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The language of Learning by Design: An elaborated Glossary

A resource for teachers. Dr Peter Burrows, Dr Les Morgan RMIT University

1 The language of Learning by Design: an elaborated Glossary Introduction The first teacher-responses to the concepts and theory of Learning by Design are usually related to the difficulty of understanding the terms 'I just can't get my head around them' teachers say. 'They're too complicated and because I don't understand them I feel stupid'. Teachers ask 'why do I need these terms, why can't we just speak in plain language?' So, is the language of Learning by Design too difficult to learn? The second set of responses, hot on the heels of the first, are invariably related to time: 'we don't have enough time for this stuff' or, 'it will take too much time to plan like this'. Then someone else says 'we don't have the time to sit around for hours planning'. Finally, the third set of responses relate to the Learning by Design framework - 'we've already got a planning-curriculum framework' or, 'not another damn framework', or 'we already know what we're doing, we've been teaching for years, why do we need this thing?' So, beginning with the first issue, the difficulty of understanding the concepts and terms. Learning by Design is fundamentally about addressing the need for a shared professional language. A language which allows teachers to identify, name, discuss, analyse, reflect-on, explain and make explicit their choices and decisions about how they teach. Using the language of Learning by Design means having the words to describe how we teach and how learners learn. Such a language allows practices to be shared and discussed - it means that feedback can be explicit and effective practices can be transferred and translated from one person to another. Such a language can help us to understand why some teachers are more effective in engaging students and bringing about deep intellectual learning than others and how every teacher can learn to teach in such ways. Sharing a professional language also means establishing the conditions via which teachers literally belong in the profession of teaching. I am reminded of the story of the people of the city of Macondo in Gabriel García Márquez’s famous book One Hundred Years of Solitude. The citizens of Macondo become ill and suddenly realise that their knowledge of the world is disappearing and that they are losing the capacity to remember the names of things. The solution for the people of Macondo is to make name-signs and to hang them on the things in their world. This is a tree, this is a house, this is a cow. The citizens realise that names, and naming, are crucial for making sense of the world, for communicating with and understanding each other. The philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein highlights the importance of being able to name things with this simile about an artisan and his assistant.

2 Suppose that the tools (the artisan) uses in building bear certain marks. When (the artisan) shows his assistant such a mark, he brings the tool that has that mark on it. It is in this, and more or less similar ways, that a name means and is given to a thing. It will often prove useful in philosophy to say to ourselves: naming something is like attaching a label to a thing. The terms used in Learning by Design are therefore not just names but ways of making meaning of how teachers teach and how learners learn. The focus of Learning by Design is pedagogy - the how and why of teaching – the terms represent key ideas in the language of pedagogy. Perhaps what is most unsettling in learning a new language is being placed in the position of not knowing, when as the teacher, you are usually expected to be the knower or expert. Sometimes such unsettling experiences lead to personal insights 'so this is what it's like to be a learner… when you don't really know or understand what you’re doing. (…) Good heavens, this is what my kids are going through'. Learning a new language takes time and as learners we should not expect to be able to understand new terms immediately, however, it is natural to feel uncomfortable when faced with something that does not make immediate sense. Chris, a very experienced Year 3/4 teacher, after being involved in the Australian Research Council funded Learning by Design project for 15 months observed: It seems to me that Learning by Design enables you to answer the question ‘What is learning?’ We can say ‘this is learning…that’s learning’ because we have the language. How do people who don’t have that, answer when they’re asked ‘What is learning?’ You’ve got to have a language, surely as professionals… we’re in charge of pedagogy, if anybody in the world is… and we should be able to talk about it – it should be a requirement of teachers coming out of teacher’s college. Learning by Design provides us with a language to analyse and discuss what we do and how we do it…and we haven’t really had that before… The importance of this language was highlighted in a recent conversation with a principal. I asked her what had been the most significant outcome of her school's involvement, and those of her teachers, in the three year project she declared: Most importantly it has given us the language to deal with what is happening in the classroom, we are now talking about explicit teaching and questioning what we do... We are continually verbalising our practice which means there is a constant dialogue about teaching and about pedagogy. We didn't have that before – we didn't have that language. If you look at the minutes of our staff meetings we have moved from spending most of our time on administrivia, to talking mostly about teaching. That’s a big shift for us and it’s exciting! The second issue, that of time, can be more readily dealt with as, without exception amongst the fifty teachers and ten schools involved in the Learning by Design project, time stopped being mentioned as an issue after the first few months. This did not mean that time ceased to be a problem or an issue rather it meant that teachers were experiencing the impact, the shifts in student responses, the improved engagement and attendance as

3 they began to plan purposefully with the LbyD framework and teach using the eight knowledge processes. You could speak with any of the fifty teachers or ten principals and deputy principals involved in the project and they would say, with subtle variations but without exception, 'Learning by Design works. It’s worth the time and effort to learn'. The third issue, that 'we don't need this framework' can only seriously be tested by using and evaluating the Learning by Design framework in practice. So, what is Learning by Design? An overview of Learning by Design Learning by Design is the result of more than twenty years research by Professors Mary Kalantzis and Bill Cope culminating in the ARC-funded Learning by Design project which involved fifty teachers and ten schools in Queensland, the ACT and Victoria (2005-2008). This research extended and built on the Multiliteracies research (1996-2002) which demonstrated the power of learning environments which:  Focus on diversity amongst learners and foster knowledge development as a process of belonging and transformation;  Offer and encourage multimodal expressions of meaning: linguistic, visual, audio, gestural and spatial;  Use varied and appropriate higher order thinking skills and knowledge processes: experiencing, conceptualising, analysing and applying; Learner diversity, belonging, multimodal meaning-making and pedagogy remain central concerns of Learning by Design underpinned by teacher professional learning and the notion of teacher-as-researcher as the means of translating pedagogical theory into practice. Each of these characteristics is addressed in the Learning by Design framework which scaffolds teachers’ design-decisions. The framework prompts teachers to plan their curriculum by being explicit about their learning focus, knowledge objectives, knowledge processes, outcomes and learning pathways. The framework encourages teachers to document and become conscious of their pedagogical preferences, acting as both a reflective prompt (heuristic) and as a self-diagnostic tool. Curriculum plans which are created using the framework may be published and shared with colleagues via school intranets or the internet and incorporate meta-data which make the plans searchable via a broad range of criteria. The Learning by Design framework also provides a standardised method with which to capture and document teaching plans, and a theoretical lens through which these plans can be analysed. At the heart of the framework are eight distinct ‘Knowledge Processes’. Mindful and appropriate deployment of the knowledge processes is intended to foster higher order thinking skills and deeper learning experiences. In the next section key terms are explained. The teachers who began working with Learning by Design did not have a glossary and wished they had had one. We think this elaborated glossary will help ease your path to understanding and working with the concepts of Learning by Design.

4 Analysing functionally What? One of the eight Knowledge Processes of Learning by Design. Analysing Functionally involves students thinking about the functions, roles and purposes of the different ideas, concepts and theories with which they are engaging. To appreciate the role or function of something is to add meaning to that something thereby deepening the students understanding, particularly if that function can be linked to their lifeworld or personal experiences – existing or new. This anchors the learning in what learners know or have already experienced. Why? Analytical skills are highly valued in academic and organisational settings. Such skills underpin diagnostic and problem solving abilities and encourage curiosity and questioning. Functional analysis provides ‘cause and effect’ understanding and is concerned with how things work, or with exploring a things role or purpose – understanding a things role or purpose is foundational to understanding how things work together or how different concepts, when marshalled together, form a theory. Again such skills are valued in many settings – particularly in technical, engineering and problem solving endeavours. How? Analysing functionally is about posing questions such as ‘What is it for?’ or ‘What does it do?’ or ‘How does it work?’ The teacher might ask ‘What is the purpose of this text?’ or ‘How does the author want us to feel?’ and ‘How are we made to feel this way?’ The teacher could use a Retrieval Chart with a range of headings designed to guide, scaffold and support learners as they explore a text, prompting them to identify and note the different roles or functions of various textual features. In the Retrieval Chart reproduced below the teacher is prompting students to consider the function of different visual features of a graphic novel. The students are learning that the authors of such texts use a combination of different visual clues and techniques to achieve particular purposes. This activity could lead to an Analysing critically activity or prepare students to create their own visual text or graphic novel (Applying appropriately or Applying creatively) . What do the visuals in this graphic novel do? Mode Animals Humans Settings Colour

