A Systems Perspective on Creativity Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi

Henry-3442-01.qxd 7/12/2006 6:01 PM Page 1 A Creativity The section contains chapters by some giants of recent creativity and innovation research: Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Teresa Amabile, Michael West and Claudia Sacramento. All emphasise how the community in which a person operates affects creative and inno- vative outcomes. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi has drawn attention to the social context out of which creativity and innovation emerge. For example, he has demonstrated the beneficial role of working at a place and time in which other individuals are engaged in related creative activities: painting and sculpture in Florence in the 14th century, the development of computers in Northern California in the 1960s and 70s, industrialisation in SE Asia in the last quarter of the 20th century role. Here Csikszentmihalyi outlines his systems theory of creativity, relating creative effort by individuals to the state of the domain they are working in and the characteristics of those who assess the worth of the creative endeavour in the field concerned. This offers a penetrating analysis of how creative endeavour emerges within a social field. Drawing on years of research in the field, Csikszentmihalyi discusses the interplay between knowledge about the domain, gatekeepers in the field and creative individuals. Many of the points made here in rela- tion to other domains apply equally well to creativity and innovation in organisational settings. Teresa Amabile has drawn attention to the importance of intrinsic motivation in creative endeavour. Business has traditionally rewarded people extrinsically with pay and promotion but creative actions often arise out of a long standing commitment to and interest in a particular area. She appreciates this is only one part of the equation, and Henry-3442-01.qxd 7/12/2006 6:01 PM Page 2 Creativity that expertise in the domain concerned and sufficient mental flexibility to question assumptions and play with ideas, are also important. Here she summarises some of the implications of her studies among scientists, researchers and managers in organisations for creativity and innovation. She points out the critical importance of chal- lenge, for example, matching people to tasks they are interested in and have expertise in, allowing people freedom as to how they achieve innovation, setting a sufficiently diverse team the task of innovation, along with sufficient resources, encouragement and support. Michael West and Claudia Sacramento draw together research on team task, team composition, organisational context and team processes that affect the level of team innovation in organisations. They consider the effect of intrinsic motivation and dif- fering levels of extrinsic demands on team tasks, noting that though high levels of external demand may limit the development of new creative ideas early on in the innovation process, a moderate level of external demand often facilitates the imple- mentation of innovation in groups. They go on to consider the role of diversity and selection procedures on the group composition, the part played by the organisational climate and rewards, and the role of group norms that encourage attempts at innovation and reflection, the effect of handling conflict constructively, actively seeking cross-team links, and the benefits of clear leadership that is sensitive to others needs. 2 Henry-3442-01.qxd 7/12/2006 6:01 PM Page 3 11 A Systems Perspective on Creativity Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi Psychologists tend to see creativity exclusively as a mental process [but] creativity is as much a cultural and social as it is a psychological event. Therefore what we call creativity is not the product of single individuals, but of social systems making judgements about individual’s products. Any definition of creativity that aspires to objectivity, and therefore requires an intersubjective dimension, will have to recognise the fact that the audience is as important to its constitution as the individual to whom it is credited. An outline of the Systems Model This environment has two salient aspects: a cultural, or symbolic, aspect which here is called the domain; and a social aspect called the field. Creativity is a process that can be observed only at the intersection where individuals, domains, and fields interact (Figure 1.1). For creativity to occur, a set of rules and practices must be transmitted from the domain to the individual. The individual must then produce a novel variation in the content of the domain. The variation then must be selected by the field for inclusion in the domain. Creativity occurs when a person makes a change in a domain, a change that will be transmitted through time. Some individuals are more likely to make such changes, either because of personal qualities or because they have the good fortune to be well positioned with respect to the domain – they have better access to it, or their social circumstances allow them free time to experiment. For example until quite recently the majority of scientific advances were made by men who had the means and the leisure: clergymen like Copernicus, tax collectors like Lavoisier, or physicians like Galvani could afford to build their own laboratories and to concentrate on their thoughts. And, of course, all of these individuals lived in cultures with a tradition of systematic observation of nature and a tradition of record keeping and mathematical Source: M. Csikszentmihalyi (1999) Edited extract from R. Sternberg (Ed) (1999) Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 313–35. 3 Henry-3442-01.qxd 7/12/2006 6:01 PM Page 4 Csikszentmihalyi Cultural System DOMAIN (knowledge, tools, values, practices) Evaluates innovations & Transmits the existing retains selected ones body of knowledge FIELD PERSON (community of (individual practice, practitioner) gatekeepers) Produces Genetic innovations makeup, Social talents, System experience Figure 1.1 A systems model of creativity symbolisation that made it possible for their insights to be shared and evaluated by others who had equivalent training. But most novel ideas will be quickly forgotten. Changes are not adopted unless they are sanctioned by some group entitled to make decisions as to what should or should not be included in the domain. These gatekeepers are what we call here the field. Here field refers only to the social organisation of the domain – to the teachers, critics, jour- nal editors, museum curators, agency directors, and foundation officers who decide what belongs to a domain and what does not. In physics, the opinion of a very small number of leading university professors was enough to certify that Einstein’s ideas were creative. Hundreds of millions of people accepted the judgement of this tiny field and marvelled at Einstein’s creativity without understanding what it was all about. It has been said that in the United States 10,000 people in Manhattan constitute the field in modern art. They decide which new paintings or sculptures deserve to be seen, bought, included in collections, and therefore added to the domain. 4 Henry-3442-01.qxd 7/12/2006 6:01 PM Page 5 1 A Systems Perspective on Creativity The cultural context Creativity presupposes a community of people who share ways of thinking and acting, who learn from each other and imitate each other’s actions. It is useful to think about creativity as involving a change in memes – the units of imitation that Dawkins (1976) suggested were the building blocks of culture. Memes are similar to genes in that they carry instructions for action. The notes of a song tell us what to sing, the recipe for a cake tells us what ingredients to mix and how long to bake it. But whereas genetic instructions are transmitted in the chemical codes that we inherit on our chromo- somes, the instructions contained in memes are transmitted through learning. By and large we can learn memes and reproduce them without change; when a new song or a new recipe is invented, then we have creativity. Cultures as a set of domains It is useful to think about cultures as systems of interrelated domains. Cultures differ in the way that memes (i.e. technical procedures, kinds of knowledge, styles of art, belief systems) are stored. As long as they are recorded orally and can be transmitted only from the mind of one person to another, traditions must be strictly observed so as not to lose information. Therefore, creativity is not likely to be prized, and it would be difficult to determine in any case. Development of new media of storage and trans- mission (e.g. books, computers) will have an impact on rates of novelty production and its acceptance. Another dimension of cultural difference is the accessibility of information. With time, people who benefit from the ability to control memes develop protective bound- aries around their knowledge, so that only a few initiates at any given time will have access to it. Priestly castes around the world have evolved to keep their knowledge eso- teric and out of reach of the masses. Even in the times of Egyptian civilisation, craft guilds kept much of their technical knowledge secret. Until recently in the West, knowledge of Latin and Greek was used as a barrier to prevent the admittance of the masses to professional training. The more such barriers, the less likely it becomes that potentially creative individuals will be able to contribute to a domain. Similarly, how available memes are also bears on the rate of creativity. When knowledge is concentrated in a few centres, libraries, or laboratories, or when books and schools are rare, most potentially creative individuals will be effectively prevented from learning enough to make a contribution to existing knowledge. Cultures differ in the number of domains they recognize and in the hierarchical relationship among them. New memes most often arise in cultures that, either because of geographical location or economic practices, are exposed to different ideas and beliefs.

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