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O N L L IA IN R E MATE 34 Twentieth-Century Art in Europe
Expressionists: Die Prophet Brücke Subject Prophet depicts the face of Christ showing pain Emil Nolde (1867–1956) and distress (Fig. 34.1). A German/Danish painter and printmaker, Nolde was born Emil Hansen but took the name Composition of the town of his birth, Nolde, from 1902. He Christ’s face is tightly framed in the space. Only painted religious themes, flowers, seascapes and a hint of background breaks the dark space landscapes. His early training was as a wood surrounding him. carver and illustrator and he worked in furniture factories for a time. He then trained as an artist Style and went on to teach drawing in Switzerland for six years. The print is in the Expressionist style. Rough marks and simplified drawing help to express emotion. At the age of 31 he decided to make a career in art. He moved to Berlin and became part of Die Technique Brücke in 1906–7, The Berlin Secession from 1908–10 and exhibited with the Blaue Reiter in This print makes use of the grain of the wood, 1912. He never stayed long in any organisation. and rough, almost hacked-out marks create the image. The print quality is not perfect, which shows Though he supported the Nazis, his work was the Expressionist preference for expression over denounced as degenerate in 1937 and over perfect technique. a thousand of his works were removed from museums and galleries. After the war he was Colour awarded the German Order of Merit and continued painting in northern Germany until the end of The simplicity of black on white shows the influence his life. of Dürer’s woodcuts on the Expressionists.
CHAPTER 34 online material: TWENTIEth-century art IN EUROPE 1 Fig. 34.1 (left) Prophet, 1912, by Emil Nolde, ink print on paper made from a cut wood block, 32cm x 23cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. The artists of Die Brücke helped to popularise printmaking.
Two Women in a Garden Painted at his summer cottage on the island of Alsen in the Baltic Sea, Two Women in a Garden (Fig. 34.2) shows Nolde’s broad, impasto painting technique and his dramatic use of golden yellow and deep reds against darker colours. The sense of depth and space is sacrificed to the strength of painting and colour.
Der Blaue Reiter Franz Marc (1880–1916) Franz Marc looked for a mystical relationship between colour and form in his paintings of
Fig. 34.2 Two Women in a Garden, 1915, by Emil Nolde, 73cm x 88cm, National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin. Nolde painted in strong colours and using the impasto technique.
2 APPRECIATING ART: SECTION 2, PART 4 – online material ONLINE MATERIAL ONLINE E U R O P EAN ART EAN P O R U E animals. The glowing colours and rhythmic geometry of his work try to show an ideal mystical world where everything is in harmony.
The colour and movement of Futurist work led Marc further away from realistic representation. His later paintings were abstract expressions of emotions and ideas revealed in titles like Struggling Forms. He was called to military service in 1914 and died in Verdun in 1916.
Deer in the Forest II Subject In Deer in the Forest II (Fig. 34.3), overlapping layers of deer, geometry and natural forms create an almost abstract composition.
Fig. 34.3 Deer in the Forest II, 1913–14, by Franz Composition Marc, oil on canvas, 110.5cm x 110cm, Staatliche The curves and diagonals combine to draw our Kunsthalle, Karlsruhe, Germany. The colour and attention through the composition. The turned geometry in Marc’s work try to show a mystical head of the red deer in the foreground brings the world where all is in harmony. eye up to the blue deer in the top right. The yellow highlight in the top left is connected to the little deer in rays of yellow light on the lower right. NOTE! Other artists from the Blaue Reiter group, including Kandinsky, Style Paul Klee (1879–1940) and Lyonel This is a gentler form of Expressionism, where Feininger (1871–1956), went on to teach harmony rather than conflict is expressed. in the Bauhaus, where artists of the avant- garde were valued for their intelligent and Technique imaginative approach to the problems of form and colour (see page 394 of the textbook). The painted surface is not heavily marked. Colours blend and contrasts are gentler. Outlining is used on animals and geometry to emphasise movement. A French Expressionist Colour Georges Rouault Marc’s colour scheme creates harmonies in reds, oranges and yellows; yellows and greens; and (1871–1958) blues and purples. The colours suggest a natural Georges Rouault was a French painter, graphic harmony. artist and designer who created a personal kind of Expressionism. He started as an apprentice in
CHAPTER 34 online material: TWENTIEth-century art IN EUROPE 3 a stained glass workshop, which influenced the strong outline surrounding fields of colour that we see in much of his work. He exhibited with the Fauves who were among his fellow students at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, but his style developed along a different path.