Framing

Gaze and Line: Demands & Offers

5 See the Lanyon Tool-kit for additional tools, tactics and references for Analysing functionally. Analysing critically What? One of the eight Knowledge Processes of Learning by Design. Analysing Critically involves students questioning and exploring the significances, consequences and implications of the concepts and theories with which they are working. It encourages students to think through the impacts and outcomes of phenomena on different people and groups of people including themselves –sometimes this can be as simple as the teacher prompting her students to consider ‘Who are the winners and losers here?’. Students could be asked to consider impacts in terms of different factors – environmental, economic, social, political or personal (the student and their friends and family) – or encouraged to think about them in terms of their short- or long-term consequences. Analysing critically provides opportunities for students to actively think about and discuss what they are learning with each other and the teacher. Why? Critical analytical skills are considered essential in academic and managerial settings. Such skills take students into deeper intellectual territory and provide a basis for reasoned argument, discussion and discernment between competing ideas. A capacity to critically analyse phenomena is at the heart of most academic, managerial, political and philosophical endeavours. At the level of the everyday an ability to critically analyse impacts on one’s capacity to negotiate and be assertive and reduces the likelihood of being tricked or hoodwinked. At the personal level being able to critically analyse allows one to think through the consequences and impacts of one’s own behaviours on others. More broadly being able to critically analyse is a fundamental skill necessary for meaningful participation in society – it is at the heart of personal agency, complex understanding, reasoned discussion and informed decision-making. How? Analysing critically is about the search for meaning, exploring consequences and deepening students’ thinking and engagement. This can be achieved via the teacher crafting sharp questions for the students to consider, reflect on and respond to: these questions need to be critically- and analytically-focused. Some teacher designs – Learning Elements – are crafted with a strong focus on Analysing critically, because of the capacity of this Knowledge Process to prompt students to think more deeply. This is reflected in the title of Rita van Haren's Learning Element Problematising zoos through Zoo by Anthony Browne. Van Haren's design, although employing all eight Knowledge Processes, creates the conditions in which every student can critically analyse zoos and explore the consequences: for the animals which are contained within them and for the people who visit them. By the time learners reach the point in the design where van Haren prompts them to Analyse critically 'How does it affect us?' the class have already: explored students' experiences of, and what they know about zoos via a Think-Pair-Share (Experiencing the known); read and discussed Anthony Browne's Zoo (Experiencing the new); looked for positive and negative words and images in the story to build understanding of the field of the text (Conceptualising by naming); explored whether the words matched the images: ‘How do they contribute to, or detract from, the linguistic text?’ (Analysing functionally); used sticky notes to re-write Browne's text (Conceptualising with theory); created a Venn diagram to compare and contrast the original with the new (Conceptualising with theory); worked in groups to plan, rehearse and present a Readers Theatre (Applying appropriately); used a Retrieval Chart to identify the elements of colour, framing, gaze and line in Browne's images (Conceptualising by naming); which provides students

6 with a metalanguage to discuss the use of the visual mode to tell stories and evoke meaning and deliberate responses in readers; and employed a second Retrieval Chart to explore the functions of these different visual modes (Analysing functionally). It is only once this scaffold has been created, through her design, that van Haren shifts to Analysing critically. She prompts the students to consider a series of questions under the banner How does it affect us?: What do you think about the animals in Zoo? What do you think about the humans in Zoo? Are they happy or sad? Why? Why not? Why has the author made these choices to present the people and animals in this way? How does Browne include humour? These are analytical questions which have a sharp edge; they lead students to think about the substantive issues that Browne canvasses in his text; they prompt students to form considered opinions; to think about the consequences of zoos from multiple perspectives; and to consider the role played by humour in the text. Van Haren continues the theme of Analysing critically by prompting students, working in small groups, to create a T-Chart to record the positive and negative messages/ideas/themes about zoos which are presented in Browne's book. These Analysing critically activities represent the mid-point in van Haren’s design, she follows up with further Experiencing, Conceptualising and Analysing activities culminating in a series of tasks that call on the students to apply what they have learned both appropriately and creatively. The final task is a Great Debate – Zoos should be banned! – an Applying creatively activity in which students are paired 'each speaker presents three points and then the second speaker refutes these and presents three points. The first person then has a short right of reply to refute the points of the second speaker'. This creates the conditions in which every student can demonstrate their understanding of the issues and make use of their Conceptualising, Analysing and Creative skills drawing on their work throughout the Learning Element. In summary, the Knowledge Process Analysing critically is deployed in van Haren's Learning Element following a series of thoughtful and deliberate activities which activate and draw upon many of the other Knowledge Processes, scaffolding and supporting students as they work towards more sophisticated learning. Analysing critically is mobilised via the sharp questions van Haren asks and via her use of a T-Chart, setting up the conditions in which students think deeply about the topic while creating the wherewithal to later apply what they have learned. Sharp questions prompt students to consider the significance of something, its consequences and implications: for me, you, them, us; now, tomorrow, next week, next year; who is harmed or benefits and how; what if… it didn’t exist, grew bigger or smaller, improved or got worse? How these tools are used is also important – students working individually, in pairs or small groups – will effect their use and impact. Students could be seated four to a round-table at six separate tables but if their responses are taken individually, directed at the teacher, the analytical work that goes on will have a different character and content than if the students worked collaboratively in their small groups on collective responses, with members free to roam and consult with students at other tables. The teacher must decide: What kind of analytical work do I want from my students? What are my other teaching goals? How do I want my students to work? More information about the use of T-Charts and other analytical tools can be found here: http://www.myread.org/organisation.htm

7 See the Lanyon Tool-kit for additional tools, tactics and references for Analysing critically.

8 Applying appropriately What? One of the eight Knowledge Processes of Learning by Design. Applying appropriately involves students applying what they have learned in ways that are consistent with, and appropriate to the concepts, theories, skills and processes with which they have been working. It is through Applying Appropriately that students can demonstrate what they have learned and the teacher will have evidence of the students’ depth of understanding. The teacher will also be able to see or hear whether her teaching has been effective and whether it is necessary to further scaffold particular students or return to concepts or ideas previously covered. This knowledge process can be employed at different points throughout the learning to check students’ understanding of crucial concepts or theories before moving on to related material or ideas that depend on this understanding. The Applying appropriately knowledge process can also be used to cement the students understanding experientially. Why? It is through the Knowledge Process of Applying appropriately that students have an opportunity to deepen their understanding and demonstrate what they have learned. This process is important to the teacher as it allows her to know whether her teaching strategies have been effective. Well designed activities using this Knowledge Process make it possible for student meta-cognition – the students knowing that they know. How? Tools selected to frame activities for this Knowledge Process need to reflect the overarching purpose goals or aims; subject-content; and/or skill-focus of the teacher’s design (Learning Element): they must relate very clearly and unambiguously to what the students have been learning via the other Knowledge Processes. In other words, it is no good designing an Applying appropriately activity that prompts students to demonstrate skills and knowledge that have not been explicitly and deliberately scaffolded and supported throughout the design. In some cases the Applying appropriately Knowledge Process can be used as an evaluative tool for the design itself, revealing that some students have not understood something they needed to understand or have been left behind. Sometimes the cause of these failures is attributed to students, they are perceived to have some kind of deficit, however, if this Knowledge Process is employed at key points throughout a unit of work it can alert the teacher to problems or let them know that particular students need more support. It may also reveal deficiencies in the design itself, activities that have not fulfilled their purpose, allowing teachers to revisit important concepts or foundational skills. Using the Learning Element that is explored in Analysing critically in the previous entry, Problematising zoos through Zoo by Anthony Browne, van Haren introduces an Applying appropriately activity, shortly after the midpoint of her design, to provide students with an opportunity to apply what they had learned previously. In the three activities that precede this Applying appropriately activity students had learned key concepts and skills. In the first, a Conceptualising by naming activity 'What is a recount?' van Haren explicitly taught students how to identify and name the features of a recount. In the second activity students used sticky notes or highlighter pens to identify all the parts of a recount and label them in Browne's story Zoo. In the third, an Analysing functionally activity, van Haren explicitly taught some of the linguistic grammar of the text and had students use a Retrieval Chart to explore the question 'What do words do?' At this point van Haren wanted to reinforce the concepts, theories and skills the students were working with as well as checking how well they had understood what they had been learning. She asked students to write their own recount – an Applying appropriately activity – 'and include an

9 image which aligns with or challenges the linguistic text of your recount' – linking this activity to earlier work with understanding the function of visual modes and techniques. In the teacher section of her design she advises: ‘Encourage students to consider a topic for a recount that is relevant to their own experiences or that interests them. Refer them to the (earlier activities) to ensure they have included the language features and structure of a recount.’ It is clear that van Haren has designed the Applying appropriately activity in ways which improve the chances her students will succeed: a topic relevant to their own experiences or interests; and referring them to, and reviewing earlier activities which explored and named the language features and structure of a recount.

