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173 j'?, ■$ ■ June, 1926] THE TEACHER I ades. "In that remarkably short space of tory of our civilization is a desirable element time," someone has pointed out, "Rayon has in the training for intelligent American citi- 'i'iS" ■ laA established a place for itself among these zenship. age-old fibers as one of the five important "It is also believed that the best key to a textiles of the world. This has been called direct and intimate understanding of the Romans and of their civilization is a first a monument to the genius of man, since it ' is the only textile spun and woven for hand contact with their language and litera- . A: human needs which man has invented." ture. A pupil who has learned to compre- I Ethel Hinebaugh hend the thought of a sentence in the V- original has to some extent thought as a ■ V Roman and has come into direct contact '' ' 1 ' HISTORICAL BACKGROUND with the genius of the Roman mind in the OF 'S ORATION, medium which is the most perfect embodi- A THE ment of that genius, the Latin language." : ■■ I Just recently a report of the Classical OF ARCHIAS Investigation has been adopted, by which THE investigation made in 1920 and required readings are no longer asked for .1:11,4" published in 1924 of the in in college entrance examinations; and it secondary schools has done much to- further recommends that special attention ■ A ••'v vj ward revolutionizing the high school Latin be paid to developing an historical back- u m course. Of the many aims and objectives, ground. It is found that it is quite impos- besides those which add directly to our abil- sible for the pupil to acquire the necessary m ity in writing, speaking, and understanding background contemporaneously with the English, the greatest per cent of teachers Latin text. For that reason prescribed checked as valid the cultural objectives. The reading in English should precede the trans- ■'•■■■"I principal one of these is quoted as follows: lation. Thus the pupils of the East High "Development of an historical perspective School, Rochester, N. Y., have prepared an and a general cultural background through outline suggesting the information that an increased knowledge of facts relating to should be gained before the study of Cice- i the life, history, institutions, mythology, and ro's oration, For the Manilian Law. religion of the Romans; an increased ap- It is the purpose of this paper to suggest & preciation of the influence of their civiliza- to teachers of high school Latin a detailed iaaM tion, and a broader understanding of social outline to be used by the pupil before the T'fifC and political problems of today." reading of Archias. To see that the techni- The explanation of this aim is further calities of Latin grammar are not empha- stated: "By cultural objectives are meant sized at the expense of the thought content ip those concerned with increasing the pupil's of the reading material, and to give to the fund of information; developing his capa- pupil a working basis for his reading, this city for appreciation, extending his intel- outline suggests some of the information 11! lectual horizon, and broadening his sym- that should be familiar to the pupil. To pathies by direct contact, through the study what extent it should be used will depend of of their language and literature, with the course upon the judgment of the teacher. mind of a people remote in time and place. As a warning may the teacher remember 'A, j'ictc "i. '■■A".;! "It is generally agreed that the solution . . . this principle of teaching which I recently -■i ? it of present-day social, political, and economic heard an instructor express by the following problems will be aided by an intelligent story: A donkey was nibbling grass in his knowledge of the experience of the race, pasture when his master came by holding ill and that some knowledge of the early his- out a bright, red, juicy carrot. He gave to pji/i ■ A;V: ■mi.

