A Global Forum

ContentsContents THEME:THEME: Heirs Incarnating of the Reformationthe Gospel EVANGELICAL REVIEW OF THEOLOGY VOLUME 40, NO 4, October 2016 EVANGELICAL REVIEW OF THEOLOGY VOLUME 39, NO 3, July 2015 Incarnating the Gospel:Heirs Socio‑Political of the Reformation Activity in the Ministry Emilio Antonio núñEz of F.B. Meyer page 196 Ian Randall The Mandate of Asian American Evangelical Theology Apagemos 292Yong Saved Through Childbearing:page An African204 Feminist Interpretation A Trinitarian Doctrineand Theology of Christian Vocation EsmcottIola HnAIhrrowInlolaEr pagepage 314218 Jonathan Edwards, Slavery, and Africa Missions Can We Measure the Success and Effectiveness of wAYnE AlAn DEtzlEr Entrepreneurialpage Church 229 Planting? What’s in a Name? Should AllSamu FollowersEl lEE of Jesus Call Themselves ‘Christians’?page 327 The use of Su‑ra 3:64ED init EDinterfaith bY l.D w appeals:AtErmAn dialogue or da‘wa? page 243 GoRdon nIckEl UnDErstAnDing AnD EvAlUAting tHE PArticiPAtion of frAncoPHonE Articles and book reviews reflecting page 346 A Global Forum AfricAns in worlD mission: congolEsE working in bUrUnDi bY foHlE global evangelical theology for the purpose Three HorizonslYgUnDA forli- mTheology of discerning the obedience of faith klaupageS Bockmu 255 Ehl ‘Discerning the Obediencepage of 356Faith’: A history of the WEA Theological Commission Book Reviews page 369 DAviD PArkEr Annual pageIndex 271 page 381 Book Reviews page 280

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ERT cover 39-3.indd 1 21/05/2015 14:04 ABSTRACTS/INDEXING This journal is abstracted in Religious and Theological Abstracts, 121 South College Street (P.O. Atonement as Gift: Re-Imagining the Cross for the Church Box 215), Myerstown, PA 17067, USA, and in the Christian Periodical Index, P.O. Box 4, Cedarville, and the World OH 45314, USA. Katie M. Heffelfinger and Patrick G. McGlinchey (eds) It is also indexed in the ATLA Religion Database, published by the American Theological Library Association, 300 S. Wacker Dr., Suite 2100, Chicago, IL 60606 USA, E-mail: [email protected], Web: This volume grows out of the conviction that the central Christian doctrine of the atone- www.atla.com/ ment has wide reaching, life-giving, and practical implications for some of the deepest MICROFORM pastoral and theological questions individuals and communities face today. It asks the question, what difference does the atonement make for ecumenics, pastoral care, theodicy, This journal is available on Microform from UMI, 300 North Zeeb Road, P.O. Box 1346, Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346, USA. Phone: (313)761-4700 gender, ecology, and social division? The answers given by experts in their fields point to the considerable potential of the doctrine to renew Christian theology and spirituality. Subscriptions 2016 What a marvelous collection! It covers a wondrously wide set of issues. Each chapter made me *Sterling rates do not apply to USA and Canada subscriptions. Please see below for further information. think. One has to work quickly when writing a blurb for a book, but when this volume comes out, I Institutions and Libraries Individuals shall want to read it again slowly. John Goldingay, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, California Period UK Elsewhere UK Elsewhere Atonement as Gift is a treasure that combines sound scholarship with faithful practices for Overseas* Overseas* contemporary communities. This volume will benefit people who seek an introductory understanding as

One Year: well as those who desire to delve deeply into the topic. hard copy £77.00 £83.00 £47.00 £51.00 Michael S. Koppel, Wesley Theological Seminary, USA electronic version £77.00 £83.00 £47.00 £51.00 Katie M. Heffelfinger and Patrick G. McGlinchey are Lecturers at the Church of Ire- joint subscription £92.00 £99.00 £55.00 £59.00 land Theological Institute Two/Three Years, ISBN 9781842278161 (e.9781842278628) / 250pp / 216x140mm / £11.99 per year hard copy £70.00 £75.00 £42.00 £45.00 electronic version £70.00 £75.00 £42.00 £45.00 Job’s Way Through Pain joint subscription £83.00 £89.00 £51.00 £55.00 Karma, Clichés & Questions All USA and Canada subscriptions to: Paul Hedley Jones EBSCO Subscription Services, P.O. Box 1493, Birmingham, AL 35201-1943, USA All UK and International subscriptions to: This book offers guidance to sufferers by identifying three stages in Job’s way through Paternoster Periodicals, c/o AlphaGraphics, 3.2 Clarendon Park, Nottingham, NG5 1AH, UK pain. In the opening scenes, Job is forced to come to terms with the reality that people do Tel: UK 0800 597 5980; Fax: 0115 704 3327 not always get what they deserve in life (karma). He is then bombarded with the one-size- Tel Overseas: +44 (0)115 704 3315; Fax: +44 (0)115 704 3327 fits-all solutions of his friends, who reduce life’s complexities to clichés. Finding these Email [email protected] unsatisfactory, Job presses on with his own remarkably bold questions until God finally Subscriptions can be ordered online at: responds to him from the whirlwind. The conversation that ensues leaves Job transformed, www.paternosterperiodicals.co.uk (Non USA and Canada subscriptions only) Special Offer though not in any way he could have anticipated. All orders placed via our websites will receive a 5% discount off the total price. In this engaging study Paul Jones offers a fine example of holding together pastoral insight and Rates displayed on the websites will reflect this discount scholarly attentiveness. This is a study that will help careful readers of Job to think more deeply and reflectively: about God; about life with God; and in particular about letting Job accompany them on a Important Note to all Postal Subscribers journey through pain and towards restoration. When contacting our Subscription Office in Nottingham for any reason Richard Briggs, Cranmer Hall, St John’s College, Durham always quote your Subscription Reference Number. Paul Hedley Jones combines his scholarly and pastoral sensibilities to provide insight from the book of Job on our pain and suffering. Photocopying Licensing Tremper Longman III, Westmont College, USA No part of the material in this journal may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or Paul Hedley Jones is an Australian author, teacher and musician, and currently a doc- transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, record- ing or otherwise without the prior permission of Paternoster Periodicals, except where a toral student, working under Professor R.W.L. Moberly, at Durham University, UK. licence is held to make photocopies. ISBN 9781842278222 (e.9781842278611) / 120pp / 216x140mm / £12.99 Applications for such licences should be made to the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 9HE. Available from: 01908 268500 or [email protected] It is illegal to take multiple copies of copyright material. Evangelical Review of Theology A Global Forum

GENERAL EDITOR: THOMAS SCHIRRMACHER

Volume 40 • Number 4 • October 2016

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for WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE Theological Commission ISSN: 0144-8153 Volume 40 No. 4 October 2016

General Editor Dr Thomas Schirrmacher, Germany Executive Editor Dr David Parker, Australia Assistant Editor Thomas K. Johnson, Czech Republic Book Review Editor Michael Borowski, Germany

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Printed and bound in Great Britain for Paternoster Periodicals by AlphaGraphics, 8-9 Vanguard Court, Preston Farm, Stockton-on-Tees, TS18 3TR ERT (2016) 40:4, 291 Editorial: Theme—Incarnating the Gospel

One of the most important parts of the- how business enterprises can be used ological work is applying the teaching to build ‘spiritually and economically of Scripture to our contemporary con- integrated communities of faith’. Typi- text—in part an intellectual activity, cally, this involves the idea of a ‘Third understanding the thought patterns Space’ to bridge the gap between the and cultural conditions of the day, and church and others (the gospel and in part a practical matter—showing the world) by ‘implementing ventures the grace of God in the day by day life of creative neutral spaces … that are of the community. However, these two more inviting to strangers than tradi- are not always linked successfully. tional ecclesiological models’. Using So our first article is a fine exam- a particular case study, he evaluates ple of how one preacher who was well this form of mission, concluding that known for his spiritual teaching was it has much potential provided that it just as forthright in his application of includes something more than an in- the gospel to his community and na- dividual approach—one that includes tion. We are thankful to the author, the community and society at large. Ian Randall (UK), for permitting us to On a rather different note, we now reproduce this section of his biography open up the topic of inter-religious of F. B. Meyer which deals with his re- encounter with an examination of ar- markable ministry in the socio-political guments involved in the Muslim docu- area. ment, ‘A common word’. On detailed Next, a completely different environ- exegetical grounds, the author, Gor- ment with a paper from Emiola Nihin- don Nickel (Canada/India), questions lola (Nigeria) who applies basic biblical the claims of this document that love principles to the situation of women in of God and neighbour is a ‘common Africa where, as he points out, there is essential’. While seeking friendly re- much exploitation, especially in their lations, Nickel shows that fidelity to role as mothers. His focus is on the one’s own convictions and truth in dis- controversial text, 1 Timothy 2:15. He cussion are essential. discusses key issues such as creation, So finally we turn to a ‘classic’ arti- alienation, redemption and consummation, concluding that ‘Christian women cle from an earlier issue of our journal have a sacred and divine task … to by Klaus Bockmuehl (Germany) which give birth and rebirth to godly children provides us with a simple but compel- who will establish the will of God in the ling framework for all of our theologi- hearts of men and prepare them to en- cal work, encompassing the three ho- ter the Kingdom of God’. rizons of theology—church, humanity Samuel Lee (USA) takes our and God. thoughts to the specific area of church Thomas Schirrmacher, General Editor planting and evangelism, describing David Parker, Executive Editor ERT (2016) 40:4, 292-313 Incarnating the Gospel: Socio‑Political Activity in the Ministry of F.B. Meyer

