The Evolutionary Use of Curved Wood in Korean Traditional Architecture

sustainability

Article The Evolutionary Use of Curved Wood in Korean Traditional Architecture

Seong Lyong Ryoo and Hyun Chul Youn *

Department of Architecture, Korea University, Anam-ro 145, Seoul 136-713, Korea; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +82-10-7126-1956



Received: 5 November 2019; Accepted: 13 November 2019; Published: 20 November 2019


Abstract: Various types of curved wooden have always been used in traditional Korean architecture. One component is a curvaceous column with varying thicknesses, and the others are curved beams or girders that are needed to support the roof and present diverse curvature. By examining the historical alteration of the parts and shapes of these curved members, it is possible to identify the sustainable aspects of Korean traditional architecture and infer the influence of the historical background on forming the sustainability of the architecture. To be specific, while the Goryeo Dynasty (10–14 C) showed an aesthetic summit of temple architecture in terms of extravagant curved wooden members precisely calculated and designed under the influence of Buddhism and aristocracy, the early Joseon Dynasty (15–16 C) presented restrained curve forms of wooden members with fewer materials and a faster process due to Neo-Confucianism, which emphasized austerity. After tremendous social crisis and two wars, the mid-Joseon Dynasty (17–18 C) showed creative indigenous houses with naturally curved timbers, minimizing the manufacturing process and maximizing the pragmatic functionality of the space under the influence of the wars and Silhak (the Realist School of Confucianism). In addition, the late Joseon Dynasty (19–20 C) presented office buildings with strengthened dynamic shapes of the naturally curved timbers as symbolic expression, which is an expanded concept beyond the functionality. In Korean traditional architecture, curved wood members have been used without interruption—although in varying degrees depending on social and economic situations—and have continued to be one of the characteristics of Korean architecture.

Keywords: curved wooden members; restrained curve forms; naturally curved timbers; functionality; symbolic expression

1. Introduction Korea has a long history of wood architecture. The term ‘adaptable to nature’ tends to be a common modifier to express the characteristics of Korean traditional architecture [1]. For Korean cases, the concept of convergence and harmony with nature [2] has also been emphasized to describe the very nature of Korean traditional wooden buildings. It is true that Korean wood architecture has uniquely evolved, in a way adapting and revealing the materiality of wood. While they share some common features over time, the wooden structures have different ideas and styles according to the time, as shown between those of the Goryeo (10–14 C) and Joseon (15–20 C) Dynasties [3]. The differences between the times have been also manifested in paintings, crafts, and many other artworks as well. Perhaps, pottery is among the most notable examples to understand the differences. A Korean daily newspaper once ran an advertisement of an exhibition containing a picture of Goryeo celadon and Joseon white porcelain, which effectively showed the different aesthetics of the different times (Figure1). While the Goryeo celadon shows elaborate and splendid expression in symmetrical form, the Joseon white porcelain presents simple and plain aspects with asymmetrical proportion. The

Sustainability 2019, 11, 6557; doi:10.3390/su11236557 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 16 Sustainability 2019, 11, 6557 2 of 16 form, the Joseon white porcelain presents simple and plain aspects with asymmetrical proportion. The expressional differences of form come from various factors such as religion, ideology, expressional differences of form come from various factors such as religion, ideology, international international relations with the adjacent countries, and collective public tastes of the time [4]. relations with the adjacent countries, and collective public tastes of the time [4].

(a) (b)

Figure 1. (a) Goryeo celadon; (b) Joseon white porcelain. (Source: DonA Ilbo Article 2019.7.1). Figure 1. (a) Goryeo celadon; (b) Joseon white porcelain. (Source: DonA Ilbo Article 2019.7.1). Similar to the craft fields, this research attempts to verify that the period of Korean traditional architectureSimilar canto the be dividedcraft fields, by certainthis research noticeable attempts architectural to verify elements that the of period the buildings. of Korean In traditional particular, thearchitecture research focusescan be divided on the curve-shapedby certain noticeable wooden architectural members of elements Korean traditional of the buildings. architecture, In particular, which havethe research not only focuses universality on the curve-shaped but also diversity wooden of the members times from of Korean Goryeo traditional to Joseon. architecture, Scrutinizing which the historicalhave not only alteration universality of the curved but also wooden diversity members, of the times this research from Goryeo tries toto reveal Joseon. that Scrutinizing the change the of thehistorical parts andalteration shapes of of the the curved members wooden are critical members, evidences this research of the sustainability tries to reveal of Koreanthat the traditional change of architecturethe parts and reflecting shapes of the the social member ands cultural are critical background evidences of of the the era. sustainability of Korean traditional architecture reflecting the social and cultural background of the era. 2. Materials and Methods 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Materials 2.1. MaterialsThe research subjects are chosen among the listed buildings that contain curved or bent wooden membersThe research of the framework. subjects are Especially, chosen among it is limitedthe listed to buildings the buildings that ofcontain designated curved national or bent wooden cultural propertiesmembers of in the Korea. framework. Since they Especially, are under it strict is limited national to the level buildings management, of designated they, as objective national researchcultural sources,properties are in credible Korea. Since to retain they theirare under appearance strict na attional the timelevel ofmanagement, construction they, and as are objective recognized research as a representativesources, are credible example to ofretain the eratheir in historical,appearance academic, at the time and of artistic construction aspects. and are recognized as a representativeThere are severalexample Goryeo-era of the era buildingsin historical, that academic, still remain and in artistic Korea, includingaspects. Andong Bongjeongsa GeukrakjeonThere are in several the 10th Goryeo-era century [5 ],buildings the oldest that wooden still remain building in in Korea, Korea, including Yeongju BuseoksaAndong MuryangsujeonBongjeongsa Geukrakjeon in the 11th in century the 10th [6 century], and Yaesan [5], the Sudeoksa oldest wooden Daeungjeon building in 1308in Korea, [7]. Yeongju Most of themBuseoksa are Buddhist Muryangsujeon temple buildings,in the 11th whichcentury also [6], include and Yaesan Yeongju Sudeoksa Buseoksa Daeungjeon Josadang andin 1308 Yeongcheon [7]. Most Eunhaesaof them are Geojoam Buddhist Yeongsanjeon. temple buildings, If it is not which a temple, also theinclude main Yeongju gate of Gangneung Buseoksa Josadang Gaeksa is oneand ofYeongcheon the Goryeo-era Eunhaesa buildings Geojoam we can Yeongsanjeon. still witness [If8 ].it Comparedis not a temple, to the the Goryeo main Dynasty, gate of manyGangneung more Joseon-eraGaeksa is one buildings of the Gory remain.eo-era In buildings terms of thewe purposecan still witness of building, [8]. Compared for instance, to the many Goryeo more Dynasty, types of Joseon’smany more buildings Joseon-era have buildings been left, remain. including In terms palaces, of the housings, purpose educational of building, facilities, for instance, and villas, many whilemore Goryeo’stypes of Joseon’s consist merelybuildings of thehave Buddhist been left, temples including and governmentpalaces, housings, buildings. educational Therefore, facilities, due to and the largevillas, number while Goryeo’s and variety, consist it ismerely relatively of the easy Buddhist to group temples the buildings and government of Joseon buildings. Dynasty Therefore, into three periods:due to the the large early, number middle, and and variety, latter. it is relatively easy to group the buildings of Joseon Dynasty into three periods: the early, middle, and latter. 2.2. Methods

2.2. MethodsThe research is conducted by site visit and data analysis from the collected historical records. Figure2 shows the specific locations of the research cases with the map of South Korea. After classifying The research is conducted by site visit and data analysis from the collected historical records. the periods of the traditional buildings, it shows that there are certain typical curved wooden members Figure 2 shows the specific locations of the research cases with the map of South Korea. After that represent a particular period. For example, Umiryang (cow-tail-shaped beam, interconnects classifying the periods of the traditional buildings, it shows that there are certain typical curved purlins with different levels in the form of steps) was used from the Goryeo Dynasty to the early Joseon wooden members that represent a particular period. For example, Umiryang (cow-tail-shaped beam, Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 16

Sustainability 11 interconnects2019, purlins, 6557 with different levels in the form of steps) was used from the Goryeo Dynasty3 of 16 to the early Joseon Dynasty, and is similar to the Baeheulim (entasis) column. Chungryang (a beam Dynasty,perpendicular and is similarto the girder, to the Baeheulimwith one end (entasis) hanging column. on the Chungryang girder and the (a beam other perpendicular side hanging toon thethe girder,lateral with flat) oneis not end seen hanging in the on Goryeo the girder Dynasty, and the but other it started side hanging to be used on thein the lateral early flat) Joseon is not Dynasty seen in theand Goryeo was used Dynasty, until butthe itlate started Joseon to Dynasty. be used in Thus, the early this Joseonresearch Dynasty studies and the wasdetailed used positions until the lateand Joseonfunctions Dynasty. of the Thus, curved this wooden research studiesmembers. the In detailed addition, positions in order and to functions analyze of the the formation curved wooden of the members.members, In curvature addition, is in calculated, order to analyze and it thewas formation checked whether of the members, the member curvature was made is calculated, by processing and it wasor in checked its natural whether state. the member was made by processing or in its natural state.

