The Reform Movement

Several reform movements have occurred in American history, including those that have confronted issues such as education, temperance, politics, and more. Improvements in society are the results of these reforms, and the lasting effects can still be observed today.

Group Members: Rafael Flores Melissa Garcia Ernest Haro Diego Calzada During the early 17th century, the reform movement began to bloom in colonial America.

After Englishmen settled in Jamestown in 1607, the seed for a representative government was planted within the legislation of the House of Burgesses between 1619 and 1622. Essentially, however, the 1600s proved to be an era of religious and political unrest. Puritans carried King

James’s political and traditional values into the colonies. Separatists and "Strangers" signed the Mayflower Compact in 1620, which, for the first time, declared the colonies self-governed.

As a result of this reform, religion spread like wildfire throughout the colonies. This phenomenon led to the creation of America's first secondary school in 1635 and the founding of

Harvard in 1636 as a clergy movement. In addition, the success of the Plymouth colony led to the Great Puritan Migration from 1639 to 1642. The first major individual reformers to originate in the American Colonies were Anne Hutchinson and Roger Williams, who managed to express their paralleled views onto religious culture. In 1662, as a result of the Puritan church's decreasing followers, the Halfway Covenant provided less strict religious values, which changed and undermined the previously praised ideas of Hutchinson. Aside from religion,

Bacon's Rebellion sparked the beginning of the uprising populist movement which hoped that reform would come between the relations between colonists and Indians. The 17th century involved the diversification of politics and religious culture as opposed to the traditional English monarchies.

Reform in the 1700s was minimal with only the First Great Awakening and

Enlightenment, but the conditions in early education and public health were established that would later be improved. In the 1730s and 1740s, a revival of religion, known as the Great

Awakening, swept the colonies. Jonathan Edwards, a Congregationalist minister, emerged in this period as a prominent religious reformist, known for his fiery speech, “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God.” The Enlightenment sparked the Great Awakening because of its placement of reason over religion. Ben Franklin, America’s self-made man, was a product of the

Enlightenment and is responsible for several public innovations, including the first fire department and public library. More colleges, such as Princeton and Yale, were also founded in the eighteenth century with a primary focus on religion to train future ministers. In this patriarchal era, only boys attended college, and at that, only the most affluent were able to enroll.

Elementary schools existed, but were loosely populated because a child’s work took priority over their education. Most of the educational institutions were located in the cities, which lacked sanitation. Epidemics, such as small pox, commonly lurked in the primitive cities. Despite widespread poverty, cities represented centers for progress in the 1700s, and the poor conditions of early education and sanitation were reformed in the decades to come.

The first half of the nineteenth century gave birth to several reform movements and, like the 1700s, change in different social and spiritual arenas resulted from a revival of religion, which was called the Second Great Awakening in this period. Religion intensely spread in the

Second Great Awakening due to the forming of many new churches, mostly of the Methodists,

Presbyterians, and Baptists. But, this religious movement extended its influence in other areas of society as well, provoking the formation of reform societies dedicated to battling social evils.

Temperance societies attempted to persuade people to stop their habits of drinking liquor and also fought against gambling, lotteries, and prostitution. Penitentiaries and asylums, led by

Dorothea Dix, helped rehabilitate criminals and the mentally insane, displaying society’s responsibility for tending to the less fortunate. Utopian groups, which included the Shakers, whose belief system centered on the human neglect of their afterlives, and Brook Farm, the home of the Transcendentalists, prospered during this time as well. Lastly, Horace Mann strongly advocated for educational reform with teacher training, a longer school year, and the implementation of the first standardized textbook. Some significant political reform occurred as well in the establishment of judicial review from the Supreme Court’s decision in Marbury v.

Madison and the movement for government activism. The majority of these movements left a lasting impact on the nation for the years to come, and some, particularly temperance, continued to gain numbers in their fight to improve conditions in America.

From 1851 to 1900, societal and political reform continued to develop, gaining more and more momentum. Although Reconstruction was an overall failure and did not drastically improve conditions in the south, the Freedman’s Bureau assisted in the establishment of schools in the Confederate ruins. Children later became legally required to attend school with the compulsory education efforts, increasing the population of high schools in addition to the national literacy rate. Following Reconstruction, the Gilded Age was an era of corruption between the government and big business. Trusts became extremely powerful, almost more influential than the president himself, and as a result, the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 was created. However, it was not effective in dissolving many trusts because of its ambiguous wording. The Interstate Commerce Commission was also established and supervised the railroad industry to regulate unethical practices. The presidents of this era, Ulysses S. Grant for instance, surrounded themselves with cabinets of dishonest cronies in pursuit of their own selfish intentions. The long list of affairs that occurred during the Grant presidency include the Credit

Mobilier and Whiskey Ring scandals, both of which revealed the excessive corruption within the state and led to zealous reform in civil service. Rutherford B. Hayes, James Garfield, and

Chester A. Arthur all took steps to eliminate the dishonesty within Washington. Under President Arthur, the Pendleton Civil Service Act of 1883 was implemented, requiring all federal employees to pass an examination in order to prove their qualification in the White House.