Ian Randall

Frederick Brotherton Meyer (1847- of Priory Street Baptist Church, York, 1929) was a leading English Baptist where he was influenced by the Ameri- minister, holiness teacher and evan- can evangelist, Dwight L. Moody, who gelical social reformer whose unu- held an extended mission in York. He sual combination of ministries had a then had two ministries in Leices- significant impact in his time. He was ter before moving in 1888 to London, especially prominent in the period which was the scene of his ministry 1890-1914, an era which represented until retirement in 1920. the heyday of the influence of the Free Many aspects of Meyer’s work war- Churches in England.1 rant attention. He was an effective Meyer was one of several lead- pastor-evangelist, seeing significant ing Free Church opinion-makers who church growth in his local ministries. occupied strategic positions, most His prolific writing meant that he had a as preachers in well-known London widespread influence on the evangeli- churches.2 After three years of theo- cal constituency. Within Baptist life he logical study at Regent’s Park College was noted for the way he connected in London, Meyer commenced ordained with Free Church movements. He was Baptist ministry in 1870, as assistant the leading international speaker rep- minister at Pembroke Chapel, Liver- resenting the holiness teaching of the pool. From 1872-74 he was minister Keswick Convention.3 This study concentrates on his socio-political activity, a dimension of 1 James Munson, The Nonconformists: In Search of a Lost Culture (London: SPCK, 1991), 2. 3 These and other aspects are dealt with in 2 D.W. Bebbington, The Nonconformist Con- Ian M. Randall, Spirituality and Social Change: science: Chapel and Politics, 1870-1914 (Lon- The Contribution of F.B. Meyer (1847-1929) don: Allen & Unwin, 1982), 7. (Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 2003).

Ian Randall (PhD, University of Wales) taught church history and spirituality at Spurgeon’s College and the International Baptist Theological Seminary, Prague. Now based in Cambridge, he has interests in spiritual renewal and missional initiatives and has published widely in these areas, including, The English Baptists of the Twentieth Century (2005), What a Friend we have in Jesus: The Evangelical Tradition (2005), Spiritual Revolution: The Story of OM (2008) and Communities of Conviction: Baptist Beginnings in Europe (2009). This article is an edited version of chapter 6 of Spirituality and Social Change: The Contribution of F.B. Meyer (1847-1929) (Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 2003) and is used with permission. Incarnating the Gospel 293 his work which has not been given the pact which Christ Church, Westminster same attention as—for example—his Bridge Road, London, under his lead- contribution to Keswick spirituality.4 ership, had on the Lambeth district of Meyer is an example of someone who London in the 1890s and beyond. espoused an evangelical ‘social gos- But Meyer was not content with pel’. local church activity. Through the It was F. B. Meyer’s conviction that temperance and ‘social purity’ move- every local church should help not only ments, his horizons widened until he to ‘save souls’—a vision he had gained found himself compelled to confront, especially from D.L. Moody—but also at national level, what he referred to to ‘right social wrongs’.5 His commit- as ‘grave moral perils’. Meyer’s values ment to conversion and its implications were those of the socially aware ‘Non- led Meyer to search for ways in which conformist Conscience’, with its at- the gospel could, as he expressed it in tempt by Nonconformist (Free Church) 1902, be ‘incarnated again’ in the com- leaders to apply moral principles to munity.6 public life.8 His emphasis on social action From 1902 Meyer became more emerged particularly during his period overtly political. He used the medium in Leicester. His first ministry in the of the National Free Church Council for city was at Victoria Road Church, but his wider socio‑political endeavours, he found the ethos of the church too re- especially in the period up to 1914. strictive. The church manual reported Even after that date, Meyer was in- in 1876 that the ‘ordinary routine’ of volved in issues of war and peace. In the church was continuing.7 Meyer re- 1912, however, Meyer commented that signed in 1878 and although he was it was a ‘miserable business to be al- expecting to leave Leicester he was ways protesting’ and that ‘one breath prevailed upon to stay and pioneer a from God would alter in a moment the new congregation, which became Mel- entire outlook’.9 The spiritual vision, bourne Hall. An expansive social vision which was fundamental to every aspect was expressed in Meyer’s initiatives at of Meyer’s career, meant that his socio- Melbourne Hall in the 1880s. It then political aims were always subsidiary developed even further through the im- to his all-embracing goal of seeing individuals and communities transformed by faith in Christ. 4 The present article is a revised version of chapter 6 of Spirituality and Social Change. 5 The Times, 22 June, 1907, 12. For back- 8 The British Weekly [hereafter BW], 17 March ground, see Kathleen Heasman, Evangelicals 1904, 611. See Bebbington, The Nonconformist in Action: An Appraisal of their Social Work Conscience, especially 11-17; D.W. Bebbington, in the Victorian Era (London: Geoffrey Bles, ‘The Baptist Conscience in the Nineteenth 1962). Century’, The Baptist Quarterly [hereafter BQ], 6 Free Church Year Book (London: National Vol. 34, No. 1 (1991), 13-24. Council of the Evangelical Free Churches 9 Letter from F.B. Meyer to James Mursell, [NCEFC], 1902), 94. From an address by Mey- 5 February 1912, quoted by W.Y. Fullerton in er on ‘Twentieth Century Evangelism’. F.B. Meyer: A Biography (London: Marshall, 7 Victorian Road Church Manual (Leicester: Morgan & Scott, [1929]), 115. Fullerton re- Victoria Road Church, 1876), 6. mains a valuable biography. 294 Ian Randall