Figure 2. The key map of South Korea and the specific locations of the cases (source: author). Figure 2. The key map of South Korea and the specific locations of the cases (source: author). 3. Goryeo Dynasty (Approximately 918–1392): Curves of Delicacy and Exquisiteness 3. Goryeo Dynasty (approximately 918–1392): Curves of Delicacy and Exquisiteness In the Goryeo Dynasty, the cross-section of the girder is elaborately trimmed to resemble pottery (FigureIn3 the). Cross-sections Goryeo Dynasty, 1 to the 4 werecross-section found in of the the buildingsgirder is elaborately of the Goryeo trimmed Dynasty, to resemble Bongjeongsa pottery Geukrakjeon,(Figure 3). Cross-sections Buseoksa Muryangsujeon, 1 to 4 were Seongbulsafound in the Geukrakjeon, buildings of and the Buseoksa Goryeo Josadang,Dynasty, respectively;Bongjeongsa andGeukrakjeon, five to 10 were Buseoksa found fromMuryangsujeon, the buildings ofSeongb the Joseonulsa Dynasty.Geukrakjeon, The cross-sections and Buseoksa in the buildingsJosadang, ofrespectively; the Goryeo and Dynasty five to look 10 similarwere found to pottery, from the having buildings narrower of the tops Joseon and bottomsDynasty. than The thecross-sections center. in the buildings of the Goryeo Dynasty look similar to pottery, having narrower tops and bottoms than the center. Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

Sustainability 2019, 11, 6557 4 of 16 Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

Figure 3. The Sections of cross-beams (source: author’s edit [9]).

In addition, the Baeheulim-style column and Umiryang, “cow-tail-shaped” beam are among the most notable examples of Korean traditional techniques applied to curves. The Baeheulim-style column is one of the typical characteristics of wooden architecture in the Goryeo period, where a convex curve is applied to wooden building columns, which is known as the entasis. In general, the Figure 3. The Sections of cross-beams (source: author’s edit [9]). diameter of a BaeheulimFigure column’s 3. The Sections cross-section of cross-beams is the widest (source: one-third author’s edit of the [9]). way from the bottom, becomingIn addition, narrower the at Baeheulim-style both ends [10]. Based column on these and Umiryang, dimensions, “cow-tail-shaped” it is easy to see the beamdeliberate are among design theof the mostIn Baeheulim addition, notable the examplescolumn Baeheulim-style where of Korean the diameter column traditional and of techniquesthe Umiryang, bottom appliedpart “cow-tail-shaped” is the to curves.second widest The beam Baeheulim-style areand among the top the is columnthemost smallest notable is one (Figure examples of the 4a). typical ofAmong Korean characteristics the traditional remaining of woodente woodenchniques architecture buildings applied toin in Korea,curves. the Goryeo theThe building period,Baeheulim-style with where the a convexgreatestcolumn curve isdegree one is of appliedof thecurvature typical to wooden incharacteristics the buildingBaeheulim columns,of coluwoodenmn whichcan architecture be is found known atin as thethe the mainGoryeo entasis. gate period, Inof general,Gangneung where the a diameterGaeksaconvex curve(Figure of a Baeheulimis 4b).applied All theto column’s wooden buildingscross-section building of the columns,Gory iseo the Dynasty widestwhich is one-thirdhave known the as ofBaeheulim-style the the entasis. way from In general, thecolumns bottom, the to becomingdiametersome degree. of narrower a BaeheulimAs seen at both in column’sthe ends wooden [10 ].cross-section Based architecture on these is theof dimensions, thewidest Goryeo one-third it isDynasty, easy of to the seethe way theBaeheulim deliberatefrom the columns bottom, design ofbecomingwere the deliberately Baeheulim narrower column designed at both where endscurves the [10]. to diameter maximizeBased on of thesethe thebottom aesthetic dimensions, part expression is it the is secondeasy of to the widestsee curved the anddeliberate lines the as top welldesign is the as smallestofto maintainthe Baeheulim (Figure a stable4a). column Amongvisual where depth. the remaining the diameter wooden of the buildings bottom part in Korea, is the the second building widest with and the the greatest top is degreethe smallestThere of curvature was (Figure a similar in4a). the Among technique Baeheulim the inremaining column China, can which wooden be found is calledbuildings at the Su mainō inzhù Korea, gateaccording of the Gangneung building to Yíngzàof with Gaeksaǎ theshì (Figuregreatest[11,12].4 b).In degree addition, All the of buildingscurvature the corridor of in the the and Goryeo Baeheulim main Dynasty building colu havemn of Horyujican the be Baeheulim-style found in Japan, at the the main columns oldest gate existing to of some Gangneung wooden degree. AsGaeksabuilding, seen in(Figure was the woodenonce 4b). Allcompared architecture the buildings to the of the ofentasis the Goryeo Gory columns Dynasty,eo Dynasty of theGreek Baeheulimhave temple the Baeheulim-style columns architecture. were deliberatelyFromcolumns these to designedsomeexamples, degree. curves we canAs to seenassume maximize in thethat thewooden the aesthetic technique architecture expression of having of of theentasis-like the Goryeo curved linescurvesDynasty, as in well buildingthe as Baeheulim to maintain columns columns a in stable that visualwereera had deliberately depth. been widely designed used in curves the archit to maximizeecture of Korea,the aesthetic China, expression and Japan. of the curved lines as well as to maintain a stable visual depth. There was a similar technique in China, which is called Suōzhù according to Yíngzàofǎshì [11,12]. In addition, the corridor and main building of Horyuji in Japan, the oldest existing wooden building, was once compared to the entasis columns of Greek temple architecture. From these examples, we can assume that the technique of having entasis-like curves in building columns in that era had been widely used in the architecture of Korea, China, and Japan.

(a) (b)

Figure 4. (a) Buseoksa Muryangsujeon Interior Column; (b) Gangneung Gaeksamun Exterior Column (source: author).

(a) (b) Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16

Figure 4. (a) Buseoksa Muryangsujeon Interior Column; (b) Gangneung Gaeksamun Exterior Column (source: author). Sustainability 2019, 11, 6557 5 of 16 Umiryang (cow-tail-shaped beam) is another typical characteristic of wooden architecture in the GoryeoThere period. was a Built similar in technique1308, Sudeoksa in China, Daeungjeon which is called is famous Suozh¯ ùforaccording the beautiful to Yíngz appearanceàofashˇ ì [11 of,12 its]. Inprofile addition, (Figure the 5). corridor Its Matpae-style and main buildingroof (gable of roof) Horyuji enables in Japan, both theprofiles oldest of existingthe building wooden to be building, visually wasexposed, once comparedand thus reveals to the entasis the beauty columns of the of Greekcurved temple lines architecture.of Hongyebo From (rainbow-shaped these examples, beam). we canConnecting assume thatadjacent the technique purlins of of the having roof, entasis-likethe three Hongyebos curves in buildingare installed columns on each in that side, era resulting had been in widelya total usedof six insymmetrically the architecture placed of Korea, on both China, sides and from Japan. the center of the building. Linking and fixing the Umiryangmembers (cow-tail-shapedat different levels, beam) this is anotherbeam Umiryang typical characteristic also creates of woodenan aesthetically architecture beautiful in the Goryeocomposition. period. Umiryangs Built in 1308, are Sudeoksa also found Daeungjeon in the main is famous gate forof theGangneung beautiful appearanceGaeksa. However, of its profile the (Figuredifferences5). Its are Matpae-style that there roofare fewer (gable Umiryangs, roof) enables an bothd its profiles curvature of the is buildingless steep to because be visually the exposed,building andsize thusis smaller. reveals This the beautyarchitectural of the element curved linesis im ofportant Hongyebo evidence (rainbow-shaped for the cultural beam). and architectural Connecting adjacentexchanges purlins between of the Korea roof, and the China, three Hongyebos especially southern are installed China on [13]. each side, resulting in a total of six symmetricallyConsidering placed the onpreviously both sides mentioned from the center features, of the it seems building. clear Linking that the and wooden fixing the architecture members atof dithefferent Goryeo levels, Dynasty this beam was Umiryangendeavoring also to creates create anspec aestheticallyific aesthetics beautiful from the composition. elaborately Umiryangs processed arecurves also in found structural in the elements main gate such of Gangneungas columns Gaeksa.and girders. However, Furthermore, the diff erencesit was during are that the there Goryeo are fewerDynasty Umiryangs, when great and efforts its curvature were made is less to steepcomplete because the formative the building beauty size isto smaller. the highest This level architectural through elementactive cultural is important exchanges evidence with for neighboring the cultural countries and architectural similar to exchanges other art disciplines between Korea such and as pottery China, especiallyand crafts. southern China [13].

