The Grape Entomology

Mani M. • Shivaraju C. • Narendra S. Kulkarni

The Grape Entomology Mani M. Narendra S. Kulkarni Shivaraju C. Department of Agricultural Entomology Division of Entomology and Nematology Indian Grassland and Fodder Indian Institute of Horticultural Research Research Institute Bangalore, Karnataka, India Dharwad, Karnataka, India

ISBN 978-81-322-1616-2 ISBN 978-81-322-1617-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-1617-9 Springer New Delhi Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013954519

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Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Dedicated to the late Dr. S. Jayaraj, Biocontrol Specialist and former Vice Chancellor of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. He was a strong promoter of integrated pest management in agricultural and horticultural crop systems in which biocontrol plays the major role.

Foreword

Crop protection in the present day is an important input in crop production. Pests have plagued mankind from the beginning and will continue to vex people and thwart all their endeavors. Grape cultivation in India faces serious threat from several pests and diseases. More than 100 pests are known to attack grapes in India. Among them, thrips, mealybugs, stem borers and mites are considered to cause serious losses in various regions, if adequate and timely preventive and curative measures are not taken. As much as 80 % yield loss is reported in grapes due to insect pests in India. Generally, chemicals are used to manage insects, mites and other pests on grapes. Indiscriminate use of these chemical pesticides not only adds to the cost of production significantly, but also results in these chemicals becoming residues in the final produce and also in soil, water and air. Use of appropriate pesticides in the right dose and at the right time holds the key for effective pest management. Application of chemicals alone does not solve pest prob- lem completely in many cases. The integration of cultural, mechanical, chemical with biopesticides will go a long way in managing pests effectively. This book covers all the basic and applied aspects of the grape pest species which are useful to plan and implement integrated pest management in vineyards. The book provides information on the field identification of the major pests with their photographs, life cycle, seasonal development, damage, list of effective chemicals and biopesticides, besides various other practices which will be highly useful for effective pest management. This book is the first of its kind since there is no comprehensive book on Indian grape pests available in India. This will serve as a guide for grape growers, state government officials and other stakeholders in the grape industry, besides scientists and students engaged in grape research and development activities.

Pune, India P.G. Adsule October 5, 2012 Indian Council of Agricultural Research

vii

Preface

Intensive and extensive cultivation of grapes (Vitis vinifera L.) leads to serious pest problem in vineyards in major grape-growing areas of the world. Climatic conditions in India are favorable for high production of table and wine grapes, and also for incidence of a variety of pests. These include sucking insect pests, namely thrips, hoppers, mealybugs, etc., and beetle pests like stem borers, stem girdlers, flea beetles, chafer beetles, shot hole borers and several lepidopteron, mites, nematodes and vertebrate pests. Pests of grapes in other countries relevant to Indian conditions are also dealt herewith since they may be found in India in the future. Up-to-date informa- tion on biology, damage, seasonal development and management practices of the pests are covered in this book. Some of the pest management practices followed in other countries are also given, which will be useful to Indian conditions. Pesticide residue is a serious problem both for export and internal market in grapes. Guidelines for pesticide residue management in grapes are also given in this book. We have tried to accommodate almost all the important information generated on the grape pests up to 2012. A complete list of grape pests (except disease) occurring in different grape-growing regions of the world is also covered in this book which will be a ready recknor for the grape workers. We sincerely hope that this book will provide useful information to many entomologists, students working on grapes and the grape growers in the country. It is a pleasure to thank all those people who helped and provided suggestions and encouragement in the preparation of our book The Grape Entomology.

