion with good evidence. • Demonstrate the use of genre in writing for film.

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4. Learning Material

The following is a list of the required learning materials to complete this course.

Required Textbook(s) Friedman, Lester, David Desser, Sarah Kozloff, Martha P. Nochimson, and Stephen

Prince. An Introduction to Film Genres. New York: Norton, 2014.

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5. Assessment Overview

The overall assessment weighting for this course is as follows:

Assessment Description Weight Allocation

Continuous Assessment 1 Tutor-Marked Assignment 25% 01

Continuous Assessment 2 Tutor-Marked Assignment 25% 02

Examination End-of-Course 50% Assessment (ECA)

TOTAL 100%

The following section provides important information regarding Assessments.

SUSS’s assessment strategy consists of two components, Overall Continuous Assessment (OCAS) and Overall Examinable Component (OES), which make up the overall course assessment score. Both components are weighted 50:50.

Continuous Assessment:

Tutor-Marked Assignments 01 and 02 combined will constitute 100% of the OCAS, which is weighted at 50% of the overall course results.

Examination:

The End-of-Course Assessment (ECA) constitutes 100% of the OES component and is weighted at 50% of the overall course results.

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Passing Mark:

To successfully pass the course, you must obtain a minimum passing mark of 40 percent for the entire OCAS and also at least 40 percent for the ECA. For detailed information on the Course grading policy, please refer to The Student Handbook (“Award of Grades” section under Assessment and Examination Regulations). The Student Handbook is available from the Student Portal.

Non-graded Learning Activities:

Activities for the purpose of self-learning are present in each study unit. These learning activities are meant to enable you to assess your understanding and achievement of the learning outcomes. You are expected to complete the suggested activities either independently and/or in groups.

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6. Course Schedule

To help monitor your study progress, you should pay special attention to your Course Schedule. It contains study unit related activities including Assignments, Self- assessments, and Examinations. Please refer to the Course Timetable in the Student Portal for the updated Course Schedule.

Note: You should always make it a point to check the Student Portal for any announcements and latest updates.

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7. Learning Mode

The learning process for this course is structured along the following lines of learning:

a. Self-study guided by the study guide units. Independent study will require at least 7 hours per week. b. Working on assignments, either individually or in groups. c. Classroom Seminar sessions (3 hours each session, 6 sessions in total).

iStudyGuide

You may be viewing the interactive StudyGuide (iStudyGuide), which is the mobile- friendly version of the Study Guide. The iStudyGuide is developed to enhance your learning experience with interactive learning activities and engaging multimedia. You will be able to personalise your learning with digital bookmarking, note-taking, and highlighting of texts if your reader supports these features.

Interaction with Instructor and Fellow Students

Flexible learning—learning at your own pace, space, and time—is a hallmark at SUSS, and we strongly encourage you to engage your instructor and fellow students in online discussion forums. Sharing of ideas through meaningful debates will help broaden your perspective and crystallise your thinking.

Academic Integrity

As a student of SUSS, you are expected to adhere to the academic standards stipulated in the Student Handbook, which contains important information regarding academic policies, academic integrity, and course administration. It is your responsibility to read and understand the information outlined in the Student Handbook prior to embarking on the course.

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Introduction to Film Genre FLM201 Introduction to Film Genre

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Define genre. 2. Discuss why audiences like genre. 3. Recognise that genre can evolve and is not necessarily easy to define. 4. Outline the economic aspects behind genre. 5. Demonstrate understanding of intertextuality and how genres are not exclusive.

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Overview

Study Unit 1 provides an introduction to film genres.

Chapter 1 will define genre and then consider why audiences have a need for genre. We will look at how genre is fluid and can change, and we will touch on why it can be difficult to pinpoint what genre a film belongs to. We will also take a brief look at how genre is connected to the economic aspects of the industry—production, distribution, and exhibition. Lastly, we will consider intertextuality—the way film genres are influenced by other films and are themselves combinations of elements from a range of other genres.

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Chapter 1: Defining Genre

1.1 What is Genre?

The word genre is French, and it simply means “kind” or “type.” Genre, in film studies, refers to a group of films that share similar characteristics or conventions. These include:

• Narrative conventions—this means films of the same genre will share similar character types and plot events. In a horror movie, for instance, there is usually an assortment of characters who enter an unfamiliar space in which they will be terrorised. • Stylistic conventions—this means films of the same genre will share a similar look or visual aspect and a sound style that helps code the story. In a horror movie, the setting is often dark, with lots of hidden areas. The sound is atmospheric and designed to create tension and shock. • Thematic conventions—this means films of the same genre will display similar concerns. In a horror movie, the characters who are reckless, sexually active or cowardly are usually punished with violent deaths, while the unassuming character who eventually shows him/herself to be intrepid and courageous will survive, suggesting that there is a moralising strain to even the most schlocky bloodfest.

Genre is not prearranged or determined. A genre is derived from a collection of features that are repeated, becoming a familiar system and acquiring social, aesthetic, and commercial qualities, even if audiences are not entirely conscious of this system. So when filmmakers make a musical, for example, they know that they must include some songs and dances, though how they stage these songs and dances is up to them. Audiences who go to watch a musical expect to see songs and dances, though they may well enjoy an innovative or unusual presentation of these songs and dances and the way they are integrated into the story overall. In some cases, audiences may even expect certain directors to make films in a particular genre, because the directors have made previous

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films in that genre. Here is an example of how genre is a familiar system with repeated characteristics:

1.1.1 Why Do We Like Genre?

Genres help ensure that most moviegoers at least share general notions about the types of films that are competing for their attention. Consciously or otherwise, audiences have a recollection of particular films they liked or disliked within a genre. They recognise specific genres that attract them to the movie theatre. They have expectations about what they see on screen. In the case of filmmakers, particularly the directors, audiences expect a unique style and identity that is recognisably that of the director.

What makes the audience enjoy seeing the same conventions over and over? Very often, these conventions touch on aspects of society, looking at how people live, think, and deal with universal issues. For instance, the highly successful Ah Boys to Men series of films (dir. Jack Neo, 2012-2015) looks at National Service (NS), which is a rite of passage for every Singaporean male. From movie to movie, the films play out within the coming-of-age genre, in which the young men must endure trials and tribulations; the added attraction in the Ah Boys to Men films is that Singapore audiences will have a strong sense of recognition when they see the scenes of NS life. The films’ predictable patterning is itself a part of the films’ point—that everything is as it should be.

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Let us look at the highly influential Pulitzer Prize-winning film critic Roger Ebert, who has “A Guide to Film Noir Genre” on his excellent website, Roger Ebert.com. Ebert is famous for a star ratings system (0 to 4 stars).

Ebert writes that in the early stage of his career, he had an “affinity for genres” and so he

rated a movie according to its “generic expectations,” whatever that meant. It might translate like this: “ . . . . If a director is clearly trying to make a particular kind of movie, and his audiences are looking for a particular kind of movie, part of my job is judging how close he came to achieving his purpose.”

Ebert’s rating, in short, paid attention to how well a film fulfilled expectations about what kind of movie it is. How are these expectations formed?

Expectations are formed through exposure. Films use recurring narrative patterns and recognisable characters and iconography, adhering to conventions set by artists over time. These conventions are derived from a key period in filmmaking— the Studio Era (1917 to 1960), during which the Classical Hollywood film was the norm. During this studio era, studios were run like factories, with efficient, tightly organised production systems that churned out films—commodities designed to make money. If a film was a commercial

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success, its studio would make more films in a similar vein. “Always concerned with the essential commodity value of the films they produced, the moguls of the golden age of Hollywood preferred to make films that were like other films—not different from them” (Monaco 271-2).

The technology of the day also has an impact on genre history, as it affects the decisions about what films to make. For example, the musical crystallised with the arrival of synchronised sound with picture, as well as the development of colour processes. In the 1960s, big-budget musicals like West Side Story (dir. Robert Wise and Jerome Robbins, 1961), The Sound of Music (dir. Robert Wise, 1965) and Oliver! (dir. Carol Reed, 1968) were popular. Right now, big-budget science fiction and fantasy genre films are popular because digital special effects are so advanced that they can generate the amazing settings, technology, creatures, and aliens that the scripts call for.

Activity 1.1

Consider your favourite three films.

• Why are these films your favourite films? • Do they share any characteristics that fit with any established genre you know of? • Are you affected by genre at all when you choose your films to watch?

Lesson Recording

Film Genres

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1.1.2 Genre Can Evolve

The attraction to patterns does not mean that genre has to be entirely predictable and boring. Many films replicate visual styles, recognisable structures and conventions or narrative patterns and characters from past films while simultaneously incorporating originality and inventiveness. For example, Inglourious Basterds (dir. Quentin Tarantino, 2009) maintains the expected boundaries of the war film genre — there are certain types of characters and all the recognisable elements of war — but it introduces a variation: an alternate history of World War II. In another example, Star Wars (dir. George Lucas, 1977) incorporates many sources like mythology, Taoism, and the King Arthur legend while operating within the boundaries of the fantasy genre.

In short, audiences expect that genre films will have recognisable elements, but if all the elements are repeated without variety or creativity, a film will be clichéd, and viewers will be bored. Viewers enjoy innovation in genre films, but there must be a balance between familiarity and deviation, as too many variances from genre expectations make a film unfulfilling, even annoying.

Genres also rise and fall in cycles. For instance, westerns were very popular until the 1980s, and then they virtually disappeared until Kevin Costner directed and acted in Dances with Wolves in 1990. A genre may pass out of fashion for a time, only to return with updated aspects and attitudes that reflect the present moment’s preoccupations.

Activity 1.2

Compare and contrast an older film and a more contemporary film from the same genre. How does the time period of the earlier film make it different from the later version in the same genre?

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1.1.3 Genre can be Messy

It is easy to say that the musical has singing and dancing, while the detective film has a plot involving an investigation that solves a mystery. But how do we define a movie in which the detective solving a mystery also sings and dances? To complicate things even more, what if the singing and dancing detective is in a film set on another planet?

Every text participates in one of several genres, there is no genreless text: there is always a genre and genres. (Jacques Derrida 65)

For an example of this fluidity in films, let us consider Citizen Kane (dir. Orson Welles, 1941), which you have watched in an earlier course. Widely considered as the finest American film ever made, Citizen Kane is about a character called Charles Foster Kane, but it is difficult to determine the genre. The film features a reporter character who tries to find out what “Rosebud” means; in a quest to get the truth, the reporter interviews the people who knew Kane—so is the film a mystery or a detective story? Considering the portrayal of women who marry Kane and suffer for it, is the film a melodrama? Since Kane accumulates immense wealth and ruthlessly buys out rival newspaper companies to eliminate competition, is it a social problem movie that comments on capitalism? Since Orson Welles based the character of Kane very closely on real-life media mogul William Randolph Hearst, is Citizen Kane a biopic?

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Figure 1.2 Two movie posters for Citizen Kane illustrate the different ways in which the film is marketed and perceived.

(Source: RKO Radio Pictures/Warner Bros.)

To cite a more contemporary example, how do we categorise the multitude of movies about costumed superheroes? Should the ever-expanding Marvel Cinematic Universe of Iron Man, Captain America, Thor, Ant-Man, Doctor Strange, Guardians of the Galaxy and so on be separated from each other and placed into an appropriate genre category—say disaster or science-fiction? Or should we just consider the films about the Marvel characters as a genre unto themselves—say the comic book superhero genre?

There are no hard and fast answers, but this in no way diminishes the significance (and the continuing significance) of the pivotal role that genre plays in film studies.

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Read

Friedman, Lester. An Introduction to Film Genres, “Introduction,” pp. 1-31.

Chandler, Daniel. “An Introduction to Genre Theory.” Visual Memory. Aberystwyth U, 1997. Web. 4 Aug. 2016. http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/intgenre/ chandler_genre_theory.pdf

If you are interested in a screenwriter’s approach to genre, take a look at this bestselling and very accessible book, which defines ten genres according to their common story elements and discusses five films in each genre: Snyder, Blake. Save the Cat! Goes to the Movies: The Screenwriter’s Guide to Every Story Ever Told. Studio City: Michael Wiese Productions, 2007.

Watch

Ministry of Cinema. “Film Genres and Hollywood—Episode One: Introduction.” YouTube, 8 Apr. 2015. Web. 4 Sep. 2016.

This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

1.2 The Economic Aspects of Genre

Film genres are also very connected to the way commercial filmmaking works. Popular stories are repeated (with slight modifications for variety) as long as they satisfy audience demand and turn a profit. Filmmakers, industry decision-makers, critics, and moviegoers all contribute to the perpetuation of genre in a tripartite process of production, distribution, and exhibition.

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Production: this is the stage in which the film is created and shot. This takes place after considerable development during pre-production when the film was selected from a pitch to financiers—typically a major film studio, film council or corporate sponsors. At this stage, the film will have a marketing strategy and a target audience in which genre plays a part in determining the strategy. For example, the marketing strategy and target audience for a romantic comedy starring Chris Hemsworth would be more female-centric compared to an action movie starring the same actor. This is not to say that female moviegoers do not watch action movies, but there is a tendency for more women than men to watch romantic comedies, so it makes sense to target women; it is a system that is designed to circulate films in a manner that would bring in maximum profits for the parent company.

Distribution: this is about putting the film in the market place. It refers to the avenues in which the film is released, such as in cinemas or as a direct download through providers such as Netflix. The distributor not only provides the movie but also handles the publicity campaign, providing the trailer, the posters etc. Here, the genre category is central, as it affects the key decisions of this distribution and marketing plan as well as the communications between the distributors and the exhibitors.

Exhibition: as the name suggests, this is like the retail branch of the film industry, as it deals with a film’s public screenings, usually to paying customers. A cinema is considered an exhibitor. What is being sold here is the experience of the film (and this includes concessions like nachos, popcorn, hot dogs, and soft drinks). Although they do not have a direct involvement in the production of the film, exhibitors have control over how the film is programmed, promoted, and presented to the public. Simply put, if a particular genre of film is not popular, then the film may be given a shorter cinema run or may get fewer screenings per day compared to a film of a more popular genre. Hence, exhibitors have considerable influence not only over the box-office performance of the film, but the larger reception of the film as well.

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Activity 1.3

Look at the films that have been screened in Singapore cinemas in the last two months. Try to group them into genres.

• What was the most common genre on local screens? • What does this suggest about the genres that make money in the local market?

1.3 Intertextuality

Intertextuality is a word coined by Julia Kristeva, a Bulgarian-French linguist who has written much on this topic. Her notion of intertextuality refers to the literal and effective presence in a text of another text. According to Kristeva, a text is a permutation of texts that intersect one another. In other words, authors (or filmmakers in the case of films), do not create their texts in a vacuum from nothing, but rather compile them from pre-existent texts.

Furthering this train of thought, André Bazin, a French film theorist, theorises that all films are principally works of authors, who at a certain time, with certain technical, aesthetical and logistical means, had to create a cinematic artwork. This means that films are not only an artwork, but, rather, a system in which the filmmaker is only one constituent. In simple terms, there is a sum of parts that lead to a whole, which is the completed film.

In short, intertextuality refers to the way in which media texts purposely give references to other media texts in order to give the audience a sense of recognition.

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Watch

PicME. “Intertextuality.” YouTube, 29 May 2016. Web. 4 Sep. 2016.

This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

Intertextuality involves the process of extracting elements from existing texts and subtly including them into the film; in the context of film genres, it gives rise to hybrid genres, which blend themes and elements from two or more different genres.

There are strong economic reasons for hybrid genre. A single genre pigeonholes the film and consequently restricts its potential audience and by extension, box-office performance. In contrast, the crossing of several plots and several genres attracts a greater number of viewers. For example, Star Trek began life as an inexpensive science fiction series on television; its fans were widely regarded to be more cerebral than the people who like Star Wars. However, the Star Trek movies have big budgets that allow for spectacle and explosive action sequences that allow the franchise to reach a much wider audience. This economic strategy of mixing genres also allows the film to reach two (or more) audiences that are usually mutually exclusive, by accomplishing an ideological and aesthetic synthesis.

Changes in the way filmmakers got their training have also given rise to the hybrid genre film. The Moscow Film School was founded in 1919 but was very theory-based. As commercial filmmaking took off in the 1920s, those seeking to learn filmmaking skills were more likely to start out as apprentices, right at the bottom of a hierarchical system where they learned the trade from more established people in the industry. Renowned filmmakers like Alfred Hitchcock and David Lean learned on the job in this way, gradually working their way up from being title card designers and clapperboard assistants, respectively.

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Getting a university degree in filmmaking became a reality in the 1960s. Walt Disney founded the California Institute of the Arts in 1961. And in 1965, film departments were established in New York University Tisch School of the Arts, the University of Texas, and the Columbia University School of the Arts—all prestigious film schools that continue to produce trained filmmakers. Directors like Steven Spielberg and George Lucas went to film school, where they were exposed to the history of film and a wide range of critical perspectives, which gave them a familiarity with the historical forms of cinema genres and the ability to synergise the different genres in their work. These university-trained filmmakers absorbed ideas from different filmmaking traditions or national cinemas and developed their own variation. Their experimentation led to the collapsing of genre boundaries, to the extent that it can be difficult to find traditional genres in their “pure” form, as genres become blended and mixed. This practice of hybridising genres has become a key feature in cinema and remains so today.

Today, the most useful function of genre perhaps is that it is like a trampoline for creativity, allowing directors to update an “old genre” by injecting new energy into an exhausted genre and pouring progressive, modern content into it. Genre has moved from a static taxonomy to an active operation in an ongoing process. Here is how renowned film academic David Bordwell describes how films use genre:

Most of the four or five hundred theatrical films released each year continue Hollywood’s narrative tradition straightforwardly through practiced tactics of subject or style. The average filmmaker asks: What well-tested devices tell my story most effectively? Some filmmakers, however, have sought to refine the tradition, to explore its principles more thoroughly. These creators ask, in effect: How can I raise the premises to new levels of achievement? How can I revive a defunct or disreputable genre? How can I extend ideas that the studio system has failed to explore fully? How can I make causal connections more felicitous, twists more unexpected, character psychology more involving, excitement more intense, motifs more tightly woven? How can I display my own virtuosity? When

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filmmakers succeed at such tasks, they reveal the range and flexibility of classical premises. (51)

Read

Bordwell, David. “Pushing the Premises.” The Way Hollywood Tells It. Berkeley: U of California P, 2006. 51-72.

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Summary

Films do resemble each other, more often than not. In a way, genres in film work on a level of familiarity much like our family members at a dinner. Genres have emerged and endured because they meet a series of needs. Genre tells and retells stories that move us and teach us things about ourselves and the larger world around us with identifiable characters and stories that engage us. Genre also has an important economic aspect in terms of the production, distribution, and exhibition of film.

By now, we also know that no one film exists in total isolation from the past, and so all films are by nature intertextual. Filmmakers habitually mix narrative and iconographic elements from various sources, ultimately forging genre movies into intertextual hybrids that rarely reside exclusively in one category. This intertextual hybrid nature of genre movies allows filmmakers to incorporate deeper layers into their creations and strike resonant chords with the audience.