I Caring for ‘the masses’ As early as 1859, John Clifford was The foundation of Meyer’s socio‑polit- talking about the Praed Street Baptist ical activity was his struggle to bridge Church in London, where he was the the gulf between the church and the minister, as existing to ‘save souls and 12 common people. His own background bodies’ and increase ‘social good’. was upper-middle-class, and in part it Meyer’s strategy at Melbourne was probably as a consequence of this Hall, similarly, was to offer virtually background that he realised the gulf non‑stop ‘wholesome and spiritual that had to be bridged. His attempt fare’, as he put it, as an alternative to began in earnest at Melbourne Hall, ‘inane and injurious entertainments’. Leicester, from 1881, when the build- Melbourne Hall organised eighty‑three ing which had been built to house the widely varied meetings each week.13 growing congregation (which grew to Influenced as he had been by Moody, 1,500) became operational. Meyer’s major objective was conver- It was not possible, Meyer argued, sions, but because he directed his at- to reclaim working men to Christian tention specifically to work among the experience if they were cared for by poor, it was a consistent development the church for only two or three hours for him to broaden out from evange- on a Sunday. A coffee room was there- lism to social endeavour.14 Caring for fore opened each evening at Melbourne the masses flowed out of evangelistic Hall, and other facilities were used and spiritual concerns. Meyer’s gospel extensively as classrooms or for tem- was a social as well as a spiritual one. perance, social purity and evangelistic Meyer found, however, that social agencies.10 work could not be carried out solely The concept of a partnership be- within the church buildings. What tween organised evangelism and social became known as his ‘prison‑gate’ service, with the local church as the ministry in Leicester began when he hub of these activities, was a crea- discovered that men coming out of tive one. It was generally accepted in Leicester prison tended to gravitate Free Church circles that the principles to the nearest pub, where they joined which Meyer developed in the early their old companions who often drew 1880s influenced the early Methodist Central Halls.11 This is not to say that Melbourne Hall was among the first 12 David Thompson, ‘John Clifford’s Social Gospel’, BQ , Vol. 31, No. 5 (1986), 202-3. For of the ‘institutional’ churches—those Clifford’s ministry see E.H. Bonsall, The Dream churches which operated with a vari- of an Ideal City: Westbourne Park, 1877-1977 ety of socially-orientated institutions. (London: Westbourne Park Baptist Church, 1978). 13 Fullerton, Meyer, 54; Worship and Work, 10 BW, 26 April 1906, 47; F.B. Meyer, The October 1885, 2. This was a Melbourne Hall Bells of Is: Or Voices of Human Need and Sorrow church magazine. (London: Morgan & Scott, [1894]), 23-4; M.J. 14 Meyer, Bells of Is, 24, 26. For this con- Street, F B Meyer: His Life and Work (London: tinued in Meyer’s London ministry see D.J. S.W. Partridge, 1902), 53. Tidball, ‘Evangelical Nonconformist Home 11 Fullerton in The Life of Faith [LF], 7 Febru- Missions 1796-1901’, University of Keele PhD ary 1912, 141; Fullerton, Meyer, 54-5. (1981), 168, 309. Incarnating the Gospel 295 them straight back into crime. Meyer was reckoned by H.G. Turner, Meyer’s decided to do something. With the secretary, to be ‘probably the biggest co‑operation of the governor, he vis- thing of the kind in London’.16 This was ited the prison each morning, taking arguably not an exaggeration. Meyer’s discharged prisoners to a coffee house focus was on the working classes, and for a plate of ham. He estimated that by 1905 a British Weekly correspond- he had provided breakfasts for between ent could remark on the large propor- 4,500 and 5,000 men and women by tion of working men at a Christ Church the time he left Leicester in 1888. evening service. Having contacted the ex‑prisoners, Most of them were probably initially Meyer’s next objective was to find attracted to Meyer’s Sunday afternoon them employment, and when he found Brotherhood, which he started in 1893 manufacturers reluctant to help, he and saw grow to 800 men. He picked launched out in business as ‘F.B. Mey- up ideas from a Brotherhood meeting er, Firewood Merchant’. In 1885 he at George Street Chapel in Liverpool. was employing twenty men who were Pleasant Sunday Afternoon (PSA) producing and selling 25,000 bundles meetings for men, which began in of firewood each week. He also provid- 1875, were, by 1890, as large as 1,000 ed them with accommodation. in some Nonconformist churches.17 Another rehabilitation venture was There was some concern expressed a window cleaning ‘Brigade’. Meyer within Nonconformity that PSAs were was at pains to stress—in the face of social rather than spiritual, but with criticism—that his entrepreneurial efforts were subordinate to his aim of Meyer’s Brotherhood, evangelism and producing devotion to Christ. He set social action went hand in hand. An in- up accommodation and a workshop, flux of some of the ‘roughest class of with a manager, in premises which he working men’ in Lambeth was bound 18 named ‘Providence House’. Although to highlight social needs. Through the the immediate neighbours did not see Brotherhood Meyer opened an evening a settlement of criminals as providen- tial, Meyer persevered, and the project 16 Interview with H G Turner, Meyer’s Private flourished. A minority of men, Meyer Secretary, on 19 July 1899: London School of admitted, ‘turned out very badly’, but Economics, Booth Collection, B271, 79. he claimed that many were converted 17 BW, 25 February 1905, 529; Fullerton, and the prison population was re- Meyer, 108; Turner interview, Booth Collec- duced.15 Social improvement was un- tion, 85. K.S. Inglis, Churches and the Work- dergirded by spiritual change. ing Classes in Victorian England (London: Drawing on his Leicester experienc- Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1963), 79. See pages 79-84 for background on the PSAs. es, Meyer constructed the framework 18 Turner interview, Booth Collection, B271, for Christ Church, which, as a Christian 87. Charles Booth said that Christ Church centre serving a needy neighbourhood, was middle class and touched the poor only through missions: C. Booth, Life and Labour of the People in London; Third Series: Religious 15 Meyer, Bells of Is, 33-8, 73, 86-90, 102; Influences, Vol. 7 (London: Macmillan & Co., Street, Meyer, 59-65; Worship and Work, Octo- 1902), 123. This does not do justice to the ber 1885, 13-16. Brotherhood. 296 Ian Randall school for adults, and the HM Inspec- term ‘hooligan’ apparently came into tor assessed this as having the best common currency from a difficult fam- results in London. As well as being ily called Hooligan, discovered by Mey- ‘an institution for soul‑winning’, the er’s helpers.22 A huge social network, Brotherhood was also an expression with all kinds of specialist societies, of Meyer’s belief in the social reality of was spawned by Christ Church, largely brotherhood. The men were his ‘broth- through Meyer’s determination to put ers’, not his ‘brethren’ (an expression his evangelistic principles to work in Meyer described as ‘cant’ used by cler- society and to seek to enhance human gy), and he was the ‘skipper’.19 dignity. Meyer believed that people dis- liked and were repelled by Christian II Temperance ‘stand‑offishness’, and on Monday A specific issue that Meyer, together afternoons at Christ Church, when with many Nonconformists, took up he spoke to women, he measured his was temperance. He reflected the trend success by whether he saw laughter among Nonconformist leaders of the ‘on the faces marked by poverty and later nineteenth century towards an sorrow’.20 Such meetings were part of increasing stress on the need for total Meyer’s way of incarnating the gospel. abstinence.23 Throughout his theologi- He was determined, however, not to cal student days at Regent’s Park Col- be confined to the church. Meyer initi- lege in the late 1860s Meyer thought ated, through Christ Church, what he it was impossible to get through a termed recreations, though he insisted Sunday without a glass of sherry. On that he did not promote amusements. one occasion, while a student preach- He rented a tumble‑down factory for er, Meyer was staying with hosts who gymnastics and for carpentry, and de- were total abstainers and as he put on cided, because of the level of stealing his coat to go to church to his embar- and rowdiness, that he had ‘got hold of rassment a bottle of sherry fell out. But the right sort’ of young people. Linked by 1872 he had become teetotal, large- with this was a club house.21 ly through the influence of W. P. Lock- The Lambeth Chief Constable en- hart, the minister of Liverpool’s West listed Meyer to help control some of Toxteth (Baptist) Tabernacle. Meyer the most problematic local youths and, increasingly wanted to support work- as an indicator of Meyer’s clientele, the ing people, as he rather patronisingly put it, ‘against their greatest enemy’.24

19 BW, 19 October 1905, 37; Street, Meyer, 94; Clyde Binfield, George Williams and the 22 J. Cox, The English Churches in a Secular YMCA (London: Heinemann, 1973), 303. Society: Lambeth, 1870-1930 (Oxford: Oxford 20 The Christian World [hereafter CW], 21 University Press, 1982), 110; Street, Meyer, January 1909, 11; F.B. Meyer, Reveries and 98. Realities: Or Life and Work in London (London: 23 Bebbington, Nonconformist Conscience, Morgan & Scott, 1896), 74. 46-7; J.H.Y. Briggs, The English Baptists of the 21 Street, Meyer, 98; J. W. Read, ed., The Nineteenth Century (Didcot: Baptist Historical Christ Church Souvenir Jubilee Year Book (Lon- Society, 1994), 329-39. don: Christ Church, 1926), 29. 24 CW, 8 May 1906, 24; A. Porritt, The Best I Incarnating the Gospel 297

During his Leicester period, Meyer had led in the Leicester area resulted, emerged as a fervent upholder of the it was claimed, in 100,000 signatures temperance movement, describing to the pledge.27 While Meyer pictured drink as the ‘giant evil of our time’. temperance as a crusade against sin, There was a call to undertake a war Leicester publicans rightly viewed it as against this evil. The troops must ‘sign an attack on them. Their trade began the pledge’ and wear ‘the blue ribbon’. to decline. Some publicans gave Meyer The Gospel Temperance or Blue Ribbon practical help in his work of reclaiming movement began in the 1870s and its drunkards, but from other quarters he revivalist fervour had an overwhelming received threats which meant he had to appeal for the evangelistically‑minded have personal protection. Meyer wrote 25 Meyer. pamphlets advocating the pledge and Temperance leaders in this period of- the blue ribbon. The latter he described ten combined religion and temperance. in rather sentimental terms as a ‘beau- The techniques Meyer used to promote tiful emblem’, but his faith saw beyond the joint message were borrowed to a the emblem to God, who alone could considerable extent from D.L. Moody. 28 Meyer did not in any sense see the make England ‘sober and free’. Tem- pledge or the ribbon as a substitute perance was an illustration of Meyer’s for Christian witness and the call to belief that the gospel was intended to conversion. Rather, he could assert, in transform social life. 1883, that after fifty years the temper- Initially, with a typical evangelical ance movement was coming to its true individualistic approach, Meyer con- fulfilment through the introduction of centrated on moral persuasion, one by the gospel element. To sign the pledge, one, but he became convinced that as Meyer argued, was a confession of sin well as reclamation at this level, action and expressed a desire for deliverance. had to be taken to curtail the drink traf- This was the theme which he stressed fic. One of Meyer’s Leicester campaigns in Leicester and then in London, at the was directed against grocers’ liquor li- Christ Church Brotherhood and at the cences. In retaliation, the grocers tried women’s meetings.26 to secure a boycott of Meyer’s firewood His social vision was distinctly con- merchant business, but the customers versionist. In 1882 there were more knew that Meyer’s firewood was bet- than one million blue ribbon people in ter value than that of his competitors Britain. The campaign which Meyer