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I ■ fAki 174 THE VIRGINIA TEACHER [Vol. 7, No. 6 him a smell and a mere nibble, then jerked this time three social ranks: the senatorial it away, being sure to give him enough to order, the equestrian order, and the popu- make him want more, yet leading him on by lous. not giving him too much at a time. Thus The senatorial order was limited to sena- may the teacher's discretion lead her in the tors who by their life tenure of office and use of this material. their insignia formed a kind of peerage. In order properly to understand Cicero's Nobility, however, did not depend on hold- oration, The Citizenship of Archias, and ing office oneself, but on being descended to follow the argument it will be necessary from an ancestor who had held any office to secure beforehand a general knowledge from the curule aedileship to the dictator- comparable to some extent to that pos- ship. If any person not of senatorial rank sessed by the audience which Cicero ad- should be chosen for such an office his an- dressed. This knowledge should include; cestors should belong to the nobility. Hence I. Roman government in 62 B. C. in rela- the senatorial order and the nobility were tion to Archias. practically the same. 1. Roman Citizenship The next in rank was the equestrian or- 2. Roman Courts der. This body consisted mainly of young II. Identification of certain men. men of wealth who did not belong to the III. Status of literature in at that senatorial order. To this class Cicero be- time. longed. Below these two aristocratic orders in es- A brief discussion of these topics will be tate and in social position were the rest of given below and a full bibliography will be the free born citizens not possessing as given at the end of this outline. much as 400,000 sesterces. Among these I. Roman Government 62 B. C. there was naturally a great variety in for- 1. Citizenship tune cultivation, and respectability, but all It was a fine thing to boast "civis Ro- of these had status superior to that of freed- manus sum." and Archias was not willing men and foreign residents. to lose his citizenship without an effort to It was the first two of these orders which save it. The advantages of a citizen were made up the Roman aristocracy and it was very great. He could command all sorts this aristocratic faction, thinking that the of protection not open to non-citizens. If strength of their opponents lay in the fraud- arrested he could demand the right to give ulent votes of those who were not citizens, bail. He could not be put to and, that in 62 B. C. procured the passage of the if condemned to die, he would have been "Lex Papia." By this law "all strangers beheaded—the most merciful end. Par- who possessed neither Roman nor Latin ticularly in matters touching his life and sta- burgess rights were to be rejected from the tus as a citizen he could appeal from the capital." Under this law in 62 B. C. on the lower court to the senate. The high place ground that Archias was not a citizen, an in which Roman citizenship was held is attempt was made to exclude him from Ro- clearly illustrated in the case of Paul, even man citizenship. But it had happened that though Paul lived many years after Cicero. in 89 B. C. twenty-seven years before this Having been arrested in Jerusalem, he time, a law had been passed by the terms of pleaded his Roman citizenship and, even which Roman citizenship was granted to all though the mob clamored for his life, he who at the enactment of the law were en- was sent to Rome, tried before a higher rolled in any city allied with Rome, pro- court, and was finally set at . vided they should register before a Roman There were among the at within sixty days. Archias, at that »■*. > \m'

June, 1926] THE VIRGINIA TEACHER 175 time a citizen of Heraclea, which for 200 11. Identification of Certain Men years had been closely allied with Rome, 1. Archias, a native of Antiock, was born had registered before the Roman Praetor, about 119 B. C. While just a boy, he Quintus Metellus Pius, and had thus es- showed unusual poetic gifts. He won gen- tablished his citizenship at Rome. eral admiration by giving public exhibition I 2. Roman Courts of his powers in Asia Minor, Greece, and ■ m The were the exclusive judicial Southern Italy. He came to Rome at about • ■. kp officers of Cicero's time. A Praetor, as pre- the age of seventeen and through his own siding judge of the court, caused a jury to personality and literary accomplishments he V!';'" be sworn in. This jury was made up of was received in the homes of the noblest ili' ' ■ ] men from both the senatorial and equestrian families. It was at this time that he formed 1 vV;*, ranks. A majority of the jurors decided the a close friendship with Cicero. Moreover, verdict. this great poet had a great influence over jifi- V'J The Romans in law courts were very the life of , and for that reason • ' f logical thinkers. The first matter to be at- Cicero felt indebted to Archias and plead I tended to was the settlement of the question his case with all the eloquence at his com- at hand. This is noted clearly in The Citi- mand. zenship of Archias, though Cicero's manner 2. The Luculli, Marcus and Lucius, were in the handling of this case is most unusual. prominent military leaders of Rome. They Less than one half of the oration is given were men of high culture and character, wv-i V, iA- J over to the law and facts of the case. The who gave most of their spare time to the 1 'iL; l v ; •• greater portion is devoted to a eulogy on patronage of literature. the pursuit of literature and the poetic po- 3. Crossus was considered the wealthiest wers of Archias. This plea for Archias may man of Rome, a man of high birth, a sol- be divided thus: dier of no mean capacity, and an orator of mi I. Cicero's reasons for undertaking the unusual success. defense of Archias. 