(a) (b)

Figure 5. (a) Sudeoksa Daeungjeon elevation; (b) Sudeoksa Daeungjeon Umiryang (source: author). Figure 5. (a) Sudeoksa Daeungjeon elevation; (b) Sudeoksa Daeungjeon Umiryang (source: author). Considering the previously mentioned features, it seems clear that the wooden architecture of the Goryeo4. Joseon Dynasty Dynasty was (approximately endeavoring to 1392–1910) create specific aesthetics from the elaborately processed curves in structural elements such as columns and girders. Furthermore, it was during the Goryeo Dynasty when4.1. Early great Joseon efforts Dynasty were made(1392–1592): to complete The Restrained the formative and Weakened beauty toCurvature the highest level through active culturalThere exchanges are notable with neighboring wooden buildings countries of similar the toearly other Joseon art disciplines Dynasty such including as pottery Bongjeongsa and crafts. Daeungjeon, Gaesimsa Daeungjeon, Muwisa Geukrakjeon, Gwanryongsa Yaksajeon, Songgwangsa 4. Joseon Dynasty (Approximately 1392–1910) Guksajeon, and Songgwangsa Hasadang and Sungryemun in Hanyang, which was the capital at the 4.1.time. Early In addition, Joseon Dynasty there are (1392–1592): a number of The wooden Restrained buildings and Weakened of the early Curvature Joseon Dynasty still remaining in some culturally preserved villages. ThereCompared are notableto the architecture wooden buildings of the Goryeo of the Dyna earlysty, Joseonthe curves Dynasty in arch includingitectural components Bongjeongsa of Daeungjeon,the early Joseon Gaesimsa period Daeungjeon,can be described Muwisa by two Geukrakjeon, trends: the Gwanryongsaweakening of the Yaksajeon, curvature Songgwangsa and a curve Guksajeon,close to a straight and Songgwangsa line. Hasadang and Sungryemun in Hanyang, which was the capital at the time.For In addition, example, there the Baeheulim are a number pattern, of wooden one of buildings the most ofrepresentative the early Joseon features Dynasty of the still Goryeo remaining era, inbecame some culturallyindistinct preservedin the buildings villages. of this period. It tended to be visually unapparent even if it was Compared to the architecture of the Goryeo Dynasty, the curves in architectural components of the early Joseon period can be described by two trends: the weakening of the curvature and a curve close to a straight line. For example, the Baeheulim pattern, one of the most representative features of the Goryeo era, became indistinct in the buildings of this period. It tended to be visually unapparent even if it was Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16

applied. However, there are many columns that gradually become narrower from the bottom to the top. This type of column is called a “Minheulim” column. Additionally, Umiryang, which had been used in the Goryeo Dynasty, was also applied to the wooden architecture of the early Joseon Dynasty. With regard to temple architecture, Gwanryongsa Yaksajeon, Gaesimsa Daeungjeon, and Dogapsa Haetalmun are among the well-known Buddhist temples with Umiryangs installed in the early Joseon era. Except for the temple buildings, SustainabilityJeonjugaeksa2019 ,Jungchung,11, 6557 a government building in the city of Jeonju, shows how an Umiryang6 of 16 looked at the time. Compared with the Umiryang of the Goryeo Dynasty, the curvature of this Umiryang, in terms of the ratio of the width to the length of the curve, became less steep and applied.weakened However, in the Joseon there Dynasty are many (Figure columns 6). that gradually become narrower from the bottom to the top. ThisComparing type of columnthe section is called between a “Minheulim” Sudeoksa column.Daeungjeon of the Goryeo Dynasty and Muwisa GeukrakbojeonAdditionally, of Umiryang,the early Joseon which Dynasty had been [14], used there in the is a Goryeo clear distinction Dynasty, was of the also curved applied wooden to the woodenmember, architecture Umiryang. When of the it early comes Joseon to the Dynasty. height proportion With regard of the to temple member, architecture, the height becomes Gwanryongsa much Yaksajeon,lower than Gaesimsathe member Daeungjeon, length from and Goryeo Dogapsa to th Haetalmune early Joseon. are amongThe proportion, the well-known H/L, can Buddhist be seen templesfrom Figure with 6: Umiryangs 0.5 to 0.27. installed From the in the point early of Joseonthe curvature, era. Except both for h the and temple l are buildings,getting smaller. Jeonjugaeksa If both Jungchung,height distances a government were lowered building equally, in the there city ofwould Jeonju, be showsno change how in an H/L. Umiryang As a result, looked although at the time. the Comparedcurved wooden with themember Umiryang is still of theused Goryeo from Dynasty,the Goryeo the curvatureDynasty to of the this early Umiryang, Joseon in Dynasty, terms of thethe ratiodeliberate of the formative width to thecurve length of the of Goryeo the curve, Dynasty became is lessclearly steep reduced and weakened in the Confucian in the Joseon society Dynasty of the (FigureJoseon 6Dynasty.).

FigureFigure 6.6. HeightHeight proportionproportion (H(H/L)/L) andand curvaturecurvature (H(H/L/L)) comparisoncomparison betweenbetween SudeoksaSudeoksa DaeungjeonDaeungjeon (Goryeo(Goryeo Dynasty)Dynasty) andand MuwisaMuwisa GeukrakbojeonGeukrakbojeon (Early (Early Joseon Joseon Dynasty)Dynasty) (source: (source: author’sauthor’s edit.edit. Cultural HeritageHeritage Administration).Administration).

ComparingMuwisa Geukrakjeon the section has between drawn Sudeoksaattention for Daeungjeon its architectural of the qualities Goryeo of Dynasty the time and responding Muwisa Geukrakbojeonto the changes of of the the Umiryang. early Joseon The Dynasty crossbeams [14], sh thereow isdifferent a clear shapes distinction from of one the another curved based wooden on member,the columns’ Umiryang. position When supporting it comes them, to the and height Dae proportiondeulbo (a crossbeam of the member, or girder) the height of the becomes largest muchdiameter lower was than installed the member in the center. length However, from Goryeo Toet tobo, the a kind early of Joseon. thinner The crossbeam, proportion, was Hused/L, canon the be seen from Figure6: 0.5 to 0.27. From the point of the curvature, both h and l are getting smaller. If both height distances were lowered equally, there would be no change in H/L. As a result, although the curved wooden member is still used from the Goryeo Dynasty to the early Joseon Dynasty, the deliberate formative curve of the Goryeo Dynasty is clearly reduced in the Confucian society of the Joseon Dynasty. Muwisa Geukrakjeon has drawn attention for its architectural qualities of the time responding to the changes of the Umiryang. The crossbeams show different shapes from one another based on the Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16

side of the building, and the Umiryang was placed on the top of the Toetbo. As the result, the Sustainability 2019, 11, 6557 7 of 16 combined height of the Toetbo and the Umiryang is equal to the Daedeulbo. Based on these changes, we can predict that future architectural works will use a Daedeulbo with a larger diameter, and the columns’Umiryang position will become supporting obsolete. them, and Daedeulbo (a crossbeam or girder) of the largest diameter was installedThe weakening in the center. of the However,curve is also Toetbo, because a kind the ofsize thinner of the crossbeam,building was was reduced used on and the the side number of the building,of components and the used Umiryang to make was the placedbuilding on decreased. the top of theAs Toetbo.a result, Asthe the cost result, and effort the combined invested heightin the ofbuilding the Toetbo were and reduced. the Umiryang is equal to the Daedeulbo. Based on these changes, we can predict that futureIn addition, architectural the kings works and will the use leaders a Daedeulbo of the Joseon with a Dynasty larger diameter, suppressed and theBuddhism. Umiryang It willwas becomeimpossible obsolete. to officially become a monk, and the benefits of applying to temples disappeared. Therefore,The weakening it was impossible of the curve to build is also new because buildings the sizeon a oflarge the scale, building and was it was reduced not easy and to the repair number and ofmaintain components existing used buildings to make [2]. the building decreased. As a result, the cost and effort invested in the buildingCompared were reduced. to the time when Buddhism was suppressed, the Joseon Dynasty’s national ideology was InNeo-Confucianism, addition, the kings where and leaders the leaders of Confuciani of the Joseonsm valued Dynasty the suppressed practice of Buddhism.moderation Itand was a impossiblefrugal lifestyle. to offi Thiscially idea become was awell monk, reflected and the in benefits the architecture. of applying The to temples representative disappeared. buildings Therefore, were ittheir was houses impossible and toother build educational new buildings facilities on a largesuch scale,as Seowon. and it wasThe not curved easy tobuilding repair andcomponents, maintain existingDaedeulbo buildings and Chungryang, [2]. a perpendicular beam to the Daedeulbo, can also be seen in the houses and theCompared Seowon to building. the time when Buddhism was suppressed, the Joseon Dynasty’s national ideology was Neo-Confucianism,Daedeulbo is a very where important leaders component of Confucianism of East valued Asian thewooden practice architecture of moderation that connects and a frugal the lifestyle.front and Thisrear ideacolumns, was wellregardless reflected of the in thesize architecture.and type of building. The representative Therefore, buildingsit is essential were even their in housessmall-scale and otherbuildings educational and houses. facilities The suchsmallest as Seowon. and simplest The curved structure, building “3Ryang-jip”, components, is basically Daedeulbo two andcolumns Chungryang, supporting a perpendiculara crossbeam, and beam a short to the colu Daedeulbo,mn called can Daegong also be is seen placed in the on houses the crossbeam and the Seowonholding building.a gable roof (Figure 7b). Several houses of the early Joseon Dynasty, such as Songcheomjongtaek,Daedeulbo is a veryGwangajeong, important Hyangdan, component an ofd East Muchumdang Asian wooden were architecture built using that very connects simple thestructures front and that rear have columns, been well regardless preserved, of especially the size andin Yangdong type of building. village [15,16]. Therefore, it is essential evenSince in small-scale the distance buildings between and the houses.front and The rear smallest columns and is small simplest and the structure, building “3Ryang-jip”, is not very tall, is basicallya convex-shaped two columns timber supporting is used for athe crossbeam, girder (Figur ande a6 shortleft). This column structure called makes Daegong the ceiling is placed of the on theindoor crossbeam space look holding high and a gable reduces roof the (Figure cost 7ofb). constr Severaluction. houses In spite of theof the early small Joseon size of Dynasty, the building, such asthere Songcheomjongtaek, is a feeling of openness. Gwangajeong, This kind Hyangdan, of structure and Muchumdangsupports the guiding were built principles using very of simpleJoseon structuresDynasty architecture: that have been restrained well preserved, simplicity especially while considering in Yangdong functionality. village [15 ,16].