Rouault was a religious man with a hatred of injustice and a strong sympathy for the downtrodden. His paintings of clowns, outcasts, prostitutes and judges, which also feature religious themes, attempt to highlight the cruelty and hypocrisy of society. There is often a feeling of sadness in his work.
Rouault was not only one of the major religious artists of the 20th century, he also produced book illustrations, etchings, ceramics, designs for tapestry, stained glass and ballet sets.
Christ Mocked by Soldiers Fig. 34.4 Christ Mocked by Soldiers, 1932, by Subject Georges Rouault, oil on canvas, 92cm x 72cm, MOMA, New York. Rouault’s religious beliefs were In Christ Mocked by Soldiers, a seated Christ figure important in his art. He pointed out injustice in is closely attended by two soldiers (Fig. 34.4). the world.
Composition leading on stained glass. The paint is applied The Christ figure is partly bent into the tight thickly, almost roughly. space. His lower legs are cut off by the edge of the canvas. A soldier’s face is squeezed into Colour the top right corner close to Christ’s face. The second soldier on the left takes up about a third The flesh tones in this painting are almost red, of the canvas. The soldiers seem to be forcing suggesting blood and violence. themselves into the picture, creating tension.
Style Cubists Rouault’s style is personal but expressive, highlighting injustice and cruelty. Georges Braque (1882–1963) Technique Braque grew up in Le Havre, the son of a house Rouault’s time in a stained glass studio can be painter. He was apprenticed as a painter/ seen in the heavy outlining, which looks like decorator but took night classes in fine art. He
4 APPRECIATING ART: SECTION 2, PART 4 – online material ONLINE MATERIAL ONLINE E U R O P EAN ART EAN P O R U E studied at the Académie Humbert in Paris from The Studio (Vase before a 1902 until 1904. His first paintings were in the Impressionist style, but by 1906 he was working Window) with the Fauves. Subject In 1907 there was a large exhibition of Cézanne’s The painting shows a selection of objects in the work in the Salon d’Automne, following his death artist’s studio in front of a window (Fig. 34.5). in 1906. Braque was strongly influenced by this Sometimes textures and patterns seem more and Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, which Picasso important than the objects themselves. exhibited in the same year.
He worked with Picasso from 1907 to 1914. Their Composition styles were so alike at times that their work can There are four main focus points curved around be hard to separate. They developed Analytic and the window. Each point has further layers of Synthetic Cubism together and invented collage. interest in colour and texture. The break-up of colour, space and pattern questions what is in front Braque suffered a severe head wound during of what, and what is important. his service in the First World War. It took time to recover from, but he was painting again by 1918. He lived a quiet life, returning to live in Normandy. Style Braque continued to paint in a personal version of He continued to paint in the Cubist style, mainly Synthetic Cubism all his life. still life. The work was more colourful and patterned, with a greater sense of space.
Fig. 34.5 The Studio (Vase before a Window), 1939, by Georges Braque, oil with added sand on canvas, 113cm x 146.1cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Braque’s later work was more colourful and decorative than his experimental work before the First World War.
CHAPTER 34 online material: TWENTIEth-century art IN EUROPE 5 Technique Braque used his skills as a house painter and decorator to create the wood grain effects that he frequently used in his work. The painted surface is deliberately flat. Light and shade are indicated on individual pieces, but there is no continuity of light in the whole painting. Sand is added to the paint to create texture in some areas.
Colour Bright colours and decorative patterns separate this painting from the work he did with Picasso before the First World War. Bright yellows and orange contrasted with dark blues and grey make a happy colour scheme, though Braque claimed not to be interested in emotion in his work, just the pictorial space.