Rather than simply grading the students' work van Haren elects to deepen the learning experience by introducing an Analysing functionally activity - Reflecting on the recount: How good is your recount? 'Assess your own recount on a rubric,' she prompts. 'Look at your teacher’s feedback. Do you agree/disagree? Why?' This provides the students with an opportunity to analyse and reflect on their learning, using the teacher's rubric as both a scaffold and a means of reviewing and revisiting the concepts, and to identify both for student and teacher where they have succeeded and where they might need help or more work. The Applying appropriately Knowledge Process in this example – ‘Write your own recount’ – is used as part of a coherent, well-thought-through design, strategically placed for maximum benefit while performing multiple functions for van Haren and her students. The key ideas reflected in this example are that: the Knowledge Processes work together; they should scaffold and support each other interdependently, those which come before benefiting and paving the way for those which come later; Applying appropriately activities perform multiple functions; they can be scheduled at multiple points throughout a unit of work not just at the end when it might be too late; and, designing-for- learning using the Knowledge Processes is a thoughtful reflective process. See the Lanyon Tool-kit for additional tools, tactics and references for Applying appropriately.

10 Applying creatively What? One of the eight Knowledge Processes of Learning by Design. Applying Creatively involves students applying what they have learned in creative ways. This means students may be involved in synthesising disparate ideas or applying what they have learned in different contexts or in non-traditional ways. The teacher designs-in opportunities for students to apply what they have been learning and to express themselves in multiple modes (Multimodalities) – visual, aural, kinaesthetic, gestural, spatial as well as through the more traditional modes of oral and written expression. It is through this process that students and teacher will have evidence of students breadth of understanding. Why? This Knowledge Process encourages teachers to design or use activities where students can express their learning in multiple modes increasing the possibility of engagement with their diverse lifeworlds and developing their other ‘literacies’ (Multiliteracies). Valuing and validating these different modes thereby values and validates differences in learners and equips them to engage with, inquire into, and express themselves in multiple ways increasing the likelihood that they will connect with and be understood by others. How? Applying creatively activities engender and promote opportunities for students to apply what they have learned in creative ways. For this reason they call up a wide range of tools which allow students to express themselves creatively such as: a Role-play, a PowerPoint, Flash or Multimedia presentation, a Website, a Claymation video, a Soundscape, a Film, a Play, a Song or Poem, an Oral Presentation, an Advertisement or Poster. Again drawing on the Learning Element explored in the previous two entries, Problematising zoos through Zoo by Anthony Browne, the teacher-designer of that unit Rita van Haren uses a number of Applying activities beginning with an activity which prompts students to design their own poster. ‘Create your own poster/image of a zoo using framing, colours, demands and offers to make the viewer think positively or negatively about zoos.’ This provides an opportunity for students to synthesise ideas drawn form earlier activities and to represent these ideas visually. ‘Write about your poster/image. What have you changed? How has the meaning changed form the original? Is it effective?’ Van Haren uses this activity to deepen students’ understanding of using visual modes and techniques to communicate ideas. She follows this up by prompting: ‘Provide feedback on other students’ posters’ thereby encouraging their oral articulation of the concepts learned. In the Teacher section of her Learning Element van Haren notes that: 'Students may create an original design or innovate one of Anthony Browne’s images by changing some or all of the visual features.' This opens up the opportunity for students to apply what they have learned in creative ways. She further leverages the activity by prompting students to reflect on their learning: 'Display the posters and during a gallery walk encourage students to provide feedback on the use of the visual design. Sticky notes could be used to record comments which are placed on the appropriate posters. Ensure students are respectful and considerate in the feedback they provide.' Van Haren uses the creative products of the activity to deepen understanding of the concepts learned and applied via the students’ posters. The final Applying creatively activity ‘The Great Debates’ – Zoos should be banned! pairs-up students who then plan, present and refute points made by each other, drawing on and demonstrating their understanding and analysis of the issues developed throughout the unit of work. This provides students with an opportunity to be creative and have fun with the ideas and to engage with each other in a dynamic setting. See the Lanyon Tool-kit for additional tools, tactics and references for Applying creatively.

11 Artefact What? Is a term used to describe something which is the product of human activity – it is what is left behind as a trace or consequence, product or evidence of that activity. Artefacts can be integral to an activity – a shoe-maker produces shoes – the shoes are artefacts of both the shoe-making process and the shoe maker. Some artefacts may be crucial to understanding an activity – such as the planning documents a teacher creates to support her teaching – or incidental such as the service records a mechanic produces for his clients. However careful study of even these records – integral or incidental - can tell us about the person and how he or she works. In the context of Learning by Design artefacts include teacher plans or Learning Elements, samples of student work, photographs, films or audio recordings of teachers and students working or providing each other with feedback, assessment records and reports, or any school or system documents that impact on the activities of the students, teachers or principal. Why? Careful analysis of various artefacts can help us to understand the activity which produced those artefacts, the process of making them and their makers. However, a great number and variety of human activities produce few if any direct artefacts. (Which artefacts are produced when a teacher is teaching?) This means it is necessary to create artefacts which document important or significant but otherwise transitory-ephemeral activities. We can do this by photographing, filming, audio-recording or making written observations of various activities – these records become durable artefacts which can be reviewed, discussed and analysed. The decision to document an activity – to make a durable artefact of that which would otherwise be transitory – is also a way of valuing that activity, seeing it as worth documenting-recording-analysing-discussing. ‘We only see what we look at.’ John Berger (1972), Ways of Seeing, Penguin Books, London. When the people responsible for an activity are engaged in the process of documenting-recording-analysing-discussing that activity, via the artefacts collected or created, it leads to a better understanding of that activity and its consequences and may engender changes in how that activity is performed and whether or when it is employed (e.g. teaching practices). How? In the context of Learning by Design teachers are encouraged to collect, create, analyse and discuss artefacts documenting their planning and practices and the consequences of these practices for themselves and their students. This means collecting samples of student work, photographs, films or audio recordings of teachers and students which capture evidence of Before (baseline-data), During (process-data), and After (outcomes-data); assessment records and reports, or any school or system documents that impact on the activities of the students or teachers. Artefacts become evidence of what-happened-how and can demonstrate the consequences of our interventions. When this process is followed over an extended period of time teachers begin to see evidence – through the artefacts – of shifts in their thinking and practice and have insights into how and why things happen. Collecting, creating, analysing and discussing artefacts is central to the development of the teacher-as-researcher and teacher-as reflective-practitioner.

12 Authentic Learning What? Learning that is authentic is grounded in the lifeworld of the learner - it is grounded in experience, often embodied experience and aims at being relevant and meaningful to learners, its practical application and benefits apparent. This means it is not abstract or separate from the learner – where it involves disciplinary knowledge it is focused on the connections between experiences, concepts, theories, reflection and inquiry and practical know-how. Authentic learning is often the product of an impulsion or felt need by the learner to know or find out about something: what it means; how it works; how to make it work; how it feels; or how it might be improved or changed. Authentic learning is deepened when opportunities emerge, or are created, to address these felt needs and when these opportunities lead to: experiences of the phenomena; a conceptual language with which to describe and discuss the phenomena and the authentic learner’s experiences; theories are uncovered or formulated which help explain the phenomena; the functions and purposes of the phenomena are analysed and discussed; the impacts and consequences of the phenomena are canvassed and reflected on; and the authentic learner has opportunities to apply their knowledge, understanding and know-how of the phenomena in creative ways. The Knowledge Processes of Learning by Design provide for Authentic Learning.