(a) (b)

Figure 7. (a) Songcheomjongtaek’s Sarangchae crossbeam; (b) 3Ryang-jip at SosuSeowon (source:Figure 7. author). (a) Songcheomjongtaek’s Sarangchae crossbeam; (b) 3Ryang-jip at SosuSeowon (source: author). Since the distance between the front and rear columns is small and the building is not very tall, a convex-shapedThere is a saying timber “Gumibulu” is used for thein Korean girder (Figureto describe6 left). this This kind structure of aesthetic, makes which the ceiling translates of the to indoor“looking space frugal look but high not andshabby”. reduces Similar the cost to Gumibulu, of construction. there is In also spite “Hwaibulchi”, of the small size meaning of the building,“looking theresplendid is a feelingbut not of extravagant”. openness. This kind of structure supports the guiding principles of Joseon Dynasty architecture:Chungryang, restrained the perpendicular simplicity while beam considering to Daedeulbo, functionality. is a common component that is used in traditionalThere isKorean a saying architecture “Gumibulu” to make in Korean “Palchakchib to describeung”, this which kind is ofa type aesthetic, of half-hipped which translates roof in the to “lookingwooden frugalbuildings but notof Joseon. shabby”. Chungryang Similar to Gumibulu,is connected there to the is also Daedeulbo “Hwaibulchi”, at a right meaning angle “lookingand is a splendid but not extravagant”. Sustainability 2019, 11, 6557 8 of 16

Chungryang, the perpendicular beam to Daedeulbo, is a common component that is used in traditionalSustainability 2019 Korean, 11, x architecture FOR PEER REVIEW to make “Palchakchibung”, which is a type of half-hipped roof8 in of the 16 wooden buildings of Joseon. Chungryang is connected to the Daedeulbo at a right angle and is a unique structural feature of the Korean wooden architecture. Ojukheon [17] and Haeunjeong [18] in unique structural feature of the Korean wooden architecture. Ojukheon [17] and Haeunjeong [18] the city of Gangneung are among the representative cases installed with Chungryang in the early in the city of Gangneung are among the representative cases installed with Chungryang in the early Joseon Dynasty. The length of a Chungryang is 1 Gan (about 3 m), and the shape is close to a straight Joseon Dynasty. The length of a Chungryang is 1 Gan (about 3 m), and the shape is close to a straight line. In particular, the edge of the beam connected with the main girder is a straight line. However, line. In particular, the edge of the beam connected with the main girder is a straight line. However, on on the opposite side, the joint part connected to the column was processed into a curved shape. Except the opposite side, the joint part connected to the column was processed into a curved shape. Except for residences, Chungryang is also found in Seowon, which is a private educational institution of the for residences, Chungryang is also found in Seowon, which is a private educational institution of the Joseon Dynasty. SosuSeowon [19] is the first Seowon in Korea, revealing that the layout of the Joseon Dynasty. SosuSeowon [19] is the first Seowon in Korea, revealing that the layout of the building building at that time was not yet formally set up. In the Seowon, there is a building called at that time was not yet formally set up. In the Seowon, there is a building called Ganghakdang (lecture Ganghakdang (lecture room), which was built at the time [20]. Myongryundang has Palchakchibung, room), which was built at the time [20]. Myongryundang has Palchakchibung, just like Ojukheon and just like Ojukheon and Haeunjeong in Gangneung, and thus Chungryangs were installed at a right Haeunjeong in Gangneung, and thus Chungryangs were installed at a right angle to the Daedeulbo angle to the Daedeulbo (Figure 8). The Chungryang appears to be almost a straight line. From a (Figure8). The Chungryang appears to be almost a straight line. From a profile view, the bottom profile view, the bottom part is shaped as a curved line toward the point connecting the columns, part is shaped as a curved line toward the point connecting the columns, while the top part of the while the top part of the Chungryang looks like a straight line. Chungryang looks like a straight line.

(a) (b)

Figure 8. (a) Gangneung Ojukheon “Chungryang”; (b) SosuSeowon Ganghakdang (lecture hall) “Chungryang”Figure 8. (a) Gangneung (source: author). Ojukheon “Chungryang”; (b) SosuSeowon Ganghakdang (lecture hall) “Chungryang” (source: author). Among the representative buildings of the Joseon Dynasty, the philosophy and ideas of Neo-ConfucianAmong the scholarsrepresentative are well buildings reflected. of the As Joseon such, thereDynasty, are the historians philosophy who and contend ideas thatof Neo- the roleConfucian of architects scholars in theare Joseonwell reflected. Dynasty As can such, be seen there as Confucianare historians scholars who [contend21]. A notable that the example role of ofarchitects this argument in the Joseon is from Dynasty Lee Hwang can ofbe theseen early as Confucian Joseon Dynasty, scholars who [21]. built A notable Dosan Seodang,example whichof this reflectsargument his is taste from for Lee a frugal Hwang lifestyle of the suitableearly Joseon for a Dynasty, scholar [22 who]. built Dosan Seodang, which reflects his taste for a frugal lifestyle suitable for a scholar [22]. 4.2. Mid-Joseon Dynasty (1592–1800): Application of Naturally Curved Timber 4.2. Mid-JoseonBetween the Dynasty end of the(1592–1800): 16th century Application and the firstof Naturally half of the Curved 17th century, Timber massive international wars tookBetween place during the end the Joseonof the 16th Dynasty. century Hence, and the Joseon first found half of itself the 17th in its century, worst situation massive economicallyinternational andwars socially. took place Two wars,during Imjinwaeran, the Joseon the Dynasty. Japanese Henc Invasione, Joseon between found 1592 itself and 1598, in its and worst Byongjahoran, situation theeconomically Manchu war and from socially. 1636 Two to 1637, wars, were Imjinwaeran, among the the most Japanese well-known Invasion ones. between The complex1592 and social1598, circumstancesand Byongjahoran, including the Manchu a reduced war population,from 1636 to restoration 1637, were fromamong the the destruction most well-known of the wars, ones. andThe challengingcomplex social foreign circumstances relations were including reflected a reduced in the architecture population, as restoration well. Nevertheless, from the destruction there were of some the positivewars, and aspects challenging of these foreign difficulties. relations In thewere process reflected of overcomingin the architecture the physical as well. and Nevertheless, mental damage, there Koreanwere some society positive gained aspects a new of perspective, these difficulties. adopting In the more process rational of andovercoming pragmatic the thinking physical and and rejecting mental olddamage, customs, Korean and thissociety social gained trend a was new also perspective, reflected in adopting architecture. more While rational the nation’sand pragmatic power hadthinking been weakenedand rejecting by theold war, customs, on the and contrary, this social Korea’s trend unique was techniquesalso reflected had in been architecture. developed While and incorporated the nation’s inpower the formative had been arts weakened and architecture by the [war,23]. on the contrary, Korea’s unique techniques had been developed and incorporated in the formative arts and architecture [23]. For example, the Toetbo beam was a widely used component of Korean housing construction because of its many advantages. Among them, a special case can be found in Dorae village in the city of Naju, which is one of the representative historic villages of the mid-Joseon Dynasty. The oldest Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16