27 Meyer, Bells of Is, 75; Catalogue of the Remember (London: Cassell & Co., 1922), 211; Leicester Jubilee Exhibition (Leicester: Jubilee Munson, The Nonconformists, 59. Exhibition, 1887), 121. 25 Meyer, Bells of Is, 64. For the revivalist 28 F.B. Meyer, Seven Reasons for Wearing the fervour, see L.L. Shiman, The Crusade Against Blue Ribbon (Leicester: J Vice, [1882]), 8. The Drink in Victorian England (Basingstoke: Mac- seven reasons for signing the pledge are found millan, 1986), 96. in F.B. Meyer, Why Sign the Pledge? (Leices- 26 F.B. Meyer, New Year’s Words to Blue Rib- ter: J Vice, n.d.). Seven reasons represented a bon People (London: Marshall Bros., [1883]), typical Meyer approach; he also outlined, for 2. Meyer, Bells of Is, 41-2. example, seven reasons for believer’s baptism. 298 Ian Randall and the boycott failed.29 The attack on Meyer was in no mood for compro- the firewood business was, of course, mise over the British Conservative gov- an assault on Meyer’s prison‑gate min- ernment’s Licensing Bill of 1904. He istry and for Meyer there was a close supported mass agitation. A ‘pro‑Beer link between his work for ex‑prisoners government’ merited absolute oppo- and for temperance, since he saw drink sition.32 Yet Meyer’s style, by contrast as being the usual cause of crime. with the approach of some campaign- Although he conceived of an overall ers, was never wholly negative. In 1905 web of social evil, Meyer, like other he opened, under his own manage- Nonconformists of this period, targeted ment, the ‘Old Nelson Coffee‑House’ in specific wrongs. Meyer’s methods of Lambeth. Opening hours matched pub agitation were also typical of Noncon- hours. Meyer’s concern was to offer formist techniques.30 Perhaps his most leisure activities which were alterna- spectacular gesture while at Leicester tives to drinking alcohol.33 But positive was a defiant appearance at the races measures did not replace denunciation. to protest against the gambling and Meyer, in 1907, berated publicans, drinking. There was an ‘ugly scene’ betting touts and brothel‑owners, call- and a badly shaken Meyer was re- ing them bandits, which the Licensed leased unharmed only because a shop- Victuallers’ Defence League described keeper explained that he helped those as a ‘scurrilous inference’.34 Meyer 31 in trouble in prison. Meyer’s view of was accused of being a bandit who was the drink traffic as a spiritual enemy ‘flourishing his spiritual tomahawk … drew him into active social struggle and careering around with the scalps of against it. the publicans in his girdle’.35 Meyer, for Increasing involvement in national his part, compared public houses with life from the 1890s sharpened Meyer’s the bandits in the parable of the good political awareness. By 1899 he was Samaritan. Making much of this image, accepting municipal control of public Meyer said in 1909 that he used to pick houses as a realistic goal for the tem- up mauled travellers (victims of drink) perance movement. His ideal, however, between Jerusalem and Jericho, but was abolition. During his year as Presi- his more recent policy was to demand dent of the National Free Church Coun- that Pilate ‘blow up with dynamite the cil, he urged his hearers at the 1904 an- caves in which the bandits hide’.36 nual meetings in Newcastle to get into Parliament or the borough council to secure ‘organised action’ for the ‘cur- 32 BW, 8 June 1899, 140; CW, 10 March tailment and abolition’ of the drink traf- 1904, 21-2; 26 May 1904, 3. fic, with no compensation for brewers. 33 BW, 7 September 1905, 509; CW, 7 Febru- ary 1907, 24. 34 The Times, 18 October 1907, 13. 29 Meyer, Bells of Is, 75-6, 90-3; Street, Mey- 35 J.A. Newbold, The Nonconformist Con- er, 65-6. science a Persecuting Force (Manchester: John 30 Meyer, Bells of Is, 41. For targets and Heywood, 1908), 47. techniques see Bebbington, Nonconformist 36 The Times, 18 October 1907, 13; Free Conscience, 16-17. Church Year Book (London: National Council of 31 Meyer, Bells of Is, 121. the Evangelical Free Churches, 1909), 29, 30. Incarnating the Gospel 299

Meyer’s reliance on state action Christ Church in 1892 he began to plan was, in fact, always partial. Even in a ‘systematic attack’ on the notorious 1904, at the height of his vilification of brothels of Lambeth, Southwark and the Conservative government, Meyer Bermondsey, and achieved the closure stated that apart from the renewing of between seven and eight hundred of grace of God, temperance legislation, them during the period 1895 to 1907. although important, was ultimately The vehicle Meyer used for his ‘Vigi- in vain.37 Temperance, for Meyer, was lance work’, as it was called, was the a result of grace rather than law. His Central South London Free Church political faith was always distinctively Council, which was acknowledged to evangelical. be ‘practically Christ Church’.40 Mey- er and his associates worked hard to achieve a changed moral environment. III Social Purity The massive battle for social pu- Another of Meyer’s campaigns con- rity took place on three fronts, two of cerned what was called social purity. which involved pressure groups. First, In the 1860s three Contagious Diseas- Meyer’s team of vigilantes, called the es Acts passed into British law, aimed Christian Stalwarts, systematically col- at containing venereal disease through lected facts, and gave evidence at trials medical checks on prostitutes. By the when brothel‑owners were prosecuted. 1880s these Acts had been repealed, This work was a drain on Meyer’s re- after a concerted campaign. The argu- sources, since the finance came largely ment of campaigners such as Josephine from him. His helpers were apparently Butler (a cousin of C.M. Birrell, min- ‘very inadequately remunerated’. ister of Pembroke (Baptist) Chapel, Detailed records were kept of cases Liverpool, where Meyer had been as- in preparation for submissions to lo- sistant) was that women were being cal magistrates. For example, at one targeted while the government was brothel a woman was seen to enter turning a blind eye to the sexual immo- with twenty-three different men be- 38 rality of men—the double standard. tween seven and twelve at night. Infor- The 1880s saw a ‘social purity move- mation was passed to the police, and ment’, as it came to be known, becom- constables who rendered Meyer effi- ing increasingly influential in matters cient service in the fight against pros- of public sexual morality in Britain. titution were recommended, by Meyer, Prosecutions were brought against, on to Scotland Yard for promotion.41 average, 1,200 brothels each year from 1885 to 1914.’39 When Meyer went to tution and Victorian Social Reform (London: Croom Helm, 1980), 28-9. 37 Free Church Year Book (London: NCEFC, 40 Read, ed., Christ Church Jubilee Book, 30; 1904), 33. Free Church Year Book (London: National Coun- 38 For Butler see Lisa S. Nolland, A Victorian cil of Evangelical Free Churches, 1908), 179; Feminist Christian: Josephine Butler, the Prosti- Turner interview, Booth Collection, B271, 95. tutes and God. (Carlisle: Paternoster, 2004). 41 The Times, 11 May 1907, 6; Free Church 39 For background, see Bebbington, Noncon- Year Book (London: NCEFC, 1908), 179; Free formist Conscience, 38-42; P. McHugh, Prosti- Church Year Book (London: NCEFC, 1910), 167. 300 Ian Randall

Meyer also worked for sympa- this book, which he said was ‘For Men thetic council members in Lambeth Only’, he warned against the ‘lonely and Southwark, and attempted along- sin’ of masturbation and argued that side that to mobilise the population sexual continence produced ‘vivac- at large. Residents were exhorted to ity, muscular strength, manliness and ‘make it hot for the houses of ill‑fame’ daring’ because the unexpended vital and to boycott shops with indecent power was reabsorbed in the blood. displays.42 Finally, Meyer encouraged Regardless of any biological proof, rescue work. Members of his staff, like Meyer discerned a spiritual link be- Sister Margaret, who opened her home tween moral and physical fitness. The for women each night—in fact from remedies Meyer suggested for sexual one until three in the morning—and incontinence included sport, exercise brought some to Christ Church, were and a hard bed.44 key to the rescue operation. One pros- Meyer and other purity lecturers titute who came to hear Meyer preach directed much of their teaching to was so taken with the sermon that she men, but Meyer was also concerned said to Sister Margaret after the serv- to influence the conduct of women. ice: ‘Ain’t he lovely: he wouldn’t con- His dream was of women, particularly demn you!’43 working‑class women, as ‘visions of For Sister Margaret it was danger- the Madonna’.45 In 1910 he condemned ous work. On several occasions she was suggestive cinematographs and the physically assaulted by gangs. Christ ‘tons of filthy literature’ which were Church persisted, however, in trying threatening an epidemic of nastiness. to help women in need. Meyer set up He managed, in the following year, to a ‘Society for Befriending the Unmar- force a dance about Adam and Eve, ried Mother and Child’. Two thousand ‘The Dawn of Love’, off the London children were helped, some through ‘F. Palladium stage, on the grounds of its B. Meyer’s Children’s Home’ in Leyton- indecency.46 The White Slave Bill of stone. The hope of salvation moulded 1912 was a response to worries that Meyer’s social action. London was becoming an international Arising from his grass‑roots efforts clearing house for prostitutes. At a on behalf of social purity, Meyer devot- meeting of Anglican, Free Church and ed energy to this issue as a lecturer, Jewish leaders, Meyer supported the writer and national protagonist. Most 1912 Bill and contended that the au- of Meyer’s books were devotional in thorities needed powers to deal with character, but he also took up social is- stylish as well as ordinary brothels.47 sues. His book, A Holy Temple (1901), When it came to suppressing sexual is probably typical of his addresses. In