13 Capacity Building (this entry was added in July 2010 by Dr Peter Burrows and Dr Maureen O’Rourke) What? The idea of capacity building transcends Learning by Design and reflects the broadly inclusive and respectful approach taken to establish, develop and sustain Learning by Design in schools and amongst teachers. Capacity building in this context refers to an approach to teacher professional learning that is sympathetic with and complementary to Learning by Design, where the pedagogies of Learning by Design can be readily incorporated into and supported by the pedagogy of capacity building. The term 'capacity building' was first coined in a publication produced by the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development and referred to an approach that was designed to support the development of people and infrastructure in developing countries. In explaining the meaning of the term it was noted by the authors of this publication that capacity building involved the creation of enabling, participative environments with appropriate supports and that it was a long-term, continuing process in which all stakeholders participated. Capacity building is an approach that positions adult learners as the principal agents in their own learning. It is an approach that recognises and respects the knowledge, experiences and know-how that adult learners bring to their learning. It is founded on and promoted by opportunities for professional dialogue, analysis and reflection with peers, developing and deepening understanding of the professional tactics, techniques and tools needed for effective practice. Why? Capacity building approaches to teacher professional learning create the conditions in which people take ownership of and responsibility for their own learning. They lead to self-initiated changes rather than changes imposed by others. Such changes are more likely to engender commitment and sustained effort and lead to continuous cycles of practice focused learning and professional development. Capacity building approaches are more likely to lead to insights and deeper understanding. Moreover, such collegial, collaborative and respectful approaches to learning become models of teaching and learning which are reflected in teachers’ classroom practices. How? A capacity building approach means creating the conditions in which teachers and school leaders can develop stores of knowledge and know-how, individually and collectively, and become active agents in the service of their own learning and the learning of their peers. Capacity building means individuals and groups consider options and alternatives for their learning, they choose between ideas and absorb, adapt and synthesise concepts, theories and practices drawn from others to meet their specific needs – making these ideas or practices their own – as well as originating ideas and practices matched to their own circumstances. It begins with recognising, acknowledging and valuing the existing professional knowledge and expertise already present amongst group members. It recognises and promotes teachers as resources for each other as collaborators,

14 co-designers, peer coaches, mentors and critical friends. It is enacted via cycles of professional learning that build and expand their capacity to initiate, develop and respond to events in their own school environments. Capacity is built amongst people who are free to make choices about their work. Such an approach recognises that teachers are more likely to be engaged and motivated when they can make decisions about the things which shape their world and affect them personally and professionally. Therefore a capacity building approach locates agency and decision-making with individuals and with members of school groups and teams, including the leaders of those teams. It operates via collaborative and collegial methods rather than the didactic and instructional means often associated with traditional training and development.

15 Coherence What? In the context of Learning by Design coherence is a fundamental design aim. In order for a Learning Element to be coherent – for both teacher and students – there needs to be clear links – a throughline – between the teacher’s knowledge objectives, the learning activities and knowledge processes designed to achieve those objectives, and the outcomes and assessments designed to demonstrate student accomplishment of these objectives. There also needs to be a connectedness between each activity- knowledge process – building on a previous activity, contributing to the following activity. If asked by students or colleagues the teacher of a coherent Learning Element can readily explain why a particular activity was employed and how this activity related to earlier or later learning activities and to the objectives and planned assessments. This means that if a teacher sets an objective – As a result of completing this Learning Element students will be able to identify positive and negative images and words in a text – she will have designed activities using appropriate knowledge processes to accomplish this objective and the means to see whether students have in fact achieved this aim. In this way the teacher is deliberate and purposeful in designing her teaching. Why? Designing for coherence means that both teacher and students are more likely to understand a unit of work. The teacher can be clear about her intent and deliberate about the means for achieving that intent. Teachers’ designs can be more easily shared amongst colleagues when those colleagues understand and appreciate the purpose and mechanics of the designs. The designs of one teacher are more likely to be realised in full by others if those designs are coherent and explicit. How? In the entries for Analysing critically, Applying appropriately and Applying creatively the idea of ‘coherence’ is explored in the ways in which van Haren, in her Learning Element Problematising zoos through Zoo by Anthony Browne, designs activities using the Knowledge Processes. Principally van Haren designs activities and uses tools which activate and mobilise the pedagogical capacities of the Knowledge Processes and which are directed at achieving specific and explicit goals and purposes. She sequences the Knowledge Processes in such a way that each one benefits from and builds on the affordances of the ones that precede it while paving the way for those that follow. The Knowledge Processes are sequenced such that the connections between them are logical and apparent. They are weaved together such that their direction and intent is clear. How can a teacher design for coherence? The teacher should think about the overarching purpose and goals of your design; ; consider the ways in which your activities (Knowledge Processes) address these goals and support and scaffold each other; consider the connections and flow between activities; and seek out and cultivate a Critical Friend with whom you can exchange designs for review, critique and feedback.

16 Collaboration What? In the context of Learning by Design collaboration means teachers engaging with each other in workshops and meetings, in classrooms and lunchrooms, thinking and talking about the concepts and theory and working together to design Learning Elements. It means teachers analysing and discussing the impact of their designs on students, working with each other to refine or redesign their Learning Elements. It means being a critical friend and providing feedback and having the opportunity to explain one’s purpose or intent to an interested other. Why? Collaboration creates one of the conditions necessary for more fully understanding key concepts such as the Knowledge Processes and how these can be employed in the classroom. Collaboration provides opportunities for teachers to engage in dialogue and for the development of a professional language and for an expansion of one’s pedagogical repertoire of practice as ideas are shared. It is through collaboration and dialogue that teachers understanding of the concepts of Learning by Design are explored and their meaning thickened. It may be enough to read about ‘Analysing functionally’ in order to understand its meaning however the meaning of such concepts are significantly deepened through dialogue and application, via teachers collaborating on their designs together and discussing the outcomes of these designs on their students.

17 Conceptualising by naming What? One of the eight Knowledge Processes of Learning by Design. Conceptualising by naming is a foundational building block for learning. It introduces students to the names of things, ideas and concepts which they need in order to identify, think about, discuss, work with, or analyse a particular topic. This Knowledge Process involves students in developing an understanding of the words and language with which to engage with and talk about a topic. Why? This Knowledge Process can best be understood by its absence – without Conceptualising by naming students do not have the language to engage with a topic; this means they are unlikely to be interested in any theories that rely on those concepts; and they are unlikely to feel a sense of belonging in the learning particularly if the concepts have been introduced or unfolded in ways which are not connected to their lifeworlds or experiences – existing or new. Imagine the frustration of being unable to speak about something, not having the language to articulate what or how you feel, or to join with others in a discussion. To be excluded from Conceptualising by naming – to leave it out or handle it poorly - is to increase the likelihood that some students will be alienated from the learning or left behind. How? Given the importance of this Knowledge Process as a foundational base from which to build, some thought needs to be given to choice of tactic. The Think-Pair-Share activity can be adapted for use in a number of knowledge processes and works particularly well when used as a Conceptualising by naming tool. Think-Pair-Share is one of many inclusive tactics that build social and productive working relationships in a collaborative classroom setting. It allows students to think about a question or idea individually and to share their thoughts with a partner before further discussion occurs in small groups. A Think-Pair-Share ensures that all students are involved in the learning and are contributing their ideas - working in pairs helps them to become more articulate and build confidence when speaking in larger group settings. The approach also allows the teacher to move around the room and unobtrusively listen-in to the discussions to check on understanding. The concepts identified and named via this collaborative process can be added to as students are introduced to related or more sophisticated ideas. These concepts and ideas can be used as the basis for further discussion and analysis, or connected to earlier lifeworld or classroom experiences. More information on Think-Pair-Share can be found here: http://wwwfp.education.tas.gov.au/english/thinkpair.htm See the Lanyon Tool-kit for additional Conceptualising by naming tools, tactics and references that contribute to deep learning.