building in the village is Unamgotaek Sarangchae, which was constructed in 1732 [24]. This building has a unique feature in the layout of the columns. In general, columns of a wooden building are placed, aligning lines from the front and rear as well as the left and right. However, in the Unamgotaek Sarangchae, the columns are not arranged on an orthogonal grid if comparing right and left columns. From the right, two columns do not match the one on the front and the other on the side. To create such a plan, a different structure needed to be applied. Generally, a crossbeam connects two columns directly. However, if the row of the columns is not aligned in a straight line, it is Sustainabilityimpossible2019 to ,install11, 6557 a horizontal beam between the columns. Therefore, one side was connected9 of 16to the column, and the other side where there was no column was connected to a purlin at a higher level. Due to the level difference, the crossbeam had to be bent, and thus was made of naturally For example, the Toetbo beam was a widely used component of Korean housing construction curved timber (Figure 9a). because of its many advantages. Among them, a special case can be found in Dorae village in the city It is possible to speculate why the conventional column arrangement was not used in that period. of Naju, which is one of the representative historic villages of the mid-Joseon Dynasty. The oldest First, a visual effect can be created where the floor would look larger if viewing the building from the building in the village is Unamgotaek Sarangchae, which was constructed in 1732 [24]. This building front. At present, the front of the Daechung appears to be two bays long. If the column had been has a unique feature in the layout of the columns. In general, columns of a wooden building are positioned normally, the front of the Daechung would be appeared to be 1.5 bays. Actually, the front placed, aligning lines from the front and rear as well as the left and right. However, in the Unamgotaek bay of the Daechung was seen as a symbol of the social status of the homeowner in Korea. Sarangchae, the columns are not arranged on an orthogonal grid if comparing right and left columns. Homeowners generally thought three bays were the ideal modules for the Daechung in order to show From the right, two columns do not match the one on the front and the other on the side. the dignity of the house. To create such a plan, a different structure needed to be applied. Generally, a crossbeam connects Second, this arrangement helps enlarge the vertical indoor space. If the columns are aligned in two columns directly. However, if the row of the columns is not aligned in a straight line, it is impossible a straight row, there needs to be a horizontally straight crossbeam to connect them, and its level to install a horizontal beam between the columns. Therefore, one side was connected to the column, would be lower than the current convex one. As a result, it would be impossible or uncomfortable and the other side where there was no column was connected to a purlin at a higher level. Due to for a person to stand and pass under the beam. In addition, a regular alignment of the columns lines the level difference, the crossbeam had to be bent, and thus was made of naturally curved timber would result in a smaller area from the edges of the Daechung, leading to a poor use of space. (Figure9a).

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 9.9.(a )( Toetboa) Toetbo Beam Beam at Unamgotaek at Unamgotaek Sarangchae Sarangchae in mid-Joseon; in mid-Joseon; (b) Toetbo Beam (b) atToetbo Mangcihangdan Beam at inMangcihangdan early Joseon (source: in early author). Joseon (source: author).

ItThe is possiblecurrent plan to speculate of Unamgotaek why the conventionalresulted from column considering arrangement the size wasof the not elevation used in thatview period. of the First,floor aand visual the euseffect of can space. becreated This type where of plan the floorwas wouldenabled look by the larger use if of viewing naturally the curved building timber. from theCarpenters front. At at present,that time the strove front to offind the such Daechung timbers appears in nature. to be two bays long. If the column had beenThe positioned extended normally, Toetbo beam the front was ofalso the used Daechung for shade. would On the be appearedopposite side, to be to 1.5 the bays. east of Actually, Korea, theand front east bayof Naju of the in DaechungJeonlanamdo, was there seen asis a city symbol called of theYeongcheon social status in Gyongsangbukdo of the homeowner where in Korea. the HomeownersSunwondong generallyvillage is thoughtlocated. threeIn that bays village, were ther thee ideal is a housing modules site for called the Daechung Yeonjunggotaek in order tothat show has thebeen dignity listed ofas the a nationally house. designated cultural asset [25]. It is composed of a main house and a pavilion.Second, In this this paper, arrangement the Yeonjung helps enlargepavilion the is discussed vertical indoor in terms space. of the If theuse columns of curved are timbers, aligned since in a straightthe ideas row, applied there to needs maximize to be athe horizontally building’s straightfunction crossbeam are very unique. to connect them, and its level would be lowerThe thanoriginal the currentstructure convex of Yeonjung one. As a was result, a simple it would “3Ryang-jip” be impossible style. or uncomfortable The roof was for composed a person toonly stand of rafters, and pass creating under theshort beam. eaves. In addition,If the eaves a regular are short, alignment the structure of the columnsis vulnerable lines wouldto rainfall result as inwell a smaller as wind area or strong from the sunlight. edges ofTherefore, the Daechung, the raft leadingers of Yeonjung to a poor usewere of extended space. with a Buyeon. If The current plan of Unamgotaek resulted from considering the size of the elevation view of the floor and the use of space. This type of plan was enabled by the use of naturally curved timber. Carpenters at that time strove to find such timbers in nature. The extended Toetbo beam was also used for shade. On the opposite side, to the east of Korea, and east of Naju in Jeonlanamdo, there is a city called Yeongcheon in Gyongsangbukdo where the Sunwondong village is located. In that village, there is a housing site called Yeonjunggotaek that has been listed as a nationally designated cultural asset [25]. It is composed of a main house and a pavilion. In this paper, the Yeonjung pavilion is discussed in terms of the use of curved timbers, since the ideas applied to maximize the building’s function are very unique. Sustainability 2019, 11, 6557 10 of 16

The original structure of Yeonjung was a simple “3Ryang-jip” style. The roof was composed Sustainabilityonly of rafters, 2019, 11 creating, x FOR PEER short REVIEW eaves. If the eaves are short, the structure is vulnerable to rainfall 10 of 16as well as wind or strong sunlight. Therefore, the rafters of Yeonjung were extended with a Buyeon. If thethe building building had had followed followed the the original original plan, plan, it it could could have have been been installed installed without without another another column. column. However,However, because it was enlarged, the columns had to be built built up up outside outside in in or orderder to to hang hang the the Buyeon Buyeon asas an an extension extension of of the the roof. roof. Since Since there there was was a a height height difference difference between between the the existing existing and and new new columns, columns, aa bent bent connecting connecting beam beam had had to to be used. In In this this wa way,y, the the roof roof provided provided proper proper protection against rainstormsrainstorms and and sunlight sunlight as as an awning. Therefore, Therefore, naturally naturally curved curved timbers timbers became became a a very very useful useful buildingbuilding material material sought sought after after by carpenters (Figure 10).10).

(a) (b)

