Quiz 2 Review Sheet s1
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Exam 4 Review Sheet AP Biology
Exam 4 will cover: Chapter 5 – Proteins to the end Chapter 6 – Intro to 6.2
Make sure you look at ALL the questions in all chapters as well as bold words, headings and figures, the PowerPoint, and this review sheet.
**I posted a macromolecule review chart online.
41. What is the monomer of the protein, how many are there, what makes each of these different, how are they similar and how are they grouped (the three groups)? Can you draw any two of them yet and connect them via dehydration synthesis (condensation reaction)?...you need to be able to do this.
42. Where does the “amino acid” get its name from?
43. Why do I feel that proteins are the most important class of macromolecules (they are all important of course)?
44. Compare an amino acid, dipeptide, polypeptide, and protein.
45. Describe how a dipeptide is formed (Figure 3.13). What do we call the bond that links them? How is this analogous to what happens with carbohydrates?
46. Describe the three groups of amino acids. Which group has the acidic and basic ones?
47. What determines the structure of a particular protein? Explain why. Of course, the structure then determines the…
48. Explain why a change in the DNA might lead to problems.
48.5 Know sickle-cell anemia example really well. You should be able to use this example to convince to me that mutations can be both positive and negative. Really well!
49. Describe in general terms what happens to a polypeptide (or any polymer for that matter) when you eat it. What happens to it, what do you do with it, etc…
50. Describe the four levels of protein structure. I could ask another 15 questions about each level… Know all the details we went over in class like when the side chains come into play or when only the backbone is involved, hydrophobic vs hydrophilic side chains, where different types of side chains are located in proteins typically, etc…
50.5. All alpha helices are right or left handed? This is because they are made with…
51. Explain why these levels of structure have little to do with actual protein folding in the cytoplasm.
52. Explain, starting with a gene, how a protein is formed. Make sure you include items like mRNA, tRNA, ribosome, nuclear pore, RNA polymerase, amino acids, nucleus, etc… Basically, describe the central dogma.
53. Be able to identify the various secondary structure elements in a protein and circle them if presented with a ribbon diagram.
54. Explain how a ribbon diagram is generated. What are you looking at when you view a ribbon diagram of a protein – (these are the colorful diagrams with sheets shown as arrows and helices are cartoon-like spirals)?
55. Compare and contrast a polypeptide to a protein. When are they the same and when would they be different?
56. What is meant by a subunit in a protein?
57. Explain what is meant by denature and renature. How and why do proteins denature? You must be very specific. You cannot just say a lower pH than the protein evolved in will cause it to denature…the question is WHY.
58. Know the functions of proteins. Know examples like hemoglobin, myosin, insulin, insulin receptor, ATP synthase, photosystem II, antibodies, HIV protease, etc… and under what category they would fall.
59. How small is a protein relative to the size of a cell? (use the analogy) How many hemoglobin proteins are packed into a single red blood cell? How many red blood cells do you have on average? How many oxygens can your blood carry if it were completely saturated with oxygen?
60. Why are some people considered to be lactose intolerant? What does this mean and why is it a problem?
61. Are glycogen, starch and cellulose the only three polysaccharides found in organisms? Explain.
62. What is the fate of glucose? Basically, what do organisms use glucose monomers for? Why do we store them? Where do humans store them? 63. If there is too much glucose in your blood, how does your body handle this? Where does it end up? Where might this surge in glucose have come from?
64. For every polymer we eat (disaccharides, polysaccharides, polypeptides, etc…), we need to have a ______somewhere in our digestive tract to hydrolyze it. This may seem obvious, but we eat cells (unless you are eating processed food, which case the cells have already been destroyed and broken apart) of other organisms. There we eat macromolecule or at least polymers for the most part. We need to hydrolyze them. Why? Why not just keep them together?
65. Know who Linus Pauling was and what he did…
67. Identify kingdoms with organisms that have cell walls and the composition of these walls in each.
68. Describe what 3.4 and n+4 mean in terms of alpha helices.
66. Describe the structure of a nucleotide.
67. How many different nucleotides are there that will build RNA and DNA? Be able to draw them all the way we discussed in class. For example, I could ask you to draw dAMP or AMP or dCMP etc… or I could ask you to draw an RNA nucleotide containing a purine base, etc…
68. How do the purines differ structurally from the pyrimidines in general? Know the names of the bases and to which group they belong, purine or pyrimidine.
69. Draw the ester, diester, phosphoester and phosphdiester functional group.
70. Explain how two nucleotides can be connected together to form a dinucleotide and so on. You should be able to draw this. What type of linkage is formed? Why do we give it this name?