44 F.B. Meyer, A Holy Temple (London: S. W. 42 E.J. Bristow, Vice and Vigilance: Purity Partridge, [1901]), 4, 9, 15. Movements in Britain since 1700 (Dublin: Gill 45 Meyer, Reveries and Realities, 88, 91. & Macmillan, 1977), 167 Street, Meyer, 111; 46 The Times, 7 October 1910, 4; Bristow, Vice Cox, Lambeth, 1870-1930, 153. and Vigilance, 215. 43 Fullerton, Meyer, 151-3; Read, ed., Christ 47 The Times, 7 October 1912, 2; Bebbington, Church Jubilee Book, 30. Nonconformist Conscience, 45. Incarnating the Gospel 301 wrongdoing, Meyer’s spiritual ardour individual relationship with God, al- was intense and his methods rigorous. though the gospel should also cleanse Meyer was not unusual in his stress society of sexual sin. on social purity. What was striking was his mobilisation of a local church to im- plement his policies. Meyer’s achieve- IV The Education Debate ments in closing brothels drew wide- The Conservative government’s Educa- spread admiration, for example, from tion Bill of 1902 drew Meyer into bit- the Archbishop of Canterbury, Randall ter political controversy. It proposed Davidson, and in some quarters it was to allow aid from the general rates the facet of Meyer which was best to schools which were under church known.48 rather than public control and in which Why did Meyer work with such religious tests ensured that only An- ferocity on behalf of this cause? His glicans could be appointed as head commitment to personal holiness was teachers. Nonconformists saw this as offended by ‘illicit intercourse’ which an essentially religious rather than a he pictured in Holy Temple as a cancer. political question. When the Bill be- Because personal spirituality was cen- came the Education Act, in 1903, a tral to Meyer’s vision, he was inclined movement of ‘passive resistance’ be- to enforce his standards more thor- gan, in which Nonconformist objectors oughly than some other social purity deducted from their rate payments an advocates who were not immersed in amount (normally 3d to 6d in the £) the holiness movement. Also, although which they estimated was for Church he did give positive teaching on mar- schools.52 John Clifford was the leader riage, he stated in Holy Temple that if of the crusade. marriage was used simply to indulge At first Meyer was reluctant to passion, offspring could be ‘puny and support passive resistance, since he sickly’.49 feared the education crisis would re- Finally, Meyer was fearful about new old feuds between the Established the ‘wreckage’ being done to manhood and Free Churches. He tried to fulfil a by the activities of prostitutes, the reconciling role through discussions 50 ‘siren‑sisters’. His recipe for victory involving five Anglican bishops, key was a simple one. ‘Pledge yourself to Nonconformists, and his Keswick col- God’, he advised young men, ‘in all league H.W. Webb‑Peploe, a supporter 51 purity and chastity’. Sexual failure of the Bill.53 The attempt at mediation would finally be overcome only through

52 G.I.T. Machin, Politics and the Churches in 48 The Times, 22 June 1907, 12; E. H. Jeffs, Great Britain, 1869-1921 (Oxford: Clarendon Princes of the Modern Pulpit (London: Sampson Press, 1987), 262; J E B Munson, ‘ A Study of Low, 1931), 114. Nonconformity in Edwardian England as Re- 49 Meyer, A Holy Temple, 10, 11, 23. vealed in the Passive Resistance Movement 50 The Times, 4 January 1915, 9; 13 October against the 1902 Education Acts’, University 1915, 9; 12 November 1915, 9. of Oxford D Phil (1973), 126, 147-9, 210. 51 F.B. Meyer, The Soul’s Ascent (London: H 53 BW, 15 May 1902, 113. Munson, ‘Passive Marshall & Son, 1901), 42. Resistance Movement’, 166. 302 Ian Randall was abortive and Meyer’s convictions had been able to stand ‘with the Non- began to become firmer. He had not conformists of every age in protest previously been known as a ‘political against wrong’.56 As far as Meyer was parson’ and he therefore amazed a concerned, this was the time for Non- meeting of London church leaders in conformists to rise up against their June 1902 by denouncing the govern- persecutors. He formulated a scheme ment’s policy on education as absurd in the autumn of 1903 to gain power and retrograde.54 in the sphere of local government in By the autumn of 1902 Meyer had order to nullify the Act. Although this decided that passive resistance was failed, Meyer pursued his cause else- legitimate. Explaining his thinking, where. Considerable controversy broke Meyer said that his instincts had been out in The Times in April 1904 over al- to resist the Church rate, and he had legations by Meyer that Nonconformist been convinced by discovering, on re- children in village schools were suffer- cent international tours, that the ising discrimination. Meyer highlighted sue was regarded in other countries one case in which, he said, a child had as ‘a great fight for freedom’. He was been caned because of the stance made now sure that religious liberty was at by the child’s (Nonconformist) parents stake and that Free Churchmen were on education.57 justified in civil disobedience, although Non‑payment of his own rates gave they should not be ‘threatening or Meyer another opportunity for effec- truculent’.55 The struggle was, in Mey- tive publicity. He had rented a house er’s eyes, a spiritual one. near Christ Church specifically in - or The first prosecutions of passive der to be liable for rates so that he resisters took place in the spring of could refuse to pay them; in September 1903. In April, Meyer promised that 1904 he made a well-orchestrated ap- Nonconformists would lobby Liberal pearance before the magistrates as a MPs (Conservatives were unsympa- passive resister. Meyer was the Presi- thetic) and would organise themselves dent of the Free Church Council that in a campaign, but he believed that year and therefore received consider- 58 they would be overpowered in Par- able press coverage. Speaking to his liament and would have ‘to suffer, to cheering supporters beforehand, Meyer refuse, to resist to the uttermost’. Mey- explained, somewhat ingenuously, that er gave some attention to constructive in terms of popularity he had nothing educational proposals but more energy to gain by his gesture, but that he had to fuelling indignation. John Clifford to do everything possible ‘to save the and Meyer were prominent in leading 140,000 people in a demonstration in 56 BW, 23 April 1903, 32; 28 May 1903, 164. Hyde Park in London against the Act. Letter from Meyer to J. Mursell, 19 June 1903, In June 1903 Meyer wrote that he quoted in Fullerton, Meyer, 115. 57 The Brixton Free Press, 6 November 1903, 4-5; The Times, 18 April 1904, 12; 28 April 54 CW, 12 June 1902, 3. 1904, 10. 55 The interview with Meyer is in BW, 30 Oc- 58 CW, 8 September 1904, 14; 15 September tober 1902, 59. 1904, 14. Incarnating the Gospel 303 children of England from the influence at political meetings, Meyer was tell- of Romanism and High Anglicanism’. ing readers in The Christian, which was Meyer attempted to continue the re- widely read in Keswick circles, that it ligious theme in court, with a speech did not really matter which party won about Catholic beliefs regarding tran- the election as long as ‘Righteousness, substantiation and the confessional Peace and Goodwill’ were established. being advocated in schools. This pro- The Keswick constituency was un- voked the magistrate to interrupt three derstandably confused. Significant times, telling Meyer to keep to the le- numbers of Meyer’s Keswick support- gal point.59 For Meyer, however, the law ers, many of them Anglicans, felt alien- existed to right wrongs, and he insist- ated and stopped buying his books.62 ed that he was in court because Free Meyer admitted that following his West Church people were being wronged. Country tour he had heard of many Meyer’s political agenda was dictated evangelical Anglican clergymen turn- by his basic religious principles. ing against him, though he maintained Opposition to the Education Act that he had never spoken unkindly of gave Nonconformists the motivation to the Church.63 This was special plead- fight for the return of the Liberals in ing. In 1904 Meyer had described the the 1906 British general election. Free evangelical party in the Church of Church voters were no longer neces- England as narrow, contrasting this sarily Liberal (as had been almost al- with the ‘free air breathed by Noncon- ways the case earlier), but many now formists’.64 Yet Meyer functioned as 60 rallied to the Liberal cause. a bridge between Anglicans and Non- Meyer’s party political activity conformists and between other‑worldly reached a peak in this period. His con- and socially committed evangelicals. tribution to the election campaign was Meyer believed that in the educa- an eventful motor car tour of the West tion campaign he was not fighting a Country in early 1906 during which, political battle so much as opposing under the guise of talking about moral Roman Catholic and high Anglican issues, he adopted a fairly militant po- influences—‘Rome and Ritualism’.65 litical style. One of the stories Meyer Keswick evangelicals agreed with his enjoyed telling was of a man who had theology, even if they might not have been a Liberal but suffered a fall and wanted to be tainted by his politics. cracked his skull, after which he be- In 1907 Meyer was claiming, in con- came a Conservative.61 At the same ciliatory style, that he had not allowed time as he was ridiculing the Tories party politics to enter the pulpit. Even Meyer’s overtly political audiences ap- 59 BW, 15 September 1904, 533, 539. plauded his ‘consecration to his work 60 BW, 18 July 1901, 319; D.A. Hamer, Liber- al Politics in the Age of Gladstone and Rosebery (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), 311. 62 The Christian [C], 4 January 1906, 11. 61 The Baptist Times, 12 January 1906, 30; 63 CW, 1 February 1906, 5. E.H. Jeffs, Press, Preachers and Politicians: 64 BW, 17 March 1904, 611. Reminiscences: 1874 to 1932 (London: Inde- 65 Free Church Year Book (London: NCEFC, pendent Press, 1933), 116. 1904), 24-5. 304 Ian Randall of evangelisation’.66 Even at his most Under Meyer’s leadership as Presi- robustly political Meyer was funda- dent, the Free Church Council launched mentally an evangelist. proposals for national education and formulated tactics to be employed in the next election. The National Council V The Free Church Council meetings were, as The British Weekly Local Free Church Councils multiplied saw it, becoming like a Parliament of in England in the 1890s, with social the Free Churches.69 Although Meyer affairs as one of their central con- relished this aspect of Free Church cerns. From 1896, when the National Council gatherings, what he high- Council was formed, political issues lighted was something different. There became more prominent. The Council was, he said, a spiritual glow which became the voice of the Nonconform- reminded him of Keswick or Moody’s ist Conscience, calling for an infusion meetings at Northfield.70 Where that of politics with religion. The educa- inner quality was present, the political tion debate heightened the Council’s consequences would be worthwhile. political profile. Meyer’s presidential In 1907 the Council was able (large- address to the Council in 1904, on the ly through the mediation of Thomas duty of the Free Churches, was generally recognised as ‘one of the strongest Law, the Council Secretary) to prevail pronouncements ever given from the on Meyer to give his full time to the chair of the National Council’. organisation. The Council had worked Meyer’s targets included, naturally, hard for, and contributed towards, the the government’s educational stance, landslide election victory of the Liber- but also Britain’s foreign policy, and als in 1906. But the new government the timidity of magistrates in dealing found it hard to deliver what the Free with publicans. After Meyer’s tirade Church constituency wanted on issues the highly charged atmosphere was like education and temperance. Meyer relieved only by the civic welcome.67 felt that government proposals met the Meyer was subsequently questioned needs of Anglicans, Roman Catholics, about charges that the Free Church Jews and Nonconformists, but he be- Council was becoming too political came aware that the House of Lords and replied: ‘I cannot understand that was the real problem, with its opposi- criticism.’ He lamented that Britain no longer throbbed ‘with the general impulses that responded to [William] Book (London: NCEFC, 1904), 26; D.W. Beb- bington, ‘Gladstone and the Baptists’, BQ, Vol. Gladstone’s moral appeals’, thus in- 26, No. 5 (1976), 224-39; D.W. Bebbington, dicating his view of Gladstone as the ‘ Gladstone and the Nonconformists: A Re- archetypal godly politician.68 ligious Affinity in Politics’, in D. Baker, ed., Church, Society and Politics (Oxford: Blackwell, 1976), 369-82. 66 The Times, 22 June 1907, 12; Jeffs, Press, 69 BW, 10 March 1904, 576; E.K.H. Jordan, Preachers and Politicians, 116. Free Church Unity: A History of the Free Church 67 BW, 10 March 1904, 576; Free Church Year Council Movement, 1896-1941 (London: Lut- Book (London: NCEFC, 1904), 26-7. terworth Press, 1955), 93. 68 BW, 17 March 1904, 611; Free Church Year 70 BW, 17 March 1904, 611. Incarnating the Gospel 305 tion to Liberal legislation.71 itual source.74 As a result the political enthusiasm Thomas Law, who had entered the of the Free Church Councils soon be- political fray as Secretary of the Free gan to wane. Meyer was in touch with Church Council, committed suicide the new, less political mood. As early while in a state of depression, and as March 1906 he asserted that it was Meyer was invited by the General Com- clear to him that a ‘balance must be mittee of the Council, meeting on 7 maintained between the spiritualities October 1910, to accept the Honorary and the temporalities’. Meyer, howev- Secretaryship. He seemed to be the er, was not swinging from one extreme man for the hour. to the other. His position was a centrist Meyer was known as an ardent Lib- one. The Christian World rightly recog- eral, but one who would put the reli- nised Meyer’s influence in countering gious side first. In his personal mani- the ‘Plymouth Brethren limitation of festo, Meyer intimated that he would religion to purely spiritual exercises’.72 tighten the Council’s machinery, re- Throughout the period 1907‑9, in store its spiritual priorities, and co‑op- which Meyer was the itinerant over- erate with the established Church in seer of the Free Churches, he advo- seeking moral and spiritual change.75 cated various causes. He urged sup- The job gave Meyer a unique opportu- port for Progressive candidates in nity to combine his skills as a manager, London Council elections, told the Free an evangelist, a social reformer and an Churches in 1908 to be concerned not ecclesiastical unifier. only with soup‑tickets but also with One immediate task for Meyer was justice, and, in an address in 1909 on to prepare for the General Election ‘The Free Churches and Politics’, ar- which was looming. He carefully ex- gued for action over women’s wages plained that the Council was not allied and housing conditions where people to any political party and that although were living ‘like pigs in a sty’.73 But their hopes presently lay with the Lib- despite his continued interest in the erals, they would not hesitate to sup- political arena, Meyer was determined port Labour or any other party which that the Council should give attention adopted Free Church objectives.76 The to the maintenance of a high spiritual enthusiastic Liberal commitment ex- tone. His stated mission in this period pressed in 1906, seemed, four years was to lead Free Churches to their spir- later, to be light years away.