Benjamin Harrison, on the other hand, passed the nation’s first meat inspection act. Public health suffered heavily, though, due to the enormous amount of waste and pollution in the poverty- struck cities. Horse manure piled up along the streets and diseases spread since the environment lacked any means of sanitation. These miserable conditions were improved with future innovations in the next century with the progressives, and the fiery efforts to prohibit the sale and consumption of alcohol reached its climax.

A whirlwind of reformation hit the United States in the decades subsequent to the

Gilded Age. The Populist movement raised a possibility of reform through the government pertaining in both local and national elections, but dissolved at the beginning of this time period.

The Progressives, formed of urban, middle class reformers, dictated the first two decades of the twentieth century in American politics with the request to increase the role of government while still maintaining a capitalist economy. A boost in the continuation of Progressivism arrived with the introduction journalists who Theodore Roosevelt dubbed the “muckrakers.” They unveiled the widespread corruption in urban management in oil companies and meatpacking industries.

The famous title that captured society’s attention was Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle, which focused on the unsafe conditions and little regard for individual workers in the meat industry.

Other groundbreaking titles were Lincoln Steffens’s The Shame of the Cities and Ida Tarbell’s

History of Standard Oil. On the other hand, many states extended powers to voters by the adoption of the ballot initiative, the referendum, and the recall election, all plans of Robert La

Follete. The most known Progressive leader was President Theodore Roosevelt with his domestic program called the New Nationalism. Another known Progressive president was Woodrow Wilson due to his ideas and policies named the New Freedom. Wilson developed the

Federal Trade Commission, enforced the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914, and established the

Federal Reserve System, thus providing the government considerable control over the nation’s finances. Also, during Wilson’s presidency the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments were passed, respectively implementing an income tax and calling for the direct election of senators.

The Progressive movement lasted until the end of World War I, fading away after most of its goals were achieved. The next issue confronted was Prohibition with the Eighteenth

Amendment, which prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcohol. Many people resented the government’s involvement after the Eighteenth Amendment, but it was repealed in 1833 after aggravating economic unrest and organized crime. After Franklin D.

Roosevelt became president, a war against depression was declared with his many New Deal programs. Some programs included the Banking Act of 1933, which created the Federal

Deposit Insurance Corporation to guarantee bank deposits for people to no lose their money if the bank goes bankrupt, the Public Works Administration, which created numerous make- work jobs, and the Works Progress Administration, which employed many artists, in the

Second New Deal. The success of FDR’s New Deal programs is questionable, but it is obvious that the first half of the twentieth century yielded an incredible amount of reform in nearly every aspect.

The reform movements of the late twentieth century dealt with political and social change that sought to improve the nation’s well-being. The 1950s initiated social and political reformation as a group of artists and writers, known as the Beat Generation, rejected traditionalism in art and society as a whole. These beatnik individuals demanded for the right to free speech, political protests, and academic freedom as they struggled for social reform. The decade concluded, and John F. Kennedy emerged as president and enforced his domestic program called the New Frontier, which included tax reform, educational aid, and focus on an advanced space program. Kennedy was assassinated while campaigning in Dallas in 1963, so

Lyndon B. Johnson assumed the presidency with his domestic program titled the Great Society, in which he declared a war on poverty. Several years later, President Ronald Reagan implemented his program, the New Federalism, which was actually designed to shift power from the federal government to the states. Finally, an issue that is still controversially debated about today, same-sex marriage had potential to be legalized with the adoption of the Equal

Rights Amendment, but because of the conservative resurgence that began in the 1970s, it faced great opposition. Throughout the United States’ illustrious history, reform movements have impacted the modern way of life by enacting social, political, and economic change, cementing their monumental significance in the nation’s progression. Study Guide

 Jamestown- The first permanent English settlement in the Americas

 House of Burgesses- The first legislative assembly of elected representatives in North

America. Created to encourage Northern settlement and to make living habits better for

settlers.

 Puritans- Followers of King James split from the traditional Catholic Church whom also

wished to "purify" the newborn religion.

 Separatists- Followers and persecutes of King James that split from Puritanism and

wished for a new religion altogether as a result of rejecting the idea of re-purifying a

religion.

 "Strangers"- Settlers that wished for economic opportunity and no authority.

 The Mayflower Compact- The first governing document of the Plymouth Colony. stated

that all colonies will be self- governed.

 Anne Hutchinson- Hutchinson taught antinomianism, that faith and god’s grace are

enough for a place among the “elect”, not moral law and the enactment of good deeds.  Roger Williams– a religious Zealot who taught the separation of church and state and

soon went on to found the colony of Rhode Island.

