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“Belief in Magic Is Older Than Writing”: an Examination Of “BELIEF IN MAGIC IS OLDER THAN WRITING”: AN EXAMINATION OF ETHNOGRAPHIC AND LITERARY REPRESENTATIONS OF AFRICAN-BASED BELIEF SYSTEMS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1928-1988. JENNIFER O’REILLY A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Liverpool John Moores University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2019 Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................... 3 List of Figures .......................................................................................................... 4 Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. 5 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 6 Chapter 1: Representing Voodoo in New Orleans Travel Literature ....................... 47 Chapter 2: Renegotiating the Primitive in Zora Neale Hurston’s Mules and Men.... 96 Chapter 3: Hoodoo and Power: Interviews with New Orleans Practitioners in Harry M. Hyatt’s Hoodoo Conjuration Witchcraft Rootwork ......................................... 136 Chapter 4: Ishmael Reed, Neo-HooDoo, and the Challenge for Cultural Sovereignty ............................................................................................................................ 181 Chapter 5: The Conjure Woman and the Search for Ancestors in Black Women’s Fiction of the 1970s and 80s................................................................................. 219 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 258 Bibliography ........................................................................................................ 265 2 Abstract This thesis maps representations of African-based belief systems in the United States during two pivotal moments in the twentieth century – the Harlem Renaissance and the post-Civil Rights/Black Power era. Adopting a multi-disciplinary approach and engaging with literary studies, history, and ethnography, it employs African-based belief systems as a lens through which to interrogate ideas about the interaction between race and religion, examine how blackness was constructed in the cultural imagination, and explore how racial politics were registered in various types of literature. Primary texts include works produced by the Louisiana Federal Writer’s Project, Zora Neale Hurston’s Mules and Men, Harry Hyatt’s Hoodoo Conjuration Witchcraft Rootwork, and fiction by authors Ishmael Reed, Toni Morrison, Ntozake Shange, and Gloria Naylor. By tracing the ways in which representations of African- based beliefs have been constructed across formal and disciplinary boundaries, this thesis argues that at moments of self-definition amongst African Americans, representations of African-based belief systems began to appear with more intensity and became integral to the configuration of black identity in the U.S. It proposes that the texts examined collectively generate three dominant narratives about African- based beliefs: as a marker of racial inferiority; as a method to resist, disrupt, and cope with the effects of power imbalances; and as a means to reconnect with an African identity or ancestry. It argues that black artists and writers challenged the first narrative during these moments by generating the latter two within their works. It participates in current debates about how race is constructed and imagined in the United States, and offers insights into the ways in which racialized power is registered, reinforced, and challenged in the cultural imagination. 3 List of Figures Fig. 4.1: Fred McDarrah [Black Panther protest]………………………………….208 Fig. 4.2: [U.S. Bombing Tonnage in Three Wars] New York Times Company, 1971………………………………………………………………………………..208 4 Acknowledgements I would like to thank Liverpool John Moores University for funding this PhD for three years under the Graduate Teaching Assistant scheme and for their generosity in providing funding for archival research. This thesis was supervised by Dr Joanna Price and Dr Colin Harrison, who I would like to thank for their support and feedback throughout this process. Thanks also to the American Folklore Society for providing funding which allowed me to present some of the main ideas in this thesis at their annual conference. My sincerest thanks to Patricia Tomczak at Quincy University archives for her hospitality and generosity. I would also like to thank my peers at LJMU who have been a constant source of support, motivation, and inspiration, particularly Christinna Hazzard and Tina Osborne whose friendship I am incredibly thankful for. I would also like to thank my colleagues at Southern Connecticut State University; Erin Heidkamp, Audrey Kerr, Shelby Lanaro, and Andrew Smyth amongst many others, whose kind words of encouragement have kept me going. And particularly Brandon Hutchinson who has always cheered me on and reminded me to take care of myself. I couldn’t have asked for a kinder or more inspiring scholar-teacher-mentor- friend since I began at Southern. I must also thank my students, in particular those who took my ‘African American Experiences through Literature and Film’ course. Their insightful and thoughtful discussions helped me to think through some of major ideas and texts in this thesis. I am also grateful for the networks I have been welcomed into since beginning the PhD, particularly the British Association of American Studies and Historians of the Twentieth Century United States. I’m thankful for the stimulating conferences, the opportunity to meet incredible scholars from all over the U.K. and beyond, and the online communities that these networks foster. It is also becoming increasingly important to acknowledge not only the people who shape our research experience but the conditions under which scholarship is being produced. This research has been undertaken whilst working in various precarious teaching and administrative positions on both sides of the Atlantic. The duration of this project has been spent working in uncertain circumstances and most recently alongside the stress of navigating a complicated immigration system. Solidarity with all my fellow PGRs and ECRs who are dealing with the structural inequalities and financial challenges of working in academia. My biggest thanks go to my family and friends. Without their love the completion of this project would not have been possible. Becky, Sarah, Jo, and Alex – I cannot express how grateful I am for your support over these past years. Thank you to my parents who have always believed in me and held me up when things felt impossible. Finally, my husband Mike, thank you for listening, encouraging, and comforting me through all of the many times I felt like I couldn’t do it. And for letting me turn our spare room into a fortress of books and papers. I’m so grateful to be surrounded by such kind and caring people – thank you from the bottom of my heart. 5 Introduction In this thesis I trace multiple narratives through key moments in the twentieth century to explore the ways in which conceptions of African-based belief systems have evolved in the United States and to expose the social functions of these narratives. I utilise the motif of African-based belief systems as a lens through which to view intersecting representations of race and religion, to interrogate configurations of blackness during the twentieth century, and to explore how the dynamics of racial politics register in the cultural imagination. I identify three dominant narratives about African-based beliefs in a number of cultural and literary texts, including works produced by the Louisiana Federal Writers’ Project, Zora Neale Hurston’s Mules and Men, Harry Hyatt’s Hoodoo Conjuration Witchcraft Rootwork, and fiction by authors Ishmael Reed, Toni Morrison, Ntozake Shange, and Gloria Naylor. To varying degrees, these works generate the notion that African-based beliefs are either a marker of racial inferiority, a method to resist, disrupt and cope with the effects of racialized power, or a means to reconnect with an African identity or ancestry. I argue that the degree to which these narratives are visible in these texts reflect the historical, political, and cultural contexts in which they were produced. Specifically, I claim that in moments of self-definition amongst African American artists and intellectuals during the Harlem Renaissance and Black Power era, narratives about African-based beliefs appeared with more frequency and became central to the redefinition of black identity, particularly those that disputed historical depictions of non-Christian beliefs as inferior.1 1 Many of the beliefs and ritual practices discussed here are adhered to in conjunction with Christian beliefs and indeed numerous practitioners identify themselves as Christian. It is not my intention to create a distinction between Christian and non-Christian beliefs. There is often a relationship, if not fusion, between the two within black folk traditions and black spirituality. Many practitioners are 6 Review of the Field and Theoretical Perspectives This thesis contributes to the body of scholarship that has emerged on African-based belief systems in the United States over the last two decades. The publication of Carolyn Morrow Long’s Spiritual Merchants: Religion, Magic and Commerce in 2001 signalled the genesis of this trend. Morrow Long’s study encompasses
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