Bangalore, India Mani M. Shivaraju C. Narendra S. Kulkarni

ix

Acknowledgements

The beatitude and euphoria that accompanies successful completion of any task would be incomplete without expression of appreciation of simple certitude to the people who made it possible to achieve the goal by their encouragement and support. We heartily thank Dr. N. K. Krishnakumar, Deputy Director General of Horticulture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, for his technical guidance. We are immensely grateful to Dr. Amrik Singh Sidhu, Director, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore, for his genuine guidance, impeccable and scholarly advice, recurring encouragement, sustained interest and above all his affectionate way of dealing with things throughout the course of writing the book. We wish to express our extreme and profound sense of gratitude to Dr. P. G. Adsule, Director, National Research Centre for Grape, Pune, Maharashtra, for his valuable suggestions and useful guidance. We take this opportunity to convey our sincere thanks to Dr. Abraham Verghese, Director, National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects, Bangalore, for the encouragement to write this book. We would also like to convey our thanks to our colleagues, Dr. A. Krishnamoorthy, Dr. N. Bakthavatsalam, and Dr. A. N. Shylesha, Principal Scientists of National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects, Hebbal, Bangalore, for providing valuable suggestions.

xi

Contents

1 Introduction ...... 1 Natural Enemies ...... 2 Decision-Making ...... 2 Cultural Practices ...... 2 Chemical Control ...... 3 Insecticide Resistance ...... 3 IPM...... 4 2 Grape Cultivation in India ...... 5 Planting ...... 6 Training of Vines ...... 6 Pruning of Vines ...... 6 Nutrition ...... 6 Irrigation ...... 7 Other Cultural Practices ...... 7 Harvesting ...... 7 Marketing ...... 7 3 Pests ...... 9 Insects ...... 9 Homopteran Pests ...... 9 Biology ...... 12 Seasonal Development ...... 12 Damage ...... 13 Management of Grape Thrips ...... 14 References ...... 17 Leafhoppers ...... 19 Species ...... 19 Biology ...... 20 Damage ...... 21 Varietal Susceptibility ...... 22 Seasonal Development ...... 22 Monitoring ...... 22 Natural Control ...... 23 Management ...... 23 References ...... 24

xiii xiv Contents

Mealybugs ...... 25 Species ...... 26 Field Identification of Major Species of Indian Grape Mealybugs ...... 28 General Biology of Mealybugs ...... 28 Damage ...... 30 Seasonal Development ...... 32 Varietal Susceptibility ...... 33 Monitoring ...... 33 Natural Control ...... 34 Management ...... 35 Cultural ...... 35 Mechanical Control ...... 36 Chemical Control ...... 36 Foliar Applications ...... 37 Dipping of Grape Bunches ...... 37 Soil Drenching ...... 38 Biological Control of Mealybugs ...... 39 Predators ...... 40 Biology of Cryptolaemus ...... 40 Predatory Potential ...... 41 Mass Production ...... 41 Mealybug Production ...... 41 Beetle Production ...... 42 Storage ...... 42 Release of Australian Ladybird Beetle ...... 42 Other Species ...... 43 Monitoring of Ants ...... 43 Stage to Be Released ...... 43 Time of Release ...... 43 Number to Be Released ...... 44 Integration with Chemicals ...... 44 Limitations of Use of the Ladybird Beetle ...... 44 Production and Use of Parasitoids ...... 45 Pathogens ...... 45 Production and Use of Verticillium lecanii ...... 45 Calendar-Based Practices for Grape Mealybug Management ...... 46 References ...... 46 Scale Insects ...... 52 Soft Scales (Homoptera: Coccidae) ...... 52 Hard Scales (Homoptera: Diaspididae) ...... 52 Damage ...... 54 Management ...... 54 References ...... 55 Lac Insects ...... 55 Life Cycle ...... 55 Contents xv