18 Conceptualising with theory What? One of the eight Knowledge Processes of Learning by Design. Conceptualising with theory is the process whereby students learn ways in which the concepts they are learning about connect, or are connected together, to form theories. It is the process through which concepts are contextualised, meaning is thickened and understanding is deepened. It involves students moving from the particular to the general, from the concrete to the abstract, making predictions and hypothesising or looking for structure or relationships. This Knowledge Process is also the home of maps, diagrams and schemas. Why? Conceptualising with theory is one of the key processes through which deep understanding is achieved. It fosters higher order thinking skills as students consider how things are connected, relate to or are part of a bigger whole. Conceptualising with theory offers opportunities for students to take information from the concrete to the abstract, to make generalisations and predictions and to understand the meaning of complex phenomenon. It encourages students to make or see connections between things, to look for relationships and interdependencies. Such understandings are crucial to the Knowledge Process of Analysing functionally and provide a broader base for Analysing critically. Being able to Conceptualise with theory is essential in scientific and engineering settings, crucial in most trades and essential in academic and professional roles. How? Placemats can be used for a wide variety of purposes and functions. They are outstanding tools for use with the Conceptualising and Analysing Knowledge Processes because of their collaborative and participative character. A Placemat is basically a flip-chart-sized piece of paper that has been divided into four quadrants with a circular area reserved in the middle. Students are divided into groups of four around a table with the Placemat between them - they respond individually in their quadrants to a question, prompt or provocation from the teacher: 'Which is worse and why, modern war or the war between the Confederates and the Union?' In this Conceptualising with theory example the teacher is attempting to elicit an underlying theory of war. The next prompt could be 'How are they similar or different?' The circular area in the centre of the Placemat is used by the students to identify themes or commonalities in their respective responses. Each group reports back their findings which are then summarised on a whiteboard. This activity could easily become an Analysing activity by asking students to consider the role, purpose or function of the themes they have identified (Analysing functionally) or to consider who is affected and how, the consequences or implications of their themes (Analysing critically). More information on the Placemat activity can be found here: http://www.myread.org/organisation.htm#placemat See the Lanyon Tool-kit for additional conceptualising by theorising tools and tactics that contribute to deep learning.

19 Curriculum What? The term curriculum has come to mean many things to many people. Some people have a straight-forward content-view of curriculum – the subject-matter to be taught or, what students will learn in a course of study. The idea of curriculum as set out in Wikipedia ‘the set of courses, and their content, offered at a school or university’. Kalantzis and Cope define curriculum a little more broadly, as: The consciously designed framework for learning a body of knowledge or a set of capacities over an extended period of time—for instance, a term’s program in history or two-year program in chemistry. This definition implies that a curriculum is something formal, which is set out in a ‘framework’ and that this content-body-of-knowledge-capacities are the consequence of forethought and deliberate choice. Others take a more expansive view of curriculum as encompassing everything a school does to bring about learning, including the what and how of learning and teaching. {this entry is incomplete}

20 Didactic What? Didactic teaching remains the pedagogical mainstay of many traditional classrooms and traditional teachers. It is the pedagogy of instruction and immutable facts, of authority and telling, and of right and wrong answers – it is teacher-centred and values learners who sit still and listen quietly and attentively, passively accepting the teacher as the knower and expert, both the source of knowledge and judge-jury of knowing. Students who succeed in this setting have learned to memorise and repeat the ‘important points’ of the lesson with little gloss or interpretation, mimicking the words of the teacher. Students unable to sit still or who interrupt the lesson are banished to a corner or from the room altogether – perhaps with chagrin or relief, or some complex combination of the two – these learners do not belong in the learning or to the didactic milieu. Such learners may be categorised as deficit or dull – unable to concentrate or more systematically diagnosed with a learning disorder or disability. The socio-spatial arrangement of the didactic classroom is a blackboard or whiteboard at the front of the room with children seated at desks in rows and facing the front. Kalantzis and Cope offer: Being didactic means to spell things out explicitly but perhaps a little too laboriously, or to present a view of what’s true or right or moral but in a way that might at times seem dogmatic. So, the teacher tells and the learner listens. Didactic teaching turns on what the teacher says rather than what the learner does. The balance of agency weighs heavily towards the teacher. The teacher is in command of knowledge. His or her mission is to transmit this knowledge to learners, and learners, it is hoped, dutifully absorb the knowledge laid before them by the teacher. The concept of the didactic teacher and the didactic ideal of passive and compliant students is exemplified in David Milgrim's Cows Can't Fly, an early-years picture book. The story is of a little boy whose hand drawn picture of two cows flying through the air inspires a herd of cows to take flight. Milgrim draws the teacher, Ms. Crumb standing beside her blackboard pointing with a stick at the lesson on the board. Chalked, double- spaced and underscored in upper case is the word G R A V I T Y with three large arrows, pointing down at a chalk drawn cow. The word G R A V I T Y dominates the blackboard. Next to the chalk drawn cow is the label 'massive object' with an arrow pointing sideways at the cow. The combination of the elements in this graphic tableau leave the reader with no room for doubt as to the teacher’s view. A powerful sense of didactic authority is achieved by the way in which Ms. Crumb, her pointer and her blackboard dominate the composition, almost filling the double page spread. The children are depicted as a row of partially seen heads at the bottom of the page looking up at the teacher, as small-seated-children everywhere must do with their adult teachers. Milgrim's teacher is dismissive of the idea that cows can fly. She is shown examining her fingernails and grimacing, pointing at the blackboard with her stick. We are told in the text “Ms. Crumb said cows were far too fat; that facts were facts, and that was that.” However Milgrim completely undermines the teacher’s self assuredness and sense of didactic authority with a small flying cow seen through the window behind her. The image captures in an essential way the disdain with which figures of didactic authority treat ideas that are not

21 consistent with the textbook or canon. The dominant figure of the teacher and her blackboard are beyond the challenge of the submissive seated child. This tableau captures in exaggerated caricature the didactic teacher. Why? Didactic teaching is not really consistent with the pedagogy of Learning by Design. A range of pedagogies – knowledge processes – are proposed for learning facts, concepts and theories – pedagogies which promote more active learning and greater agency for the learner.

22 Experiencing the known What? One of the eight Knowledge Processes of Learning by Design. Experiencing the known means drawing on learners’ prior knowledge, their personal interests and concrete experiences and their community backgrounds. It means finding out what they already know and creating opportunities for them to share this knowledge with each other and the teacher. It means discovering students’ individual motivations, drawing on their lifeworld experiences and that which is everyday and familiar to them. Often a teacher will begin a unit of work with this Knowledge Process because it grounds the learning in the learner’s world and provides the teacher with insights as to where each learner is at the beginning and what they already know. Why? ‘You are recognising what the students already know about a topic and affirming their knowledge, making them the expert and getting them to share this knowledge with each other…you’re also ascertaining for yourself where they are…then you can move on to build a new layer using another knowledge process.’ Rachael Yr9 English teacher. How? The teacher could use a ‘Think-Pair-Share’ activity which involves each student working individually to think about and record what they know about ‘X’, then pairing up to share with a partner. Pairs are then selected by the teacher to share what they know with the class. This activity gets everyone thinking and involved in the learning and provides the conditions in which it is more likely that everyone will legitimately have something to say and importantly to he heard. Or the teacher could use a ‘Noisy Round Robin’ which is a tactic that can be used to draw on students’ prior knowledge and experiences. It involves and encourages contributions from all participants and provides a means for the teacher to gain insights into students understanding of a topic. Students are divided into small groups, they elect a scribe to record the group's ideas and after a minute or two pass their sheet on to the group next to them, to add information or ideas. For a more complete description of the Noisy Round Robin see: http://www2.successforboys.edu.au/cd-rom/resources/pdf/planning_core/planning_activity8.pdf Also see: The Lanyon Tool-kit for additional Experiencing the known tools, tactics and references.