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Formative Assessment

1. Film genre are determined by ______a. critics and librarians who organise the subject matter according to a set of criteria. b. profitability and audience demand. c. the French, as genre is a French word. d. film directors.

2. Which of the following statements correctly describe genre’s role in cinema?

Statement 1: Genres hold out the promise of attracting and retaining audiences in a reliable way, thus reducing commercial risk. Statement 2: Genre is an active and conscious negation of itself. Statement 3: Film genres support existing social relations. Statement 4: Genre films are held to promote a message of conformity. a. Statements 1, 2, and 4. b. Statements 3 and 4. c. Statements 1, 3, and 4. d. All the statements are correct.

3. In the cinema, the sale of snacks like popcorn is important to film exhibitors, and this has a connection to genre because ______a. the more popular genres are likely to be given more screenings, which creates more opportunity for the sale of snacks. b. the more snacks sold, the more money the film studio has to make the film, and this applies across all genres.

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c. the taste of snacks like popcorn has been proven to have a positive relationship to the viewers’ enjoyment of the film, thus pushing up profits no matter what the genre. d. All the reasons stated are true.

4. Intertextuality involves the process of drawing on elements from existing texts and subtly including them into a text (such as a film). Blending themes and elements from two or more different genres can also make a text more commercially appealing. Of all the examples listed below, which one can be considered to be intertextual? Note: you may have to do some quick research on the Internet if you are not familiar with the films below. a. The Sound of Music (dir. Robert Wise, 1965), which is a musical based on a biography. b. Pulp Fiction (dir. Quentin Tarantino, 1994), whose whole narrative revolves around a briefcase. No one knows what is in the briefcase, and it really does not matter. c. In most Marvel films, there is normally an End Credits scene which introduces a different character. d. In Frozen (dir. Chris Buck and Jennifer Lee, 2013) Rapunzel and Flynn from Tangled (dir. Nathan Greno and Byron Howard, 2010) are among the people coming into the castle to celebrate in Arendelle.

5. Walt Disney founded the California Institute of the Arts in 1961. The Walt Disney Company has since become one of the largest diversified mass media and entertainment conglomerates in the world. Which of the following film assets does not belong to the Walt Disney Company? (This question is related to genre because critics often argue that Disney’s acquiring of studios may affect the types of genre films that are produced. It is also good to keep up with major industry changes). a. Lucasfilm b. Marvel Studios

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c. Pixar d. DC Films

6. Genre movies are appealing because of many reasons. Which of the following is not a reason? a. Genre movies provide a certain predictability, which is comforting. b. Genre movies provide a certain security for film studios, who have an idea of what genres seem to attract audiences. c. Genre movies tell and retell stories that affirm certain attitudes and beliefs. d. Genre movies eliminate the need for originality, as filmmakers can simply rehash stories and styles from other films.

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Solutions or Suggested Answers

Activity 1.1

Responses will vary, as each person will have different favourite films. Do try this activity with classmates, friends, and family, as it will be interesting to hear different choices and opinions.

Activity 1.2

Responses will vary. To give you an idea of one response, however, let me tell you my response. One of my favourite films is Star Wars: A New Hope (dir. George Lucas, 1977). I suppose you could call it a space Western, and it follows a classic pattern: a young protagonist goes on a quest.

• Young hero Luke Skywalker and his mentor figure, Obi-Wan Kenobi, go on a quest to save the damsel-in-distress Princess Leia. • He is accompanied by a cynical and cocky pirate who is an ace pilot. • Our young hero must battle the villain, Darth Vader, who is clad in black, ruthlessly cruel, and uncomplicated in his villainy.

38 years later, Star Wars: The Force Awakens (dir. J. J. Abrams, 2015) reflects a more modern sensibility.

• The protagonist is a young woman named Rey, and she has skills that are perhaps more associated with males: she can fight with a staff, she is an ace pilot, and she is courageous and agile. • She is accompanied by a black man who actually comes from the enemy side, and to whom she lends a hand. When he goes to rescue her, he finds she is engineering her own escape and is no damsel-in-distress.

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• The villain is much younger and is conflicted and unsure of himself. • And Rey has to go on a quest to find the person whom we assume will be her mentor —Luke Skywalker.

The two films have similar structures but The Force Awakens reflects a more racially diverse cast, more women in military roles, and an overall more up-to-date attitude.

Activity 1.3

Responses will vary, as each batch of students will be looking at different time periods. You may find it useful to check the “Singapore Box Office Index” in the Box Office Mojo site at http://www.boxofficemojo.com/intl/singapore/

Formative Assessment 1. Film genre are determined by ______a. critics and librarians who organise the subject matter according to a set of criteria. Incorrect. Critics comment on what is already in existence, while librarians do not comment on content.

b. profitability and audience demand. Correct. If a film is a success, studios will make more films using the same elements, which eventually become conventions, as explained in Study Unit 1.

c. the French, as genre is a French word. Incorrect. French scholars wrote extensively about genre, but they did not determine genre characteristics.

d. film directors.

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Incorrect. It is true that directors may have an impact on genre by making films that influence other films, but directors do not determine genre characteristics.

2. Which of the following statements correctly describe genre’s role in cinema?

a. Statements 1, 2, and 4. Incorrect. Statement 2 applies to anti-genre, which you may read up on if you are interested. Reread the example about Ah Boys to Men in Study Unit 1, which explains how the films portray a shared experience that is upheld and approved.

b. Statements 3 and 4. Incorrect. The answer is incomplete. Reread the example about Ah Boys to Men in Study Unit 1, which explains how the films portray a shared experience that is upheld and approved.

c. Statements 1, 3, and 4. Correct. Statement 1 is about how genres provide basic product differentiation that offers some guarantee of the experience. Statements 3 and 4 are also correct: genre films do indeed support existing social relations and promote conformity. Reread the example about Ah Boys to Men in Study Unit 1, which explains how the films portray a shared experience that is upheld and approved.

d. All the statements are correct.

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Incorrect. Statement 2 applies to anti-genre, which you may read up on if you are interested. Reread the example about Ah Boys to Men in Study Unit 1, which explains how the films portray a shared experience that is upheld and approved.

3. In the cinema, the sale of snacks like popcorn is important to film exhibitors, and this has a connection to genre because ______a. the more popular genres are likely to be given more screenings, which creates more opportunity for the sale of snacks. Correct. Exhibitors have control over how the film is programmed, promoted, and presented to the public. Making popcorn and snacking a part of the film experience is very profitable for exhibitors, as these snacks are cheap and sold at marked-up prices.

b. the more snacks sold, the more money the film studio has to make the film, and this applies across all genres. Incorrect. The sale of concessions at the cinema does not have a direct involvement in the production of the actual film.

c. the taste of snacks like popcorn has been proven to have a positive relationship to the viewers’ enjoyment of the film, thus pushing up profits no matter what the genre. Incorrect. However, the history behind why popcorn is sold in cinemas is fascinating, and you should look it up if you are interested!

d. All the reasons stated are true. Incorrect. Think carefully about how film exhibitors deal with genre.

SU1-24 FLM201 Introduction to Film Genre

you may have to do some quick research on the Internet if you are not familiar with the films below. a. The Sound of Music (dir. Robert Wise, 1965), which is a musical based on a biography. Incorrect. The Sound of Music may be based on a biography, but the film is very much a musical in its use of songs and dances to further the story.

b. Pulp Fiction (dir. Quentin Tarantino, 1994), whose whole narrative revolves around a briefcase. No one knows what is in the briefcase, and it really does not matter. Correct. The briefcase is a plot device, a goal or an object that the characters want, but the film does not ever explain why it is important. This mysterious thing that drives the plot is known as a MacGuffin, which was popularised by director Alfred Hitchcock. Tarantino was borrowing the idea from Hitchcock.

c. In most Marvel films, there is normally an End Credits scene which introduces a different character. Incorrect. While it is intertextual to a different Marvel story, the scenes are still connected within the same Marvel Cinematic Universe.

d. In Frozen (dir. Chris Buck and Jennifer Lee, 2013) Rapunzel and Flynn from Tangled (dir. Nathan Greno and Byron Howard, 2010) are among the people coming into the castle to celebrate in Arendelle. Incorrect. That is an example of a cameo.

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a. Lucasfilm Incorrect. Disney bought Lucasfilm in 2012.

b. Marvel Studios Incorrect. Disney bought Marvel Entertainment in 2009.

c. Pixar Incorrect. Disney bought Pixar in 2006.

d. DC Films Correct. DC Films is owned by Warner Bros.

6. Genre movies are appealing because of many reasons. Which of the following is not a reason? a. Genre movies provide a certain predictability, which is comforting. Incorrect. This is indeed a factor that makes genre movies appealing.

b. Genre movies provide a certain security for film studios, who have an idea of what genres seem to attract audiences. Incorrect. This is indeed a factor that makes genre movies appealing.

c. Genre movies tell and retell stories that affirm certain attitudes and beliefs. Incorrect. This is indeed a factor that makes genre movies appealing.

d. Genre movies eliminate the need for originality, as filmmakers can simply rehash stories and styles from other films. Correct. This may be convenient, but it is certainly not appealing. Audiences would not want films that are exact copies of each other, and filmmakers value the chance to show creativity.

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Works Cited

Ah Boys to Men. Series. Dir. Jack Neo. J Team/mm2 Entertainment/Golden Village, 2012-2015. Film.

Bordwell, David. “Pushing the Premises.” The Way Hollywood Tells It. Berkeley: U of

California P, 2006. 51-72. Print.

Chandler, Daniel. “An Introduction to Genre Theory.” Visual Memory. Aberystwyth U, 1997. Web. 4 Aug. 2016. .

Citizen Kane. Dir. Orson Welles. 1941. RKO Radio Pictures, 2001. DVD.

Citizen Kane. Posters. 1941. RKO Radio Pictures. Citizen Kane. Warner Bros., 2016. Web. 17 July 2016. .

Dances with Wolves. Dir. Kevin Costner. Orion Pictures, 1990. Film.

Derrida, Jacques. “The Law of Genre.” Trans. Avital Ronell. Critical Inquiry 7.1 (1980): 55-81. Print.

Ebert, Roger. “You Give Out Too Many Stars.” Roger Ebert’s Journal. Ebert Digital, 14 Sep. 2008. Web. 17 July 2016. . Friedman, Lester, David Desser, Sarah Kozloff, Martha P. Nochimson, and Stephen

Prince. An Introduction to Film Genres. New York: Norton, 2014. Print.

Inglourious Basterds. Dir. Quentin Tarantino. Weinstein Company/Universal Pictures,

2009. Film.

Ministry of Cinema. “Film Genres and Hollywood.” YouTube, 22 Apr. 2015. Web. 4 Sep. 2016. .

Monaco, James. How to Read a Film: Movies, Media, and Beyond. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2009. Print.

Oliver! Dir. Carol Reed. Columbia Pictures, 1968. Film.

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“Singapore Box Office Index.” Box Office Mojo. IMDb, n.d. Web. 7 Oct. 2016. .

The Sound of Music. Dir. Robert Wise. 20th Century Fox, 1965. Film.

Star Trek. Created by Gene Roddenberry. CBS/Paramount Pictures, 1966-1970, 1975-2016.

Star Wars: Episode 4 —A New Hope. Dir. George Lucas. 20th Century Fox, 1977. Film.

Star Wars: Episode 7 —The Force Awakens. Dir. J. J. Abrams. Walt Disney, 2015. Film.

West Side Story. Dir. Robert Wise and Jerome Robbins. United Artists, 1961. Film.

SU1-28 Study Unit 2

The Western, Action Film, and Comedy FLM201 The Western, Action Film, and Comedy

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Outline the key aspects of the Western. 2. Discuss the key aspects of the action film. 3. Describe the key aspects of the comedy.

SU2-2 FLM201 The Western, Action Film, and Comedy

Overview

Study Unit 2 looks at three film genres: the Western, action film, and comedy. The study unit will briefly outline the main characteristics of each genre and suggest some representative films, which you may choose to watch if you wish. Take note that the films used for class discussions and assignments may vary each semester, so please pay attention to the course plan.

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Chapter 2: The Western, Action Film, and Comedy

This chapter will examine three major genres: the Western, action film, and comedy. There is no particular reason for beginning with these three genres. They are not necessarily the most important or the most popular or the most profitable. Indeed, many of you may not have watched a Western, which is not very common at the moment. However, these three genres are certainly very recognisable, and we have to start somewhere, so why not start here?

2.1 The Western

Watch

Ministry of Cinema. “Film Genres and Hollywood—Episode Two: Western.” YouTube, 22 Apr. 2015. Web. 4 Sep. 2016.

This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

Read

Dirks, Tim. “Westerns Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. http://www.filmsite.org/westernfilms.html

Warshow, Robert. “Movie Chronicle: The Westerner.” 1954. Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings. 6th ed. Ed. Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen. New York: Oxford UP, 2004. 703-716.

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The Western is often seen as the most American of film genres. It conveys the struggle to live in an environment that is often hostile. Enemies threaten to take away everything that the frontiersmen and women are trying to hang on to. The enemies may be Native Americans (the Other) or they may be outlaws (criminals who threaten a way of life and who do not care to work hard and honestly). The visual conventions are instantly recognisable—wide open desert spaces, narrow one-street towns with the requisite saloon and whorehouse; and of course, there are horses, spurs, guns, white hats and black hats.

It would be useful to watch two films that are solidly in the same genre. This will allow you to consider how viewing the first film affects your expectations and response to the second one. That basic experience of watching a film in its “pure” form will enable you to recognise the variations within the genre as you watch more films. Here are two recommendations for the Western that will let you see the range:

• High Noon (dir. Fred Zinnemann, 1952) • Rio Bravo (dir. Howard Hawks, 1959)

Film Professor Dan Kleinman of Columbia University writes about how director Howard Hawks said that he made Rio Bravo specifically as an answer to High Noon. Hawks felt that the sheriff in High Noon had no business asking for help from amateurs. In the Hawksian world, amateurs are protected by highly skilled professionals. In this, Hawks films have much in common with samurai films.

Some other examples of the Western: Stagecoach (dir. John Ford, 1939) Dances with Wolves (dir. Kevin Costner, 1992) Unforgiven (dir. Clint Eastwood, 1992) Brokeback Mountain (dir. Ang Lee, 2005)

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(Source: The Searchers, dir. John Ford, 1956)

(Source: Brokeback Mountain, dir. Ang Lee, 2005)

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2.2 Action Film

Action films have stunts, battles, chases, fight sequences, gunplay, explosions, disasters, narrow escapes, and characters who are capable of amazing physical feats. Action films criss-cross a range of other genres, such as science fiction, fantasy, war, and comedy, and they have a very wide range and diversity of subject matter. If you think about the three films listed below, for instance, you will see that all are action films, and yet they are vastly different in style, subject matter and attitude. Star Wars is space fantasy, Lord of the Rings is epic fantasy/literary adaptation, and Tropic Thunder is guns-blazing, politically incorrect comedy.

(Source: IMP Awards)

Although there have been action films since the 1920s and 1930s, the popularity of the genre is often attributed to the James Bond films. The phenomenal success of the James Bond series in the 1960s and 1970s popularised the concept of the modern day action film. Those early Bond films were characterised by quick cutting, car chases, fist fights and ever more elaborate action sequences; they established the concept of the resourceful hero with

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sharp one-liners and impressive physical skills that allow him to defeat the villains. These characteristics are clearly recognisable in the action movie genre today. More importantly, the James Bond films have these fundamental action film genre characters: the hero, the villain, and the female.

The hero is the most recognisable aspect of any action film. The hero embodies a number of positive human traits such as strength, durability, courage, and a genuine care for the survival of the human race. Unlike the villain, who often has a fleet of henchmen, the hero usually has to rely only on himself or perhaps a sidekick or two.

The hero also has the ability to spout one-liners; these actually have a purpose. For example, James Bond’s trademark desire for a martini that is “Shaken, not stirred” illustrates his impressive sophistication. In the Terminator series, the Terminator’s iconic “I’ll be back” denotes his confidence. In the Matrix series, Neo’s “Whoa” suggests that even heroes may be briefly overwhelmed by the gravity of their tasks. Han Solo’s “I got a bad feeling about this” in the Star Wars films reflects his scepticism and is also a precursor to an action sequence to come shortly. The hero’s one-liners also help to forge a bond with the audience, who delight in recognising certain phrases and traits in their hero.

With every hero, there must be a villain, and the most distinguishing characteristic of the villain is that he is an intelligent person; however, the villain’s abundant intelligence is misguided and selfish. In many action movies, the villain represents corruption and whatever enemy is current—communists, terrorists, greedy corporate types, mad scientists, media moguls, techno whizzes, and so forth. Many villains have a distinct physical trait or characteristic that sums up the sort of threat they are: Darth Vader, for instance, has an unmistakable mechanical breathing that represents his loss of humanity. In Star Wars: The Force Awakens (dir. J. J. Abrams, 2015), Kylo Ren wears a mask that makes his voice sound deeper and more menacing—this is appropriate, as he is dissatisfied with who he is and is trying to project a much more dangerous persona.

Finally, the female in action films—not to be mistaken for a heroine—is typically a flat character. She is a companion to the hero and is likely to be physically attractive. More often than not, the female is part of the hero’s primary goal, the damsel-in-distress whom

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the hero must save (think of the many times Superman has had to save Lois Lane). In some cases, such as movies about natural disasters, the female serves as a metaphor for mankind—in saving her, the hero ensures that there is hope for humanity. The female may also represent stability in a crazy world, and the hero’s quest is to return home to her. The female is the subject of the gaze, in short— she exists to be looked at by an audience that is assumed to be male. There has been a move towards stronger female characters and feminine empowerment in films such as the Hunger Games and Divergent series; however, action movies are in essence male fantasies. Perhaps what you should be thinking about is why women like action movies too.

Read

For a quick overview of the action film genre: “Action Film.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia, 30 Aug. 2016. Web. 3 Sep. 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_film

For an excellent theoretical discussion of the gaze (which we mentioned in relation to the female in films): Mulvey, Laura. “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema.” Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings. Ed. Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen. New York: Oxford UP, 1999. 833-44. http://www.composingdigitalmedia.org/f15_mca/mca_reads/mulvey.pdf

For an account on changing female characters in action films: Schwarzbaum, Lisa. “The Hunger Games: Action-Film Feminism is Catching Fire.” BBC Culture. BBC, 26 Nov. 2013. Web. 17 July 2016. http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20131126-a-movie-heroine-revolution

Given the tendency to label action films as mindless entertainment in which story and character development are generally secondary to the action, it is easy to write them off as

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mere popcorn flicks. However, action films can have profound themes and certainly reflect the times in which they are made. The Hunger Games is about government oppression and inequality. It asks you to think about what sort of society would mindlessly accept laws that cull its members and that would enjoy watching children violently kill each other in the name of entertainment.

• Drunken Master (dir. Yuen Woo-Ping, 1978) • Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (dir. Ang Lee, 2000)

Lesson Recording

Case Study: Action Movies and Marketing the Heroine

2.3 Comedy

Basically, the comedy genre is designed to elicit laughter. Comedies are light- hearted stories, crafted to amuse, entertain, and provide enjoyment through humorous exaggerations of the situation, the action, the language, and the characters. Comedies reveal the many problems and frustrations of life, and even though they usually have happy endings, there is often a serious underlying theme.