71. Compare and contrast a DNA nucleotide to an RNA nucleotide (how are they the same/different?).
72. What is the overall charge of DNA and why?
73. Describe the ink and the paper analogy for nucleic acid.
74. Describe the backbone of DNA. What do we call the backbone?
75. What is the optimum temperature, pH and salt concentration of proteins? (Explain why this is a trick question). 76. How would the optimal pH of a protein in the stomach differ from that of a protein in the blood?
77. Explain what happens to the polymers we are constantly eating. Where did most the monomers that make up these polymers ultimately come from? (This will require some logical thinking)
78. How would you define a lipid.
79. How are lipids chemically different from the other three classes of macromolecules?
80. Identify the four types of lipids discussed in class. Be able to draw each type as we discussed in class.
81. How do unsaturated and saturated fatty acids differ structurally? How does this change how they behave relative to each other?
82. Where does one find unsaturated fats in nature? What about saturated fats?
83. What does the term “hydrogenated vegetable oil” refer to? Give an example of hydrogenated vegetable oil that you might find in the supermarket.
84. Describe why saturated fats tend to be solid at room temperature while unsaturated fats tend to be liquid.
85. Identifty the functions of triglycerides in nature. Where are they found (what type of cell and what location in humans)? What is the name given to the two general types of fat in humans? Which is more prevalent in males? Females?
86. Compare and contrast a phospholipid to a triglyceride (What is similar and what is different?).
87. Describe the function of phospholipids in nature.
88. Why do phospholipids tend to always have one kinked fatty acid (one kinked tail)?
89. Define the term amphiphilic.
90. How does the term amphiphilic relate to phospholipids and why is this an important property of these molecules?
91. Be able to draw the two structures discussed in class that will result if you take moles of phospholipids and add them to water. Know the names of the two resulting structures. Which of these structures would be similar to a cell membrane?
92. Describe the general function of cell membranes in the cell. 93. Describe the structure and function of waxes in nature. Identify at least two places where you would find them, one in plants and one in animals.
94. Describe the general structure of a steroid and give at least four examples in humans.
95. One example of a steroid is cholesterol. Describe the two functions of cholesterol in our cells that we spoke about in class, and indicate how the structure of this molecule determines its function.
96. What is a hormone? Which class of macromolecule and which subclass of a second class can act as hormones in the body?
97. What is a hormone?
98. We learned that steroids can act as hormones (so now you know that protein amino acid based molecules and steroids can act as hormones - signaling molecules that allow cells to “talk” to each other that are not typically located near each other). Indicate the three types of steroid hormones we discussed in class and describe their function in the body.
99. Why does one not need to ingest cholesterol to survive?
100. How is cholesterol linked to the steroid hormones?
101. Describe Chargaff’s experiments and why the results were critical in determining the three-dimensional structure of DNA.
102. Chargaff used a technique known in general terms as paper chromatography. Describe how to do and the purpose of paper chromatography in general. For example, if I gave you a solution containing a mixture of various food colorings, how might you separate them? Explain how paper chromatography works.
103. Describe the three-dimensional structure of DNA.
104. Why is it important that the base pairs of DNA be held together by hydrogen bonds as opposed to using covalent or ionic bonds?
105. One of the DNA strands is typically called the “complementary” strand. Why do you think this strand was given this name?
106. What do I mean when I say that the strands of DNA are anti-parallel?
107. Be able to label the ends of the DNA strands (5’ and 3’) and be able to explain why the ends are given these names. 108. Describe the function of DNA in organisms.
109. Explain the charge of DNA.
110. How does the structure of DNA compare to that of RNA? (Three major differences)
111. Identify the three types of RNA discussed in class and give their function.
112. Describe how the cell is able to make polypeptides using the information that is encoded in the DNA. Be able to describe it both using the analogy and using the actual terms. Be sure to include the following words: DNA, mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, protein, RNA polymerase (why is this enzyme called RNA polymerase?), ribosome, polypeptide, amino acids, library, paper, transcribe, translate, nuclear pores, nuclear membrane, guards. You should be able to make a sketch of this process.
113. The process described above is known as “The Central Dogma” of molecular biology. What does this mean? (google it)
114. Why is the nucleus NOT NOT NOT (just incase you didn’t see the first NOT) the control center/brain of the cell?
115. We discussed the RNA world hypothesis in class. Describe why it is logical to hypothesize that RNA was used by the most primitive of cells before the evolution of DNA and protein. What specific evidence do we have that supports this? (I discussed two major pieces of observational evidence) Why couldn’t protein have come first or DNA have come first?
116. Why do you think protein and DNA exist today? Why aren’t organisms still solely based on RNA? Use the term natural selection in your answer to these questions.