23 Experiencing the new What? One of the eight Knowledge Processes of Learning by Design. Experiencing the new is related to the idea of situated practice - it involves introducing learners to, or immersing them in new experiences – such as going on an excursion, listening to a guest speaker, reading, watching or looking at an unfamiliar text, images, video or website, or engaging with information about a topic that students had not previously read or known about. New experiences are ‘new’ from the learner’s perspective - to make sense such experiences may have familiar elements or the teacher may link them to something familiar. Experiencing the new activities which involve students working in pairs or small groups scaffolded by teacher questions or prompts appear to be particularly effective. Often it is possible to bridge from an Experiencing the known activity into an Experiencing the new activity – this serves to anchor the ‘new’ learning in the students’ lifeworld. The teacher may design or use a Learning Activity which makes this connection explicit or the student may be encouraged to look for the connection – ‘How does this relate to your experience?’ One way of better understanding this knowledge process is to consider what it is not. If an activity involves direct or overt instruction by the teacher then it is probably not Experiencing the new – such activities are more likely to be found in Conceptualising by naming or Conceptualising with theory. Experiencing the new involves the student in direct experiences. Why? Experiencing the new activities broaden and extend students experiences and provide a scaffold for building conceptual and analytical activities around. The teacher can take these new experiences and fashion a conceptual language around them so that students can talk about what they have been experiencing or relate these experiences to concepts or theories which the teacher is tasked with teaching. Experiencing the new activities provide a platform from which student learning is launched – they make conceptual and analytical activities more meaningful. How? An out-of-school excursion is a useful way for students to Experience the new. Such an excursion could be deliberately planned at the beginning of a unit of work to enable students to gather information using a tactic such as 'Data Charts'. Data Charts are designed by the teacher, according to her purpose, to focus student attention on particular aspects of the excursion experience. Out of school visits give students access to an invaluable source of first-hand knowledge that can be referred back to and, significantly, is more likely to stay with students throughout the duration of the learning. The use of Data Charts in Experiencing the new activities helps scaffold and support the gathering of data which can then be shared and added to as the learning progresses. Importantly such devices add purpose and structure to students’ experiences, the data gathered can be used in conceptual and analytical activities back at school. The scaffolding created by Data Charts is likely to result in success for all students. The first-hand experience of the excursion will help ground and make meaningful the later application of concepts, theories and skills developed throughout the unit of work. More information on Data Charts and their uses see: Murdoch (1998) Classroom Connections – strategies for integrated learning, Eleanor Curtain Publishing, South Yarra Also see The Lanyon Tool-kit for additional Experiencing the new tools, tactics and references to deepen student learning.

24 Explicit What? Being explicit in the context of Learning by Design means being able to fully articulate – give names to, describe and explain – the what, how and why behind one’s teaching practice and to make clear one’s pedagogical choices and how these relate to purpose, objectives and intended outcomes. Being explicit means building a capacity to be understood by students, colleagues and parents. Being explicit means having access to a professional language and being able to use that language to engage in dialogue with colleagues. Being explicit means being able to design learning that can be shared with, understood and used by other teachers. Why? Being explicit is a prerequisite for professional dialogue and discussion and for the communities of practice which these promote. In the context of Learning by Design learning to be explicit is a key to teacher professional development.

Explicit teaching Edwards-Groves says Explicit teaching is critically about clarity in:

 knowing the learner  responding to the learner  implementing focused lessons  reflection and review

See the article by Christine Edwards-Groves here: http://www.myread.org/explicit.htm

In the context of Learning by Design explicit teaching is dependent on explicit design. Edwards-Groves goals of clarity in knowing the learner, responding to the learner and implementing focused lessons are achieved by deliberate design using the Knowledge Processes as a scaffold for the process. The designs created, combined with the artefacts collected by the Teacher Researcher, lead to achievement of Edwards-Groves final goal reflection and review.

Edwards-Groves goals are readily achievable with Learning by Design.

25 Heuristics (this entry was added in July 2010 by Dr Peter Burrows and Dr Maureen O’Rourke) What? Heuristics, as defined in this context, are devices for bringing about insight and understanding. The idea of designing and using heuristics is closely related to the idea of self-discovery which heuristics are often designed to prompt. The example offered in Wikipedia may be helpful in understanding the intent of heuristics: 'Archimedes is said to have shouted "Heureka" (later converted to "Eureka") after discovering the principle of displacement in his bath.' In this case Archimedes’ own body is the 'heuristic' that led to his discovery. Heuristics can be designed for a wide range of purposes and goals. The concept of heuristics as applied in Learning by Design covers a multiplicity of interventions and techniques however each of these interventions has in common that it serves as a means of prompting teachers to think about and make sense of something for themselves, drawing on their own contexts, experiences, interests and needs. A well-designed heuristic creates the conditions for personal and professional insights and what might generally be thought of as ‘aha moments’ or self-discoveries. Well-designed heuristics do not provide 'answers' rather they engage teachers in thinking about, discussing and analysing different aspects of their practice, as well as the significances and consequences of those practices. Why? By their very nature insights and self-discoveries are the unique products of the individuals that produce them. They have maximum meaning and impact for the individuals to whom they belong. There is no more powerful or potentially life-changing form of learning than personal or professional insights. Well-designed heuristics offer a means of prompting and triggering such insights. How?

Knowledge Domain What? Is the subject or discipline area in which the Learning Element is set – e.g. English Literacy or American History or Applied Chemistry. Why? Identifying the Knowledge Domain helps other teachers to search for and locate a published Learning Element that they may adapt for their own use. This allows teachers to share and benefit from each other’s designs. Knowledge Objectives

26 What? Knowledge Objectives are the intended learning aims or goals of the Learning Element identified and grouped in terms of the primary focus of each aim or goal - so the teacher is prompted to identify Experiential, Conceptual, Analytical and Applied objectives. The Knowledge Objectives should be closely aligned to the learning activities-Knowledge Processes, which they preface and mirror, and echoed in the Knowledge Outcomes which are designed to indicate achievement of the Knowledge Objectives. Why? Clearly identifying the Knowledge Objectives means the teacher is upfront and explicit about their purpose. The Knowledge Objectives serve to guide the rest of the design process – if an activity-Knowledge Process does not serve an objective, if it does not enable an objective to be met then the teacher is prompted to consider its need. Encouraging teachers to identify the focus of their objectives – experiential, conceptual, analytical or applied – scaffolds more complex considerations regarding the purpose or intent of their objectives. Knowledge Outcomes What? Knowledge Outcomes are outcomes of the learning activities-Knowledge Processes that the teacher has created in her Learning Element. They are grouped in terms of the knowledge processes which support them – so the teacher is prompted to identify Experiential, Conceptual, Analytical and Applied outcomes. The Knowledge Outcomes are ‘bookend pairs’ to the knowledge objectives – mirroring and affirming what the teacher sets out to achieve. Although they are usually created at the same time as the Knowledge Objectives they underscore the purposeful character of the design process – the teacher begins with knowledge objectives, designs activities to achieve these objectives and these activities result in outcomes which demonstrate whether or not the objectives have been achieved. Why? Being explicit about the Knowledge Outcomes before beginning to teach means the teacher can be clear and unambiguous about the outcomes the students will achieve – both for herself and her students. This clarity means that the teacher can explain to her students (and her colleagues) why particular activities-knowledge processes have been selected and how these activities will contribute to achieving a specific outcome.

27 Knowledge Processes What? The Knowledge Processes of Learning by Design are the names given to eight different pedagogies - each of these pedagogies has a unique character and focus and is deployed to achieve a specific teaching purpose. The knowledge processes are the engine-room of Learning by Design as they are the pedagogies which scaffold and support the learning. Experiencing the known (to situate learning in what learners already know) the new (to introduce to, or immerse learners in, new experiences) Conceptualising by naming (to learn the names and meaning of key concepts) with theory (to understand how these concepts connect to theory) Analysing functionally (to understand the purpose of something) critically (to understand the consequences/implications of something) Applying appropriately (to apply what has been learnt in appropriate ways) creatively (to apply what has been learnt in creative ways)

28 The boundaries between the knowledge processes are not rigid – for example it is difficult to Conceptualise with theory without straying into Analysing functionally. The following diagram depicts the knowledge processes.

Why? ‘Learning by Design provides us with a language to analyse and discuss what we do and how we do it… to plan and design teaching that is deliberate and purposeful.’ Chris – Yr3/4 teacher. ‘Teaching with a mix of different pedagogies means kids get a deeper understanding of what they are learning and they are more interested and engaged…they want to learn. Ed – Yr9 teacher How? The tool-kit has been designed to help you plan with and use the Knowledge Processes. You may find at first, as many teachers do, that it is difficult to identify which Knowledge Process is at work with a particular activity. A single activity may appear to involve several Knowledge Processes. However, ask yourself ‘What is the primary focus of this activity?’ You may want to discuss this question with a colleague, mentor or critical friend to deepen your understanding of the concepts. Generally speaking the focus of the activity will reveal the active Knowledge Process.

You may want to begin by reading the book entitled Understanding and using the Knowledge Processes - the building blocks of Learning by Design. Or you may want to explore the other resources included in the kit – The Planning Map, which outlines the Knowledge Processes; the Learning Activity cards, which link specific activities to particular Knowledge Processes; or read the example of a completed Learning Element notated by the teacher in which you will find concrete examples of each Knowledge Process.