Damage ...... 56 Natural Control ...... 56 References ...... 56 Aphids ...... 56 Biology ...... 57 Damage ...... 57 Seasonal Development ...... 57 Natural Control ...... 57 Management ...... 58 References ...... 58 Phylloxera ...... 58 Life Cycle ...... 58 Damage ...... 59 Natural Control ...... 59 Monitoring ...... 59 Management ...... 59 References ...... 60 Whitefly ...... 60 Orange Spiny Whitefly: A. spiniferus (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) ...... 60 Spiralling Whitefly, A. dispersus ...... 61 References ...... 62 Other Sucking Insects ...... 63 Stink Bugs (Pentomidae) ...... 63 Mirids ...... 63 Tree Hoppers (Membracidae) ...... 64 Lygaeidae ...... 64 Coreidae ...... 65 Cicadas (Cicadidae) ...... 65 Cercopidae ...... 65 References ...... 66 Coleopteran Pests ...... 67 Flea Beetles ...... 67 References ...... 75 Weevils ...... 76 Biology ...... 77 Damage ...... 77 Management ...... 77 Cultural Control ...... 77 Chemical Control ...... 77 References ...... 77 Auger Beetle ...... 78 Biology ...... 78 Damage ...... 79 Management ...... 79 References ...... 79 Shot-Hole Borer (Granulate Ambrosia Beetle) ...... 79 xvi Contents

Biology ...... 80 Damage ...... 80 Monitoring ...... 80 Management ...... 81 References ...... 81 Stem Borers ...... 81 The Longicorn Beetle: C. scabrator Fab. (Cerambycidae: Coleoptera) ...... 82 Kulsi Teak Borer: Stromatium barbatum (Fabr.) (Cerambycidae: Coleoptera) ...... 85 References ...... 87 Stem Girdler ...... 88 Life Cycle ...... 88 Damage ...... 88 Host Range ...... 89 Seasonal Development ...... 89 Management ...... 89 References ...... 89 Chafer Beetles ...... 90 Species ...... 90 General Biology ...... 90 Damage ...... 90 Seasonal Development ...... 91 Monitoring ...... 91 Management ...... 92 References ...... 93 Lepidopterous Pests ...... 93 Gram Caterpillar: Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Noctuidae) ...... 96 Management ...... 97 Tobacco Caterpillar: Spodoptera spp. (Noctuidae) ...... 97 Leaf Roller/Folder: Sylepta lunalis Guene. (Pyralidae) ...... 99 Castor Capsule Borer: Conogethes (Dichocrocis) punctiferalis (Guene´e) (Pyralidae) ...... 100 Leaf and Berry Webber: Adoxophyes privatana (Walker) (Tortricidae) ...... 101 Berry Plume Moth: Oxyptilus regulus Meyrick (Pterophoridae) ...... 101 Horn Worms (Sphingidae) ...... 102 Bag Worm: Clania crameri (West Hood) (Psychidae) ...... 103 Bark-Eating Caterpillar: Indarbela sp. (Metarbelidae) ...... 104 Hairy Caterpillars: Euproctis spp. (Lymantridae) ...... 104 Fruit Sucking Moths ...... 105 References ...... 106 Termites ...... 109 Morphology and Biology ...... 109 Seasonal Development ...... 110 Contents xvii

Damage ...... 110 Management ...... 111 References ...... 111 Ants ...... 112 Species ...... 112 Role of Ants ...... 112 Monitoring and Treatment Decisions ...... 113 Management ...... 113 References ...... 114 Grasshopper ...... 114 Species ...... 114 Description ...... 114 Damage ...... 115 Control ...... 115 References ...... 115 Wasps and Bees ...... 115 Species ...... 115 Damage ...... 116 Varietal Susceptibility ...... 117 Management ...... 117 References ...... 117 Raisin Insects ...... 117 Dried Fruit Beetle: Carpophilus hemipterus (L.) (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) ...... 118 Indian Meal Moth: Plodia interpunctella (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)...... 118 Raisin Moth ...... 119 Saw Toothed Grain Beetle: Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.) (Coleoptera: Cucujidae) ...... 120 Angoumois Moth: Sitotroga cerealella (Oliv.) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) ...... 121 References ...... 122 Other Insect Pests ...... 122 Gall Makers and Gall Midges (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera) ..... 122 Vinegar Flies (Drosophilidae: Diptera)...... 122 Fruit Flies ...... 122 Earwigs (Forficulidae: Dermaptera)...... 123 Eumolpidae ...... 123 Click Beetles/Wire Worms (Elateridae: Coleoptera) ...... 123 Tenebrionidae ...... 124 Vine Sawflies (Tenthredinidae: Hymenoptera) ...... 124 References ...... 125 Mites ...... 125 Mite Species ...... 126 Important Indian Grape Mite Species ...... 129 Two Spotted Red Spider Mite: T. urticae ...... 129 Vine Blister/Gall Mite: C. vitis ...... 130 Grape Rust Mite: Calepitrimerus vitis ...... 131 Life Cycle ...... 131 xviii Contents