Abstract artists Kazimir Malevich (1878–1935)
Malevich was a Russian painter and designer who absorbed the lessons of Cubism and Futurism. He Fig. 34.6 Suprematist Composition, 1915, wrote a manifesto, From Cubism to Suprematism, by Kazimir Malevich, 80cm x 62cm, Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam. Malevich hoped to express published in 1915, in which he stated that movement and space through his arrangement of representational art was a theft from nature and shapes and colours. that paintings must be composed ‘on the basis of weight, speed and the direction of movement’. His Suprematist Composition of 1915 (Fig. 34.6) Piet Mondrian (1872–1944) illustrates this theory well. The colours and angles A Dutch painter of great importance in the of the rectangles create a sense of space and development of abstract art, Mondrian had a movement. conventional early career, becoming interested in contemporary art from about 1907. He moved to Around 1918 he produced a series of white- Paris in 1910 and painted in a Cubist style. on-white paintings and concluded he could go no further in abstract painting. He was a highly He returned to the Netherlands during the First influential figure in Russian and German art. His World War and continued to develop theories on theories were developed in the Bauhaus and had abstract art with Theo van Doesburg. He founded an effect on the development of architecture and the magazine De Stijl in 1917 and became the industrial and graphic design. leading exponent of a completely abstract style,
6 APPRECIATING ART: SECTION 2, PART 4 – online material ONLINE MATERIAL ONLINE E U R O P EAN ART EAN P O R U E based on verticals and horizontals, that he called Neo-Plasticism (‘New Forming’).
Mondrian thought that modern art ‘should find its expression in the abstraction of form and colour, that is to say, in the straight line and clearly defined primary colour’. On the strength of these theories he composed all his paintings in the following years of vertical and horizontal lines, with areas of primary colour, grey and black.
Composition with Large Red Plane, Yellow, Black, Grey and Blue Subject Fig. 34.7 Composition with Large Red Plane, This is an abstract composition with blocks of Yellow, Black, Grey and Blue, 1921, by Piet colour and white in varying sizes separated by Mondrian, 95.7cm x 95.1cm, Gemeentemuseum, black lines of different widths (Fig. 34.7). The Hague. Mondrian’s compositions reduced everything to vertical and horizontal lines and the spaces they enclosed. Composition The large red square is set off centre. Most of Mondrian’s compositions were asymmetrical. A small red rectangle in the bottom right creates white. Everything is reduced to its most basic in a diagonal balance. There is another diagonal search of a universal harmony. between the yellow areas in the top right and bottom left. The black and dark blue areas in the lower part of the composition have the weight to balance the dominant red. Surrealists
Style Joan Miró (1893–1983) Miró got his early training in his native Spain but The work is in the De Stijl (‘The Style’) style, moved to Paris in 1919, where he spent much created by Mondrian. of his time. He experimented with Fauvism, Cubism and Dadaism before signing the Surrealist Technique and materials manifesto in 1924 and developing Automatic All his work was in flat colour with straight vertical painting. and horizontal lines, painted very precisely in oil paints. Miró created a series of private symbols of fertility and nature, which he used in his great range of Colour abstract work in ceramics, sculpture, graphics, He only used primary colours with grey, black and designs and painting. He sometimes includes
CHAPTER 34 online material: TWENTIEth-century art IN EUROPE 7 suggestions of human figures, which often have a Technique and materials playful atmosphere. The background of the canvas is thinly covered and many of the images are painted in flat oil paint Carnaval d’Arlequin without much texture. Light and shade are used in places, but it is not consistent throughout the work. (Harlequin’s Carnival) The work is probably a result of Miró’s Automatic drawing technique, where he spontaneously made Subject marks on the canvas and responded to these The white guitar-shaped figure with the long neck marks, expanding them or making changes as the and red and blue ball-shaped head is the harlequin mood took him. in the title (Fig. 34.8). The composition is full of strange figures and symbols that are sometimes Colour beyond explanation. The warm background colour makes a contrast for the cooler blues, white and black of most of the Composition foreground items. Yellow, red and orange are used A very busy, loosely arranged collection of shapes for accents here and there, but they lose their and forms shows Miró’s lack of belief in the drama against the warm ground. conventions of art. The viewer is left to find their own structures and meanings in the work. All these strange effects of colour and composition are deliberately made to create an alternative to the meaning and conventions of painting up to Style this time. Miró developed his own version of Surrealism, full of private symbols. His later work became more abstract, though symbols still appeared.