Sometimes teachers will sequence activities so that the Knowledge Processes follow a pattern from experiential to conceptual to analytical activities, finishing with students applying what they have learnt. ‘The knowledge processes represent different layers of knowledge, starting from the superficial and moving much deeper…and you’ve got to gradually build up and explore each layer before you proceed to the next one.’ Some teachers describe this as ‘a natural progression’ while other teachers contend that the Knowledge Processes are not ‘a step by step formula’ and that ‘you need to learn what the Knowledge Processes mean and how they work and you have to ask yourself whether the activity you have chosen will achieve the purpose you have intended.’

29 Knowledge Producing Community What? In the context of Learning by Design a Knowledge Producing Community is a school comprised of students and teachers who are actively pursuing deep understanding and from this understanding are producing knowledge (as opposed to memorising and consuming knowledge). Teachers in a Knowledge Producing Community are instrumental in a process involving the mindful and premeditated design of learning using a broad range of knowledge processes and tactics. Such teachers engage with their students using a pedagogical meta-language and are explicit about their designs and their purposes – they listen and respond to their students, understand their needs and different ways of knowing and encourage them to produce their own knowledge. The teachers in a Knowledge Producing Community engage in ongoing analysis, reflection and dialogue with students, colleagues and parents about their teaching and its impacts and consequences. Why? Knowledge Producing Communities and the people who create, sustain and are sustained by them, are seen as a pre-requisite for bright intelligent and creative engagement with the future. The active initiatives and responses of our society to the possibilities and perplexes of the times will depend on people from such communities.

30 Learning activity What? Learning activities, as the name suggests, are activities designed or deployed by the teacher to bring about, or create the conditions for learning. The difference between a Learning by Design approach to employing various learning activities and other approaches to teaching relates to the pedagogical character or focal intent of the activities selected. What do I want to achieve with this activity? How will I achieve my aims? Which Knowledge Process is best suited to achieving my aim? With Learning by Design the teacher mindfully designs or chooses particular learning activities based on which Knowledge Process is activated by that activity. Some learning activities stimulate experiential learning, others mobilise conceptual thinking, while still others prompt students to engage in analytical discussion. The pedagogical effectiveness of a Learning Element – a teacher’s overall design – can be traced to (1) the mindful selection of learning activities based on the Knowledge Processes which those activities set in motion; (2) the establishment of direct links between those activities and the intended Knowledge Objectives; (3) and the careful sequencing of those activities such that they build on, or contribute to, the learning of earlier or later activities (see Coherence and Through-line). Why? A teacher who is mindfully engaged with considering and choosing learning activities based on the Knowledge Processes which those activities activate is thinking through the purpose of those activities and what kind of work she wants her students to be engaged in – what kind of thinking-acting-being. The Knowledge Processes provide a name for these different ways of working and for the pedagogical character-purpose that these different ways of working involve. This means the teacher can base her choice of learning activity on her pedagogical intent – she can therefore be more deliberate-purposeful in her designing.

Learning by Design What? Learning by Design is a series of related concepts which together form a theory of teaching and learning. This theory encourages teachers to design learning that incorporates (1) a range of different pedagogies (Knowledge Processes), (2) a variety of different modes or modalities (Multimodalities), and which foregrounds and addresses (3) the lifeworld differences (Diversity) of students. Why? Learning by Design is the result of several decades of observation, thought, discussion, experimentation and research. The adoption and application of Learning by Design, the concepts and theory through which it is enacted, and the pedagogical framework which scaffolds and

31 supports teachers as they design and teach, provides for learning which is deep and intellectually rigorous. Learning by Design means teaching by design – deliberate, thoughtful teaching which links purpose with pedagogy (how) and outcomes. How? The design of this handbook and professional tool-kit is based on three years research with one hundred teachers in ten Australian schools. It has been designed to help you get started with Learning by Design and to scaffold your professional learning. The various tools have been developed to support you in your planning, designing, practicing, reflecting and discussing. It will take time and effort to fully develop your skills as a teacher-designer however this kit will help you to understand and apply the principles of Learning by Design.

Learning Element What? A Learning Element is the name given to a unit of work which has been designed and planned by a teacher using a Learning by Design framework which scaffolds and supports the design process. The Learning by Design framework uses the familiar MS Word as a medium prompting teachers to plan their curriculum by being explicit about their:  learning focus (the subject to be studied, scope of learning and prior knowledge);  knowledge objectives (planned goals - what students will be able to do or achieve as a consequence of completing the Learning Element) ;  knowledge processes (learning activities selected or designed by way of the eight different pedagogies of Learning by Design);  knowledge outcomes (the consequences for students of completing the knowledge processes - learning activities);  learning pathways. Learning Elements which are created using the structured framework may be published and shared with colleagues via school intranets or the internet. The framework is built on a sophisticated but simple platform that incorporates meta data so that teachers’ designs are searchable via a broad range of criteria using digital search engines. Why? Use of this structured and scaffolded planning framework increases the likelihood of pedagogically richer and more inclusive teaching practices affording intellectually and aesthetically engaging learning experiences. The model encourages teachers to document and become

32 conscious of their pedagogical preferences, acting as both a reflective prompt (heuristic) and as a self-diagnostic tool to reveal gaps in practice and/or narrow or habitual choices. It may also reveal how and why particular practices are effective. Use of the framework, the design of Learning Elements, and the professional dialogue and collaborations which spring up around these activities stimulates the development of a shared professional language. This language provides the means for reflective and considered decision making about pedagogy and informed discussions about the ‘what, how and why’ of teaching.

Learning Focus What? Teachers begin their design work inside a Learning by Design framework - Learning Element - by identifying the Learning Focus of their design – this means the teacher is asked to identify the:  knowledge domain or subject which will be studied (e.g. English and literacy);  scope of learning or topic (e.g. In this Learning Element students explore the visual and linguistic features of the picture book ‘Zoo’ by Anthony Browne to develop their literacy and thinking skills. );  learning level or year level (e.g. Year 6);  prior knowledge of students or what they already know (e.g. Students would have some prior experience of visiting, reading or watching something about zoos). The Learning Focus represents a brief overview of the Learning Element, the context in which it will be taught and what students already know. This awareness or understanding of what students already know can be significantly supplemented via the design of learning activities using the Knowledge Process of Experiencing the known. Why? Identifying a Learning Focus in this structured way encourages teachers to be succinct and clear about their plan and its primary focus.

33 Multiliteracies What? According to Kalantzis and Cope, two of the originators of the concept: Multiliteracies is an approach to literacy which focuses on variations in language use according to different social and cultural situations, and the intrinsic multimodality of communications, particularly in the context of today's new media. Being multiliterate then means being able to read and understand the complex of signs, symbols and meanings embedded in different situations and modes of communication and expression. So, what does this mean in terms of teacher practice? Teachers need to help learners to understand, to make and express meaning in different social and cultural settings and via multiple modes – written-linguistic, oral, visual, audio, gestural, tactile and spatial patterns of meaning-making – individual or multiple modes together. This means that teachers need to create opportunities for students to think, work and play in different settings and with different and multiple modes of meaning-making. This includes, but is not restricted to, those modes of meaning-making which are mediated by digital technologies – digital cameras, video cameras, audio-recorders, iPods, mobile phones etc. It is via these learning opportunities that learners become multiliterate citizens. In the context of Learning by Design the teacher deliberately designs for the development of learner multiliteracies just as previously the teacher planned for the development of print literacies. This means that we need to extend the range of literacy pedagogy so that it does not unduly privilege alphabetical representations, but brings into the classroom multimodal representations, and particularly those typical of the new, digital media. This makes literacy pedagogy all the more engaging for its manifest connections with today’s communications milieu. It also provides a powerful foundation for a pedagogy of synaesthesia, or mode switching. Kalantzis and Cope - http://newlearningonline.com/multiliteracies Why? The need for multiliteracies is founded on the idea that the world is not as it was when we were growing up, or when our parents and grandparents were children. Life and the ways in which people of all ages communicate and find expression are extra-ordinarily different. The milieu in which our children are learning and growing up is much less controlled, edited and mediated by adults – the access that some children have to technology and the media such technologies make available is almost unfettered. Socio cultural changes sweep across formerly stable landscapes of everyday practice, rapidly displacing or modifying the practices which define that landscape. We used to think of children in terms of being ‘citizens of tomorrow’ but in many ways they are already active citizens inundated with sophisticated marketing techniques and immersed in multiple modes of meaning-making, already making decisions about what, when, where, why and how. In such circumstances the role of the teacher might be considered more crucial than ever – fostering and equipping learners with the multiliteracies to make informed and critical decisions as their world shifts and unfolds.