Nature of Damage ...... 131 Red Spider Mite ...... 131 Eriophyid Mites ...... 132 Seasonal Development of Mites ...... 133 Peninsular India ...... 133 Seasonal Activity of Spider Mites in Punjab ...... 134 Seasonal Activity of Spider Mites in Jammu and Kashmir and H.P...... 134 Seasonal Activity of Eriophyid Mites in Kashmir ...... 134 Natural Control ...... 135 Varietal Susceptibility ...... 136 Management ...... 136 Biological Control ...... 136 Botanical Pesticides ...... 137 References ...... 138 Nematodes ...... 142 Srinivasa Rao M and Priti K Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore ...... 142 Major Grape Nematodes ...... 142 Root-Knot Nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) ...... 142 Reniform Nematode (R. reniformis)...... 148 Root–Lesion Nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) ...... 148 Dagger Nematodes (Xiphinema spp.) ...... 149 Distribution and Seasonal Fluctuations ...... 150 Varietal Reaction ...... 150 Management ...... 151 Cultural Methods ...... 151 Use of Resistant Rootstocks ...... 151 Chemical Control ...... 151 Integrated Nematode Management ...... 152 References ...... 152 Snails and Slugs (Phylum: Mollusca; Class: Gastropoda) ...... 157 Snails ...... 157 Slugs ...... 158 References ...... 159 Vertebrate Pests ...... 160 Bats ...... 160 References ...... 161 Birds ...... 161 Species ...... 161 Damage ...... 163 Varietal Preference ...... 164 Monitoring ...... 164 Bird Management Practices ...... 164 References ...... 164 Other Vertebrates ...... 165 Management ...... 166 References ...... 166 Contents xix

4 Pesticides Used in Grape Pest Management ...... 167 Imidacloprid ...... 167 Carbaryl ...... 168 Carbofuran ...... 168 Phorate ...... 168 Thiamethoxam ...... 168 Lambda–Cyhalothrin ...... 169 Clothianidin ...... 169 Spinosad ...... 169 Emamectin Benzoate ...... 169 Diafenthiuron ...... 169 Dimethoate ...... 169 Fipronil ...... 170 Chlorpyriphos ...... 170 Malathion ...... 170 Phosalone ...... 170 Quinalphos ...... 171 Oxydemeton-Methyl ...... 171 Methomyl ...... 171 Profenophos ...... 171 Dichlorvos ...... 171 Cartap Hydrochloride ...... 171 Buprofezin ...... 172 Acephate ...... 172 Cypermethrin ...... 172 Deltamethrin ...... 172 Fenvalerate ...... 172 Abamectin ...... 172 Dicofol ...... 172 Fenpyroximate ...... 173 Spirotetramat ...... 173 Metaldehyde ...... 173 Zinc Phosphide ...... 173 References ...... 173 5 Biopesticides and Biocontrol Agents Used in Vineyards ..... 175 Azadirachtin ...... 175 Nimbecidine ...... 175 Neem Cake ...... 175 Pongamia Cake ...... 175 Verticillium lecanii ...... 175 Beauveria bassiana ...... 176 Metarhizium anisopliae ...... 176 Pseudomonas fluorescens ...... 176 Trichoderma harzianum ...... 177 Bacillus thuringiensis ...... 178 HaNPVandSlNPV...... 178 Paecilomyces lilacinus ...... 178 Australian Ladybird Beetle (Cryptolaemus montrouzieri) ...... 178 Leptomastix dactylopii ...... 179 xx Contents