Fig. 34.8 Carnaval d’Arlequin (Harlequin’s Carnival), 1924–5, by Joan Miró, 66cm x 90.5cm, Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York. This is one of Miró’s dream paintings, where he allowed his imagination to run, developing images out of marks and gestures made on the canvas.
8 APPRECIATING ART: SECTION 2, PART 4 – online material ONLINE MATERIAL ONLINE E U R O P EAN ART EAN P O R U E what it means. Like many of Magritte’s paintings, the title does not make matters any clearer.
Composition All the spaces are balanced from left to right. Only the gun, which points diagonally at the female torso, breaks the harmony of the spaces.
Style This is Magritte’s version of Surrealism. Illusions and dreams are often the subjects of his work.
Technique and materials The surface of the canvas is always smoothly finished. No brush marks or textures get in the way of the almost photographic images in this oil painting.
Colour The colours are realistic but simplified in the Fig. 34.9 On the Threshold of Liberty, 1937, by same way the images are: real but unreal. The René Magritte, 283.8cm x 185,4cm, Art Institute colours are generally warm except for the panel of Chicago. Magritte’s simplified painting of with the sky and the one diagonally opposite, surfaces offers us a range of realities. Will the gun go off if we pick the wrong one? with what looks like metallic spheres and cylinders.
Magritte’s paintings offer their own reality. Can we believe any of what we see? What does it mean? René Magritte (1898–1967) Magritte poses these and other questions. The viewer is invited to play with the puzzle he creates Born in Belgium, Magritte was a leading figure – nothing is ever what it seems. in the Surrealist movement. He investigated the possibilities of illusion in painting. Golconde On the Threshold of Liberty Subject Subject In Golconde (Fig. 34.10), men in dark overcoats and bowler hats form three layers of simple pattern In On the Threshold of Liberty (Fig. 34.9), a room in front of a terrace of red-roofed houses. At first is divided into panels or windows, with different, glance they all look the same, but then we notice seemingly unrelated, images in each panel. A they face in different directions. The figure near large field gun is placed in the foreground. We are the chimney towards the centre of the painting challenged to understand what is real or unreal and is a portrait of Louis Scutenaire, a poet friend of
CHAPTER 34 online material: TWENTIEth-century art IN EUROPE 9 Magritte, who gave him the title. It is the name of Technique and materials a ruined city in India, once a wealthy diamond- There is no visible brushwork to get between the trading centre. Again, the title only adds further viewer and the altered realism of the images on mystery. the canvas.
Composition Colour Like most of Magritte’s work, the painting has a Colours, like shapes, are simplified. They are static quality. Everything seems frozen in time and reduced to two or three tones in each colour area. space. The row of buildings takes up the bottom The colours get cooler as they recede, which adds third of the space, the sky the upper two-thirds. A to the sense of space. narrow strip of building makes a foreground at the right-hand side. The pattern of men appears up There are a number of recurring images in from the bottom and is cut off at the right and the Magritte’s paintings. A woman with a cloth top. The sense of space is helped by the diminishing over her face and a man in a bowler hat appear size of the figures – the smallest layer goes down quite often, but they are never explained. There behind the buildings. is a strong sense of mystery and illusion in his work. Style Magritte continued to paint in his own illusionist style of Surrealism throughout his life.
Fig. 34.10 Golconde, 1953, by René Magritte, 81cm x 100cm, The Menil Collection Gallery, Houston, Texas. Men in coats and bowler hats often appear in Magritte’s paintings, but they are not explained.
10 APPRECIATING ART: SECTION 2, PART 4 – online material ONLINE MATERIAL ONLINE E U R O P EAN ART EAN P O R U E The International Style of architecture Le Corbusier (Charles- Édouard Jeanneret) (1887–1965)
A Swiss-French painter, designer, writer, urban planner and pioneer of modern architecture, Le Fig. 34.11 Villa Savoye, 1929–31, by Le Corbusier spent the early years of his career Corbusier. Le Corbusier tried to combine classical working in the studios of some of the leading proportions with the best industrial shapes. Trains, architects in France and Germany. ships and manmade objects of all kinds influenced his designs. He painted for a number of years in a style he called Purist, which was evolved from Cubism. Writing in a Purist journal in 1920, he changed free of structural walls, so spaces could be his name to Le Corbusier (a corruption of his arranged any way the architect wanted. grandfather’s name, Lecorbesier). * It has large windows. He set up an architectural practice with his cousin, * It has a roof garden, which replaces the piece Pierre Jeanneret. They designed houses in the of landscape that the building took up on the Paris region during the 1920s. ground.