34 35 New Learning & New Times What? The idea of New Learning is premised on another idea that of ‘new times’ – the argument being that if the times in which we live are new and different then the learning and the ways we learn and teach need to be different – at the very least we should consider our traditional teaching techniques and tactics in terms of how well-suited they are to new times. If new learning is going to map to, or be aligned with, new times then we need to consider how the times are different – what are the defining characteristics of these new times? Self-evidently the world in which we live is increasingly multimodal and mobile – it is highly visual and aural, disaggregated and reaggregated in bits bytes and digital forms. On many different dimensions the ways in which we communicate with each other have shifted and split into multiple channels and modes, asynchronous and -

36 Pedagogy What? Pedagogy is the how of teaching - the combination of processes and practices employed by teachers as they teach. It is through pedagogy that the teacher brings about learning and knowing in learners – pedagogy is what it means to be a teacher. This suggests that all teachers have pedagogy though many find it difficult to describe or articulate. Some people refer to pedagogy as an art while others believe it is a science. In the context of Learning by Design the Knowledge Processes are the pedagogy through which Learning Activities are designed and enacted. The Learning by Design approach prompts teachers to choose specific pedagogies – Knowledge Processes – for specific purposes, to match pedagogies to intent. Why? A concern for pedagogy means that the teacher is concerned with the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of their practice as well as the topics or subject matter they will teach because the how and why – the pedagogy – will influence or determine the effectiveness of the learning. The depth and breadth of the teacher’s pedagogy will establish how effectively they teach. The broader the range of pedagogies (Knowledge Processes), Learning Activities and Modes (Multimodalities) available to the teacher (their Repertoire of Practice) the more likely they are to have an appropriate approach or response for a given purpose or context or with a particular cohort of students or individual learners. How? By engaging with the different elements in this tool-kit – learning how to plan with and deploy the different Knowledge Processes; experimenting with, designing and using a range of Learning Activities; engaging with, and encouraging students to engage with, a range of different Modalities; reflecting on and discussing with colleagues your experiences, achievements and learning – your pedagogy will expand and develop. This will take time.

37 Repertoire of Practice What? A repertoire of practice refers to the sum of available tools, techniques, strategies, tactics, ways of working, expertise and know-how from which a practitioner may draw, choose from, and/or combine to suit both known and novel situations or address a particular purpose. The more expansive and well-developed a professional’s repertoire of practice the more likely they are to be able to respond appropriately and effectively to the challenges thrown up by practice and working with people with diverse interests, dispositions and backgrounds. Crucially the notion of a repertoire of practice, in the context of Learning by Design, is that it is open-ended, grounded in both experience and theory, developing fully only via discussion, dialogue and critique and as a result of iterative and repeated application, reflection, design and redesign. A repertoire of practice develops via the practice which it makes possible. Why? An expansive and expanding repertoire of practice provides the foundation for sophisticated professional endeavour and professional connoisseurship – it provides for deliberate and thoughtful choices between Knowledge Processes and pedagogical tools and the matching of these to learner needs and disciplinary contexts. If the average classroom is considered a complex system Ashby's Law of Requisite Variety [9] says that ‘variety absorbs variety, defines the minimum number of states necessary for a controller to control a system of a given number of states. For example, the number of bits necessary in a digital computer to produce a required description or model.’ It follows that the more complex a system, the more complex the ‘inputs’ to that system need to be in order to influence how it functions how it creates outputs, and by extension how it sustains itself. Classrooms with students from diverse backgrounds and with eclectic lifeworld interests and educational needs demand teachers with an extensive range of pedagogical skills, access to a broad range of tools and processes and the know-how to deploy and use those tools effectively.

38 Teacher-as-learner What? The twin concepts of the teacher-as-learner and the teacher-as-researcher are central to the practice of Learning by Design – practice is the medium via which professional learning and research are played out – practice is quite literally that which one learns from and through. Learning by Design provides a professional language – concepts and terminology – and a theory of teaching and learning which supports and scaffolds the teacher-as-learner and the teacher-as-researcher. The two roles are interrelated and interdependent as the activities which teachers engage in to capture, document, preserve, analyse, discuss and share their practice serve the purposes of professional learning and research, providing rich insights into how and why learners learn. When considering the question ‘Who are the learners?’ in Learning by Design, teachers and students are both learners and teachers. Students teach their teachers via the responses they make to the teacher’s designs, which they create and enact, and more directly via the transfer of knowledge and know-how that the teacher may lack. Being a teacher-researcher means:  collecting, reflecting on and analysing the ‘artefacts’ which are created through or as a consequence of your practice such as:  teaching plans, images, audio and/or video recordings of the processes you engage in when you plan and when you teach;  samples of student work - ‘before and after’ evidence of the consequences of your teaching;  student responses to your teaching and what these responses mean to you;  sharing and discussing with teaching peers your observations, data, evidence and analyses: What does it all mean? What are the consequences, significances and implications, for you, for your students and for how you relate to and work with your colleagues?;  presenting your evidence, findings and conclusions to colleagues and peers in coherent, compelling ways. Why? When one’s practice, and the practice of one’s colleagues, becomes the ground for learning and for research that practice is invariably altered and affected by that learning and research, and by the professional dialogue which it fosters. The process of designing and enacting learning – being a teacher – becomes a deeply reflective and considered endeavour. When such learning and research are supported by a shared pedagogical language and collaborative, collegiate and dialogical engagement – teachers talking about and sharing insights from their practices – a professional learning community springs up in the school. This community is attuned to and continually looking for evidence of learning. Belonging to such a community as it evolves and develops results in a culture of professionalism

39 Through-line What? The idea of a through-line in Learning by Design relates to the quality of the connections between learning activities in a teacher's design and the relationship of those activities to the teacher's objectives, assessments and outcomes. Looking for a through line in a teacher's design means exploring whether and in what ways a 'big idea' is played out in the planned activities and whether or how each activity builds on a previous activity or contributes to a later activity. A through-line is evident when each activity makes sense on its own terms and in the context of the activities around it – learners should be able to see the connections and relevance of each activity or the teacher should be able to establish or explain connections easily and without labouring the point. Having a good through-line in a design means that the learners understand, and are always clear about, the purpose of the learning – where it is headed and why. According to Wikipedia the idea of a through-line had its genesis in the theatre and, …was first suggested by Constantin Stanislavski as a simplified way for actors to think about characterisation. He believed actors should not only understand what their character was doing, or trying to do, (their objective) in any given unit, but should also strive to understand the through line which linked these objectives together and thus pushed the character forward through the narrative. Translated into the context of Learning by Design this notion of through-line means that teachers, through their designs, should strive to create or design activities – using the knowledge processes cumulatively to build deep knowledge and deep understanding – which are clearly connected, each with the other, and imbued with an overarching purpose. Why? Designing with the aim of creating a through-line means that a teacher’s design is much more likely to make sense to the learners. If the purpose of each activity is clearly related to an overarching purpose the learner is more likely to engage with the design and be able to accurately identify where the learning is going and why. A good through-line can create the conditions in which a classroom is calmer and more task-focused and where there is little evidence of confusion or restlessness. Being able to identify the quality of a through-line in the designs of others means being able to provide meaningful and productive feedback, to engage in dialogue and discussion about the design and to make changes based on improving the connectedness, purpose and relevance of the activities. This also means that the exemplary or outstanding designs of other teachers are more likely to be identifiable and the reasons behind a design’s effectiveness to be understood.

40 Transformative education What? Transformative education is based on a reading of contemporary society, or the kinds of capacities for knowing that children need to develop in order to be good workers in a ‘knowledge economy’, participating citizens in a globalised cosmopolitan society, and balanced personalities in a society that affords a range of choices that at times seem overwhelming. The essence of education is transformation of self and environment, which may be pragmatic (enabling learners to do their best in the given social conditions) or emancipatory (making the world a better place).

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