Generally, comedies come in two formats: comedian-led comedies and situation comedies (widely known as sitcoms) that are told within a narrative. Both comedy formats may appear together and/or overlap. Comedy can also appear as a hybrid with other major genres, such as musical-comedy, horror-comedy, action-comedy, and comedy-thriller. But

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if you trace back to the roots, the predominant comedy in the earliest films was slapstick comedy.

The name slapstick comes from the slap stick, a device made from two wooden slats that made a slapping sound when flicked. This simulates the sound of slapping a person, without having to actually hurt anyone. The slap stick was part of the bag of tricks in the Commedia dell’arte, a form of broad, physical comedy that became popular in Italy in the sixteenth century.

Figure 2.4 Slap sticks or batocci.

(Source: “Slap stick.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia, 15 Jan. 2020. Web. 5 Mar. 2020. )

Over time, this form of comedy became a key part of the clown tradition in the circus, and this carried over into film. When films were first made, they were silent, which was ideal for broad physical comedy to thrive, as the over-the-top action was visually striking and did not require dialogue to be understood. The great comic movie stars of the silent era (1894-1929), like Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton, were commonly referred to as “silent clowns.” In this cinematic convention, comic characters were immune to physical pain and lived an existence that defies real world logic, while still capturing human foibles. The clown was often the “little guy” in society, someone with a physical disadvantage, perhaps, who faced tremendous odds. Jackie Chan’s Rush Hour series

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(1998-2007) features imaginative, physically unrealistic gags: umbrellas and chairs become swords, and refrigerator doors serve as shields. Metaphorically, the clown is the ordinary person trying to make a way through a crazy world.

Watch

Every Frame a Painting. “Buster Keaton—The Art of the Gag.” Alpha Voice. Alpha Voice, 21 Nov. 2015. Web. 2 Nov. 2020.

This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

This cinematic tradition was slowly phased out by the arrival of film sound. The first feature-length film with synchronised sounds was The Jazz Singer (dir. Alan Crosland); released in 1927, it heralded the rise of the “talkies” and the decline of the silent film era. Comedy became less physical and more dialogue-centred. The “silent clowns” like Chaplin and Keaton had relatively little success in talkies, but the slapstick clown tradition continues today, in combination with some of the themes commonly associated with the comedy genre. There are many types of comedy, so do watch and read the very useful sources here.

Comedy may be designed to make audiences laugh, but many of them touch on serious issues. In the action-espionage-comedy Spy (dir. Paul Feig, 2015), for instance, the protagonist (played by Melissa McCarthy) has been kept in a deskbound job because she is overweight and is a female; the assumption is that she is ignorant, clumsy, and incapable. In contrast, her good-looking and fit male colleague (played by Jude Law) is automatically given respect and the plum assignments, and the film gets a lot of laughs by showing how she actually does get the job done. The film is very funny and entertaining, but it is also a commentary on double standards.

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Watch

Ministry of Cinema. “Film Genres and Hollywood—Episode Five: Comedy.” YouTube, 22 Apr. 2015. Web. 4 Sep. 2016.

This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

Read

Agee, James. “Comedy’s Greatest Era.” Life 5 Sep. 1949: 70-88. Available in Film: An Anthology, edited by Daniel Talbot, pages 130-147, and online.

Friedman, Lester, David Desser, Sarah Kozloff, Martha P. Nochimson, and Stephen Prince. An Introduction to Film Genres, “Slapstick Comedy,” pp. 32-79, and “Romantic Comedy,” pp. 120-159.

Dirks, Tim. “Comedy Films.” Filmsite . American Movie Classics Company, 2016. http://www.filmsite.org/comedyfilms.html

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(Source: Four Weddings and a Funeral, dir. Mike Newell, 1994)

• The Awful Truth (dir. Leo McCarey, 1937) • Annie Hall (dir. Woody Allen, 1977) or The Apartment (dir. Billy Wilder, 1960)

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(Source: Rush Hour, dir. Brett Ratner, 1998)

Watch

Back To the Future Part III (dir. Robert Zemeckis, 1990).

You may borrow the DVD from the university library.

Critic Jim Collins writes that with this film:

We enter a narrative universe defined by impertinent connections, no longer containable by one set of generic conventions. We encounter, instead, different sets of generic conventions that intermingle, constituting a profoundly intertextual diegesis, nowhere more apparent than in the shot of the DeLorean time machine being pulled through the desert by a team of horses, the very copresence of John Ford and H. G. Wells demonstrating the film’s ability to access both as simultaneous narrative options. (249)

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(Source: Back to the Future III, dir. Robert Zemeckis, 1990)

Activity 2.1

Let us now discuss Back to the Future III (dir. Robert Zemeckis, 1990), a film that combines all the three genres in this study unit: the Western, action, comedy.

• Identify the aspects that make this a Western. • Identify the aspects that make this an action film. • Identify the aspects that make this a comedy. • How does the combination of genres add to your enjoyment and appreciation of the film as an artistic creation and as a vehicle for thematic issues?

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Formative Assessment

1. The Western is considered to be the most American of all genres because ______a. it is preoccupied with America’s past. b. it depicts a society in which justice is dispensed by gunfights, which describes America. c. it features an arsenal of weapons, as violence is a crucial part of the Western. d. it conveys the struggle to live in a hostile environment and to uphold a way of life characterised by hard work and honesty, which is combined with iconic visuals that represent America.

2. The Western has many iconic elements. Which of the elements below is not an element of the Western? a. The hero who wears a white hat. b. Wide open vistas c. Men on horseback. d. All the answers are correct.

3. Action films are not allowed to have ______a. dramatic moments. b. comedic moments. c. endlessly meditative and still scenes d. science fiction elements

4. Action films always have ______a. heroes who spout witty one-liners. b. action sequences that involve the lead characters. c. villains who speak with a European accent. d. attractive but bimbotic females who do little more than scream for help.

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5. Romantic comedies tend to have the following: a. A couple that becomes romantically involved but encounters many obstacles. b. Vulgar supporting characters who elicit laughs because they are so outrageous. c. A laugh track. d. Witty repartee between the lead couple, which often comprises a strong female who is capable of standing up to the male lead.

6. The Mr Bean comedy series starring Rowan Atkinson is so often played without sound in waiting rooms because ______a. it features slapstick comedy and is effective even without sound. b. the series is cheap and therefore easily purchased for exhibition. c. the series is made without sound. d. the series is a comedy, and so it is deemed inoffensive and safe for public spaces like waiting rooms.

7. You should have watched Back to the Future III (dir. Bob Zemeckis, 1990) by now. Which of the following statements about the film is inaccurate? a. The scene in which the DeLorean is pulled by horses deliberately evokes the Western. b. The scene in which Marty moonwalks is a reference to a convention of the Western. c. When Marty tells Mad Dog Tannen that his name is Clint Eastwood, the film is insulting Eastwood. d. All the statements are inaccurate.

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Solutions or Suggested Answers

Activity 2.1

It should be easy to identify the elements that make Back to the Future III a Western, an action film, and a comedy.

As to how the combination of genres adds to your enjoyment and appreciation of the film as an artistic creation and as a vehicle for thematic issues, responses will vary, as each person will react differently. If you wish to find out more, you could check out The Worlds of Back to the Future: Critical Essays on the Films, edited by Sorcha Ní Fhlainn, and published in 2010.

You may also want to think about what critic Jim Collins writes—that this film’s “foregrounded, hyperconscious intertextuality reflects changes in terms of audience competence and narrative technique, as well as a fundamental shift in what constitutes both entertainment and cultural literacy in the ‘Information Age’” (250).

Formative Assessment 1. The Western is considered to be the most American of all genres because ______a. it is preoccupied with America’s past. Incorrect. If the Western is solely preoccupied with America’s past, then why should the rest of the world watch the films? Rethink your answer.

b. it depicts a society in which justice is dispensed by gunfights, which describes America. Incorrect. It is not an accurate description of the Western or of America.

c. it features an arsenal of weapons, as violence is a crucial part of the Western.

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Incorrect. There are indeed weapons and violence in Westerns, but other genres, such as war and action films, also feature weapons and violence.

d. it conveys the struggle to live in a hostile environment and to uphold a way of life characterised by hard work and honesty, which is combined with iconic visuals that represent America. Correct. The Western as we know it was even created in America.

2. The Western has many iconic elements. Which of the elements below is not an element of the Western? a. The hero who wears a white hat. Incorrect. This is indeed a convention of the Western. Conventionally, the hero in a Western wears a white hat, although many Westerns actually do have heroes who wear brown or black hats.

b. Wide open vistas Incorrect. This is indeed a convention of the Western and represents the frontier. Iconic landmarks like Monument Valley are instantly recognisable.

c. Men on horseback. Incorrect. This is indeed a convention of the Western. The horses are the primary means of transport, and they represent mobility, strength, and companionship, among other things.

d. All the answers are correct. Correct. The Western typically features a hero in a white hat, wide open vistas, and men on horseback.

3. Action films are not allowed to have ______

a. dramatic moments.

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Incorrect. Action films can incorporate elements from other genres. Courage Under Fire (dir. Edward Zwick, 1996) is an example of an action-drama.

b. comedic moments. Incorrect. Action films can incorporate elements from other genres. Spy (dir. Paul Feig, 2015) is an example of an action-comedy.

c. endlessly meditative and still scenes Correct. Action films, by definition, have lots of action—stunts, chases, explosions, fights, and so forth. Though some quiet moments are acceptable for the purpose of telling the story, action films cannot be endlessly quiet and still.

d. science fiction elements Incorrect. Action films can incorporate elements from other genres. Edge of Tomorrow (dir. Doug Liman, 2014) is an example of an action-science fiction film.

4. Action films always have ______a. heroes who spout witty one-liners. Incorrect. There are indeed many action films that have such heroes, as mentioned in the Study Unit, but it is not a requirement of the action film genre.

b. action sequences that involve the lead characters. Correct. Action films, by definition, have lots of action—stunts, chases, explosions, fights, and so forth. The lead characters are involved in many (if not all) of these sequences because this shows off the characters and increases involvement in their fates.

c. villains who speak with a European accent.

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Incorrect. There are indeed many action films that have such villains, but it is not a requirement of the action film genre.

d. attractive but bimbotic females who do little more than scream for help. Incorrect. There are indeed many action films that have such females, but it is not a requirement of the action film genre. Indeed, action films like Alien (dir. Ridley Scott, 1979) and The Hunger Games (dir. Gary Ross, 2012) have strong female leads.

5. Romantic comedies tend to have the following:

a. A couple that becomes romantically involved but encounters many obstacles. Correct. Romantic comedies indeed feature a couple that falls in love and faces all sorts of problems before getting together.

b. Vulgar supporting characters who elicit laughs because they are so outrageous. Incorrect. While romantic comedies do tend to have supporting characters who elicit laughs, they do not have to be vulgar.

c. A laugh track. Incorrect. Laugh tracks tend to be used in sitcoms, which are made for television.

d. Witty repartee between the lead couple, which often comprises a strong female who is capable of standing up to the male lead. Incorrect. This is a description of screwball comedy, which does also feature romance, but a romantic comedy is not automatically a screwball comedy.

6. The Mr Bean comedy series starring Rowan Atkinson is so often played without sound in waiting rooms because ______

a. it features slapstick comedy and is effective even without sound.

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Correct. Slapstick comedy relies on outrageous gags and physical antics that can be understood without sound, no matter what the language of the audience.

b. the series is cheap and therefore easily purchased for exhibition. Incorrect. If cost is the issue, it would make more sense to simply play free-to- air television than to buy the DVD or the rights to screen Mr Bean episodes.

c. the series is made without sound. Incorrect. The Mr Bean series is made with sound and even has a laugh track.

d. the series is a comedy, and so it is deemed inoffensive and safe for public spaces like waiting rooms. Incorrect. Comedies are indeed designed to make people laugh, but this does not mean they are automatically inoffensive. Comedies can include sharp commentary on society. Spy (dir. Paul Feig, 2015), for example, comments on how overweight people are mocked.

7. You should have watched Back to the Future III (dir. Bob Zemeckis, 1990) by now. Which of the following statements about the film is inaccurate?

a. The scene in which the DeLorean is pulled by horses deliberately evokes the Western. Incorrect. Because this statement is actually accurate. The scene deliberately draws on previous Westerns; the scene is funny because the very modern car is anachronistic in this setting where we expect stagecoaches and horses.

b. The scene in which Marty moonwalks is a reference to a convention of the Western. Incorrect. Because this statement is actually accurate. One of the conventions of the Western is that the villain shoots at the floor on which people are standing, thus forcing them to “dance” to avoid the bullets. Marty’s moonwalking acknowledges this convention but introduces a 1980s dance

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style into the Western, which is set in the nineteenth century—this anachronism makes the scene funny.

c. When Marty tells Mad Dog Tannen that his name is Clint Eastwood, the film is insulting Eastwood. Correct. This statement is inaccurate. This is not an insult at all. It is a reference to the fact that Eastwood has acted in many Westerns. Marty (and the audience) would be familiar with Eastwood and his connection to Westerns, unlike the character Tannen.

d. All the statements are inaccurate. Incorrect. Only one of the statements is inaccurate.

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Works Cited

“Action Film.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia, 30 Aug. 2016. Web. 3 Sep. 2016. .

Back to the Future III. Dir. Robert Zemeckis. 1990. Universal Pictures, 2009. DVD.

Brokeback Mountain. Dir. Ang Lee. Focus Features, 2005. Film.

Collins, Jim. “Genericity in the Nineties: Eclectic Irony and the New Sincerity.” Film

Theory Goes to the Movies. New York: Routledge, 1993. 242-263. Print.

Dances with Wolves. Dir. Kevin Costner. Orion Pictures, 1992. Film.

Dirks, Tim. “Comedy Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. Web. 3

Sep. 2016. http://www.filmsite.org/comedyfilms.html

---. “Westerns Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. Web. 3 Sep. 2016. .

Divergent. Series. Dir. Neil Burger, Robert Schwentke. Summit Entertainment, Lionsgate, 2014-2016. Film.

Every Frame a Painting. “Buster Keaton—The Art of the Gag.” Alpha Voice. Alpha Voice, 21 Nov. 2015. Web. 2 Nov. 2020.

Fhlainn, Sorcha Ní, ed. The Worlds of Back to the Future: Critical Essays on the Films. Jefferson: McFarland, 2010. Print.

Four Weddings and a Funeral. Dir. Mike Newell. Rank Film, 1994. Film. Friedman, Lester, David Desser, Sarah Kozloff, Martha P. Nochimson, and Stephen

Prince. An Introduction to Film Genres. New York: Norton, 2014. Print.

High Noon. Dir. Fred Zinnemann. United Artists, 1952. Film.

The Hunger Games. Series. Dir. Gary Ross (1), Francis Lawrence (2–4). Lionsgate, 2012-2015. Film.

The Jazz Singer. Dir. Alan Crosland. Warner Bros., 1927. Film.

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The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring. Dir. Peter Jackson. New Line Cinema, 2001. Film.

The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring. Poster. Design by BLT Communications.

Distr. New Line Cinema. 2001. IMP Awards. Internet Movie Poster Awards, 17 June 2008. Web. 3 Sep. 2016. .

The Matrix. Dir. Wachowski Brothers. 1999. Warner Bros./Roadshow, 1999. DVD.

Ministry of Cinema. “Film Genres and Hollywood.” YouTube, 22 Apr. 2015. Web. 4 Sep. 2016. .

Mulvey, Laura. “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema.” Film Theory and Criticism:

Introductory Readings. Ed. Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen. New York: Oxford UP, 1999. 833-44. Print.

Rush Hour. Series. Dir. Brett Ratner. New Line Cinema, 1998-2007. Film.

Schwarzbaum, Lisa. “The Hunger Games: Action-Film Feminism is Catching Fire.” BBC

Culture. BBC, 26 Nov. 2013. Web. 17 July 2016. .

The Searchers. Dir. John Ford. Warner Bros., 1956. Film.

Spy. Dir. Paul Feig. 20th Century Fox, 2015. Film.

Stagecoach. Dir. John Ford. United Artists, 1939. Film.

Star Wars. Poster. Illustration by Tom Jung. Distr. 20th Century Fox. 1977. IMP Awards. Internet Movie Poster Awards, 26 June 2008. Web. 3 Sep. 2016. .

Star Wars: Episode 4— A New Hope. Dir. George Lucas. 20th Century Fox, 1977. Film.

Star Wars: Episode 7— The Force Awakens. Dir. J. J. Abrams. Walt Disney, 2015. Film.

The Terminator. Dir. James Cameron. Orion Pictures, 1984. Film.

Tropic Thunder. Dir. Ben Stiller. DreamWorks, 2008. Film.

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Tropic Thunder. Poster. Design by BLT Communications. Distr. DreamWorks. 2008. IMP

Awards. Internet Movie Poster Awards, 11 June 2008. Web. 3 Sep. 2016. .

Unforgiven. Dir. Clint Eastwood. Warner Bros., 1992. Film.

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SU2-28 Study Unit 3

Drama, Crime Film, and Film Noir FLM201 Drama, Crime Film, and Film Noir

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Describe the key aspects of drama. 2. Explain the key aspects of the crime film. 3. Comment on the key aspects of film noir.

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Overview

Study Unit 3 looks at three film genres: drama, the crime film, and film noir. The study unit will briefly outline the main characteristics of each genre and suggest some representative films, which you may choose to watch if you wish. Take note that the films used for class discussions and assignments may vary each semester, so please pay attention to the course plan.

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Chapter 3: Drama, Crime Film, and Film Noir

This chapter will examine three major genres: drama, the crime film, and film noir, which is sometimes considered as a sub-genre of crime film. These genres tend to deal with serious subject matter and intense emotions, and may have endings that are less than happy.

3.1 Drama

Read

Dirks, Tim. “Drama Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. http:// www.filmsite.org/dramafilms.html

Drama films present realistic characters in realistic situations and feature an extremely wide range of issues: divorce, domestic abuse, poverty, social inequality, racial intolerance, discrimination, corruption, alcoholism, drug abuse, mental illness, chronic disease, rape, post-traumatic stress disorder, the quest to introduce change, and so forth. Typically, drama films are further qualified to more accurately reflect the subject matter; so you might get family drama, legal or courtroom drama, political drama, historical drama, environmental drama, religious drama, sports drama, literary drama, psychological drama, and so on.

Some examples of drama films:

The Grapes of Wrath (dir. John Ford, 1940) Pather Panchali (dir. Satyajit Ray, 1955) Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner (dir. Stanley Kramer, 1967) The Accused (dir. Jonathan Kaplan, 1988) Schindler’s List (dir. Steven Spielberg, 1993)

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Shawshank Redemption (dir. Frank Darabont, 1994) A Separation (dir. Asghar Farhadi, 2011) Spotlight (dir. Tom McCarthy, 2015)

(Source: Schindler’s List, dir. Steven Spielberg, 1993)

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Figure 3.2 Pather Panchali featured amateur actors and was shot on location. The film follows the life of the protagonist, Apu, who lives in poverty in a village in Bengal in the early 20th century.