71 BW, 22 March 1906, 667; 12 April 1906, 74 BW, 22 March 1906, 667; Free Church Year 11; 4 October 1906, 629. See Bebbington, Non- Book (London: NCEFC, 1907), 82. conformist Conscience, 78 and S. Koss, Noncon- 75 Minutes of the National Free Church Coun- formity in Modern British Politics (London: B.T. cil General Committee, 7 October 1910; BW, 8 Batsford, 1975), 71, 74. September 1910, 539; CW, 13 October 1910, 72 BW, 22 March 1906, 667; CW, 26 April 13; Bebbington, Nonconformist Conscience, 81. 1906, 12. 76 Meyer produced a Council manifesto for 73 CW, 28 February 1907, 21; Free Church the election. See Free Church Council General Year Book (London: NCEFC, 1908), 34; Free Committee Minutes, 28 November 1910. He Church Year Book (London: NCEFC, 1909), 29. added a commentary: CW, 1 December 1910, 5. 306 Ian Randall

Yet politics remained important. His vision was always of Free Meyer’s focus of opposition in 1910 Church spiritual renewal having spe- was the House of Lords, which he cific socio-political repercussions. had described in the previous year as ‘warped by class prejudice’. The Upper Chamber had frustrated the aspira- VI The Issue of Race tions of Nonconformists and it was now In the early twentieth century Meyer essential, Meyer argued, for ‘the will took up issues connected with race. of the people’ to prevail.77 The conflict, His thinking on racial questions con- Meyer insisted, was not part political tained elitism and egalitarianism. An but was about religious liberty. interest in eugenics—an interest quite From 1910 to 1914, when he handed widely shared in the early twentieth over the parliamentary portfolio of the century—led him to argue in Religion Council, Meyer continued to integrate and Race Regeneration for ‘race‑regen- the socio‑political and the spiritual. eration’, to be achieved through fami- Preachers, he said in 1911, should ad- lies with ability having more children. dress issues like women’s low wages There was concern in some circles at since unless ‘sweated people’ received the time that the birth rate in Britain a fair wage they would not worship was declining among the professional with their paymasters and there would classes due to birth control.80 be no revival.78 Meyer believed that there were Meyer took the opportunity of his differences between black and white position among the Free Churches to people: he suggested that black peo- offer pastoral support to political lead- ple were more passionate than whites, ers. In 1911 Ramsay MacDonald, the but his thinking did not imply a belief future Prime Minister, thanked Meyer in white superiority. In fact Meyer de- for his care at a time of bereavement. spised the ‘brutal insolence’ shown to In the same year Meyer was calling for other races by the ‘ordinary globe‑trot- ‘reason, fair play and common‑sense’ ter’ from Britain.81 South Africa gave to prevail in industrial relations, and Meyer the opportunity to fight for for the payment of decent wages, espe- justice for non‑white races, begin- cially for women. Relief for the miners ning with the Chinese. South African after their 1912 strike, correspondence mine‑owners, who badly needed labour, with Herbert Asquith, the Prime Min- imported thousands of Chinese in con- ister, about the education issue, and ditions of virtual slavery. dealings with the Colonial Secretary were some matters which occupied Meyer in 1911‑13.79 to Meyer, 1 March 1912: M. S. Asquith 13, 62, 64: Bodleian Library, Oxford. 80 F.B. Meyer, Religion and Race Regeneration 77 CW, 9 December 1909, 3. (London: New Tracts for the Times, 1912), 11, 78 BW, 28 September 1911, 618. The Free 16; G.R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficien- Church Chronicle, Vol. 13, No. 153 (1911), 179. cy (Oxford: Blackwell, 1971), 60-1. 79 The Free Church Chronicle, Vol. 13, No. 81 The Times, 22 September 1911, 6; F.B. 153 (1911), 179. The Times, 9 April 1912, 6. Meyer, Friendly Counsels (London: Horace Meyer to Asquith, 27 February 1912; Asquith Marshall & Son, 1901), 37. Incarnating the Gospel 307