 The Halfway Covenant– As a response to the increased number of people leaving the

church, Puritan clergy would baptize all children whose parents were baptized, but those

without “God’s grace” were not allowed to vote.

 Bacon's Rebellion- led by Nathaniel Bacon, a violent reform group of backcountry

farmers marched to Jamestown and burned it down out of the belief that they were being

used as a human shield to protect easterners from Native Americans.

 First Great Awakening- religious revivalism in the colonies that took place in the 1730s

and 1740s

 Enlightenment- a European intellectual movement that borrowed heavily from ancient

philosophy and emphasized rationalism over emotionalism or spirituality

 Jonathan Edwards- Congregationalist preacher who emerged in the First Great

Awakening. Delivered famous speech “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”

 Ben Franklin- colonist who typified the Enlightenment ideals in America, self-made and

self-educated, innovator and inventor

 Cities- centers for progress and education, urban areas of employment opportunities

 Second Great Awakening- religious revivalism that occurred in the early-to-mid 1800s,

responsible for creation of reform societies  Temperance- movement, largely comprised of women, that attempted to convince people

to stop drinking alcohol

 Dorothea Dix- led the rehabilitation of criminals and the mentally insane in penitentiaries

and asylums

 Shakers- believed that humans were focusing too much on this world rather than on their

afterlives

 Horace Mann- led reform in public education and education as a whole

 Judicial review- principle that the Supreme Court has the authority to question the

constitutionality of laws passed by Congress

 Marbury v. Madison- Supreme Court case in which judicial review was established

 Activism- efforts to promote social, political, or economic change in society

 Reconstruction- period after the Civil War ended when the Confederate ruins were

rebuilt and freedmen were attempted to be assimilated into society

 Freedman’s Bureau- helped establish schools in the south for blacks and assisted them in

finding jobs, housing, and family members

 Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890- created to dissolve powerful trusts, not very effective

 Interstate Commerce Commission- created to supervise railroad industry and regulate

any unethical behavior  Ulysses S. Grant- President during Reconstruction who surrounded himself with a cabinet

of dishonest, corrupt cronies

 James A. Garfield- President who became a martyr for civil service reform

 Pendleton Civil Service Act- required examination to be eligible for employment

in civil service

 Progressive- favoring or advocating progress, change, improvement, or reform,

as opposed to wishing to maintain things as they are, especially in political matters

 Muckrakers- search for and expose real or alleged corruption, scandal, or the

like, especially in politics.

 Upton Sinclair- wrote The Jungle, revealed disgusting conditions of the meat-

packing industry

 Lincoln Steffens- muckraker who exposed corruption in local governments

 Ida Tarbell- muckraker who attacked Standard Oil

 Ballot initiative- petition signed by a certain minimum number of registered

 Referendum- the principle or practice of referring measures proposed or passed by a

legislative body to the vote of the electorate for approval or rejection

 Recall election- procedure by which voters can remove an elected official from office

through a direct vote before his or her term has ended  Robert La Follette- Wisconsin governor who led the way for many Progressive state

leaders

 New Nationalism- government protection of human welfare and property rights, but he

also argued that human welfare was more important than property rights

 Sherman Antitrust Act- constitutional power of Congress to regulate interstate

commerce

 New Freedom- Wilson’s idea to achieve his vision of attacking the “Triple Wall of

Privilege” (the tariffs, banks, and the trusts).

 Federal Trade Commission- the nation’s consumer protection agency that works to

prevent fraudulent, deceptive and unfair business practices in the marketplace.

 Federal Reserve System- gave government greater control over nation’s finances

 Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914- prevent certain actions that lead to anti-competitiveness

and provides further clarification and substance to the Sherman Antitrust Act

 Prohibition- banned manufacture, sale and transport of alcohol

 Eighteenth Amendment- prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transport of alcohol

 New Deal- a series of domestic programs enacted in the United States between 1933 and

1936, and a few that came late

 Banking Act of 1933- shutdown of U.S. banks for inspections before they could be

reopened, sought to re-instill investor confidence and stability in the banking system.  Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation- to maintain public confidence and encourage

stability in the financial system through the promotion of sound banking practices

 Public Works Administration- designed to reduce unemployment and increase

purchasing through civic necessities construction

 Works Progress Administration- largest, ambitious agency that provided millions of

unemployed people to carry out public works

 Beat Generation- artists and writers who rejected traditional artistic and social forms

 New Frontier- JFK’s domestic program that included tax reform, educational aid, and the

space program

 Great Society- LBJ’s domestic program that declared war on poverty

 New Federalism- Ronald Reagan’s program that sought to shift power from the federal

government to the states

 Equal Rights Amendment- designed to grant equal rights to women, gay rights included

as well