6 Pesticide Residue Management in Grapes ...... 181 Importance of Use of Pesticides/Insecticides in Vineyards ...... 181 Problems Associated with Pesticides ...... 182 Importance of Testing Pesticide Residues ...... 183 Maximum Residue Limit ...... 183 Pre-Harvest Interval (PHI) ...... 184 Codex Standards ...... 184 Pesticide Regulation in India ...... 184 Sector Initiatives Taken by the Government ...... 185 Banned and Registered Pesticides in India ...... 185 References ...... 186 7 Annexure ...... 187 8 General Precautions ...... 195

About the Authors ...... 197

Index ...... 199 List of Tables

Table 3.1 List of thrips species recorded on grapes in different countries ...... 10 Table 3.2 List of chemicals recommended for grapevine thrips in different countries ...... 16 Table 3.3 List of hoppers recorded on grapes ...... 20 Table 3.4 List of chemicals recommended for hopper control . . . 23 Table 3.5 Mealybug species recorded on grapevines in different regions of the world ...... 26 Table 3.6 Biology of pink mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus at 24–28 C and 60–70 % relative humidity ...... 30 Table 3.7 List of insecticides recommended for control of mealybugs ...... 38 Table 3.8 List of scales recorded on grapes in different countries ...... 53 Table 3.9 List of aphids on grapes in different countries ...... 57 Table 3.10 List of other sucking insects on grapes in different countries ...... 66 Table 3.11 Seasonal activity of Scelodonta strigicollis in Andhra pradesh...... 71 Table 3.12 Seasonal incidence and influence of abiotic factors on the population build-up of the grapevine flea beetle ...... 71 Table 3.13 Cumulative mean efficacy of certain organic materials as soil mulches/amendments against grub and pupae of flea beetle ...... 72 Table 3.14 Cumulative mean efficacy of insecticidal treatments against grubs of the grapevine flea beetle ...... 73 Table 3.15 Similar damaging beetles on grapes in different countries ...... 75 Table 3.16 List of weevils on grapevines in different countries ... 77 Table 3.17 List of stem-boring beetles of the grapevine in different countries ...... 82 Table 3.18 Efficacy of certain toxicants against grapevine stem borer grubs via injection into borer holes ...... 85 Table 3.19 Collection of Adoretus bicolour adults with light traps ...... 91

xxi xxii List of Tables

Table 3.20 Similar damaging beetles recorded on grapes in different countries ...... 92 Table 3.21 Other caterpillar pests on grapevines in different countries ...... 94 Table 3.22 List of termites recorded in vineyards in different countries ...... 110 Table 3.23 List of grasshoppers recorded on grapes in different countries ...... 114 Table 3.24 List of wasp and honey bee species on grapes in different countries ...... 116 Table 3.25 List of insects attacking raisins in different countries .... 121 Table 3.26 List of other insects recorded on grapes in different countries ...... 124 Table 3.27 List of mite species recorded on grapevine in different countries ...... 126 Table 3.28 Biology of Tetranychus urticae on grapevine ...... 130 Table 3.29 Seasonal incidence of Tetranychus urticae in relation to abiotic factors on grapevine ...... 135 Table 3.30 List of chemicals recommended for mite control on grapes ...... 137 Table 3.31 List of nematodes recorded in vineyards in different countries ...... 143 Table 3.32 Distribution of parasitic nematodes of grapes in India ...... 147 Table 3.33 List of snails and slugs damaging grapevine in different countries ...... 157 Table 3.34 List of birds damaging grapes in different countries .... 162 Table 3.35 Similar vertebrate pests of grapevine ...... 165 Table 5.1 Bio-nematicides and biopesticides ...... 179