117. What is the name given to a stretch of DNA that codes (stores the information for) for mRNA, tRNA or rRNA?
118. How are tRNA’s and rRNA’s made?
119. Describe the structure of the ribosome. What is it made of?
120. Where do the amino acids that our cells use to build polypeptides come from? Yes, I know they are in the cytoplasm, but before that…
121. List each macromolecule class and identify where you would find each in a cell. The next step is going to be to put these molecules together and build a cell. You should have the basic location and function down before we start getting into details.
122. How many pieces of DNA (“books”) are found in a human nucleus? If you attached all those pieces end to end, how long would the DNA be? Discuss the size of DNA in terms of actual size and the MSG analogy. What do we call each piece (“book”)? How many unique books are there? Explain.
123. Describe the Madison square garden analogy and be sure to include every macromolecule class (the rope, the straight pin (a phospholipid), the baseball, the head of a pin (a glucose molecule))
124. Explain why hydrophilic molecules like proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, etc… are NOT able to move through a plasma membrane, while small hydrophobic molecules can. (Why do you think large hydrophobic molecules have trouble crossing?)
125. Why do think amino acid based hormones require a cell surface receptor protein to tell the cell what to do (talk to the cell), while steroid hormones typically have protein receptors inside the cell, in the cytoplasm?
126. Compare a phospholipid bilayer to a phospholipid monolayer. Which would make up a cell membrane and why is this a logical choice (why would the other not work as a cell membrane?).
1. Study the Prokaryote vs Eukaryote Chart under notes section
2. Study the Organelle Chart under notes section
3. What is the name of the artist who painted the painting shown in the PowerPoint? What do art historians believe this is a painting of? Explain.
4. Describe the significance of the Dutch microscopist Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632- 1723) and the English Robert Hooke (1635 – 1703). Describe cell theory and identify the three scientists accredited with this theory and their contributions.
5. Explain why hydrophilic molecules like proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, Na+, other salts, etc… are NOT able to move through a plasma membrane, while small hydrophobic molecules can. Why do you think large hydrophobic molecules have trouble crossing?
6. What is a hormone? Give an example and include the origin of the hormone, the target organ, and the affect on the body. Why does this hormone not target any other cells when it is all over the body?
7. Explain why amino acid/polypeptide/protein hormones require a cell surface receptor (embedded in the membrane) protein in order to send a signal to the cell (talk to the cell), while steroid hormones typically have protein receptors inside the cell, soluble in the cytoplasm? 8. Compare and contrast the three different types of microscopes we learned about. How are they similar? How are they different? What are the advantages and disadvantages? How are samples prepared for each? Magnifications? Resolutions? Know when to use each if you were working in a lab.
9. Identify and describe the different types of light microscopes available. Explain how the fluorescent microscope works – give a real like example.
10. What is the definition of resolution? What is a better resolution, 5um or 120nm? Explain why.
10.5 Be able to calculate the magnification of a light microscope knowing the ocular and objective magnifications.
11. You should be able to calculate either the FOV under high power, FOV under low power, high power magnification, or low power magnification when you know three of the four variables. Sample questions are in the PowerPoint.
12. Explain what happens to the size of the FOV under high power as compared to low power. Why does this happen? Why can one not use a ruler under high power to measure the FOV?
13. Explain the orientation of an object as viewed through a microscope as compared to its orientation on the slide itself. Check out the virtual microscope under the misc section on the lab page if you don’t recall what happens to the letter “e”.
14. Describe how to prepare a wet mount.
15. Describe how you would estimate the size of an object under low power if you know the FOV diameter.
16. Explain how to focus a light microscope under high power beginning with placing the slide on the microscope.
17. How many microns in a millimeter? How many nanometers in a micron? How many nanometers in a millimeter? Be able to convert. Draw a ruler indicating a meter as we did in class and show the definitions of mm, um and nm using the picture by breaking the distances up into a 1000 equal lengths each time.
18. Give a structure-function example in terms of cells.
19. Explain why cells are limited in how big a cell can be. Be sure to discuss the surface area to volume ratio. Use an example to show your reasoning.
20. What limits how small a cell can be? 21. Be able to label prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
22. Compare and contrast prokaryotic to eukaryotic cells. Be able to explain the function and location of every structure.
29. Compare and contrast chromatin, chromosome and DNA?
30. How many chromosomes (books) are there in a human nucleus? Are all of these books completely different/unique? Explain. Where did your chromosomes come from?
31. Explain why I call cytoskeletal elements an example of extreme quaternary structure.
32. Make a chart that details the organelles present only in animal cells vs. those that are present only in plant cells.