Feelings about this ran high in Brit- experience valuable in the Indian ‘pas- ain during 1904. Some British work- sive resistance’ campaign. ers felt cheated of jobs, but Meyer and Meyer was delighted to be able to other Nonconformists saw the treat- help those whom he saw as following ment of the Chinese as a moral wrong. in the steps of the English passive re- Meyer spoke out strongly. In outlining sisters.84 Gandhi was deeply religious, his policy if he were in charge in South although not a Christian, and Meyer’s Africa, Meyer said no‑one should be al- belief in 1912 was that religion was or lowed to call coloured people ‘niggers’. at least could be the means of bring- The term, he said, was damnable.82 ing a new kinship to the world.85 A Meyer spent a winter in South Af- common concern for spirituality could rica in 1908, largely speaking at ho- unite races. liness gatherings. He was appalled In 1911 a proposed fight at Earl’s by the South African government’s Court between an American, Jack John- policies which, he believed, cast ‘an son (the first black man to take a world ominous shadow on the future rela- boxing title), and a British boxer, Bom- tions between the white, native and bardier Wells, brought Meyer into a coloured races’. When the native races controversy involving the issue of race. were ‘Christianised and educated’, said Initially, on 14 September 1911, Meyer Meyer, comparison between them and objected to the prize‑fight as a ‘degrad- whites was wholly in their favour. In ing spectacle’. Later he asserted that the context of white aggression he sug- the match was being regarded as a gested there should be a forum giving ‘decisive test in the matter of racial Africans a voice, though with whites superiority’. retaining ‘the right to utter the final This became a major theme. Meyer’s word’.83 view was that those who were keen on This was very radical—too radi- the contest—10,000 had booked seats cal—for conservative white opinion, at Earl’s Court for 2 October to see the but it interested Gandhi, who was in fight—belonged to a ‘past age’.86 Evi- South Africa. In Johannesburg Meyer was introduced to Gandhi, recognis- ing in him an important leader in the 84 BW, 16 July 1908, 358; Free Church Year struggle for Indian rights. They talked Book (London: NCEFC, 1909), 90; M.K. Gan- about spiritual and political issues and dhi, Christian Missions (Ahmadabad, India: Navajivan, 1941), 284. J.D. Hunt, in Gandhi Meyer’s comment was that he had nev- and the Nonconformists (New Delhi: Promilla er met a man so sincere. Gandhi, for & Co., 1986), 52-3, 126-7, concludes that pas- his part, found Meyer’s influence and sive resistance in England was an important model for Gandhi, although Gandhi appears to have claimed that the idea of passive resist- 82 BW, 25 February 1904, 529; 3 May 1906, ance as a political platform originated with 80. See H. Pelling, Social Geography of Brit- him, aided by Tolstoy: R. Iyer, The Moral and ish Elections, 1885-1910 (London: Macmillan, Political Writings of Mahantma Gandhi, Vol. 3 1967), 20, and Bebbington, Nonconformist Con- (Oxford: Clarendon, 1987), 25. science, 111. 85 Meyer, Race-Regeneration, 60-2. 83 F.B. Meyer, A Winter in South Africa (Lon- 86 CW, 14 September 1911, 16; The Times, don: NCEFC, 1908), 152, 179, 201. 18 September 1911, 5; 22 September 1911, 6. 308 Ian Randall dence was produced by Meyer show- Meyer was denounced as a meddler, ing that in a previous fight Johnson had a Puritan and a kill‑joy. Anything sa- battered his (white) opponent’s head vouring of persecution was, of course, out of all recognition and as a result stimulus to Meyer. His conviction was black people in New York were brutally that he must ‘fight to a finish’.89 treated by infuriated whites. In the event, the finish came be- The promoter of the Earl’s Court cause local freeholders, fearing the contest, John White, was at first dis- fight might endanger the Earl’s Court missive of Meyer. Within the boxing licence and thus adversely affect their world Meyer’s intervention was seen property values, obtained an injunction as the action of a crank. On 22 Sep- restraining the contest organisers. Mr tember, however, White attempted, un- Justice Lush, who granted the injunc- successfully, to open negotiations with tion in the High Court, was a mem- Meyer, whose week‑long campaign had ber of Regent’s Park Chapel. Winston won him influential supporters includ- Churchill, who was then the Home Sec- ing Randall Davidson (who found the retary, pronounced that in any case the fight repellent), twenty Anglican bish- fight was ‘unsporting’ and should not ops, Arthur Conan Doyle and Ramsay take place. ‘Mr Meyer’s triumph’, as it 87 MacDonald. was hailed, resulted in some reaction At this stage the wider boxing fra- against prize‑fighting. Jack Johnson ternity decided that Meyer was not a himself retired from the ring.90 crank whom they could dismiss, and Meyer himself was jubilant, con- instead he began to be portrayed as a vinced that God had been in his vic- representative of the ‘violent wing’ of tory. Indeed he was so buoyant that he 88 the opposition to the match. Meyer’s teased Johnson, who had spoken about battle became known in the press as the ‘Bishop Meyer’, saying that, after a ‘Stop the Fight’ campaign. Violent atti- life-time devoted to the Free Churches tudes were not confined to one camp. being called a bishop was worse than Regent’s Park Chapel, which at the ‘the choicest term of the boxing ring’.91 time was the church where Meyer was Nonconformity had joined hands with minister, was surrounded by a mob and others to act, even if briefly, as the conscience of the nation on an issue con- For an account of this episode, see S. Mews, nected with race. ‘Puritanicalism, Sport and Race: A Symbolic Crusade of 1911’, in G.J. Cuming and D. Baker, eds., Popular Belief and Practice (Cambridge: VII Peace and War Cambridge University Press, 1972), 303-31. The First World War was a devastating 87 The Times, 22 September 1911, 6; CW, 21 September 1911, 1; 28 September 1911, 2. 88 The Daily Telegraph, 21 September 1911, 89 The Times, 20 September 1911, 4; 22 Sep- 10. For the reaction of the boxing world in tember 1911, 6; CW, 21 September 1911, 10; Boxing and The Sportsman see J.P. Green, The Daily News, 22 September 1911, 5. ‘Boxing and the “Colour Question” in Edward- 90 CW, 28 September 1911, 2; The Times, 29 ian Britain: The “White Problem” of 1911’, The September 1911, 7; CW, 5 October 1911, 1. International Journal of the History of Sport, Vol. 91 The Times, 20 October 1911, 10; Fullerton, 5, No. 1 (1988), 115-19. Meyer, 122. Incarnating the Gospel 309 blow for many who had drunk deeply October 1914, Meyer was openly sup- at the wells of Victorian optimism. Pri- porting the government’s declaration or to the First World War, Meyer was of war. In the following month, at an very wary of British military strength. influential Free Church meeting held World peace and disarmament were in the City Temple, Meyer spoke in his first objectives, although he did ap- favour of committing Nonconformity plaud the British victory at Khartoum to the conflict.95 Soon the matter had in 1898.92 During the Boer War he become, in Meyer’s mind, distinctly tended towards the pro‑Boer position. religious. The hearts of the Germans Free Churchmen were divided in were so full of hatred, he claimed, that their response to the Boer War, and their prayers—and by implication their Meyer’s views were at variance with military power—could not prevail. those of many Free Church leaders. The war was, he suggested, the Nevertheless, he produced, in 1901, ‘clearest, cleanest and most Christian a peace manifesto from London Free war’ Britain had fought. Increasingly, Church ministers which attempted to Meyer perceived the struggle as a express a consensus opinion.93 clash of spiritual forces. Britain, there- For a time, in 1911, Meyer was fore, had no option but to fight in the caught up in the international peace cause of humanity and of God.96 process. As a representative of the Meyer’s personal contribution to the Free Churches, he gave his weight to war concentrated in the first place—in the Anglo‑American Treaty of Arbi- line with his existing concerns—on tration, which involved contacts with the sexual purity of military person- Asquith and with President Taft, to nel. He was shocked by a report about whom he presented an illuminated ad- the ‘drunkenness, debauchery and dress from the Free Churches and the indecency’ of soldiers and sailors in Peace Societies. Taft told Meyer that London, and complained to The Times he valued the support of religious opin- in January 1915 that the police and 94 ion in the cause of peace. military authorities were apparently At this stage Meyer identified with taking no action. A patriotic corre- the anti‑militaristic attitude prevail- spondent described Meyer’s charges ing among Baptists and other Noncon- as scandalous and challenged him to formists. But he was also one of those prove them.97 who swung with the pendulum when the First World War commenced. By 1 95 CW, 1 October 1914, 4. This was a reply to German theologians. K.W. Clements, in 92 F.B. Meyer, ed., The Free Churchman, Vol. ‘Baptists and the Outbreak of the First World 1 (1898), 145. War’, BQ, Vol. 26, No. 2 (1975), documents the 93 BW, 1 August 1901, 373; Street, Meyer, sudden change in attitude displayed by Bap- 154. For Free Church views see BW, 18 July tists—see 77, 82. 1901, 319; 19 September 1901, 503. The 96 BW, 28 January 1915, 349; F.B. Meyer, background is in Bebbington, Nonconformist Our Sister Death (London: NCEFC, 1915), 8; Conscience, 121-4. The Times, 15 December 1915, 11. 94 The Times, 20 March 1911, 6; 24 March 97 The Times, 4 January 1915, 9; 6 January 1911, 6; 19 June 1911, 29. 1915, 9; 15 December 1915, 11. 310 Ian Randall