(Source: Pather Panchali, dir. Satyajit Ray, 1955)

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drama does best: it tells a compelling human story with good acting in a realistic setting.

(Source: Spotlight, dir. Tom McCarthy, 2015)

3.2 Crime Film

Watch

Ministry of Cinema. “Film Genres and Hollywood—Episode Three: Crime.” YouTube, 22 Apr. 2015. Web. 4 Sep. 2016.

This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

Read

The gangster film is a kind of crime film, and the definitive article on the gangster film is this one:

Warshow, Robert. “The Gangster as Tragic Hero.” 1948. Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings. 7th ed. Ed. Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen. New York: Oxford UP, 2009. 576-80.

Friedman, Lester, David Desser, Sarah Kozloff, Martha P. Nochimson, and Stephen Prince. An Introduction to Film Genres, “The Gangster Movie,” pp. 406-445.

Dirks, Tim. “Crime and Gangster Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. http://www.filmsite.org/crimefilms.html

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Crime films revolve around crime, and as with any genre, there are various permutations, all of which have their own conventions.

It would be useful to watch two films that are solidly in the same genre. This will allow you to consider how viewing the first film affects your expectations and response to the second one. That basic experience of watching a film in its “pure” form will enable you to recognise the variations within the genre as you watch more films. Here are two recommended pairs for the gangster film that will let you see the range:

• Scarface (dir. Howard Hawks, 1932) and its remake Scarface (dir. Brian de Palma, 1983) • White Heat (dir. Raoul Walsh, 1949) and The Godfather (dir. Francis Ford Coppola, 1972)

The crime drama may revolve around the investigation to solve a crime and may be very violent or restrained, depending on the personality of the protagonist. For instance, the police procedural emphasises careful investigation that uses scientific methods, whereas the crime thriller may involve a character who is on the run and who is desperately trying to figure out who framed him or her. Crime films can also mix other genres such as comedy.

Some examples of crime films:

Rashomon (dir. Akira Kurosawa, 1950) Bonnie and Clyde (dir. Arthur Penn, 1967) Léon: The Professional (dir. Luc Besson, 1994) The Usual Suspects (dir. Bryan Singer, 1995) The Departed (dir. Martin Scorsese, 2006)

Crime films have changed very much in attitude. A set of industry moral guidelines had been in place since 1930; it dictated that those who engaged in crime had to be punished. But the times were changing, and in 1968, the Motion Picture Production Code was finally replaced by the Motion Picture Association of American film rating system. This resulted in a much less restrictive environment that enabled films to show more violence, bare skin,

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and explicit language, as well as previously banned topics such as inter-racial love scenes and drug-dealing. Films in the 1960s had already been pushing the boundaries: in 1967, for instance, Bonnie and Clyde (dir. Arthur Penn) was released; the film had been shot on location in Texas, far from the interference of the studio, which did not think much of the film and so had left it alone. The film’s violent yet often comic portrayal of two young criminals, played by the beautiful Faye Dunaway and the handsome Warren Beatty in very stylish clothes, was not initially a hit. However, the film’s creativity and innovation in the way it played with genre, combined humour and violence, and dared to make criminals look glamorous and sympathetic, eventually pulled in viewers.

Figure 3.4 Crime films do not have an instantly recognisable look the way a western does, but this iconic image of Marlon Brando as Mafia crime lord Don Vito Corleone has attained legendary status.

(Source: The Godfather, dir. Francis Ford Coppola, 1972)

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Figure 3.5 The film Léon: The Professional portrays a hitman in a sympathetic light when he finds himself the guardian of a twelve-year-old girl whose family has been murdered by a corrupt cop.

(Source: Léon: The Professional, dir. Luc Besson, 1994)

Lesson Recording

Case Study: Crime Films

3.3 Film Noir

Film noir (literally black film in French) began to take shape just before the American intervention in World War II, and its development peaked from the mid-1940s onwards. It is estimated that about 270 noir films were made between 1940 and 1959.

Historically, it was almost as if a new genre invented itself, but the label film noir was only used some years after noir films appeared. The base for film noir is melodrama—films with plots designed to appeal to and manipulate audience emotions. Melodramas often had stereotypical central female characters who had to deal with emotional and physical

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anguish, and who had to make many sacrifices that resulted in tear-jerking moments. Film noir disrupted Hollywood stereotypes about gender and the inevitability of sacrifice and suffering. It is characterised by a moody stylistic approach and an undercurrent of cynicism. Like most genres, film noir emerged as a response to a cultural need and developed out of cinematic elements already in existence.

To understand the background to film noir, we need to look at the years before 1940. Why did so many pessimistic films appear in the years during and after the war? Why were the characters alienated from the surfaces of American life? What were the sources of unease that films were responding to?

World War II had a profound impact on America. Films during this period celebrated American courage, resilience, honesty, and determination to win the war. Films tried to create a sense of what was worth fighting for: the inter-generational family, a stable home life, and attachment to hearth and home. Men and women came together and got married, thus setting up a new family unit, which forms the basis for a stable society that solves all troubles. For example, Dorothy in The Wizard of Oz (dir. Victor Fleming, 1939) discovers at the end that “There’s no place like home” even after she has been to the colourful land of Oz; wilful and self-centred Scarlett O’Hara in Gone with The Wind (dir. Victor Fleming, 1939) comes to value the family home and her husband (though she is too late). The “traditional” nuclear family was American society’s dominant ideology. With the outbreak of World War II as well as America’s eventual participation, this ideology of the nuclear family was even more intensified. Affirmations of marriage and the family, which were already popular and hence a profitable formula for filmmakers before the war, became a political and cultural imperative during the war years.

At the same time, the United States saw an influx of European filmmakers who were fleeing from the Nazis. Many European producers, directors, cinematographers, production designers, and writers relocated to New York and Los Angeles. They brought with them a more experimental set of filming techniques as well as aesthetic sensibilities that were darker and more psychologically complex, as many had worked in German cinema in the silent era, during the period of Expressionism.

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Expressionism is an exaggerated style that emphasises shadowy lighting with long slanting shadows and silhouettes, with stark chiaroscuro (dramatic contrasts between dark and light areas). Camera angles are oblique, and deep focus camera shots create a sense of overwhelming space. The set design is moody and atmospheric, often with dark interiors that are disorienting and seem to hide dark and perilous spaces. Many scenes are shot at night, drawing on the sense of nocturnal danger. Soon, these motifs naturally grafted themselves into the emerging film noir genre.

Figure 3.6 This now classic image from a German silent horror film, The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, encapsulates the style of Expressionism.

(Source: The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, dir. Robert Wiene, 1920)

However, Hollywood did not emphasise the darker aspects of noir, which are troublingly pessimistic and questioning. It was necessary to be positive—people wanted films that made them feel happy, and did not want to watch depressing, dark films.

After World War II ended, and with the new European input, films could afford to try out radically different narrative and visual styles. Visually, the scenes were darkened with stark, angular shadows to highlight the coldness and isolation of modern cities. Location shooting became more popular and provided a major component of noir style. While the Hollywood norm was to shoot most or all of the film on indoor studio sets, film noir often moved towards the use of real urban locales. This strategy added realism to the story and helped to make the city into a kind of character in itself.

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The period’s fashions in clothing played a significant role in noir iconography as well. Men and women were well-dressed and accessorised. Snap-brim hats and fedoras were popular and also served a function, as they could be used to create shadow on the face or partially hide the face for dramatic effect. In addition, trench coats offered good hiding places for handguns.

(Source: Out of the Past, dir. Jacques Tourneur, 1947)

Narratively, the hero has now shifted, becoming a conflicted, terse anti-hero, while the female love interest is beautiful as ever, but is also determined, manipulative, and scheming. This cynicism reflects a change in American society. American cities were growing tremendously as people moved to the urban areas in search of the new jobs that were emerging after the war. As the urban population exploded and people were forced to live in close proximity to each other in increasingly faceless cities while they carried out the

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drudgery of daily life, pessimism crept in. Film noir articulates this post-war philosophical condition; belief in human morality and decency was being eroded and stories about despair and paranoia became increasingly popular. The American dream—which believes that if you are hard-working, good, honest, and have a persevering attitude, you will see good results — had soured.

In fact, though the end of World War II initially brought a feeling of victory and confident assertion of American culture, there was also uncertainty about the future and a lack of clarity about the past. Americans were shocked to learn about the Holocaust, and America’s use of the atomic bomb to end the war confirmed how easily civility and order could fall. In the late 1940s, the Chinese communist revolution, the expansion of the U.S.S.R into Eastern Europe, and the testing of a Russian atomic bomb further upset a society that had assumed that the end of the war would bring peace globally. This was the period of the Cold War, when the prevailing attitude was one of pessimism and mistrust. There were enemies outside America but also enemies within, as almost anyone who had once held or continued to hold liberal or left-wing views was condemned as a communist.

Domestically, many aspects of American life were changing—race, gender, and class relations were shifting; increased urbanisation meant new communities were forming and old ones were losing members; new types of jobs meant adaptation was necessary; rampant technology made life easier but also favoured those who could afford such technology. In particular, the slow, painful progress of civil rights, the continued redefinition of gender roles, and the formation of the multinational corporation, all affected American culture, resulting in a growing cynicism.

Film noir men—the protagonists—tend to be disillusioned and mistrustful. They may have been in uniform in the past, as a cop or a soldier, and have thus seen the failure of the system they served. They have an “aura of world-wary morality” (Pratt 54). In fact, the film noir protagonist may be a victim, set up and manipulated by forces that are beyond his control, or manoeuvred by people who have more power than he has.

Film noir women differ significantly from the women in Classical Hollywood Cinema. In Classical Hollywood Cinema of the 1920s to 1930s, the women seldom ventured out of

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their socially prescribed roles as wives or mothers or lovers to the male hero while he plays out his pre-ordained role. In instances when the women in Classical Hollywood films were heroic, it was within boundaries—a woman might risk her life to save her child, for instance. In short, women play supporting roles to men and are seldom depicted as being a threat.

Noir women, however, are portrayed as the femme fatale—the fatal female. The femme fatale is a seductive woman with a mysterious past. She exudes sexuality, which she uses to manipulate men, leading them into perilous situations even when they may suspect that she is using them. Often, she enlists the male protagonist’s help to save her from a situation she is unhappy with, thus giving him the illusion that he is her saviour. The femme fatale is never a mother—she has no children of her own, thus rejecting traditional expectations of femininity where marriage and family complete her. The femme fatale is a threat to the status quo as well as to the hero, because she asserts her desires and sexuality and is not a passive wife-mother figure. Film noir women drive the action, and their duplicity and desire for wealth and power endanger the male protagonist, who becomes obsessed with her and is rendered weak, confused, morally conflicted and hence susceptible to temptation.

This film noir design is, to an extent, a masculine anxiety over feminine power that stems from the aftermath of World War II. During the years of World War II, a large number of men—especially young men—were fighting the war abroad, so women entered the workforce in unprecedented numbers. Women were not only working in jobs that were traditionally occupied by men, they were performing well and enjoying financial power, many of them for the first time. While few women rose to executive positions, it was women who kept factories and shops operating, and they discovered this to be a welcome liberation from the normal domestic routines.

When the war concluded, many women who had had the work experience desired to continue work; they did not wish to be confined to the traditional roles in the home. Robert Kolker writes that “The liberation was such that, when the war was over, a massive ideological retooling had to be put in place” (315) as the men wanted their jobs back and

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women had to be returned into the home. Women who worked were a threat to patriarchal power. Films depicted transgressive women who were punished, as patriarchal society tried to restore male domination and female subservience, where males were mobile and out at work and females provided stability in the domestic space.

Watch

Filmmaker IQ. “Origins of Film Noir.” YouTube, 11 May 2013. Web. 5 Mar. 2020.

This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

• The Big Sleep (dir. Howard Hawks, 1946) • The Long Goodbye (dir. Robert Altman, 1973)

Read

Friedman, Lester, David Desser, Sarah Kozloff, Martha P. Nochimson, and Stephen Prince. An Introduction to Film Genres, “Film Noir,” pp. 484-519.

Creed, Barbara. “Horror and the Monstrous-Feminine: An Imaginary Abjection.” Screen 27.1 (1986): 44-71.

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The desire to keep women firmly in their place is accompanied by a fear of the woman who cannot be controlled, which at its extreme form is known as the monstrous-feminine. In her essay, “Horror and the Monstrous-Feminine,” Barbara Creed argues that “All human societies have a conception of the monstrous-feminine, of what it is about woman that is shocking, terrifying, horrific, abject” (44). The Medusa, from classical Greek mythology, is cited as one of the antecedents of the monstrous-feminine; her head is covered not in hair but in snakes, and any person who looks at her would turn to stone. Freud argues that the sight of the horrifying Medusa is akin to seeing the female genitals, which because they are so different from male genitals and lack a penis, awaken a fear of castration. This castration anxiety also arises because the male is dependent on the female for sexual pleasure. Female empowerment, in short, is akin to male disempowerment, and male fear of this is intense—it is a primal fear located in horror that is visceral, sickening, and bodily.

Thus film noir portrays images of the femme fatale, a beautiful, independent woman capable of ensnaring a man and making him desire to serve her; then the film contains the threat by destroying the femme fatale, thereby punishing her for having dared to flaunt her sexuality and power over males. In Double Indemnity (dir. Billy Wilder, 1944), the femme fatale Phyllis Dietrichson persuades Walter Neff to murder her husband so she can claim his insurance policy; she then tries to kill Neff, but he shoots her in the film’s final minutes, before himself succumbing to his wounds. In Kiss Me Deadly (dir. Robert Aldrich, 1955), the femme fatale Lily dies a grisly death after opening a box that contains radioactive material. It is the loyal secretary/lover Velda who ends the film in the arms of the private eye, Mike Hammer—the implication is that she better represents traditional womanhood and will take her “proper place” by the side of the dominant male.

This film also conveys a host of other anxieties prevalent at the time, particularly the worries about communism and the nuclear threat. The box in Kiss Me Deadly contains an annihilating white light, emitted by a nuclear fission that vaporises whoever looks at it. Lily/Gabrielle opens the box and perishes in the burning white light. While the true nature of the energy is unidentified, it evokes the atomic bomb, which brought World War

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II to an end but ushered in the nuclear age. The box is the ultimate kind of destabilisation, brought about by the bomb’s entrance into human history.

Watch

Kiss Me Deadly (dir. Robert Aldrich, 1955).

You may borrow the DVD from the university library.

Activity 3.1

Let us now discuss Kiss Me Deadly (dir. Robert Aldrich, 1955), a film that combines all the three genres in this study unit: drama, crime, film noir.

• Identify the aspects that make this a drama film and also a crime film. • Identify the various film noir elements in this film. • Why do the titles in the pre-credits sequence scroll backwards, from the bottom of the screen to the top? • How does the combination of genres add to your enjoyment and appreciation of the film as an artistic creation and as a vehicle for thematic issues?

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Formative Assessment

1. Which of the following is a characteristic of drama films? a. Sad endings b. Lots of dialogue and long emotional speeches. c. Realistic characters d. All the characteristics listed are part of drama films

2. Drama films have a wide range of subject matter and can be combined with other genres. True or False? a. True. b. False.

3. Crime films always punish the perpetrators of the crime. True or False? a. True. b. False.

4. In the presentation for this Study Unit, you watched The Great Train Robbery (dir. Edwin S. Porter, 1903). This is considered a straightforward crime film. What would have made it more complex? a. The film would be more complex if it had shown that the robbers were driven to crime by circumstances beyond their control, such as government corruption or societal injustice. b. The film would be more complex if the robbers had been given names, because then they would be individuals. c. The film would be more complex if the posse had doubts about catching the robbers. d. The film would be more complex if the operator in the radio telegraph office had refused to give in to the robbers and been killed in the process.

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5. Which of the following statements about film noir is inaccurate? a. Film noir features a sexually attractive woman who tempts the male protagonist. b. Film noir features a male protagonist who is conflicted and cynical. c. Film noir features a sense of pessimism about humanity. d. Film noir movies are shot in black and white only.

6. Film noir was a response to the anxieties that arose after World War II. Which of the following statements about film noir is not a description of these anxieties? a. That women would become a threat to men by working and being financially independent. b. That men would be rendered helpless by transgressive women. c. That family unity would break down because of high birth rates. d. That rapid urbanisation was eroding neighbourliness and a sense of community.

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Solutions or Suggested Answers

Activity 3.1

It should be easy to identify the elements that make Kiss Me Deadly a drama and a crime film.

As to the film noir aspects, answers will vary, but here is how American Movie Classics critic Tim Dirks writes about the film:

Kiss Me Deadly is rich with symbolic allusions, labyrinthine and complex plot threads, and Cold War fear and nuclear paranoia about the atomic bomb. The film . . . is a masterpiece of cinematography, exhibited in the disorienting camera angles and unique and unconventional compositions of Ernest Laszlo. It has all the elements of great film noir—a stark opening sequence, destructive femme fatales, low-life cheap gangsters, an anti-hero, expressionistically-lit night- time scenes, a vengeful quest, and a dark mood of hopelessness. And women are abused quite predominantly in the film: the trench-coat-wearing woman Christina by an unknown killer, the faithful Velda by Hammer, and Lily by Dr. Soberin.

The backward pre-credits sequence creates a very disorientating presentation. Furthermore, as the credit roll, the audio contains amplified sounds of the woman sobbing as a song plays from the car’s radio. The song, “I’d rather have the blues than what I’ve got” by Nat King Cole, is about a situation so terrible and alienating as to make the blues seem pleasant. This sequence is sustained with the characters surrounded in darkness, only illuminated by the dashboard lights. It emphasises the essential noir quality of alienation and threat, while also setting the tone for the rest of the film’s visual style, which frequently relies on decentred, unbalanced, hard, and exaggerated framings. The film is designed to be visually transgressive right from the opening imagery. The entire scene is also framed in such a way that when the gangsters ambush Hammer and force

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his car off the road, the main culprit in charge of the mayhem is never fully seen; we get a glimpse of only his feet and lower legs. This creates the sense of an unseen, elusive menace.

Formative Assessment 1. Which of the following is a characteristic of drama films? a. Sad endings Incorrect. A sad ending is not a prerequisite for drama films. The Shawshank Redemption (dir. Frank Darabont, 1994), for instance, has a very joyful ending.

b. Lots of dialogue and long emotional speeches. Incorrect. Drama films do not have to be dialogue-heavy and can actually have lots of action sequences. Raging Bull (dir. Martin Scorsese, 1980), for example, has some brutal boxing scenes.

c. Realistic characters Correct. Drama films do indeed feature characters who are believable, as this fits the drama’s focus on showcasing real life situations.

d. All the characteristics listed are part of drama films Incorrect. Only one of the characteristics listed is accurate.

2. Drama films have a wide range of subject matter and can be combined with other genres. True or False? a. True. Correct. Drama films cover any subject, and there are hybrids like family drama, legal or courtroom drama, political drama, historical drama, environmental drama, religious drama, sports drama, literary drama, psychological drama, and so on.

b. False.