He was also busy writing articles on architectural The modular theory and produced a book, Vers un Architecture (Towards an Architecture), where he laid out his Le Corbusier used a system of proportions based five points of architecture. on mathematics and human measurements that he called ‘the modular’. He used this system to work out the scale and proportions of the various parts Villa Savoye of his buildings. There are opposing views about The Villa Savoye building (Fig. 34.11) the system. Some think it is humanist, while others demonstrates the five points. think it is the opposite – a standardisation of the human. * It is raised off the ground on ‘piloti’ (reinforced concrete pillars) that support the floors and roof, Urban planning creating the supporting structure for the whole building. This allowed the architect to freely From early in his career, Le Corbusier was design all the non-structural parts. interested in creating better living conditions for * It has a free façade. By this he meant the façade ordinary people living in cities. He made plans for was not part of the structure, so it could be ideal cities with 60-storey skyscrapers with large designed with openings or walls anywhere the open spaces between them. He planned transport designer liked. hubs for trains and buses. He saw the future popularity of the motor car and planned traffic It has an open floor plan. With the structure * systems to deal with them. He was one of the first supported on the piloti, all internal space was
CHAPTER 34 online material: TWENTIEth-century art IN EUROPE 11 urban planners. None of his projects was ever apartment has a balcony. The roof is a communal carried out on a large scale, but he did influence terrace with a running track and a children’s the development of cities after the Second paddling pool and views over Marseille and the World War. sea. Shops, sporting and medical facilities are included in the building. There is also a restaurant Housing units and educational facilities. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. With the need for rebuilding after the war, a few of his ‘Unités d’Habitation’ (housing units) were built. System-built copies, with smaller apartments and One in Marseille is still in use. It was built in rough- no facilities or open spaces, have given this type of cast concrete because steel for the frame was too apartment block a bad name. expensive after the war.
Unité d’Habitation, Marseille, British Art after the France Second World War The 12-storey block with 337 apartments stands in open parkland (Fig. 34.12). The whole building Francis Bacon (1909–92) is supported on large piloti. A corridor runs the Francis Bacon was born in Ireland and spent parts length of the building on every third floor. Each of his childhood here. His family often moved apartment is on two levels and uses the full width between Ireland and England. of the building, with windows on each side. Each
Fig. 34.12 Unité d’Habitation (Housing Unit), Marseille, 1947 and 1952, by Le Corbusier. The idea was to create a complete village within the building, including shops and recreation.
12 APPRECIATING ART: SECTION 2, PART 4 – online material ONLINE MATERIAL ONLINE E U R O P EAN ART EAN P O R U E He was thrown out of the family home in 1926 series of portraits of George in dark colours that and made a life for himself in the gay community are well regarded. A series of self-portraits made in London. His childhood nanny lived with him until in the 1980s are among his last masterpieces. her death in 1951. From 1975, Bacon struck up a lasting relationship He went to Berlin and Paris in 1927–8. He saw with John Edwards, who inherited his estate. He Eisenstein’s silent movie Battleship Potemkin made a gift of the contents of Bacon’s studio at and he used images from the film in paintings 7 Reece Mews, South Kensington, to the Dublin throughout his life. Poussin’s Massacre of the City Gallery The Hugh Lane. It was opened to the Innocents, which he also saw on this trip, was public in 2001. another influence.
