(Escp) Siti Isma Hani Binti Ismail Univer

EROSION AND SEDIMENT YIELD EVALUATION IN REGARDS OF EROSION SEDIMENT CONTROL PRACTICES (ESCP) SITI ISMA HANI BINTI ISMAIL UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA 2010 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT “IN THE NAME OF GOD, THE MOST GRACIOUS, THE MOST COMPASSIONATE” Alhamdulillah, I thought the time to write this section would never arrive, and often I even wondered why I’d ever decided to start on my Masters. Now I’ve reached the end and it is time to express my gratitude to all the people who have encouraged me to finish this work. For sure, the fulfillment of this research is due to the cooperation of many people. Therefore I can only hope that I mention you all and those who I forget at this moment please forgive me and think that despite this lapse I really do appreciate you all I would like to begin by saying how greatly indebted I am to The Almighty Allah S.W.T for giving me the strength, patience and never ending courage in completing my research. I would like to take this golden opportunity to dedicate this report with grateful thanks to my dearest parents and parents in law, En. Ismail Bin Haji Omar, Puan Siti Eshah Binti Haji Hasan, En. Asbullah Bin Latif and Puan Sabrinawati Binti Abdullah for their continuous supports during this thesis preparation. My sincere gratitude and love goes to my beloved husband, En. Anuar Shamsuri Bin Haji Asbullah who made it possible for me to embark on my research. I would like to express my sincere and million thanks to my supervisor, En Zorkeflee Bin Abu Hasan for his priceless guidance, suggestions, supportive advice, constructive criticism and encouragement all the way through this study project. Without him I would not be able to complete this research. On the other hand, I am also grateful to my second supervisor Dr. H. Md. Azamathulla for his idea and assistance. ii I would like to offer my special thanks and appreciate to my boss, Mr. Lim Man Kwang, my consultants Ir Tang Heap Seng and Ir Yeap Geok Ngoh, Professor Dr. Nor Azazi Zakaria, Dr. Lai Sai Hin, Profesor Dr. Roslan Zainal Abidin, Puan Nurul Azfa Binti Azizan, Cik Noor Hasliza Binti Wan Chik, Cik Nuramidah Binti Hamidon, En Zubir Bin Mohammed, En. Nassir, Puan Norsalina Binti Johari, Noor Arbaayah bin Mohd. Hashim and Puan Noor Zamrina Binti Zakaria for their guidance and supports throughout my research. I would like to thank those researchers in the field of erosion modeling and processes from different countries around the world that unselfishly provided their findings, software and publications, thus greatly contributing to my research. Last but not least to all my friends for their endless support and encouragement throughout the years of my studies. Finally to all the individuals who were involves in the mission to complete this thesis, thank you again from the bottom of my heart. May all the good deeds that were done will be blessed by ALLAH S.W.T. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER CONTENT PAGE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii TABLE OF CONTENTS iv LIST OF TABLES viii LIST OF FIGURES xii LIST OF PLATES xvi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xvii LIST OF SYMBOLS xix ABSTRAK xx ABSTRACT xxi CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION 1.0 General 1 1.1 Background 3 1.2 Study area 11 1.2.1 Rational for Selection of Study Area 12 1.3 Problem statement 13 1.4 Objectives 17 1.5 Research Significance 18 1.6 Research Report Outline 18 CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction 20 2.1 Definition of Soil Erosion 21 2.1.1 Why does erosion occur? 24 2.1.2 How does erosion occurs 24 2.1.3 Type of Erosion 27 2.1.4 Erosion and Sediment Hazards Associated with Development 33 2.1.5 Factors that Influence Erosion 37 2.1.6 Best Management Practices 39 iv 2.1.7 Erosion and Sediment Control Practices (ESCP) 41 2.1.8 Sediment Delivery Ratio (SDR) 41 2.2 Existing Model Review/Model types 42 2.2.1 Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and Modifications 45 2.2.2 Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) 45 2.2.3 Agricultural Non-Point Source (AGNPS) 46 2.2.4 Areal Nonpoint Source Watershed Environment Response Simulation (ANSWERS) 46 2.2.5 The Chemical Runoff and Erosion from Agricultural Management Systems (CREAMS) 46 2.3 Weirs 47 2.4 Discussion and Conclusion 48 CHAPTER 3 - STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction 49 3.1 Study Area 49 3.1.1 Landuse / Development 50 3.1.2 Topography 51 3.1.3 Soil Types 52 3.1.4 Drainage and Hydrology 53 3.1.5 Flooding Conditions 54 3.1.6 Climate and Meteorology 55 3.2 Methodology 56 3.2.1 Desk Study 57 3.2.2 Research Preparation 66 3.2.3 Field work / Data collection 67 3.3 Data analysis and overall brief discussion 96 CHAPTER 4 - DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS 4.0 Introduction 100 4.1 Data Analysis 100 4.1.1 To measure water level of dry sedimentation ponds during Storm events 100 