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Incorrect. Drama films cover any subject, and there are hybrids like family drama, legal or courtroom drama, political drama, historical drama, environmental drama, religious drama, sports drama, literary drama, psychological drama, and so on.

3. Crime films always punish the perpetrators of the crime. True or False? a. True. Incorrect. Many crime films do indeed show that crime does not pay. Bonnie and Clyde (dir. Arthur Penn, 1967), for instance, ends with the very violent death of the two robbers. But there are also crime films in which the perpetrators go unpunished, such as Ocean’s Eleven (dir. Steven Soderbergh).

b. False. Correct. Many crime films do indeed show that crime does not pay. Bonnie and Clyde (dir. Arthur Penn, 1967), for instance, ends with the very violent death of the two robbers. But there are also crime films in which the perpetrators go unpunished, such as Ocean’s Eleven (dir. Steven Soderbergh).

b. The film would be more complex if the robbers had been given names, because then they would be individuals.

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Incorrect. Naming the robbers would not change the fact that they are undeveloped characters whose sole function in the film is to be criminals.

c. The film would be more complex if the posse had doubts about catching the robbers. Incorrect. A doubting posse might simply mean that they are worried that the robbers have gotten too much of a lead or might be too dangerous to pursue. This makes the robbers more of a threat.

d. The film would be more complex if the operator in the radio telegraph office had refused to give in to the robbers and been killed in the process. Incorrect. If the operator had refused and been killed, his death would be heroic and the robbers would look even worse because they murdered someone who tried to stop them.

5. Which of the following statements about film noir is inaccurate? a. Film noir features a sexually attractive woman who tempts the male protagonist. Incorrect, because this is indeed a characteristic of film noir.

b. Film noir features a male protagonist who is conflicted and cynical. Incorrect, because this is indeed a characteristic of film noir.

c. Film noir features a sense of pessimism about humanity. Incorrect, because this is indeed a characteristic of film noir.

d. Film noir movies are shot in black and white only. Correct. Because this statement is inaccurate. It is true that the earliest films that we now call film noir were in black and white, but this is not a prerequisite of film noir. Vertigo (dir. Alfred Hitchcock, 1958) is an example of a film noir shot in colour.

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b. That men would be rendered helpless by transgressive women. Incorrect. Film noir does indeed portray this anxiety.

c. That family unity would break down because of high birth rates. Correct. Because this is not an anxiety that arose after World War II. After the War, people were keen to form families, and there was no concern that big families would strain family unity.

d. That rapid urbanisation was eroding neighbourliness and a sense of community. Incorrect. Film noir does indeed portray this anxiety.

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Works Cited

The Accused. Dir. Jonathan Kaplan. Paramount Pictures, 1988. Film.

Bonnie and Clyde. Dir. Arthur Penn. Warner Bros./Seven Arts, 1967. Film.

The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari. Dir. Robert Wiene. 1920. Kino Lorber, 2014. DVD.

Collins, Jim. “Genericity in the Nineties: Eclectic Irony and the New Sincerity.” Film

Theory Goes to the Movies. New York: Routledge, 1993. 242-263. Print.

Creed, Barbara. “Horror and the Monstrous-Feminine: An Imaginary Abjection.” Screen 27.1 (1986): 44-71. Print.

The Departed. Dir. Martin Scorsese. Warner Bros., 2006. Film.

Dirks, Tim. “Crime and Gangster Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. Web. 3 Sep. 2016. .

---. “Drama Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. Web. 3 Sep. 2016. .

---. “Kiss Me Deadly (1955).” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. Web. 5 Sep. 2016. .

Double Indemnity. Dir. Billy Wilder. Paramount Pictures, 1944. Film.

Filmmaker IQ. “Origins of Film Noir.” YouTube, 11 May 2013. Web. 5 Mar. 2020. . Friedman, Lester, David Desser, Sarah Kozloff, Martha P. Nochimson, and Stephen

Prince. An Introduction to Film Genres. New York: Norton, 2014. Print.

The Godfather. Dir. Francis Ford Coppola. Paramount Pictures, 1972. Film.

Gone with the Wind. Dir. Victor Fleming. Loew’s, 1939. Film.

The Grapes of Wrath. Dir. John Ford. 20th Century Fox, 1940. Film.

Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner. Dir. Stanley Kramer. Columbia Pictures, 1967. Film.

Kiss Me Deadly. Dir. Robert Aldrich. United Artists, 1955. Film.

Kolker, Robert P. Film, Form, and Culture. 4th ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2016. Print.

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Léon: The Professional. Dir. Luc Besson. Gaumont/Buena Vista, 1994. Film.

Ministry of Cinema. “Film Genres and Hollywood.” YouTube, 22 Apr. 2015. Web. 4 Sep. 2016. .

Out of the Past. Dir. Jacques Tourneur. RKO Radio Pictures, 1947. Film.

Pather Panchali. Dir. Satyajit Ray. Aurora Film/Merchant Ivory/Sony Pictures, 1955. Film.

Pratt, Ray. Projecting Paranoia: Conspiratorial Visions in American Film. Lawrence: UP of Kansas, 2001. Print.

Rashomon. Dir. Akira Kurosawa. Daiei, 1950. Film.

A Separation. Dir. Asghar Farhadi. Filmiran/Sony Pictures, 2011. Film.

Schindler’s List. Dir. Steven Spielberg. Universal Pictures, 1993. Film.

Shawshank Redemption. Dir. Frank Darabont. Columbia Pictures, 1994. Film.

Spotlight. Dir. Tom McCarthy. Open Road Films, 2015. Film.

The Usual Suspects. Dir. Bryan Singer. Gramercy Pictures/PolyGram, 1995. Film.

---. “Westerns Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. Web. 3 Sep. 2016. .

The Wizard of Oz. Dir. Victor Fleming. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1939. Film.

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SU3-28 Study Unit 4

Horror, Science Fiction, and Fantasy FLM201 Horror, Science Fiction, and Fantasy

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Demonstrate awareness of the key aspects of the horror film. 2. Discuss the key aspects of science fiction. 3. Determine the key aspects of the fantasy film.

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Overview

Study Unit 4 looks at three film genres: horror, science fiction, and fantasy. The study unit will briefly outline the main characteristics of each genre and suggest some representative films, which you may choose to watch if you wish. Take note that the films used for class discussions and assignments may vary each semester, so please pay attention to the course plan.

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Chapter 4: Horror, Science Fiction, and Fantasy

This chapter will examine three major genres: horror, science fiction, and fantasy. Horror films have a reputation for being low budget, quick-to-make flicks, and it has to be admitted that some horror films are exploitative and forgettable; however, well-made horror films can be very successful in touching a nerve. Science fiction and fantasy are more niche genres; sci-fi supposedly appeals to the geeks, while fantasy appeals to children or those in search of an escape from reality—but ultimately, aren’t films a form of escapism? These three genres are often not taken seriously, as they are seen as cheap entertainment or somehow non-realist, but they do actually comment on the human condition.

4.1 Horror

Watch

Filmmaker IQ. “The History of Horror.” YouTube, 25 Apr. 2014. Web. 15 Sep. 2016.

This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

Read

Dirks, Tim. “Horror Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. http://www.filmsite.org/horrorfilms.html

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Friedman, Lester, David Desser, Sarah Kozloff, Martha P. Nochimson, and Stephen Prince. An Introduction to Film Genres, “The Horror Film,” pp. 368-405.

The horror film is designed to make the audience feel terror, panic, dread, and extreme anxiety. As with any other genre, horror can combine with other genres, resulting in science fiction horror, comedy-horror, thriller-horror, and so forth. There are also many kinds of horror films. Horror can arise from a supernatural force such as vampires, demons, and restless souls that torment the living, either through hauntings or possession. In monster horror films, the source of terror may be aliens, predators that have gone berserk, or a creature that has been created by an experiment gone wrong. In slasher films, a crazed killer goes on the rampage, killing in extremely violent ways. Teen horror films typically involve a group of young people who get killed off one by one in increasingly gory ways. Gothic horror exploits the dark crumbling house that hides ghosts and secrets.

Horror films are often powerful metaphors for current fears. In the 1950s, fears about the Cold War and of nuclear invasion were reflected in a slew of films about alien invasion and mutated creatures such as Godzilla. Zombie horror films have been popular in the past few years and reflect the fear of contagion or of being reduced to a mindless automaton because of the pressures of daily life.

Some examples of the horror film: Invasion of the Body Snatchers (dir. Don Siegel, 1956) Psycho (dir. Alfred Hitchcock, 1960) Carrie (dir. Brian De Palma, 1976) The Shining (dir. Stanley Kubrick, 1980) A Nightmare on Elm Street (dir. Wes Craven, 1984) 28 Days Later (dir. Danny Boyle, 2002) Paranormal Activity (dir. Oren Peli, 2007)

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(Source: Scream, dir. Wes Craven, 1996)

(Source: Ringu, dir. Hideo Nakata, 1998)

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4.2 Science Fiction

Watch

Ministry of Cinema. “Film Genres and Hollywood—Episode Six: Science Fiction.” YouTube, 29 May 2015. Web. 16 Sep. 2016.

This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

Read

Dirks, Tim. “Science Fiction Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. http://www.filmsite.org/sci-fifilms.html

Friedman, Lester, David Desser, Sarah Kozloff, Martha P. Nochimson, and Stephen Prince. An Introduction to Film Genres, “Science Fiction,” pp. 324-367.

The American Film Institute defines science fiction as follows:

a genre that marries a scientific or technological premise with imaginative speculation. Whether it’s a flying saucer whirling through space or a gleaming city on a distant planet, at the core of all science fiction is the provocative question, “What if . . . ?” Science fiction presents stories and situations that tap our brightest hopes and darkest fears about what might, one day, turn out to be true. (quoted by Tim Dirks in Filmsite)

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The speculative nature of science fiction, which imagines worlds where space travel is a way of life, for instance, is what separates it from fantasy. A fantasy that features talking dragons, for instance, is not suggesting that the real world will one day have talking dragons; but a science fiction film asks us to imagine what might happen if, for instance, human beings are replaced by robots if they are deemed a nuisance.

There are many kinds of science fiction, and the genre also overlaps with other genres. For instance, Galaxy Quest (dir. Dean Parisot, 1999) is science fiction comedy, Flash Gordon (dir. Frederick Stephani and Ray Taylor, 1936) is comic book science fiction, while Forbidden Planet (dir. Fred M. Wilcox, 1956) is an adaptation of Shakespeare’s The Tempest that examines issues like colonisation, the impact of technology, and the danger of repressed desire and emotions.

Science fiction films can also vary greatly in attitude: dystopian films like The Matrix (dir. Wachowski Brothers, 1999) portray a world that has gone seriously wrong. In contrast, the Star Trek series created by Gene Roddenberry (1966-1970, 1975-2016) is more hopeful in its portrayal of a United Federation of Planets that unites planets and species.

Some examples of science fiction films: Metropolis (dir. Fritz Lang, 1927) Planet of the Apes (dir. Franklin J. Schaffner, 1968) The Stepford Wives (dir. Bryan Forbes, 1975) Blade Runner (dir. Ridley Scott, 1982) The Terminator (dir. James Cameron, 1984) Gattaca (dir. Andrew Niccol, 1997) Avatar (dir. James Cameron, 2009) Snowpiercer (dir. Bong Joon-ho, 2013)

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Figure 4.3 In this image, the cool blues and the uncluttered mise- en-scène help convey the vastness of space. The human figures in the foreground stand confidently, trusting in their technology and ingenuity to negotiate this alien environment.

(Source: 2001: A Space Odyssey, dir. Stanley Kubrick, 1968)

(Source: Avatar, dir. James Cameron, 2009)

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4.3 Fantasy

Watch

WatchMojo. “Top 10 Fantasy Movies of All Time.” YouTube, 8 Sep. 2014. Web. 16 Sep. 2016.

This video will give you a good idea of the wide range of fantasy films, which can be contemporary, funny, magical, terrifying, majestic, and very relevant if you stop to think about their deeper meanings.

This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

Read

Friedman, Lester, David Desser, Sarah Kozloff, Martha P. Nochimson, and Stephen Prince. An Introduction to Film Genres, “The Fantasy Film,” pp. 160-199.

Dirks, Tim. “Fantasy Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. http://www.filmsite.org/fantasyfilms.html

Fantasy films typically involve imagined worlds, mythology, magic, fairy tale elements, and magical or invented creatures. Broadly speaking, there are several main sub- categories. Sword and Sorcery films often feature a protagonist who must learn to become a warrior or a wizard; alternatively, the protagonist is on a mission to protect someone or something and may have to go on a quest.

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High Fantasy films have fully imagined worlds filled with complex civilisations, amazing beasts and creatures such as dragons, elves, and talking animals. The Lord of the Rings films (dir. Peter Jackson, 2001, 2002, 2003) based on J. R. R. Tolkien’s books are an example of High Fantasy, and they portray the classic fight between good and evil as well as a deep respect for the environment.

Contemporary Fantasy films are set in the real world, where magic exists unknown to most people; the Harry Potter films are set in the real world but incorporate the magical world, and since the action takes place in both worlds, this series combines both Contemporary Fantasy and High Fantasy. Both Lord of the Rings and the Harry Potter films have led to a resurgence in fantasy films, though this trend is perhaps already fading.

Some examples of fantasy films: The 7th Voyage of Sinbad (dir. Nathan H. Juran, 1958) Willow (dir. Ron Howard, 1988) Edward Scissorhands (dir. Tim Burton, 1990) The Lord of the Rings films (dir. Peter Jackson, 2001, 2002, 2003) Howl’s Moving Castle (dir. Hayao Miyazaki, 2004) Percy Jackson and the Olympians: The Lightning Thief (dir. Chris Columbus, 2010)

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(Source: The Princess Bride, dir. Rob Reiner, 1987)

(Source: Pan’s Labyrinth, dir. Guillermo del Toro, 2006)

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Watch

Alien (dir. Ridley Scott, 1979).

You may borrow the DVD from the university library.

Watch

Choose a fantasy film of your choice and determine what the film’s characteristics and issues are.

Activity 4.1

Consider Alien (dir. Ridley Scott, 1979), a film that combines two genres in this study unit: horror and science fiction.

• Identify the aspects that make this a horror film. • Identify the aspects that make this science fiction. • How does the combination of genres add to your enjoyment and appreciation of the film as an artistic creation and as a vehicle for thematic issues?

Ask similar questions for the fantasy film of your choice.

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Lesson Recording

Case Study: Horror, Science Fiction, Fantasy

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Formative Assessment

1. The horror film is designed to make the audience feel terror, panic, dread, and extreme anxiety. Ringu (dir. Hideo Nakata, 1998) features a cursed videotape and an antagonist with psychic powers, Sadako Yamamura, who comes back from the dead to kill anyone who watches the videotape. This film qualifies as a horror film because ______a. Sadako is a monster. b. Sadako was murdered by her father, which is a horrifying act. c. it embodies contemporary anxieties in extreme situations that are terrifying. d. it features the struggle between good and evil.

2. In the horror films Carrie (dir. Brian De Palma, 1976), The Ring (dir. Hideo Nakata, 1998) and The Conjuring (dir. James Wan, 2013), the horrifying, supernatural antagonist is a female who is defeated and punished in the end. There are many other horror films that feature a female antagonist. Why do you think this is so? a. Based on Laura Mulvey’s “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema” (refer to Study Unit 2), women are subject to the “gaze” and are largely present on screen to please men. Since the horror genre appeals to males, it makes sense to make the antagonist female. b. Traditionally, females are perceived and portrayed as being more vulnerable and more likely to experience violence, such as rape, which allows for more plot motivations like revenge. c. The supernatural female is a demonstration of what happens when women gain power and are no longer controlled. d. Horror films are actually being innovative and liberating in showing female antagonists who have the ability to terrify.

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3. Science fiction films are very narrow in scope and cannot be combined with other genres. True or False? a. True. b. False.

4. Which of the following cannot be deemed as science fiction? a. A futuristic tale in which human beings are divided into social classes depending on their genetic makeup. b. A married couple moves to an idyllic suburb where it turns out that the women have been replaced with beautiful robots that look just like the women. c. Humanity has destroyed the environment and regressed, while apes have evolved into intelligent and civilized creatures. d. In a high security science lab, researchers struggle to find a cure for various diseases but face problems such as lack of funding and staff.

5. Fantasy films can be set in imaginary worlds but can also be set in the real world that we recognise. True or False? a. True. b. False.

6. “Fantasy is just escapism—it is not relevant.” Which statement does not explain why the link between fantasy and escapism is acceptable? a. Escapism is not a bad thing, and fantasy allows for a creative avenue to explore universal themes. b. We should not think that escapism is wrong or unhealthy. It offers an opportunity to retreat from the stresses of life, which enables healing and balance. c. Escaping from the constraints of real life through fantasy films offers filmmakers an opportunity to create exciting sets, costumes and even languages.

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d. Fantasy is indeed mere escapism, and therefore this genre is irrelevant and useless.

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Solutions or Suggested Answers

Activity 4.1

It should be easy to identify the elements that make Alien a horror film and a science fiction film. You may also want to consider what critic Barbara Creed writes in “Alien and the Monstrous-Feminine”:

In Alien, each of the crew members comes face to face with the alien in a scene whose mise-en-scène is coded to suggest a monstrous, malevolent maternal figure. They watch with fascinated horror as the baby alien gnaws its way through Kane’s stomach; Dallas, the captain, encounters the alien after he has crawled along the ship’s enclosed, womb- like air ducts; and the other three members are cannibalized in a frenzy of blood in scenes which emphasize the alien’s huge razor-sharp teeth, signifying the monstrous oral-sadistic mother. Apart from the scene of Kane’s death, all the death sequences occur in dimly lit, enclosed, threatening spaces reminiscent of the giant hatchery where Kane first encounters the pulsating egg. In these death sequences the terror of being abandoned is matched only by the fear of reincorporation. This scenario, which enacts the conflicting desires at play in the semiotic chora, is staged within the body of the mother-ship, the vessel which the space-travellers initially trust, until ‘Mother’ herself is revealed as a treacherous figure programmed to sacrifice the lives of the crew in the interests of the Company. (138)

Formative Assessment 1. The horror film is designed to make the audience feel terror, panic, dread, and extreme anxiety. Ringu (dir. Hideo Nakata, 1998) features a cursed videotape and an antagonist with psychic powers, Sadako Yamamura, who comes back from the dead to kill anyone who watches the videotape. This film qualifies as a horror film because ______

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a. Sadako is a monster.

Incorrect. Monsters are not exclusive to horror films. The Elephant Man (dir. David Lynch, 1980), for example, is about a severely deformed man, a monster as it were, but the film is a drama, not a horror film.

b. Sadako was murdered by her father, which is a horrifying act. Incorrect. Murder—even a father’s murder of his child—does not automatically make a film a horror film.

c. it embodies contemporary anxieties in extreme situations that are terrifying. Correct. Sadako’s malevolence is transmitted through technology—the videotape. This represents anxiety about the spread of new technologies at the turn of the new millennium.

d. it features the struggle between good and evil. Incorrect. The struggle between good and evil is not exclusive to the horror genre.