Figure 10. (a) Yeonjung Pavilion Section (source: author’s edit. Cultural Heritage Administration); Figure(b) Yeonjung 10. (a) Yeonjung Pavilion Toetbo Pavilion Beam Section (source: (source: author). author’s edit. Cultural Heritage Administration); (b) Yeonjung Pavilion Toetbo Beam (source: author). There are some distinctive features when comparing the wooden buildings in historic villages betweenThere the are early some and distinctive mid-Joseon features eras. when Those compar in mid-Joseoning the wooden used curved buildings timbers in historic in more villages diverse betweenpositions, the while early the and curved mid-Joseon timbers eras. in early Those Joseon in mi wered-Joseon not frequently used curved used timbers for girders. in more diverse positions,In Unamgotaek while the curved Sarangchae, timbers curved in early timbers Joseon werewere appliednot frequently to columns used andfor girders. purlins. The use of curvedIn Unamgotaek timber enlarged Sarangchae, the front view curved and timbers heightened were the applied indoor to space. columns In Yeonjunggotaek’s and purlins. The pavilion, use of curvedcurved timber timbers enlarged were used the to front extend view the eavesand heightened and to create the aindoor unique space. awning. In AllYeonjunggotaek’s these practical pavilion,solutions curved resulted timbers from the were carpenters’ used to ideas, extend which the correspondedeaves and to create with the a unique philosophy awning. and attitudeAll these of practical“Gyongsaechiyong” solutions resulted in Silhak from (the the Realist carpenters’ School ideas, of Confucianism). which corresponded The incorporation with the philosophy of Silhak ideas and attitudein architecture of “Gyongsaechiyong” can be seen when in Jeong Silhak Yakyong (the Realist built School a new cityof Confucianism). called Hwasung The with incorporation the support of of SilhakKing Jeong-Jo ideas in at architecture the end of thecan 18th be seen century. when However, Jeong Yakyong the signs built that a practical new city ideas called would Hwasung be reflected with thein architecture support of wereKing alreadyJeong-Jo appearing at the end in of the the mid-17th 18th century. century. However, Yoo Hyongwon, the signs one that of practical the pioneering ideas wouldSilhak scholars,be reflected argued in architecture in his book were Bangyesurok already appearing that it was in time the to mid-17th change thecentury. functions Yoo ofHyongwon, traditional onecities of [the3]. pioneering Silhak scholars, argued in his book Bangyesurok that it was time to change the functions of traditional cities [3]. 4.3. Late Joseon Dynasty (1800–1910): Symbolic and Creative Use of Naturally Curved Timber 4.3. Late Joseon Dynasty (1800–1910): Symbolic and Creative Use of Naturally Curved Timber In the late Joseon period, a representative characteristic is the increased use of decorations in the building,In the especially late Joseon featuring period, a dragons. representative In the characte architecturalristic styleis the called increased Dapo, use a of building decorations component in the building,called Anchogong especially is featuring constructed dragons. on the In top the of arch the buildingitectural style columns. called It originallyDapo, a building looked verycomponent simple calledin the palaceAnchogong building is constructed where Anchogong on the top was of used the building for the first columns. time. It It was originally the Daeungjeon looked very of the simple Yosu inHeungguksa the palace building built in 1690 where that Anchogong started to engrave was used the fo dragonr the first in Anchogong time. It was [26 the]. AnotherDaeungjeon example of the is YosuYosu JinnamgwanHeungguksa builtbuilt in in 1718, 1690 which that started was an armyto engrave training the facility. dragon Interestingly, in Anchogong both [26]. are locatedAnother in exampleYosu, which is Yosu is a harborJinnamgwan city. Thus, built the in 1718, navy waswhich stationed was an therearmy andtraining had afacility. military Interestingly, unit consisting both of areBuddhist located monks in Yosu, at thatwhich time. is a Theharbor Anchogongs city. Thus, inthe the navy palace was buildings stationed did there not and have had sculpted a military dragon unit consistingfeatures. The of Buddhist Anchogongs monks with at engraved that time. dragons The An werechogongs found onlyin the in thepalace temple buildings buildings, did exceptnot have for sculptedthose in Jinnamgwandragon features. (Figure The 11 Anchogongsa). with engraved dragons were found only in the temple buildings, except for those in Jinnamgwan (Figure 11a).

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(a) (b) (a ) (b )

Figure 11. 11. (a(a) )Exterior Exterior dragon-carved dragon-carved Anchogongs Anchogongs at atDa Daeheungsaeheungsa Chunbuljeon Chunbuljeon (source: (source: author); author); (b) Interior(Figureb) Interior 11. dragon-carved (a dragon-carved) Exterior dragon-carved Chungryangs Chungryangs Anchogongs at atSeonamsa Seonamsa at DaDaeungjeon Daeungjeoneheungsa Chunbuljeon(source: (source: Sansa Sansa (source: World World author); Heritage (b) RegistrationsInterior dragon-carved Promotion Committee). Chungryangs at Seonamsa Daeungjeon (source: Sansa World Heritage Registrations Promotion Committee). A dragon sculpture of the Anchogong seen in th thee front of the temple building has made the BuddhistA dragon temple sculpture itself a Banyayongsun,of the Anchogong meaning seen in a dragon-propelledth e front of the temple boat to building Geukrakjeongto, has made the Buddhist paradise.paradise.temple itself ThereThere a wasBanyayongsun, was a a notion notion that that meaning regarded regarded a the dragon-propelled the temple temple building building asboat the asto boat theGeukrakjeongto, toboat paradise, to paradise, which the whichinfluencedBuddhist influenced paradise. the dragon the There dragon decoration was decoration a notion on the thaton top the ofregarded thetop columnsof the the columns temple [27]. There [27].building areTher also ase are the some also boat temples some to paradise, temples whose whosemuralswhich influencedmurals included included paintings the dragon paintings of dragondecoration of dragon boats on (Figure theboats top (Figure 12 of). the columns12). [27]. There are also some temples whose murals included paintings of dragon boats (Figure 12).

(a) (b) (a ) (b ) Figure 12. (a) Painting of Banyayongsun (Bogwangsa Daeungjeon); (b) Painting of Banyayongsun

Figure(Tongdosa 12. Geukrakjeon)(a) Painting of (source: Banyayongsun author). (Bogwangsa Daeungjeon); (b) Painting of Banyayongsun (TongdosaFigure 12. Geukrakjeon)(a) Painting of (source: Banyayongsun author). (Bogwangsa Daeungjeon); (b) Painting of Banyayongsun As(Tongdosa previously Geukrakjeon) mentioned, (source: Chungryang author). is one of the architectural structural elements used since the earlyAs previously Joseon Dynasty. mentioned, However, Chungryang inside the is mainone of building the architectural of the Buddhist structural temple, elements the ornament used since of thethe early dragonAs previously Joseon sculpture Dynasty. mentioned, began However, to beChungryang used inside as an the is Anchogong onemain of buildingthe architectural of the of pillar.the Buddhist structural It is in thetemple, elements same the position usedornament since and offunctionsthe the early dragon Joseon as the sculpture ChungryangDynasty. began However, from to be theused inside early as anthe Joseon Anchogong main houses building of or the Seowon of thepillar. Buddhist buildings. It is in thetemple, However, same the position ornament although and functionsthereof the wasdragon as no the decorationsculpture Chungryang began and from itto was be the used created early as anJoseon to Anchogong be straighthouses orof in Seowonthe the pillar. early buildi JoseonIt is inngs. the period, However, same the position headalthough ofand a thereChungryangfunctions was asno the indecoration theChungryang late Joseon and fromit was was the sculpted created early withJoseonto be a straight dragonhouses head.orin Seowonthe Dragonearly buildi Joseon sculpturesngs. period, However, that the appeared head although of ina Chungryangthethere late was 17th no andin decoration the early late 18thJoseon and centuries it was was sculpted created were also with to usedbe a straightdragon indoors. head.in the Dragon early Joseon sculptures period, that the appeared head of in a theChungryang lateThe 17th first and in place the early late where 18th Joseon Chungryangs cent wasuries sculpted were carved also with used with a dragon indoors. dragons head. were Dragon used wassculptures Yosu Jinnamgwan that appeared [28 in]. Sincethe lateThe then, 17th first Chungryangs and place early where 18th decorated Chungryangs centuries with were dragoncarved also usedwith sculptures dragonsindoors. were were widely used used was inYosu Buddhist Jinnamgwan temples [28]. [29]. SinceThe firstThe then, templefirst Chungryangs place was where Hwasung decoratedChungryangs Yongjusa with Daeungbojeon carved dragon with sculptures dragons where dragonwere were widely used sculptures was used Yosu werein BuddhistJinnamgwan used in onlytemples [28]. two [29].ofSince the The then, four first ChungryangsChungryangs temple was located Hwasungdecorated at the Yongjusawith front. dragon In Daeung large sculptures buildings,bojeon werewhere four widely Chungryangsdragon used sculptures in wereBuddhist were usually templesused used in onlyin[29]. the Thetwo front, firstof rear,the temple four left, Chungryangswas and right.Hwasung In thelocated Yongjusa temple at oftheDaeung Seonamsa front.bojeon In builtlarge where inbuildings, 1824, dragon four four sculptures dragons Chungryangs are were positioned used were in usuallyontoonly fourtwo used of Chungryangs the in thefour front, Chungryangs (Figure rear, left, 11b). andlocated right. at Inthe the fr ont.temple In large of Seonamsa buildings, built four in Chungryangs1824, four dragons were areusually positionedThe used Chungryang in onto the fourfront, in Chungryangs rear, the late left, Joseon and (Figure right. Dynasty In 11b). the tended temple toof useSeonamsa bent timber built in as 1824, its natural four dragons shape, comparedare positionedThe Chungryang to the onto Chungryang four in Chungryangs the oflate the Joseon early (Figure JoseonDynasty 11b). era. tend As discusseded to use above,bent timber the Chungryang as its natural of the shape, early comparedJoseonThe dynasty Chungryang to the was Chungryang constructed in the late of in theJoseon a relatively early Dynasty Joseon straight era.tend line.Ased discussedto In use addition, bent above, timber the Chungryangthe as Chungryang its natural of this shape,of time the earlycompared Joseon to dynasty the Chungryang was constructed of the inearly a relatively Joseon era. straight As discussed line. In addition, above, the Chungryang ofof thisthe early Joseon dynasty was constructed in a relatively straight line. In addition, the Chungryang of this Sustainability 2019, 11, 6557 12 of 16 Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16 wastime relativelywas relatively thinner, thinner, and theand head the head of the of Chungryang the Chungryang did notdid protrudenot protrude from from the Daedeulbo,the Daedeulbo, the girder.the girder. The ChungryangsThe Chungryangs in the latein the Joseon late DynastyJoseon Dynasty used natural used timber natural almost timber without almost processing, without whichprocessing, was suitable which was to express suitable the to dynamic express shapethe dy ofnamic a wiggling shape of dragon. a wigglin Additionally,g dragon. dragonAdditionally, scales weredragon painted scales onwere the painted body of on Chungryang. the body of Chungryang. TheThe followingfollowing conclusionsconclusions can be drawndrawn byby synthesizingsynthesizing whatwhat waswas discusseddiscussed earlier.earlier. First,First, thethe dragondragon decorationsdecorations in thethe buildingbuilding areare likelylikely toto havehave beenbeen startedstarted byby BuddhistBuddhist monks.monks. Second,Second, thethe dragondragon decorationsdecorations used used in governmentin government offi cesoffices or main or main buildings buildings of palaces of palaces were symbols were ofsymbols authority, of butauthority, the dragon but the decorations dragon decorations in the temple’s in the main temple’s building main have building come have to represent come to a represent concrete imagea concrete of a dragon-drawnimage of a dragon-drawn ship. ship. InIn addition toto the temple buildings, there is anotheranother example of the symbolism of the architecture inin thethe late Joseon era. era. Milyang Milyang Yongnamru Yongnamru built built in in 1844 1844 was was one one of of the the large large pavilions pavilions belonging belonging to toa local a local government government accommodation accommodation facility, facility, a Gaeksa. a Gaeksa. The The Gaeksa Gaeksa housed housed Jeonpae, Jeonpae, a tablet a tablet with with the theword word Jŏn, J on,˘which which was was kept kept as an as emblem an emblem of the of theking’s king’s presence, presence, and and people people pledged pledged allegiance allegiance to the to theking. king. This This building building was was also also used used as asa guest a guest house house for for government government officials officials who who visited visited from thethe centralcentral governmentgovernment inin Seoul.Seoul. Therefore, Yongnamru, thethe pavilionpavilion belongingbelonging toto thethe guestguest house,house, waswas mainlymainly usedused as a recreational spotspot for the oofficialsfficials to enjoy the surrounding scenery andand to relax while writingwriting poetry.poetry. YongnamruYongnamru isis composed composed of threeof three buildings. buildings. There isThere the main is the building main inbuilding the center, in Neungpagak the center, atNeungpagak a higher place at a onhigher the left,place and on Chimryugakthe left, and Chimryugak at a lower place at a onlower the place right. on The the word right. “Chimryu” The word in“Chimryu” Chimryugak in Chimryugak is the abbreviation is the abbreviation of Suseokchimryu, of Suseokchimryu, which is a which metaphorical is a metaphorical expression expression meaning “soothingmeaning “soothing the weary the body weary and body mind and in mind nature”. in natu In addition,re”. In addition, the literal the literal meaning meaning of Chimryu of Chimryu is “a pillowis “a pillow on the on water” the water” or “to or use “to water use water as a pillow”. as a pillow”. If a person If a person lies down lies down on the on Chimryugak, the Chimryugak, there mustthere bemust water be belowwater thebelow person’s the person’s head as ahead metaphor. as a metaphor. In addition, In theaddition, water inthe the water main in building the main at thebuilding higher at location the higher needs location to flow downneeds to to Chimryugak. flow down Into order Chimryugak. to complete In thisorder metaphoric to complete image this of fallingmetaphoric water, image a staircase-shaped of falling water, corridor a staircase-sh was builtaped between corridor the twowas buildingsbuilt between [30]. the Naturally two buildings curved timber[30]. Naturally was used curved to create timber the staircase-shapedwas used to create building. the staircase-shaped This wood was building. also used This for wood the stairs. was Thealso architectused for the of Yongnamru stairs. The architect in 1844 intendedof Yongnamru to show in 1844 the meaning intended of to Chimryu show the by meaning means of Chimryu shaping the by buildingmeans of asshaping a cascade the ofbuilding stairs (Figure as a cascade 13). of stairs (Figure 13).