4. Livius Drusus was a nobleman, a man II. Life of Archias. of good disposition, large fortune, respect- III. The case stated and proved. ed for his high aims and strong personality. IV. Praise of literature. 5. Leictulus was also a nobleman. At V. Plea for protection of Archias' rights. one time he was a , the high- The center of this legal activity was the est office that could be held in Roman civil |„ i , where all public activities were car- government. j Ifi ried on. The court house was called the 6. Mitellus was also a Roman citizen v ■/ -Vi! Basilica. It was in just such a building as who, after serving as a provincial governor, '•r v I am about to describe that Cicero plead for H !i • ; • - was made a Roman military leader. the citizenship of Archias. It is from 150 to 250 feet in length. Its glory is in its 7. Gratus was a Roman citizen of the great hall, used for the chief courts of jus- aristocratic faction who brought suit against Archias. tice. The hall is paved with an expensive -vi .h.;, colored marble; the pillars down either side 8. The Hortensii and Catulus belonged to are faced with marble of still greater value; the Roman aristocracy and were able mili- and the ceiling heavy with gilt fretting and tary leaders. ' l i|/'l < i".;! painting. So large is the hall that not one 9. Homer was the famous Greek poet but four tribunals have been set up in dif- who was said to have been blind. He gave ferent quarters of the building at the same us the story of Troy in the "Iliad," thus v'V time. making Achilles immortal. ■ W , ■ ■ ;'l, . / •Lid: 1 i G >.1, I

I <• ' 176 THE VIRGINIA TEACHER [Vol. 7, No. 6

III. Status of Literature in Rome at of the boy scouts of the place. The pro- That Time gram, instead of calling to mind the real The case of Archias' citizenship was eas- meaning of the flag for the nation and the ily proved, and for that reason the greater world, was so manipulated as to afford an part of Cicero's defense of him is given over opportunity for a rehearsal of the war rec- to the praises of literature. This very fact ord of the past. The military men who had itself, that such a eulogy of literature could been imported for the occasion rehearsed interest an audience at that time and could one battle scene after another, dwelling up- aid in the plea for Archias, shows the im- on the glorious part the flag had played in portance of literature in Roman life, as waving over fields of carnage and death. does also the fact that military and political Not a word regarding the meaning of Old leaders of Rome took time for "Roman Let- Glory to the yearning peoples of the earth ters." to whom it is the symbol of liberty, oppor- We know also that literature was held in tunity, education, and democracy. Not a high esteem at this time from the fact that paragraph in interpretation of its signifi- the poet Archias, because of his literary cance to the new citizenship arriving from ability, was especially admired by leaders abroad or growing up in the land. Only the of Roman public life. Furthermore, many dismal recital of armies facing death, and states were desirous of Archias as a citizen of devastated fields and towns where the because of his poetic gifts. Gradually the flag had been heroically displayed. influence of Greek literature was spreading It was a little difficult to make the dimi- to Rome. But it was not until about 31 B. nutive cannon play a very inspiring part in C., thirty years later, that literature in Ro- the celebration. But such inspiration as man life reached its height. could be gotten out of them was invoked. Helen Yates If they could have been conscious of the comic role they acted in the celebration, they would have felt even smaller than they KEEPING UP THE WAR looked. As the closing feature of a pro- SPIRIT gram that had missed every item of stimu- IN a small community of a few hun- lating national spirit, and had set the ex- dred people a few miles from this city ample of beating the war tom-toms, a little there is a modest town park. In the girl was introduced to recite a poem appro- center is a flag staff, and at two of the cor- priate to the occasion. It proved to be that ners are rather antiquated field pieces, tro- familiar tribute to the American flag, begin- phies of the Spanish war. They are quite ning, "When freedom from her mountain useless as a protection to the town, for no height." It was no fault of the demure one could bring them into action in any cir- little maiden that she was quite unmoved cumstances. They were secured at the by the nobler lines of that picturesque but close of the war in Cuba by some citizens rather sentimental selection, and was far who thought it a patriotic thing to set up more conscious of the folds of her pretty these harmless bits of artillery as reminders pink sash than she was of those of the of a glorious event in the annals of the re- national banner. But she came presently to public, and souvenirs of the fact that the the lines, village had had some little participation in Ere yet the life-blood warm and wet has dimmed the adventure. the glistening bayonet, On the recent flag-day there was a cele- Each soldier's eye shall brightly turn to where the sky-born beauties burn; bration, consisting of a parade of civic no- And as his springing steps advance catch war and tables and a few veterans, as well as some vengeance from the glance.