2. In the horror films Carrie (dir. Brian De Palma, 1976), The Ring (dir. Hideo Nakata, 1998) and The Conjuring (dir. James Wan, 2013), the horrifying, supernatural antagonist is a female who is defeated and punished in the end. There are many other horror films that feature a female antagonist. Why do you think this is so? a. Based on Laura Mulvey’s “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema” (refer to Study Unit 2), women are subject to the “gaze” and are largely present on screen to please men. Since the horror genre appeals to males, it makes sense to make the antagonist female. Incorrect. Women also actively participate in the “gaze.” Furthermore, the gaze refers to savouring the sight of a beautiful woman; looking at a terrifying female is not appealing. In addition, many women enjoy the horror genre— it does not only attract males.

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b. Traditionally, females are perceived and portrayed as being more vulnerable and more likely to experience violence, such as rape, which allows for more plot motivations like revenge. Incorrect. Male characters also experience violence. The issue is not whether males or females experience violence. The issue is why the female antagonist is shown as being punished or defeated.

c. The supernatural female is a demonstration of what happens when women gain power and are no longer controlled. Correct. Horror films are ultimately very conservative and often reflect a desire to preserve patriarchal structures. Read “Horror and the Monstrous- Feminine: An Imaginary Abjection” by Barbara Creed in Screen 27, 1993.

d. Horror films are actually being innovative and liberating in showing female antagonists who have the ability to terrify. Incorrect. The issue is not whether males or females can be terrifying. The issue is why the female antagonist is shown as being punished or defeated in the end.

3. Science fiction films are very narrow in scope and cannot be combined with other genres. True or False? a. True. Incorrect. Science fiction films easily incorporate elements from other genres, and there are hybrids like science fiction comedy, science fiction drama, suburban science fiction, science fiction horror, and so on.

b. False. Correct. Science fiction films easily incorporate elements from other genres, and there are hybrids like science fiction comedy, science fiction drama, suburban science fiction, science fiction horror, and so on.

4. Which of the following cannot be deemed as science fiction?

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a. A futuristic tale in which human beings are divided into social classes depending on their genetic makeup. Incorrect. This speculates about how genetics affects society, which is indeed science fiction. This plot is a brief description of Gattaca (dir. Andrew Niccol, 1997).

b. A married couple moves to an idyllic suburb where it turns out that the women have been replaced with beautiful robots that look just like the women. Incorrect. This speculates about how extreme sexism looks if it can exploit technology, which is indeed science fiction. This plot is a brief description of The Stepford Wives (dir. Bryan Forbes, 1975).

c. Humanity has destroyed the environment and regressed, while apes have evolved into intelligent and civilized creatures. Incorrect. This speculates about what might happen if human beings are no longer the dominant species, which is indeed science fiction. This plot is a brief description of Planet of the Apes (dir. Franklin J. Schafner, 1968).

d. In a high security science lab, researchers struggle to find a cure for various diseases but face problems such as lack of funding and staff. Correct. This is simply a portrayal of a science lab—this does not automatically make it science fiction. Science fiction has a speculative nature and imagines what might happen if certain conditions come into being.

5. Fantasy films can be set in imaginary worlds but can also be set in the real world that we recognise. True or False? a. True. Correct. High Fantasy films like The Lord of the Rings trilogy (dir. Peter Jackson, 2001, 2002, 2003) are set in Middle-Earth, a complex world with

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hobbits, dwarves, elves, orcs, and talking ents. Jumanji (dir. Joe Johnston, 1995) is about a board game that comes to life; set in the present, it is an example of Contemporary Fantasy.

b. False. Incorrect. High Fantasy films like The Lord of the Rings trilogy (dir. Peter Jackson, 2001, 2002, 2003) are set in Middle-Earth, a complex world with hobbits, dwarves, elves, orcs, and talking ents. But there are also many fantasy films set in the recognizable real world. Jumanji (dir. Joe Johnston, 1995) is about a board game that comes to life; set in the present, it is an example of Contemporary Fantasy.

6. “Fantasy is just escapism—it is not relevant.” Which statement does not explain why the link between fantasy and escapism is acceptable? a. Escapism is not a bad thing, and fantasy allows for a creative avenue to explore universal themes. Incorrect. As this statement does indeed show that the link between fantasy and escapism is acceptable. For example, in The Lord of the Rings trilogy (dir. Peter Jackson, 2001, 2002, 2003), little hobbit Frodo’s dangerous quest to bring the One Ring to Mordor and destroy it in the fires of Mount Doom is really about moral responsibility—what would we do if we had the means to save the world, but at great personal cost?

b. We should not think that escapism is wrong or unhealthy. It offers an opportunity to retreat from the stresses of life, which enables healing and balance. Incorrect. As this statement does indeed show that the link between fantasy and escapism is acceptable.

c. Escaping from the constraints of real life through fantasy films offers filmmakers an opportunity to create exciting sets, costumes and even languages.

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Incorrect. As this statement does indeed show that the link between fantasy and escapism is acceptable.

d. Fantasy is indeed mere escapism, and therefore this genre is irrelevant and useless. Correct. As this statement does not explain why the link between fantasy and escapism is acceptable.

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Works Cited

Alien. Dir. Ridley Scott. 20th Century Fox, 1979. Film.

Avatar. Dir. James Cameron. 20th Century Fox, 2009. Film.

Blade Runner. Dir. Ridley Scott. Warner Bros., 1982. Film.

Carrie. Dir. Brian De Palma. United Artists, 1976. Film.

Creed, Barbara. “Alien and the Monstrous-Feminine.” Alien Zone: Cultural Theory and

Contemporary Science Fiction Cinema. Ed. Annette Kuhn. London: Verso, 1900. 128-144. Print.

Dirks, Tim. “America’s 100 Greatest Movies: Part 4 Science Fiction.” Filmsite. American

Movie Classics Company, 2020. Web. 6 Mar. 2020. .

---. “Fantasy Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. Web. 14 Sep. 2016. .

---. “Horror Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. Web. 14 Sep. 2016. .

---. “Science Fiction Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. Web. 16 Sep. 2016. .

Edward Scissorhands. Dir. Tim Burton. 20th Century Fox, 1990. Film.

Filmmaker IQ. “The History of Horror.” YouTube, 25 Apr. 2014. Web. 15 Sep. 2016. .

Flash Gordon. Series. Dir. Frederick Stephani and Ray Taylor. Universal Pictures, 1936. Film.

Forbidden Planet. Dir. Fred M. Wilcox. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1956. Film. Friedman, Lester, David Desser, Sarah Kozloff, Martha P. Nochimson, and Stephen

Prince. An Introduction to Film Genres. New York: Norton, 2014. Print.

Galaxy Quest. Dir. Dean Parisot. DreamWorks Pictures, 1999. Film.

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Gattaca. Dir. Andrew Niccol. Columbia Pictures, 1997. Film.

Harry Potter. Series. Dir. Chris Columbus, Alfonso Cuarón, Mike Newell, David Yates. Warner Bros., 2001-2011. Film.

Howl’s Moving Castle. Dir. Hayao Miyazaki. Toho, 2004. Film.

Invasion of the Body Snatchers. Dir. Don Siegel. Allied Artists Pictures, 1956. Film.

The Lord of the Rings. Series. Dir. Peter Jackson. New Line Cinema. 2001, 2002, 2003. Film.

The Matrix. Dir. Wachowski Brothers. Warner Bros./Roadshow Entertainment, 1999. Film.

Metropolis. Dir. Fritz Lang. UFA/Paramount Pictures/Kino LorberFilm, 1927. Film.

Ministry of Cinema. “Film Genres and Hollywood.” YouTube, 29 May 2015. Web. 16 Sep. 2016. .

A Nightmare on Elm Street. Dir. Wes Craven. New Line Cinema, 1984. Film.

Pan’s Labyrinth. Dir. Guillermo del Toro. Picturehouse, 2006. Film.

Paranormal Activity. Dir. Oren Peli. Paramount Pictures, 2007. Film.

Percy Jackson and the Olympians: The Lightning Thief. Dir. Chris Columbus. 20th Century Fox, 2010. Film.

Planet of the Apes. Dir. Franklin J. Schaffner. 20th Century Fox, 1968. Film.

The Princess Bride. Dir. Rob Reiner. 20th Century Fox/Vestron, 1987. Film.

Psycho. Dir. Alfred Hitchcock. Paramount Pictures, 1960. Film.

Ringu. Dir. Hideo Nakata. Toho, 1998. Film.

Scream. Dir. Wes Craven. Dimension Films, 1996. Film.

The 7th Voyage of Sinbad. Dir. Nathan H. Juran. Columbia Pictures, 1958. Film.

The Shining. Dir. Stanley Kubrick. Warner Bros., 1980. Film.

Snowpiercer. Dir. Bong Joon-ho. CJ Entertainment, 2013. Film.

Star Trek. Created by Gene Roddenberry, CBS, Paramount Pictures, 1966-1970, 1975-2016.

The Stepford Wives. Dir. Bryan Forbes. Palomar Pictures, 1975. Film.

The Terminator. Dir. James Cameron. Orion Pictures, 1984. Film.

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28 Days Later. Dir. Danny Boyle. Fox Searchlight Pictures, 2002. Film.

2001: A Space Odyssey. Dir. Stanley Kubrick. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1968. Film.

WatchMojo. “Top 10 Fantasy Movies of All Time.” YouTube, 8 Sep. 2014. Web. 16 Sep.

2016. < https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=93RlS_Vi0C8>.

Willow. Dir. Ron Howard. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1988. Film.

SU4-26 Study Unit 5

Musical, War Film, Epic, and Documentary FLM201 Musical, War Film, Epic, and Documentary

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Outline the key aspects of the film musical. 2. Demonstrate awareness of the key aspects of the war film. 3. Determine the key aspects of the epic film. 4. Discuss the key aspects of documentary.

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Overview

Study Unit 5 looks at these film genres: the musical, the war film, and the epic film. The study unit will briefly outline the main characteristics of each genre and suggest some representative films, which you may choose to watch if you wish. Take note that the films used for class discussions and assignments may vary each semester, so please pay attention to the course plan.

The documentary is non-fiction, so it is not often included in discussions of movie genre; however, we will look at documentary because it is a significant body of work.

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Chapter 5: The Musical, The War Film, Epic Film, and Documentary

This chapter examines three genres that tend to be produced on a large scale because they may require large casts, elaborate sets and costumes, and location shoots. The musical, the war film and the epic are also genres that are less commonly produced, probably because they can be so elaborate and expensive.

The documentary is a non-fiction genre, which sets it apart from the genres we have looked at thus far. However, many documentaries have a strong narrative, and we will explore how this narrative may actually be constructed.

5.1 The Musical

The film musical is a distinct genre in which singing and/or dancing are important elements; the songs and dances are performed by primary and secondary characters in place of some dialogue during key dramatic moments. In a musical, “the lyrics and context [are] presented in such a way as to underscore the performing character’s state of mind or personal situation” (Barsam and Monahan 99); the musical numbers, in other words, enable the story’s characters to express their emotions, and the film would lose some meaning if these musical numbers were omitted.

Broadly speaking, there are two types of musical:

• The backstage musical, which chronicles the life of a group of performers who are working to put up a production. • The straight musical, which is basically a normal movie in which characters regularly break into song and dance.

The musical is the only genre where characters perform to the camera for the benefit of the film viewer rather than for any ostensible audience within the film’s story. The music in backstage musicals often comes from a source within the film universe—such as a band that is performing in the story. But very often, the music that accompanies the singing is

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non-diegetic, coming from nowhere, as it were—this is another violation of the rules of realism that govern almost all other genres.

Watch

Singin’ in the Rain (dir. Gene Kelly and Stanley Donen, 1952).

You may borrow the DVD from the university library.

Singin’ in The Rain is an integrated musical, which means the musical sequences are woven seamlessly and naturally into the characters’ lives. Movies that include an occasional musical interlude, such as Dooley Wilson’s famous rendition of “As Time Goes By” in Casablanca (dir. Michael Curtiz, 1942) or Tom Cruise’s dance in Tropic Thunder (dir. Ben Stiller, 2008) are not considered film musicals. The scene that everyone remembers from Singin’ in The Rain is of Gene Kelly soaked to the skin in heavy rain, hanging from a lamp post, swinging his umbrella and dancing joyfully through puddles of water in the blissful state of new love. This scene conveys his emotions on so many levels. The delightful music, the exuberant dance, the lyrics, the way he treats a rainy day as an opportunity to enjoy puddles, and the camerawork all work together so naturally that we accept that non-diegetic music suddenly plays so that we can spontaneously perform elaborate tap dances.

But Singin’ in the Rain is also a musical about how the coming of sound affected Hollywood, and so it is deliciously self-aware. There is a scene where Don Lockwood adjusts the lighting, switches on a mist machine, and then turns on a wind machine on an empty soundstage to set a romantic mood before proclaiming his love for Kathy Selden in a tender song and dance routine, “You Were Meant for Me”; this openly acknowledges the conventions of artificiality that characterise performance in musical films. In another wonderful scene, Lina Lamont tries to deal with having to speak into a microphone, with hilarious results.

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Read

Dirks, Tim. “Musicals—Dance Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. http://www.filmsite.org/musicalfilms.html

Friedman, Lester, David Desser, Sarah Kozloff, Martha P. Nochimson, and Stephen Prince. An Introduction to Film Genres, “The Musical,” pp. 200-241.

Some examples of the film musical: The Wizard of Oz (dir. Victor Fleming, 1939) Singin’ in the Rain (dir. Gene Kelly and Stanley Donen, 1952) West Side Story (dir. Robert Wise and Jerome Robbins, 1961) Mary Poppins (dir. Robert Stevenson 1964) The Sound of Music (dir. Robert Wise, 1965) Cabaret (dir. Bob Fosse, 1972) Grease (dir. Randal Kleiser, 1978) Beauty and the Beast (dir. Gary Trousdale and Kirk Wise, 1991) Chicago (dir. Rob Marshall, 2002)

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(Source: Chicago, dir. Rob Marshall, 2002)

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musical sequences a natural part of the story. This film was the first animated feature film to ever be nominated for Best Picture.

(Source: Beauty and the Beast, dir. Gary Trousdale and Kirk Wise, 1991)

Lesson Recording

Case Study: The Musical

5.2 The War Film

Watch

Ministry of Cinema. “Film Genres and Hollywood—Episode Four: War.” YouTube, 29 May 2015. Web. 16 Sep. 2016.

This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

Read

Dirks, Tim. “War Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. http:// www.filmsite.org/warfilms.html

Friedman, Lester, David Desser, Sarah Kozloff, Martha P. Nochimson, and Stephen Prince. An Introduction to Film Genres, “The Combat Movie,” pp. 278-323.

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War films can vary greatly in subject matter and tone. Some films draw attention to the trauma and suffering caused by war; such films may follow a particular soldier, team, platoon, or unit of some sort, showing their emotions and relationships in detail. Other films emphasise the scale of war, showing the technology of war (tanks, planes, ships bristling with guns etc.) and the massive battles; such films often show the leadership and the decisions that they make, and they may show both sides of the battle. Some war films focus on the home front, showing the daily struggle to live with the conditions of rationing, constant blackouts, and the adjustments necessary because of wartime conditions. War films can be very critical of war, emphasising the futility and wastefulness of it all. In times of actual war, the films are more likely to be propagandistic. Films that depict historical or fictional wars can use them to comment on contemporary war: for instance, a movie about a battle between two kingdoms in a fantasy film might actually be an analogy for the Vietnam War, which is widely regarded as an unjust war.

As with any other genre, the war film can be combined with other genres, resulting in war musicals, war comedy, war thriller, and so forth.

Some examples of the war film: All Quiet on the Western Front (dir. Lewis Milestone, 1930) Henry V (dir. Laurence Olivier, 1944) Apocalypse Now (dir. Francis Ford Coppola, 1979) Das Boot (dir. Wolfgang Peterson, 1981) Schindler’s List (dir. Steven Spielberg, 1993) Saving Private Ryan (dir. Steven Spielberg, 1998) The Hurt Locker (dir. Kathryn Bigelow, 2008) American Sniper (dir. Clint Eastwood, 2014)

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(Source: Battleship Potemkin, dir. Sergei Eisenstein, 1925)

(Source: Glory, dir. Edward Zwick, 1989)

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5.3 Epic Film

Watch

TrailersPlaygroundHD. “ Ben Hur (1959)—Official Trailer.” YouTube, 11 June 2012. Web. 17 Sep. 2016.

This trailer of Ben-Hur gives a good idea of an epic movie’s scale—vast sets, huge cast, and a sweeping story.

This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

Read

Dirks, Tim. “Epics-Historical Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. http://www.filmsite.org/epicsfilms.html

The epic film typically has a historical or mythical subject and is made on a large scale with a big budget for the elaborate and detailed sets, large cast, and location shooting, often involving sweeping vistas. Do not confuse the epic with the period piece (a film set in the past) or a film set in an exotic locale; a film is epic because of its ambitious scope and not simply because its cast is in period costume. Epic films can incorporate other genres as well: the most common is the historical epic, which includes the biopic or biographical epic such as Lawrence of Arabia (David Lean, 1962). Other types of epic include epic Westerns, epic science fiction or fantasy, the romantic epic, and the war epic.

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Though epic films may feature historical or mythical figures and usually aim for accuracy in terms of recreating the period, they reflect the prevailing attitudes at the time of production. Thus an early film about slavery might be rather unquestioning about the whole business of enslaving fellow human beings, whereas a more contemporary film about slavery is likely to be more critical.

Some examples of the epic film: The Birth of a Nation (dir. D. W. Griffith, 1915) Gone with the Wind (dir. Victor Fleming, 1939) The Ten Commandments (dir. Cecil B. DeMille, 1956) Ben-Hur (dir. William Wyler, 1959) Gandhi (dir. Richard Attenborough, 1982) Titanic (dir. James Cameron, 1997) Gladiator (dir. Ridley Scott, 2000) Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World (dir. Peter Weir, 2003) The Lord of the Rings films (dir. Peter Jackson, 2001, 2002, 2003) Revenant (dir. Alejandro G. Iñárritu, 2015)

Figure 5.5 So many epics were set in Biblical times or involved Romans and other sword-wielding warriors that the term “sword-and-sandals” is often

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used for this sub-genre. The image above is of the famous chariot scene from Ben-Hur, which took five weeks to film and used 15,000 extras.

(Source: Ben-Hur, dir. William Wyler, 1959)

(Source: The Last Emperor, dir. Bernardo Bertolucci, 1987)

5.4 Documentary

Figure 5.7 Public domain image from Man with a Movie Camera by Dziga Vertov. Made in 1929, this experimental silent documentary film was named the best documentary

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of all time by Sight and Sound in 2014. You can easily find it on the Internet. Here also is an interesting feature on the film, by Kyle Kallgren:

“Man with the Movie Camera and the Truth in the Movie.”

Read

Eitzen, Dirk. “When Is a Documentary?: Documentary as a Mode of Reception.” Cinema Journal 35.1 (1995): 81-102.