4.1.2 To measure Inflow and Outflow of dry sedimentation Pond B by using the Rectangular Sharp Crested Weir 109 4.1.3 To check the Total Suspended Solid (TSS) of Inflow and Outflow of dry sedimentation Pond B 115 v 4.1.4 To estimate soil erosion rates for study area 119 4.2 Summary 151 CHAPTER 5 – RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 5.0 Introduction 152 5.1 Dry Sediment Pond designs on the study area 152 5.2 Measured water levels of dry sedimentation ponds during the storm events 156 5.3 The measured Inflow and Outflow of Dry Sedimentation Pond B By using Rectangular Sharp Crested Weir 163 5.3.1 Measured Water Level versus Time 163 5.3.2 Weirs’ discharge rate versus Time 164 5.3.3 Required Storage Volume for Pond B during storm events 167 5.3.4 Runoff volume (m3) and peak runoff rate per event (m3/s) 168 5.4 Total Suspended Solid (TSS) at Inflow and Outflow of dry sediment Pond B 169 5.4.1 Summary of the efficiency of the ESCP 174 5.5 Evaluation of the soil erosion rates at study area 175 5.5.1 Assessment of soil erosion rates by using Modified Soil Loss Equation (MSLE) and Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) 176 5.5.2 Assessment of soil erosion rates at Pond B by using Modified Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE) Equations versus measured Erosion rates (TSS) 179 5.5.3 Assessment of soil erosion rates at Pond B by using MUSLE by William and Berndt (1977) compared to RUSLE and MSLE Equations 186 5.5.4 Assessment of soil loss rates at Pond B by using MUSLE Equation and measured erosion with Sediment Delivery Ratio (SDR) 188 5.6 Conclusion 189 CHAPTER 6 - CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.0 Introduction 191 6.1 Conclusion 191 6.1.1 Estimation and evaluation of the soil loss on the study area 192 vi 6.1.2 Comparison of various equations used by researchers for soil loss evaluation 193 6.1.3 Efficiencies of the ESCP used on the study area 194 6.2 Recommendation 195 6.3 Summary and Concluding 196 REFERENCES 198 APPENDICES APPENDIX A Dry Sedimentation Pond Designs APPENDIX B Measured Water Levels for Pond A, B, C, D and E during the storm events for the year of 2008 APPENDIX B (i) Value for V (m3) for Pond A APPENDIX B (ii) Value for V (m3) for Pond B APPENDIX B (iii) Value for V (m3) for Pond C APPENDIX B (iv) Value for V (m3) for Pond D APPENDIX B (v) Value for V (m3) for Pond E APPENDIX C Measured water levels at the Rectangular Sharp Crested Weir (Inflow and Outflow) and the hydrograph for weir discharge APPENDIX D Total Suspended Solid (TSS) calculation APPENDIX E Erosion calculation by using MSLE, RUSLE and MUSLE Equations APPENDIX F Soil Investigation - Boreholes results vii LIST OF TABLES TABLE TITLE PAGE 1.1 Population Distribution and Yearly Average Growth Rate 6 Percentages for Penang According to District from 1980 to 2000 1.2 Migration distribution according to State, 1995 to 2000 7 (Interim Reports on Penang State Structure Plan (2005- 2020)) 1.3 Housing Development in Penang, 1991 to 2000 (Interim 9 Reports on Penang State Structure Plan (2005 to 2020)) 1.4 Estimated Demand for Residential Land 2000 - 2020. 9 1.5 Projection of the Development Land needed for 10 Residential by Sector for every 5 Year, Penang (Hectare) 1.6 Major impact of soil erosion failures for on-site and off- 10 site scenarios (Goh and Tew, 2006) 1.7 Landuse Suitability at the study area (Geotechnical 13 Report, 2006) 2.1 Erosion/Sediment transport models (Merritt et al. 2003) 43 3.1 Rainfall Data for Year 2008 (MMD, 2008) 56 3.2 Terrain classification (Geotechnical Report, 2006) 63 3.3 Percentage of OM content for 26 Malaysian Soil Series 81 3.4 Soil Structure (S) Class and Code for 26 Malaysian Soil 82 Series 3.5 Soil Permeability (P) Class and Code for 26 Malaysian 83 Soil Series 3.6 Exponent m based on slope percent (FRIM, 1999) 86 3.7 C Factor and P Factor values for construction site rainfall BMPS 89 4.1 MSMA - Sediment Basin Types and Design 101 Consideration (DID, 2000a) 4.2 MSMA - Dry sediment basin sizing Guideline (DID, 101 2000a) viii TABLE TITLE PAGE 4.4 Sediment basin size required based on MSMA guideline 103 (DID, 2000a) 4.5 Summary of the Dry Sediment Pond designs on study site 105 4.6 Example of volume calculated for Pond A and Pond B on 107 the study area 4.7 Example of daily water level measured at Pond A, B, C, D 109 and E 4.8 Examples of water level measurement at Inflow and 113 Outflow of weirs for discharge (Q) value (dated 10th May 2008) 4.9 Typical water sampling laboratory results for TSS (June 116 2008) 4.10 Water sampling laboratory results for TSS value for the 117 month of October 2008 4.11 Extract of the Meteorological Data for 4th October 2008 118 4.12 Summary of the TSS results at Pond B 119 4.13 K factor at Boreholes 1 to 22 on the study area 125 4.14 LS Factor at the study area for Boreholes 1 to 22 126 4.15 Soil Loss estimation by using MSLE equation for 128 Boreholes 1 to 22 on the study area 4.16

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