Back in London in 1929, he worked as an interior Three Studies for Figures at designer and led a life centered on food, drink and gambling. He was a borderline alcoholic all the Base of a Crucifixion his life. His first break as an artist came with his This painting (Fig. 34.13) made Bacon’s reputation painting Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a as an artist. It was well received by the critics, Crucifixion in 1944 (Fig. 34.13). who said it was a watershed in British painting. It changed the art scene. Bacon tended to work on one theme or subject for a time. In the 1950s it was screaming popes and later animals and lone figures. In the 1960s Subject he returned to variations on crucifixions, portraits Three horrific beasts take the place of the saints of friends and drinking companions in single that are normally seen at the foot of a crucifixion paintings or triptychs. scene. The screaming mouths and physical distortions that became a feature of Bacon’s work After 1971 and the suicide of his lover, George are already here. Dyer, his work became more sombre. He made a
Fig. 34.13 Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion, 1944, by Francis Bacon, 94cm x 74cm each, Tate Gallery, London. This was Bacon’s first critical success as a painter. It changed the course of his career.
CHAPTER 34 online material: TWENTIEth-century art IN EUROPE 13 Composition Composition The triptych (made of three parts) has a figure in There is a bit more space surrounding the figure of each panel. The background is almost flat. Some the pope in Bacon’s version and the yellow railing vague lines indicate space. The figures on the surrounding the figure is not in the original. The left and right face towards the centre panel. An background curtain is painted through the face ostrich-like creature with a partly human face and upper body, distorting the sense of space. The draped in a cloth is the central figure. Some kind body of the figure is basically a triangle from arms of stand makes a foreground image. All the focal to head, which is a classical portrait arrangement. lines lead to the centre. The lower body ends in lines that radiate out to the corners of the canvas. Style Bacon’s style is unique. The vague backgrounds and distorted figures are his own invention.
Technique and medium In these oil paintings on boards, Bacon paints thinly in the background areas. There is more paint on the figures. Brush marks describe texture and direction.
Colour Background colours are often dramatic in his work. The strong red-orange creates a violent atmosphere surrounding the ugly grey creatures.
Study after Velázquez’s Portrait of Pope Innocent X (10-45) Subject Fig. 34.14 Study after Velázquez’s Portrait of Pope Innocent X, 1953, by Francis Bacon, 153cm This painting (Fig. 34.14) is a creative reworking x 118cm, Des Moines Art Centre, Iowa, US. This is of the portrait by Velázquez. The pope’s screaming one of a series of about 45 Screaming Popes that face comes from a scene in the film Battleship Bacon painted during the 1950s and 1960s. The Potemkin, which Bacon had seen in 1927. He kept screaming face recurred in his work throughout stills from the film in his studio. This painting is one his career. of a series of 45 made during the 1950s and 1960s.
14 APPRECIATING ART: SECTION 2, PART 4 – online material ONLINE MATERIAL ONLINE E U R O P EAN ART EAN P O R U E Style Colour There are Surrealist aspects to Bacon’s style, but it Once when asked about his pope paintings, is largely an invention of his own. Bacon replied that it was ‘an excuse to use these colours’. This is hardly the whole truth. He Technique and medium avoided seeing the original painting, working only from photographs, which may explain the colour This is an oil painting on canvas. The thin difference between his work and the original. The background is overpainted with dark purple yellow and purple are complementary colours, streaks of paint mixed with yellow. The figure is which make the most dramatic contrasts. created by brush drawing in purple and white. You can see layers where foreground and background elements cross through each other, confusing the sense of space in the painting.
CHAPTER 34 online material: TWENTIEth-century art IN EUROPE 15 Picture Credits
For permission to reproduce photographs, the authors and publisher gratefully acknowledge the following:
© akg-images: 7; © Alamy: 11, 12; © Alamy / Estate of René Magritte, ADAGP Paris / IVARO Dublin, 2016: 10; © Bridgeman Images / © Nolde Stiftung Seebüll: 2T; © Bridgeman Images / Estate of René Magritte, ADAGP Paris / IVARO Dublin, 2016: 9; © Bridgeman Images / Succession Miro, ADAGP Paris / IVARO Dublin, 2017: 8; Digital image, The Museum of Modern Art, New York / Scala, Florence : 4; © Getty Images: 6; Image copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art / Art Resource / Scala, Florence: 5; National Gallery of Ireland /© Nolde Stiftung Seebüll: 2B; © Tate, London 2017: 13; © The Estate of Francis Bacon. All rights reserved, DACS, London / IVARO, Dublin, 2017 Photo: Prudence Cuming Associates Ltd: 14.
The authors and publisher have made every effort to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked we would be pleased to make the necessary arrangement at the first opportunity.
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