The documentary is nonfiction, and its principle is supposed to be its truthfulness. The documentary claims to be a faithful, factual record of the world, and the very label “documentary” leads us to expect that the subjects on screen exist exactly as shown. In fact, the history of documentary—which is as long as the history of fiction film— might suggest otherwise. The Lumiere brothers, who pioneered early cinema, often set up their camera and recorded whatever happened in front of it, thus observing and recording events that might have taken place anyway, without the camera’s presence.

Watch

“L’Arrivee d’un train en gare de la Ciotat, 1896.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia, 21 Feb. 2020. Web. 6 Mar. 2020. (Once you are in the webpage, look for the video, which is silent.)

This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

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Watch

Between the 1930s and 1950s, movie theatres showed newsreels before the main film (in some cases, movie theatres showed newsreels exclusively). While much of the footage is indeed of events that have actually taken place, the footage is edited for maximum emotional effect, just as a movie is edited. Watch these two newsreels, which should give you an idea of how newsreels seek to manipulate and influence viewers.

These streaming videos require Internet connection. Access them via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

Alexander Street Press. “D-Day Invasion: Archival Newsreel Footage.” YouTube, 6 June 2012. Web. 9 Aug. 2016.

British Pathè. “The Untimely Passing of Marilyn Monroe.” YouTube, 13 Apr. 2014. Web. 9 Aug. 2016.

Watch

Robert Flaherty (1884-1951) is known as the founding figure of the documentary, and he was known to literally arrange the environment he was documenting to create the scene and effect he wanted. His most famous film, Nanook of the North (1922) is an observation of the Inuits’ daily life in the twenties.

Watch two clips from Nanook of the North, (dir. Robert Flaherty, 1922).

These streaming videos require Internet connection. Access them via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

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Video clip 1 Video clip 2

In Clip 1, Nanook is seen using a harpoon to catch a walrus. Flaherty was filming in 1920-21, when most Inuits had actually switched from harpoons to rifles; at Flaherty’s request, they used the harpoon specifically for the film. It is possible to argue that the Inuits did indeed know how to use the harpoon and so there is nothing wrong with depicting them using it. However, audiences watching the film would have come away with the impression that the Inuits still used harpoons to hunt on a daily basis.

Clip 2 features Nanook catching a seal. Flaherty wanted to film a bear hunt, but there was no bear to be found. So Flaherty staged the scene by placing a dead seal beneath the ice, while the crew, off-screen, tugged on the line to simulate the resisting seal. One could argue that though there is some staging, there is no denying the Inuits’ very real struggle and outstanding survival skills.

Reflect 5.1

What is your opinion? Is such staging in a documentary acceptable?

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(Source: New Wave Films, 2012)

Watch

Saving Private Ryan (dir. Steven Spielberg, 1998)

You may borrow the DVD from the university library.

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Activity 5.1

Consider Saving Private Ryan (dir. Steven Spielberg, 1998), a film that combines two genres in this study unit: war and epic.

• Identify the aspects that make this a war film. • Identify the aspects that make this an epic film. • How does the combination of genres add to your enjoyment and appreciation of the film as an artistic creation and as a vehicle for thematic issues?

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Formative Assessment

1. In the musical Moulin Rouge (dir. Baz Luhrmann, 2001), Christian (Ewan McGregor) tries to convince Satine (Nicole Kidman) to sleep with him. They sing a medley comprising short segments from previously released popular songs by The Beatles, U2, Phil Collins, Dolly Parton, and Elton John (among others). Which statement is most accurate? a. The musical accompaniment in the scene has no source from within the scene but just appears as the characters sing. This musical accompaniment is called diegetic music. b. Moulin Rouge uses previously released popular songs and not original music. Hence, it is actually better described as a music video rather than a musical. c. By using previously released popular songs, Moulin Rouge emphasises how artificial it is as a musical, as people spontaneously burst into songs that the audience would recognise. d. The use of previously released popular music is a strategy to make the film more appealing to audiences.

2. Straight musicals are not realistic, and in the musical sequences, characters perform to the camera, which is not the norm in other genres. True or False? a. True. b. False.

3. The film Henry V (dir. Laurence Olivier, 1944), is an adaptation of a play by Shakespeare and is set in the fifteenth century. It tells the story of the real-life King Henry V and a crucial battle that he fought at Agincourt. The film features hundreds of extras and was made to boost British morale during World War II. Which of the descriptions below best serves as a label for the genres incorporated in the film? a. Literary adaptation.

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b. History film c. Literary adaptation, historical epic war film d. Shakespeare film.

4. Do a little research on the films listed below and determine which one cannot be categorised as a war movie. a. MASH (dir. Robert Altman, 1970). b. Full Metal Jacket (dir. Stanley Kubrick, 1987) c. The Thin Red Line (dir. Terrence Malick, 1998) d. The War of the Roses (dir. Danny DeVito, 1989)

5. A period film is automatically an epic film. True or False? a. True. b. False.

7. The label “documentary” creates the expectation that what we are watching is ______a. accurate, factual, and totally unmanipulated. b. spontaneous, creatively presented, and deceptive. c. unscripted, undirected, and fake. d. carefully directed, verified, and manipulated.

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the quest to build the Gossamer Condor, it qualifies as a short documentary. True or False? a. True. b. False.

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Solutions or Suggested Answers

Activity 5.1

It should be easy to identify the elements that make Saving Private Ryan a war film and an epic film. Jeanine Basinger, Corwin-Fuller Professor of Film Studies and American Studies at Wesleyan University, has summarised the war film in this way:

My research for The World War II Combat Film indicated that the traditional story format contains three basic elements: hero, group, and objective. The group is made up of a mixture of ethnic and geographic types, most commonly including an Italian, a Jew, a cynical complainer from Brooklyn, a sharpshooter from the mountains, a midwesterner (nicknamed by his state, “Iowa” or “Dakota”), and a character who must be initiated in some way (a newcomer without battle experience) and/or who will provide a commentary or “explanation” on the action as it occurs (a newspaperman, a letter writer, an author, a professor). As the group moves forward, action unfolds in a series of contrasting episodes that alternate in uneven patterns: night and day, safety and danger, action and repose, dialogue and nondialogue, comedy and tragedy, good weather and bad weather, combat and noncombat, and so on. Military iconography is used and explained. Conflict breaks out within the group itself, in which the objective is questioned, leadership is questioned, and the war itself is often questioned. Rituals from home are discussed and remembered, and new rituals from their combat status are enacted. As the group advances, they encounter the enemy and certain members die. A final climactic battle—often a last stand, referred to as an “Alamo” or “A Little Big Horn”—takes place, which reveals the film’s overall purpose. The hero, who has usually had the objective forced on him, has to make a series of difficult (and unpopular) decisions. He sometimes survives (although most of his men don’t), and he sometimes dies. (“An Unusual Story Format” section)

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What do you think of Basinger’s summary of the war film format?

Formative Assessment 1. In the musical Moulin Rouge (dir. Baz Luhrmann, 2001), Christian (Ewan McGregor) tries to convince Satine (Nicole Kidman) to sleep with him. They sing a medley comprising short segments from previously released popular songs by The Beatles, U2, Phil Collins, Dolly Parton, and Elton John (among others). Which statement is most accurate? a. The musical accompaniment in the scene has no source from within the scene but just appears as the characters sing. This musical accompaniment is called diegetic music. Incorrect. The musical accompaniment is non-diegetic, as it does not originate from within the scene but is added over the scene.

b. Moulin Rouge uses previously released popular songs and not original music. Hence, it is actually better described as a music video rather than a musical. Incorrect. Moulin Rouge is indeed a musical. It is a “jukebox musical,” a sub- genre of the musical that uses previously released popular songs.

c. By using previously released popular songs, Moulin Rouge emphasises how artificial it is as a musical, as people spontaneously burst into songs that the audience would recognise. Incorrect. The idea of simply breaking into song is acceptable in musical tradition, and it does not matter that the songs have previously been released.

d. The use of previously released popular music is a strategy to make the film more appealing to audiences.

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Correct. Using previously released popular music would be helpful in marketing, especially since musicals were not popular in 2001.

2. Straight musicals are not realistic, and in the musical sequences, characters perform to the camera, which is not the norm in other genres. True or False? a. True. Incorrect. Straight musicals actually try to be realistic, and the song and dance sequences are usually integrated logically into the scenes, with a plausible motivation—though it is true that characters might seem to perform to the camera.

b. False. Correct. Straight musicals actually try to be realistic, and the song and dance sequences are usually integrated logically into the scenes, with a plausible motivation. However, it is true that characters might seem to perform to the camera.

b. History film Incorrect. This is actually an acceptable description, but it could be more precise.

c. Literary adaptation, historical epic war film

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Correct. It is a literary adaptation because it is based on a written play. It features events in the past and is shot on a grand scale, so it is a historical epic. And of course, it features war, so it is a war film as well.

d. Shakespeare film. Incorrect. Although there are many films about Shakespeare’s plays, “Shakespeare film” is not actually a genre.

4. Do a little research on the films listed below and determine which one cannot be categorised as a war movie. a. MASH (dir. Robert Altman, 1970). Incorrect. This is indeed a war movie; MASH stands for Mobile Army Surgical Hospital, and the film is set during the Korean War.

b. Full Metal Jacket (dir. Stanley Kubrick, 1987) Incorrect. This is indeed a war movie; the film is set during the Vietnam War.

c. The Thin Red Line (dir. Terrence Malick, 1998) Incorrect. This is indeed a war movie; the film is set during World War II.

d. The War of the Roses (dir. Danny DeVito, 1989) Correct. This is actually a black comedy about a couple called Oliver and Barbara Rose, who go through a bitter divorce.

5. A period film is automatically an epic film. True or False? a. True. Incorrect. A period film is a film that is set in the past: for instance, a film set in 1980 is a period film and would require that the clothes and setting be a reconstruction of the time. However, it is not necessarily an epic film, which has an ambitious scope and, very often, a large cast.

b. False.

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Correct. A period film is a film that is set in the past: for instance, a film set in 1980 is a period film and would require that the clothes and setting be a reconstruction of the time. However, it is not necessarily an epic film, which has an ambitious scope and, very often, a large cast.

6. “Sword-and-sandal” epics are problematic because they reflect the outdated attitudes of the period depicted in the film. For example, a film that depicts slavery and gladiatorial games endorses these terrible abuses. True or False? a. True. Incorrect. Any film, not just epic films depicting a particular period, reflects the attitudes prevalent at the time of production. As for the subject matter, depiction does not mean endorsement. A film that shows characters who support slavery, for instance, is not necessarily supporting slavery—it is simply showing something that is a part of the story.

b. False. Correct. Any film, not just epic films depicting a particular period, reflects the attitudes prevalent at the time of production. As for the subject matter, depiction does not mean endorsement. A film that shows characters who support slavery, for instance, is not necessarily supporting slavery—it is simply showing something that is a part of the story.

7. The label “documentary” creates the expectation that what we are watching is ______a. accurate, factual, and totally unmanipulated. Correct. We assume that what we see on the screen is all real—when in fact, there is some manipulation.

b. spontaneous, creatively presented, and deceptive. Incorrect. We do not expect that a documentary is deceptive.

c. unscripted, undirected, and fake.

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Incorrect. We do not expect that a documentary is fake.

d. carefully directed, verified, and manipulated. Incorrect. We do not expect that a documentary is manipulated; and we might not think it is carefully directed either.

8. Feel free to do a little research on the following film. The Flight of the Gossamer Condor (dir. Ben Shedd, 1978) is about the first human-powered aircraft. Because it is less than forty minutes, chronicles real events, and follows the actual people involved in the quest to build the Gossamer Condor, it qualifies as a short documentary. True or False? a. True. Correct. Shorts are films that are not considered long enough to be called feature films—typically, shorts are forty minutes or less. And since the director filmed the real people who built the Gossamer Condor and did not use actors, the film is considered a documentary. Combined, it is a short documentary or a documentary short.

b. False. Incorrect. Shorts are films that are not considered long enough to be called feature films—typically, shorts are forty minutes or less. And since the director filmed the real people who built the Gossamer Condor and did not use actors, the film is considered a documentary. Combined, it is a short documentary or a documentary short.

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Works Cited

Alexander Street Press. “D-Day Invasion: Archival Newsreel Footage.” YouTube, 6 June 2012. Web. 9 Aug. 2016. .

All Quiet on the Western Front. Dir. Lewis Milestone. Universal Pictures, 1930. Film.

American Sniper. Dir. Clint Eastwood. Warner Bros., 2014. Film.

Apocalypse Now. Dir. Francis Ford Coppola. United Artists, 1979. Film.

“L’Arrivee d’un train en gare de la Ciotat, 1896.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia, 21 Feb. 2020. Web. 6 Mar. 2020. .

Barsam, Richard Meran, and Dave Monahan. Looking at Movies: An Introduction to Film. 3rd ed. New York: Norton, 2010. Print.

Basinger, Jeanine. “Translating War: The Combat Film Genre and Saving Private Ryan.”

Perspectives on History. American Historical Association, Oct. 1998. Web. 10 Oct. 2016.

Battleship Potemkin. Dir. Sergei Eisenstein. Goskino, 1925. Kino Lorber, 2007. DVD.

Beauty and the Beast. Dir. Gary Trousdale and Kirk Wise. Buena Vista Pictures, 1991. Film.

Ben-Hur. Dir. William Wyler. Loew’s, 1959. Film.

The Birth of a Nation. Dir. D. W. Griffith. Epoch, 1915. Film.

British Pathè. “The Untimely Passing of Marilyn Monroe.” YouTube, 13 Apr. 2014. Web. 9 Aug. 2016. .

Cabaret. Dir. Bob Fosse. Allied Artists, 1972. Film.

Chicago. Dir. Rob Marshall. 2002. Miramax, 2014. DVD.

Das Boot. Dir. Wolfgang Peterson. Neue Constantin, 1981. Film.

Dirks, Tim. “Epics-Historical Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. Web. 17 Sep. 2016. .

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---. “Musicals—Dance Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. Web. 16 Sep. 2016. .

---. “War Films.” Filmsite. American Movie Classics Company, 2016. Web. 16 Sep. 2016. .

5 Broken Cameras. Dir. Emad Burnat and Guy Davidi. Kino Lorber, 2011. Film.

5 Broken Cameras. Poster.Distr.Kino Lorber. 2011. New Wave Films, 2012. Web. Friedman, Lester, David Desser, Sarah Kozloff, Martha P. Nochimson, and Stephen

Prince. An Introduction to Film Genres. New York: Norton, 2014. Print.

Gandhi. Dir. Richard Attenborough. Columbia Pictures, 1982. Film.

Gladiator. Dir. Ridley Scott. DreamWorks Pictures/Paramount Pictures, 2000. Film.

Glory. Dir. Edward Zwick. TriStar Pictures, 1989. Film.

Gone with the Wind. Dir. Victor Fleming. Loew’s, 1939. Film.

Grease. Dir. Randal Kleiser. Paramount Pictures, 1978. Film.

Henry V. Dir. Laurence Olivier. Eagle-Lion Distributors, 1944. Film.

The Hurt Locker. Dir. Kathryn Bigelow. Summit Entertainment, 2008. Film.

Kallgren, Kyle. “Man with the Movie Camera and the Truth in the Movie.” YouTube, 29 Feb. 2016. Web. 10 Oct. 2016. .

The Last Emperor. Dir. Bernardo Bertolucci. Columbia Pictures, 1987. Film.

Lawrence of Arabia. Dir. David Lean. Columbia Pictures, 1962. Film.

The Lord of the Rings. Series. Dir. Peter Jackson. 2001, 2002, 2003. Film.

Man with a Movie Camera. Dir. Dziga Vertov. VUFKU, 1929. Kino International, 2003. DVD.

Mary Poppins. Dir. Robert Stevenson. Buena Vista, 1964. Film.

Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World. Dir. Peter Weir. 20th Century Fox/ Universal Pictures, 2003. Film.

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Ministry of Cinema. “Film Genres and Hollywood.” YouTube, 29 May 2015. Web. 16 Sep. 2016. .

Nanook of the North. Dir. Robert Flaherty. Pathé, 1922. Criterion, 1999. DVD.

Revenant. Dir. Alejandro G. Iñárritu. 20th Century Fox, 2015. Film.

Saving Private Ryan. Dir. Steven Spielberg. DreamWorks Pictures/Paramount Pictures, 1998. Film.

Schindler’s List. Dir. Steven Spielberg. Universal Pictures, 1993. Film.

Singin’ in the Rain. Dir. Gene Kelly and Stanley Donen. Loew’s, 1952. Warner Home Video, 2002. DVD.

The Sound of Music. Dir. Robert Wise. 20th Century Fox, 1965. Film.

The Ten Commandments. Dir. Cecil B. DeMille. Paramount Pictures, 1956. Film.

Titanic. Dir. James Cameron. 20th Century Fox/ Paramount Pictures, 1997. Film.

TrailersPlaygroundHD. “Ben Hur (1959)—Official Trailer.” YouTube, 11 June 2012. Web. 17 Sep. 2016. .

West Side Story. Dir. Robert Wise and Jerome Robbins. United Artists, 1961. Film.

The Wizard of Oz. Dir. Victor Fleming. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1939. Film.

SU5-30 Study Unit 6

Film Genre: Conclusion FLM201 Film Genre: Conclusion

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Comment on genre in relation to Singapore films. 2. Review the various approaches for discussing genre. 3. Show how genre continues to be relevant as films develop and diversify.

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Overview

Study Unit 6 concludes your study of film genres and invites you to consider how and why genre is important as you think about films and their impact.

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Chapter 6: Film Genre: Conclusion

6.1 Genre and Singapore Film

It is only fitting, since we live in Singapore, that we now consider Singapore film.

Activity 6.1

Try this fun activity! Which genre do you think is most common for made-in- Singapore films? Rank the genres from one (most common) to twelve (least common).

Think also about why some genres are more likely to be used while others are highly unlikely. (We will not include the documentary for this activity, as it is non-fiction, unlike the other genres here).

To find out more about Singapore film and genre, visit the following sites. Which genres seem most popular among local filmmakers?

• Is this because filmmakers perceive that local audiences like certain genres more? • Is it because certain genres are easier to produce? For instance, what role do funding, availability of talent, and consumer preferences play in Singapore, where genre is considered? • Do you think some genres appeal to Singaporeans more than others? Why or why not?

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mm2 Entertainment produces films and content for television and online productions in various countries such as Zhao Wei Films is founded by director Singapore, Malaysia, and Korea. Its films Eric Khoo, and it has produced many include My Love, Sinema (dir. Tan Ai Leng, award-winning films. Its films include 2016), Operation Chromite (dir. John H. Lee, The Apprentice (dir. Boo Junfeng, 2016), 2016), and Long Long Time Ago (dir. Jack Tatsumi (dir. Eric Khoo, 2011), 881 (dir. Neo, 2016). Royston Tan, 2007), and Liang Po Po the Movie (dir. Bee Lian Teng, 1999).

6.2 Summing Up Genre

Your exploration of genre in Singapore films should give you a better idea of how genre is not simply a collection of characteristics. Genre is very much an aspect of the filmmaking industry and the drive to make films that would appeal to audiences and generate profit.