(a) (b)

Figure 13. (a) View of Milyang Yongnamru from South; (b) Staircase-shaped corridor in Chimryugak ofFigure Milyang 13. ( Yongnamrua) View of Milyang (source: Yongnamru Cultural Heritage from South; Administration (b) Staircase-shaped [31]). corridor in Chimryugak of Milyang Yongnamru (source: Cultural Heritage Administration [31]). As a result of examining the buildings built in the late Joseon Dynasty, the tendency to use curved timbersAs isa result clear. of First, examining in temple the architecture, buildings built curved in the timbers late Joseon were used Dynasty, for Chungryangs. the tendency Itto wasuse thecurved same timbers Chungryang is clear. as First, used in in temple other times, architec butture, they curved were thinner timbers and were in used a relatively for Chungryangs. straight form It inwas the the early same Joseon Chungryang buildings. as However,used in other in the times, late but Joseon they dynasty, were thinner the naturally and in a curved relatively timbers straight for Chungryangform in the early were Joseon used to buildings. express wiggling However, dragons in the inlate the Joseon temple dynasty, architecture. the naturally The dragon curved symbolized timbers afor strong Chungryang presence were in charge used of to defending express wiggling people accompanied dragons in bythe Buddha, temple architecture. a leading figure The to dragon defeat badsymbolized energy. Thea strong dragon presence sculptures in originatedcharge of fromdefending the exterior people of accompanied buildings, but by later Buddha, the use increased,a leading figure to defeat bad energy. The dragon sculptures originated from the exterior of buildings, but later the use increased, eventually expanding into the interior as well. The temple building decorated with the dragon figures represented Banyayongsun, the dragon boat to paradise. Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16

In addition, curved timbers in a government building were used to create a staircase building. In order to connect the upper and lower levels of buildings, a staircase was placed in the middle, symbolizing the gathering of water falling from a high place to a low place. Moreover, the structure symbolizes Chimryu, a person lying down and resting on water. In the late Joseon period, the bent Sustainabilitywooden2019 structure, 11, 6557 is expanded to give meaning beyond the function compared with the functional13 of 16 use of the bent wood. In contrast to the architecture in the mid-Joseon period when the curved timbers were used just functionally, the use of those in the late Joseon era gave symbolic and metaphoric eventuallymeanings expanding to the buildings. into the interior as well. The temple building decorated with the dragon figures represented Banyayongsun, the dragon boat to paradise. In5. The addition, Characteristics curved timbersof Curved in Wooden a government Members building in the Early, were Middle, used to and create Late a Joseon staircase building. In orderDynasty to connect the upper and lower levels of buildings, a staircase was placed in the middle, symbolizing the gathering of water falling from a high place to a low place. Moreover, the structure Table 1. Periods of Joseon Dynasty and its Architecture, Expression, and Social Influence symbolizes Chimryu, a person lying down and resting on water. In the late Joseon period, the bent wooden structurePeriod of Joseon is expanded to give Early meaning beyond the Middle function compared with the Late functional use SosuSeowon Daeheungsa Architecture Tongdosa Daeungjeon of the bent wood. In contrastGanghakdang to the architecture in the mid-Joseon period whenChunbuljeon the curved timbers were usedType justof Curved functionally, Wood Processedthe use ofCurv thosee in the lateNaturally Joseon Curved era gave symbolicNaturally and Curved metaphoric meanings toExpression the buildings. Asceticism Pragmatism Symbolism Wars and Silhak (the Realist School Social Influence Neo-Confucianism Elegant Culture 5. The Characteristics of Curved Wooden Members inof theConfucianism) Early, Middle, and Late Joseon Dynasty

SeeingSeeing the representativethe representative architecture architecture of each of periodeach period of the of Joseon the Joseon Dynasty, Dynasty, the height the proportionheight and curvatureproportion of and the curvature curved woodenof the curved members wooden show members their expressionalshow their expressional characteristics characteristics related with socialrelated background with social (Table background1, Figure (Table 14). 1, In Figure terms 14). of In the terms height of the proportion height proportion (H /L), (H/L), the the length length of the membersof the becomes members longer becomes in the longer middle in (3057the middle mm) and(3057 late mm) (3606 and mm) late Joseon (3606 periodsmm) Joseon compared periods to the earlycompared Joseon period to the (2222 early mm).Joseon Since period the (2222 curved mm). woods Since the are curved structural woods members, are structural the lengthening members, the of the memberslengthening means thatof the the members functionality means alsothat becomesthe function strongerality also over becomes time. Onstronger the other over hand,time. On the the height other hand, the height of the members increased from the early Joseon (435 mm) to the mid-Joseon of the members increased from the early Joseon (435 mm) to the mid-Joseon (929 mm). (929 mm).

Figure 14. Height proportion (H/L) and curvature (H/L) comparison among SosuSeowon Ganghakdang (Early Joseon), Tongdosa Daeungjeon (Mid-Joseon), and Daeheungsa Chunbuljeon (Late Joseon) (source: author’s edit. Cultural Heritage Administration).