Watch

WarnerJordanEducation. “Introduction to Film Genres.” YouTube, 20 Nov. 2011. Web. 17 Sep. 2016.

This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

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This video provides a useful summary of genre and how it evolved. Studios wanted to standardise products, which would make it easier to make films, and over time, certain traits developed. Films of a particular type had certain types of characters and a recognisable style, mood, and iconography; they also tended to have similar thematic concerns. The video also points out how there are several stages of genre:

• Primitive (patterns and iconography are established, themes are developed) • Classical (patterns continue and are solidified) • Revisionist (iconography and values are largely maintained but are modified and/ or questioned) • Parodic (genre is mocked or spoofed) • Extension (basic values and themes are changed and/or replaced)

Many films do not fit into only one genre, and overlaps are common and accepted. In addition, audiences appreciate uniqueness and creativity in the employment of genre.

Watch

This video places genre in the context of Hollywood’s history.

WarnerJordanEducation. “Evolution of Hollywood Storytelling.” YouTube, 17 Oct. 2015. Web. 17 Sep. 2016.

This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

It was not until the 1960s that critics began to recognise that genre was actually worth studying for its critical and artistic implications. Now, genre is a major area of study.

SU6-6 FLM201 Film Genre: Conclusion

In the following extract from Film: A Critical Introduction, Maria Pramaggiore and Tom Wallis explain how genre evolved and how it can be applied to the study of film and society. Please read it now.

Using Genre to Interpret Films

The proliferation of genres in Hollywood’s studio era can be explained, at least in part, by the major studios’ industrial filmmaking strategies . . . . Genre films allowed the studios to conceptualize, produce, market, and distribute their products efficiently and rapidly. For any given genre film, a studio might be able to reformulate popular storylines and reuse sets, costumes, and even production units. In turn, genre films lured audiences into theaters by offering them familiar pleasures. Thus, repetition was, and still is, a crucial component of any genre, from both the industry’s and the audience’s perspective.

Because genre films depend on repetition and are so closely linked to Hollywood’s industrial practices, critics overlooked their aesthetic and intellectual potential until the 1960s. Until then, genre automatically connoted mindless, homogeneous entertainment. Now genre films inspire a wide array of provocative academic analysis and popular criticism. The remainder of the chapter will explore four approaches that critics employ when they contemplate genre films: the use of repeated formulae; the social implications of adhering to convention; the way genres themselves are prone to change; and the relation of the individual filmmaker to the established conventions of genre.

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Genre Film and Aesthetic Appeal: Cliché or Strategic Repetition?

Popular films critics regularly measure the degree to which a given film relies on conventional plot devices and visual details. While following convention is an integral part of any genre film, good genre films rely on more than sheer repetition. Any film that merely rehashes tried and true strategies quickly lapses into cliché. Genres thrive when filmmakers find ways to modify the conventions. So, while audiences carry a set of expectations with them whenever they attend a genre film, for most audiences, one of these expectations is that the film will surprise them by upsetting some of their expectations.

For most critics, the most pronounced criterion for evaluating a film is how much originality it injects into the formula without totally abandoning the conventions of the genre. Genre films shouldn’t sacrifice the pleasures of familiarity for obtuseness; nor should they mindlessly repeat every property of films past.

Altering the conventions of a genre may entertain viewers with a new combination of familiarity and novelty. But it can also provoke ideas. Scott Foundas’s review of District 9 (dir. Neill Blomkamp, 2009). . . makes just this point. Foundas begins by emphasizing how the film makes one bold departure from science fiction’s conventions and thus initiates an interrogation of xenophobia and immigration. According to Foundas, science fiction, from H. G. Wells’s 1898 novel The War of the Worlds to Cloverfield (dir. Matt Reeves, 2008), repeatedly structures narrative conflict around the terrifying experience of alien invasion. But District 9 sidesteps this convention by beginning the syuzhet well after the aliens have landed and established a home on Earth. This adjustment to convention provokes the film’s novel central idea: how would humans treat alien visitors who are just “worker bees,” with neither the inclination nor the technology to conquer Earth?

As his review demonstrates, meaning in a genre comes in part from measuring one film against its antecedents. Films converse with other films in the same genre. Scholars and fans can’t fully appreciate the aesthetic worth and intellectual depth of a genre film

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unless they recognize how it is adding to and departing from what other films have already contributed to the genre.

Typically, genre films develop their ideas by making minor adjustments to convention. But sometimes a film might boldly reject the basic patterns of a genre. When films such as Psycho (dir. Alfred Hitchcock. 1960) and Peeping Tom (dir. Michael Powell, 1960) radically modify conventions (in this case, by transforming the monster from a repulsive other to the boy next door), critics refer to it as revisionist. As the name implies, by upending firmly established conventions, a revisionist film has the effect of changing a genre . . . it expands our sense of what a genre can do and may send the genre off in a new direction entirely.

Genre and the Status Quo

Another approach to genre criticism considers the social implications of a reliance on repetition. By repeatedly telling the same types of stories over and over again, these tales begin to inform the way audiences interpret the world around them. Genre films capture, and at the same time reinforce, cultural values. Adopting this perspective assumes that, because genre films are a popular, mass-produced form of entertainment, they are the modern equivalent of a cultural mythology—a set of narrative formulas told and retold as a way of transmitting basic social lessons.

Robert Warshow, for example, argues that the characteristics of the Western hero— his solitude, his commitment to unfettered movement across the plains, his reluctant but morally clarified use of violence—make him “the last gentleman.” Inevitably, the cowboy is presented as brave, independent, and considerate, and the reappearance of these qualities in film after film suggests how the cowboy functions as a symbol of a (real or imagined) national heritage (Warshow 457).

Often, a more critical perspective informs this approach. Marxist film scholar Judith Hess Wright, for example, argues that genre films lull audiences into complacency by their promise to be nothing more than mere entertainment. As a result, viewers are little more than passive receptacles, mindlessly absorbing a reassuring cultural mythology

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that celebrates the status quo: “Genre films produce satisfaction rather than action, pity, and fear rather than revolt. [. . . T]hey throw a sop to oppressed groups who [ . . .] eagerly accept the genre film’s absurd solutions to economic and social conflicts” (Wright 42).

In the Western, she argues, such a conflict arises over the issue of whether violence is justifiable. The genre naïvely solves this conflict by boiling its characters down into two simplistic types: guilty and innocent. Violence is always justified when it is inflicted on the guilty in the name of justice. The result is a genre that justifies vigilantism, ignoring questions regarding the environmental causes of antisocial behaviour (Wright 42-3).

. . . .

[Such] perspectives share the assumption that, at their core, genre films contain certain unchanging elements. What makes a genre potent, in other words, is its consistency. By analyzing this consistency one can measure its aesthetic and social impact. But this assumes that viewers’ responses are standardized—that audiences are only capable of reading a film according to dominant cultural values.

However, making such assumptions about how audiences respond to what they see is too reductive because it discounts the fact that a film . . . might provoke contradictory responses. . . . .

Genres as Culturally Responsive Artifacts

Another mode of criticism measures how genres gradually change, or evolve. While on one level genres retain their basic conventions, over time certain conventions will give way to others.

Some critics try to account for and evaluate such shifts in convention by exploring how a popular genre at a given point in time reflects the immediate, albeit unacknowledged, concerns of its audience. This approach is predicated on the assumption that genre films attract audiences because they appeal to popular sentiment, whether or not viewers are aware of their concerns and anxieties. Consequently, the subtext of a genre at any point in time may grant critics and filmgoers alike access to a culture’s approach to

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complex social issues. Genre films are akin to a mass-produced ritual, wherein cultures see their fantasies acted out on screen. When a culture’s fantasies evolve, so do its generic conventions.

For example, the hard-boiled detective film came of age during and just after World War II, when Americans grappled with the war’s industrialized genocide and the frustrating return to the postwar status quo. The 1970s saw a new wave of detective films reinvigorate the formula: The Long Goodbye (dir. Robert Altman, 1973), Chinatown (dir. Roman Polanski, 1974), and Farewell, My Lovely (dir. Dick Richards, 1975). Thomas Schatz links the nostalgic flair apparent in this revitalization to America’s longing for the bygone days of the 1940 and 1950s. But the nostalgia of these films was accompanied by an unremitting pessimism even more pronounced than that of their predecessors. This pessimism has been cited as evidence of the emotional and psychological by- products of the Vietnam War—urban blight, political corruption, and racial strife . . . .

More recently, a spate of horror films that seem to reflect national anxieties followed the terrorist attacks in the United States on September 11, 2001. Some of these films recycle familiar monstrous characters as thinly disguised metaphors for the terrorist assault on American soil: zombies in I Am Legend (dir. Francis Lawrence, 2007), alien invaders in Cloverfield, and vampires in 30 Days of Night (dir. David Slade, 2007).

Instead of assuming that genres remain static, this approach focuses on the way the flexibility of a genre’s conventions ensures its adaptability for popular culture’s shifting interests.

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Genres and Film Authorship

. . . .

A fourth approach to genre criticism looks at how notable directors or auteurs work with genre conventions to assert a personal vision. This approach assumes that good genre films distinguish themselves from the rest, and that a director may be responsible for a particular genre film’s originality.

. . . .

The work of the auteur underscores the complexities of genre criticism. On the one hand, definitions of genres require stasis and consistency. On the other hand, economic, cultural, and artistic forces inevitably undermine such assumptions. . . .

Extract from Maria Pramaggiore and Tom Wallis, Film: A Critical Introduction. 3rd ed. Pages 401-405.

To evaluate what Pramaggiore and Wallis say about genre, it will help you to think about actual films. For example, think back to Study Unit 1, where I considered two films that I enjoy greatly: Star Wars: A New Hope (dir. George Lucas, 1977) and Star Wars: The Force Awakens (dir. J. J. Abrams, 2015).

• How do these two films rely on repetition yet innovate? • What cultural values do these films reinforce, and how might they also challenge the status quo (whatever that is)? • How do these films adapt to the times?

SU6-12 FLM201 Film Genre: Conclusion

As we conclude our study of genre, watch the following video for a useful recap.

Watch

Ministry of Cinema. “Film Genres and Hollywood—Episode Seven: Conclusion.” YouTube, 3 June 2015. Web. 17 Sep. 2016.

This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.

Genre has changed and evolved greatly. Aside from the overlaps in genre and the growing range of hybrid genres, there are films today that seem to merit new genres, such as the superhero movie or comic book movie, the young adult adaptation, and the chick lit adaptation. Genre will continue to be intimately connected to the production, distribution, and exhibition of film. As viewers and students of film, paying attention to genre will enhance not only our appreciation of film, but also our understanding of the industry and its relationship with audiences.

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Summary

We have looked at how films can be classified based on their characteristics. The genres we looked at are:

• Western • Action • Comedy • Drama • Crime film • Film Noir • Horror • Science fiction • Fantasy • Musical • War film • Epic

We also looked at one non-fiction genre—the documentary. The genres are not mutually exclusive, and there is much overlap, hybridity, and evolution. In addition, new genres are emerging, reflecting audience tastes and the changing times. Genres are both familiar and open to innovation and will continue to affect the way films are produced, distributed and exhibited. Ultimately, genre helps studios make films more efficiently, helps audiences choose the movies they want to watch, and enhances our level of engagement with and appreciation of film.

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Lesson Recording

Case Study: Genre—Wrapping Up

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Formative Assessment

1. According to Box Office Mojo, a site that tracks films’ performance at the box office, the seven most popular films in Singapore (for the year 2016, up to 17 Oct, the time of writing) are as follows:

1. Captain America: Civil War (dir. Anthony Russo and Joe Russo, 2016) 2. X-Men Apocalypse (dir. Bryan Singer, 2016) 3. Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (dir. Zack Snyder, 2016) 4. Deadpool (dir. Tim Miller, 2016) 5. Zootopia (dir. Byron Howard and Rich Moore, 2016) 6. Finding Dory (dir. Andrew Stanton, 2016) 7. Kung Fu Panda 3 (dir. Jennifer Yuh Nelson and Alessandro Carloni, 2016)

Which statement below is least likely to be a description of Singapore’s genre preferences? a. Films about superheroes are a big attraction for local moviegoers. b. Distributors in Singapore should find it profitable to bring in family-friendly films. c. The majority of Singaporeans read comic books about Superman, Batman, X- Men, and Captain America. d. Far from being bored with the familiar, local audiences embrace movie franchises and sequels.

2. At least for now, locally made movies are least likely to be from which genre? a. Comedy b. Family drama c. Musical d. Futuristic epic war film

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3. What are the stages of genre and in what sequence would they develop? a. Classical—Primitive—Revisionist—Parodic—Extension b. Primitive—Classical—Revisionist—Parodic—Extension c. Classical—Extension—Parodic—Revisionist—Primitive d. Extension—Primitive—Classical—Revisionist—Parodic

5. According to Pramaggiore and Wallis in Film: A Critical Introduction, a major consideration when critics evaluate a film is “how much ______it injects into the formula without totally abandoning the ______of the genre. Genre films shouldn’t sacrifice the ______for obtuseness; nor should they mindlessly ______every property of films past. a. newness; rules; rules of genre; reshape b. creativity; patterning; repetition of pattern; reboot c. innovation; demands; opportunity to create; redo d. originality; conventions; pleasures of familiarity; repeat

6. A revisionist film plays with genre conventions that are recognised and long established; in so doing, it corrupts the genre, preventing it from developing in new and interesting directions. True or False? a. True. b. False.

7. Which statement is incorrect?

SU6-17 FLM201 Film Genre: Conclusion

a. Genre films tell the same type of story time after time, so audiences are exposed to the cultural values that these stories contain and reinforce with each repetition. b. Genres do gradually change or evolve, and over time, some genre traits fall away or are modified. c. Genre is deeply linked to the production and exhibition of film. d. Auteurs are able to assert their own personal style and vision even while working within the genre framework.

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Solutions or Suggested Answers

Activity 6.1

Responses will vary, as each person will have a different opinion. However, it is highly likely that at the “least common” end of the scale, most students will place the Western and the epic film. The Western is, after all, very much an American genre. However, this does not mean that it would be impossible to use the tropes of the Western in a Singapore film. Imagine a film, for instance, where the white-hatted sheriff has to “clean up” or save the town, which is being terrorised by black-hatted outlaws! As for the epic, it requires a very large budget and sweeping scale—Singapore filmmakers are unlikely to have the sort of budget and resources required to produce an epic film.

On the “most common” end of the scale, many of you might place comedy, drama, and horror. If you did this, what are your reasons?

Formative Assessment 1. According to Box Office Mojo, a site that tracks films’ performance at the box office, the seven most popular films in Singapore (for the year 2016, up to 17 Oct, the time of writing) are as follows:

SU6-19 FLM201 Film Genre: Conclusion

Which statement below is least likely to be a description of Singapore’s genre preferences?

a. Films about superheroes are a big attraction for local moviegoers. Incorrect. Because the statement is actually accurate. Four of the top seven films are superhero movies.

b. Distributors in Singapore should find it profitable to bring in family-friendly films. Incorrect. Because the statement is actually accurate. Three of the top seven films are family-friendly animated features.

c. The majority of Singaporeans read comic books about Superman, Batman, X- Men, and Captain America. Correct. Because the statement is inaccurate and is least likely to describe Singapore’s genre preferences. Many people who watch films about superheroes do not actually read the Marvel or DC comic books.

d. Far from being bored with the familiar, local audiences embrace movie franchises and sequels. Incorrect. Because the statement is actually accurate. Six of the top seven films are sequels or part of a movie franchise.

2. At least for now, locally made movies are least likely to be from which genre? a. Comedy Incorrect. Comedies are usually popular with local audiences and can be made on a relatively small budget, which makes them viable for Singapore’s filmmakers.

b. Family drama Incorrect. Family dramas can be easily tailored to reflect the local situation, which makes them appealing to local audiences. They can also be made

SU6-20 FLM201 Film Genre: Conclusion

on a relatively small budget, which makes them viable for Singapore’s filmmakers.

c. Musical Incorrect. Musicals can be easily tailored to reflect the local situation, which makes them appealing to local audiences, who generally enjoy song and dance movies.

d. Futuristic epic war film Correct. A futuristic epic war film would require a large cast, special effects, and expensive production work that is beyond the budget of local film companies.

3. What are the stages of genre and in what sequence would they develop? a. Classical—Primitive—Revisionist—Parodic—Extension Incorrect. Refer to section 6.2 for an explanation.

b. Primitive—Classical—Revisionist—Parodic—Extension Correct. Refer to section 6.2 for an explanation.

c. Classical—Extension—Parodic—Revisionist—Primitive Incorrect. Refer to section 6.2 for an explanation.

d. Extension—Primitive—Classical—Revisionist—Parodic Incorrect. Refer to section 6.2 for an explanation.

4. Genre films developed in Hollywood’s Studio era because they allowed the studios to generate storylines, and make, market, and distribute the movie quickly, drawing on established processes and talent and even recycling sets and costumes. True or False? a. True. Correct. In addition, genre films drew in audiences because they enjoyed encountering something familiar, albeit with some variations.

SU6-21 FLM201 Film Genre: Conclusion

b. False. Incorrect. The description is indeed true. In addition, genre films drew in audiences because they enjoyed encountering something familiar, albeit with some variations.

5. According to Pramaggiore and Wallis in Film: A Critical Introduction, a major consideration when critics evaluate a film is “how much ______it injects into the formula without totally abandoning the ______of the genre. Genre films shouldn’t sacrifice the ______for obtuseness; nor should they mindlessly ______every property of films past. a. newness; rules; rules of genre; reshape Incorrect. Audiences want to recognise familiar elements but also want freshness and innovation.

b. creativity; patterning; repetition of pattern; reboot Incorrect. Audiences want to recognise familiar elements but also want freshness and innovation.

c. innovation; demands; opportunity to create; redo Incorrect. Audiences want to recognise familiar elements but also want freshness and innovation.

d. originality; conventions; pleasures of familiarity; repeat Correct. Audiences want to recognise familiar elements but also want freshness and innovation.

SU6-22 FLM201 Film Genre: Conclusion

Incorrect. A revisionist film can inject new life into a genre, leading to a re- examination of its conventions and opening up new possibilities. Unforgiven, directed by Clint Eastwood (1992) is an example of a revisionist film that revived the Western.

b. False. Correct. A revisionist film can inject new life into a genre, leading to a re-examination of its conventions and opening up new possibilities. Unforgiven, directed by Clint Eastwood (1992) is an example of a revisionist film that revived the Western.

7. Which statement is incorrect? a. Genre films tell the same type of story time after time, so audiences are exposed to the cultural values that these stories contain and reinforce with each repetition. Incorrect, as this statement is actually true.

b. Genres do gradually change or evolve, and over time, some genre traits fall away or are modified. Incorrect, as this statement is actually true.

c. Genre is deeply linked to the production and exhibition of film. Correct, as this statement is incomplete. Genre is deeply linked to the production, distribution, and exhibition of film.

d. Auteurs are able to assert their own personal style and vision even while working within the genre framework. Incorrect, as this statement is actually true.

SU6-23 FLM201 Film Genre: Conclusion