This indicates that Confucianism’s strict norm of the early Joseon period weakened in the mid-Joseon period. In other words, the dramatic height change using curves disappeared in the culture, emphasizing the moderation of the early Joseon period, after which it reappeared in the mid-Joseon period. As a result, the distinctive difference in H/L is found between the early and the middle of Joseon periods, while the middle and late Joseon periods remain unchanged. Since the middle and late Joseon used naturally curved wood, the materials have a limitation, which that they are hard to fabricate. Sustainability 2019, 11, 6557 14 of 16

Table 1. Periods of Joseon Dynasty and its Architecture, Expression, and Social Influence

Period of Joseon Early Middle Late SosuSeowon Daeheungsa Architecture Tongdosa Daeungjeon Ganghakdang Chunbuljeon Type of Curved Wood Processed Curve Naturally Curved Naturally Curved Expression Asceticism Pragmatism Symbolism Wars and Silhak (the Realist Social Influence Neo-Confucianism Elegant Culture School of Confucianism)

When it comes to the curvature (H/L), height is getting higher as time passes, and there is a remarkable difference in length between the early Joseon (572 mm) and the mid-Joseon Dynasty (1262 mm). In addition, H/L, the curvature, increases from the early to the late Joseon period. In the Confucianism society of the early Joseon period, the curvature was weakened, but the formal identity was maintained. Furthermore, it was actively used again in the mid-Joseon period related with social changes, wars, and Silhak. In the late Joseon period, the size and curvature of materials did not change much compared to the mid-Joseon period, but it contained semantic symbolism.

6. Conclusions Curved timbers were used to show the partial as well as the total formative aesthetics of buildings in the Goryeo Dynasty (10–14 C). Thus, the shape of the curve was thoroughly calculated and carefully designed. The Baeheulim-style column, Umiryang, and the cross-sections of the beam are among the representative examples in that period. On the other hand, in the early Joseon Dynasty (15–16 C), a simple curve was used compared to the Goryeo period. Specifically, the wood was processed in a shape close to a straight line, and a curved shape was applied only if necessary. Another style involved using bent timbers taken from nature, which preserved the naturally curved shape selectively in the housing buildings. This is a sustainable formal alteration of curved wooden members, because the change makes it possible for people of the era to effectively save construction time and cost. The practical idea comes from the dominant social paradigm, Neo-Confucianism, which emphasized the austerity of life. In the mid-Joseon Dynasty (17–18 C), curved timbers were used creatively by architects or carpenters to serve practical functions. In order to maintain the function of the buildings most effectively, they used the naturally curved wooden members. The application of the wild timbers minimized the manufacturing process and maximized the pragmatic functionality of the space under the influence of severe wars and Silhak (the Realist School of Confucianism). In late Joseon Dynasty’s (19–20 C) wooden architecture, the architects or carpenters gave symbolic and metaphoric meanings to the buildings beyond practical solutions by using the curved timbers. The different characteristics of the use of the curved wood are closely related to the political and economic situation. For example, since the Goryeo Dynasty was a Buddhist state, the buildings built in the temples were the best masterpieces of the time. However, in the Joseon Dynasty, large-scale constructions were reduced except for the palace buildings, and the Confucian architecture built in the province was more praised for its frugal appearance. The international wars of the late 16th and early 17th centuries had devastated the country, resulting in the shortage of trees suitable for building, and people increasingly focused on building a practical way. After the renaissance of King Yengjo and King Jeongjo in the 18th century, national power was restored, and in the 19th century, there were many changes in architecture, which led to a large number of decorations and attached a lot of meanings to the forms. After all, even though the political, economic, and cultural situation changes according to the times, it can be seen from the curved woods that ‘natural friendly’ traditions continue unbroken in Korean traditional architecture. The curved form in the stair shape of the Goryeo Dynasty and the corridor of Milyang Yongnamru in the late Joseon Dynasty has a similar resemblance (Figure 15). The curved structures of Sudeoksa Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 16 Sustainability 2019, 11, 6557 15 of 16 The curved form in the stair shape of the Goryeo Dynasty and the corridor of Milyang Yongnamru in the late Joseon Dynasty has a similar resemblance (Figure 15). The curved structures Daeungjeon are intended to look aesthetically pleasing, and the curved stairs of Yongnamru were of Sudeoksa Daeungjeon are intended to look aesthetically pleasing, and the curved stairs of designed to mimic the image of a waterfall. The two different buildings show the tradition of Korean Yongnamru were designed to mimic the image of a waterfall. The two different buildings show the architecture that has been passed down for nearly a thousand years. tradition of Korean architecture that has been passed down for nearly a thousand years.

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 15.15.( a(a)) Building Building with with curved curved timber timber in the in Goryeothe Goryeo Dynasty Dynasty (918–1392); (918–1392); (b) Building (b) Building with curved with timbercurved in timber the Late in the Joseon Late Dynasty Joseon Dynasty (1800–1910) (1800–1910) (source: (source: Cultural Cultural Heritage Heri Administration).tage Administration).

ToTo sumsum up, up, examining examining historical historical alteration alteration of the of parts the andparts shapes and ofshapes the curved of the wooden curved members, wooden itmembers, is possible it is to possible identify to the identify sustainable the sustainable aspects of aspects Korean of traditional Korean traditional architecture architecture and to infer and the to influenceinfer the ofinfluence the historical of the backgroundhistorical background on forming on the forming sustainability the sustainability of the architecture. of the architecture. While the GoryeoWhile the Dynasty Goryeo (10–14 Dynasty C) had(10–14 an C) aesthetic had an climax aestheti ofc theclimax extravagant of the extravagant curved structures curved structures precisely designedprecisely underdesigned the under backgrounds the backgrounds of Buddhism of Budd andhism aristocracy, and aristocracy, the early Joseonthe early Dynasty Joseon (15–16 Dynasty C) showed(15–16 C) restrained showed restrained curved shapes curved of shapes wood details of wood with details fewer with materials fewer materials and a faster and building a faster building process dueprocess to Neo-Confucianism, due to Neo-Confucianism, which emphasized which emphasized austerity. austerity. After tremendous After tremendous social crisis, social including crisis, twoincluding wars, thetwo mid-Joseon wars, the mid-Joseon Dynasty (17–18 Dynasty C) showed(17–18 C) very showed creative very indigenous creative indigenous houses with houses naturally with curvednaturally timbers curved minimizing timbers minimizing the manufacturing the manufacturing process and maximizing process and the maximizing pragmatic functionalitythe pragmatic of thefunctionality space under of the the influence space under of the warsthe influence and Silhak of (the the Realist wars School and Silhak of Confucianism). (the Realist In School addition, of theConfucianism). late Joseon Dynasty In addition, (19–20 the C) late presented Joseon o ffiDycenasty buildings (19–20 with C) strengthenedpresented office dynamic buildings shapes with of thestrengthened naturally curveddynamic timbers shapes asof symbolicthe naturally expression, curved timbers which is as an symbolic expanded expression, concept beyondwhich is the an functionality.expanded concept In Korean beyond traditional the functionality. architecture, In curved Korean wood traditional members architecture, have been usedcurved without wood interruption,members have although been used in without varying interruption, degrees depending although on in social varying and degrees economic depending situations, on social and have and continuedeconomic tosituations, be one of and the have characteristics continued of to Korean be one architecture.of the characteristics Thus, the of study Korean of the architecture. curved wooden Thus, membersthe study ofof historicalthe curved heritage wooden architecture members of of historical South Korea heritage is a goodarchitecture opportunity of South to understandKorea is a good the sustainabilityopportunity to of understand the traditional the buildings sustainability themselves, of the astraditional well as the buildings cultural andthemselves, historical as background. well as the Incultural addition, and the historical application background. of the curved In addition, wooden the members application needs of the to curved be studied wooden in terms members of biophilic needs designto be studied today,because in terms of of their biophilic biomorphic design forms today, and because material of connection their biomor withphic nature forms [32 and]. material connection with nature [32]. Author Contributions: All authors contributed substantially to this study. Individual contributions are: conceptualization, S.L.R.; methodology, S.L.R.; validation, S.L.R. and H.C.Y.; formal analysis, S.L.R.; investigation, S.L.R.Author and Contributions: H.C.Y.; resources, All S.L.R. authors and contributed H.C.Y.; data curation,substantially S.L.R.; to original this study. draft preparation,Individual contributions S.L.R.; review andare: editing,conceptualization, H.C.Y.; visualization, S.R.; methodology, H.C.Y. S.R.; validation, S.R. and H.Y.; formal analysis, S.R.; investigation, S.R. and H.Y.; resources, S.R. and H.Y.; data curation, S.R.; original draft preparation, S.R.; review and editing, H.Y.; Funding: This research was supported by New Staff Settlement Research Fund (K1706171) funded by the College ofvisualization, Engineering, H.Y. Korea University. ConflictsFunding: ofThis Interest: researchThe was authors supported declare by no conflictNew Staff of interest. Settlement Research Fund (K1706171) funded by the College of Engineering, Korea University.

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