Practical response was Meyer’s Meyer could pray, at Christ Church, for next move. First he increased the pres- a crowning victory and for Allied sol- sure over the temperance issue by sug- diers to trap submarines and ‘counter- gesting a ‘King’s Pledge Sunday’ when work the enemy’.101 Britain’s enemies the King’s abstinence could be held up were God’s enemies. In all its aspects as an example to be followed from a the war was, and must remain, a holy patriotic point of view.98 Then Meyer one. managed to make the YMCA in Water- While supporting the war, Meyer loo Road available as accommodation was also working for the rights of con- for soldiers visiting London who might scientious objectors (COs). This was be exposed to ‘serious moral dangers’. not inconsistent, since he held that all In November 1915 he was appealing oppression was wrong, whether Ger- to the public for funds to extend the man or British. Conscience, for Meyer, premises since demand was so great. was paramount. Following the intro- Throughout the war Meyer contin- duction of conscription, in 1916, tri- ued to monitor the moral state of sol- bunals began to consider the cases of diers, many of whom, he asserted in nearly 14,000 conscientious objectors. 1917, hardly dared to go into parts of Meyer soon became uneasy about London because of the allurement of the way some tribunals were treat- prostitutes.99 Meyer also saw himself ing COs. On 5 May 1916 he addressed as supporting the war effort by his pro- the Quaker Meeting for Sufferings on duction of the Service Messenger which, the issue as part of an attempt to mo- he claimed in 1917, was the only Chris- bilise protest.102 By June 1916, 1,200 tian paper for servicemen and gave non‑combatant men were in custody them the gospel in readable form. The and thirty‑four out of a group sent to financing of the paper proved, howev- France had been sentenced to death for er, to be a headache for Meyer and the resisting military orders. Meyer was need to attract funds may have forced approached by the No‑Conscription him to dilute the paper’s content to Fellowship (NCF) and he went to see ‘love and comfort and Christian cheer’ the prisoners in France.103 and finally to a message which would Meyer relayed Free Church concerns keep the soldiers smiling.100 Meyer was in touch with the feel- 101 BW, 6 May 1915, 117; 10 February 1916, ings of the troops since Christ Church 358; 20 April 1916, 49. had 760 men in active service. In 1916 102 The Tribunal, 20 April 1916, 2; Minutes of the Meeting for Sufferings, 5 May 1916. This Meeting is the Standing Representative 98 The Times, 13 April 1915, 4. See also S. Body of Quakers. See also J. Rae, Conscience Mews, ‘Drink and Disestablishment in the and Politics (London: Oxford University Press, First World War’, in D. Baker, ed., The Church 1970), 130. in Town and Countryside (Oxford: Blackwell, 103 The Times, 22 June 1916, 7; H.W. Peet, 1979), 469. ‘The Men Sentenced to Death’, in Troublesome 99 The Times, 12 November 1915, 9; 25 No- People (London: NCF, [1940]), 28-9; J. Vella- vember 1915, 9; 9 February 1917, 7. cott, Bertrand Russell and the Pacifists in the 100 LF, 28 March 1917, 318; 16 May 1917, First World War (Brighton: Harvester, 1980), 525; 8 August 1917, 879. 74. Incarnating the Gospel 311 to Asquith and Lord Kitchener, Secre- Prophet’ of a future spirit of peace.106 tary of War, and Kitchener promised He had fought a spiritual war for men Meyer that no CO would be ill‑treated. whose conscience would not allow Death sentences were not carried out. them to fight a worldly one. Meyer was proclaiming Britain’s past indebtedness to those who had steered by the pole star of conscience and he VIII Socialism and the Social advocated absolute exemption from ci- Gospel vilian as well as military service, an op- Although much of Meyer’s socio-po- tion which was available but was grant- litical activity was social rather than ed by tribunals in only 350 cases.104 He directly political, it is difficult to draw also proposed to the NCF a scheme— a clear boundary line. Meyer had a uto- backed by Catherine Marshall, the NCF pian view of politics as an effort to ‘il- Honorary Secretary—to help both ‘ab- luminate the public mind with the ide- solutists’, who demanded total exemp- als of Christ’s kingdom’, but he never tion, and ‘alternativists’, who would pinned his hopes entirely on one po- accept non‑combatant work. litical system. His goal was to see the Marshall urged on Meyer the need mass of the people ‘hail the religion of for help from Nonconformists over Jesus Christ’, which he believed could ‘the principle of respect for freedom of happen as the Christian faith was conscience’. Meyer was willing to help linked with ‘liberty and righteousness and the climax of his work for COs was and truth’.107 his booklet on pacifism, The Majesty of For much of his career Meyer hap- Conscience, published in 1917. It seems pily supported the Liberal Party. For likely that he used material supplied by a time, however, in the 1890s and for Bertrand Russell, although the book a few years afterwards, he expressed 105 has Meyer’s stamp. NCF leaders had more radical political views. In 1898 doubts about Meyer (Russell called he supported Fred Smith, an Independ- him a worm), but regarded his booklet ent Labour Party candidate for North as strategic. The conscientious objec- Lambeth, at a time when few Baptists tor, Meyer proclaimed in The Majesty of would have given much credence to Conscience, could be the ‘Apostle and the ILP, and in the following year he was described as ‘practically a Chris- 108 104 The Times, 9 June 1916, 9; 22 June 1916, tian Socialist’. In fact Meyer’s af- 7; 7 July 1916, 10; Sir Wyndham Childs, Epi- finity was with the New Liberalism sodes and Reflections (London: Cassell & Co., 1930), 152-3; M. Ceadel, Pacifism in Britain, 1914-1945: The Defining of a Faith (Oxford: 106 Vellacott, Pacifists, 213; Meyer, Majesty Clarendon Press, 1980), 39; P.R. Dekar, of Conscience, 16, 19. ‘Twentieth-Century British Baptist Conscien- 107 Free Church Year Book (London, 1897), tious Objectors’, BQ, Vol. 35, No. 1 (1993), 38. 159; BT, 27 April 1906, 309. 105 F.B. Meyer, The Majesty of Conscience 108 London Leader, 26 February 1898, 4; (London: National Labour Press, [1917], 5;Ve- Turner interview, Booth Collection, B 271, 91. lacott, Pacifists, 102-3, 213. For material in See W.C.R. Hancock, ‘No Compromise: Non- this section I am indebted to R.A. Rempel of conformity and Politics 1893-1914’, BQ, Vol. McMaster University, Canada. 36, No 2 (1995), 65. 312 Ian Randall which accepted humanitarian collectiv- members of the premillennial circle ism and which stimulated Liberals to with which Meyer was by then associ- take social reform more seriously. He ated were abandoning hope of social aligned himself with some of the radi- progress, he contended that the ‘axi- cal Liberal thinking of this period. The oms of the Labour Party were uttered Christian World, in 1906, discerned an by the Founder of Christianity’ and that evolutionary process in Meyer’s think- to do charitable work without remov- ing over about twelve years.109 ing the root causes of destitution was As we have seen, Meyer’s social inadequate.112 But Meyer’s faith in po- concerns were very much present in litical remedies was always limited. As the 1880s, but it is true that the years he put it in 1914 in The Times, to deal before and immediately after 1906 saw with the external circumstances only, him at his most publicly political. In without the ‘new heart’, was absurd.113 1906 he warned that old party lines Did Meyer, then, espouse a social were becoming blurred, praised Labour gospel? Certainly he argued in 1904 for its concept of the brotherhood of that every great revival of religion is- man and argued that collectivism was sued in social and political reconstruc- looking over the shoulder of individual- tion. He had no sympathy, he insisted, ism.110 A Christian World correspondent with Christians who spoke only of in 1907 spoke of ‘Comrade Meyer’, but heaven while the wrongs of earth were 114 this was to overstate Meyer’s sympa- not redressed. thy for socialism. Yet Meyer admitted For evangelicals like Meyer, the so- two years later, in 1909, that because cial gospel was the application of the of what he had said in 1906-7 he had gospel to society. Meyer saw this social fallen from his position as ‘a sort of dimension as the concomitant of evan- sky‑pilot’, who was confined solely to gelism. The social gospel had been spiritual matters. He was unrepentant clearly articulated by John Clifford (as and used the common argument that early as 1888), but Meyer later became the causes rather than the cases (the a prominent advocate. Baptists, as- symptoms) demanded attention.111 serted Meyer in an address given to His willingness to continue to af- the Baptist Union autumn assembly at firm aspects of the Labour agenda is Huddersfield in 1906, shared with so- seen by the fact that his 1917 book on pacifism was published by the National 112 Free Church Year Book (London: NCEFC, Labour Press. Even in the 1920s, when 1920), 14; F.B. Meyer, The Church and After- War Problems (London: National Free Church Council, [1922]), 5. 109 CW, 26 April 1906, 11. See H.V. Emy, 113 The Times, 29 April 1914, 6. Liberals, Radicals and Social Politics, 1892- 114 Free Church Year Book (London: NCEFC, 1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University 1904), 33; BW, 17 March 1904, 611. See D.M. Press, 1973), 117; G.L. Bernstein, Liberalism Thompson, ‘The Emergence of the Noncon- and Liberal Politics in Edwardian England (Lon- formist Social Gospel in England’, in K. Rob- don: Allen & Unwin, 1986), 11,48. bins, ed., Protestant Evangelicalism: Britain, 110 BW, 4 October 1906, 629. Ireland, Germany and America c1750—c1950: 111 CW, 7 February 1907, 24; Free Church Essays in Honour of W.R. Ward (Oxford: Black- Year Book (London: NCEFC, 1909), 30. well, 1990), 255-80. Incarnating the Gospel 313 cialists a desire for peace, for old age and his efforts to reach the point where pensions and for better housing, and he could say ‘yes’ meant active social this would come as the gospel created, involvement. Institutional churches in its own revolutionary way, ‘a king- had, as he put it in 1902, to work night dom of social justice’.115 after night for the neighbourhood. An The kingdom was a key concept. evangelistic church should be an en- Against the background of the com- gine for good, confronting social evils. ing kingdom Meyer hoped to achieve This he sought to do through crea- ‘the redemption of the State’, with tive initiatives in Leicester and in a consequent righting of the wrongs Christ Church, with the prison ministry which made the few rich and the many in Leicester and the massive Brother- poor.116 He saw a historical inevitabil- hood meetings in London as examples. ity about the passing of power from the More widely, he became involved in aristocracy to the middle classes and national and international issues of then to the people.117 temperance, social purity, equality in In 1907 Meyer confessed that some education, race and peace. In some of his previous ideas about the work respects Meyer was seeking to create of the church had been too restricted. the seeds of a new society. He argued Although he always believed that the in 1907 that the agenda of the church pulpit should major on the central must be wide enough to include such doctrines of the faith rather than so- issues as the election of members of cial issues, he was able to rejoice in Parliament as well as the subtle prob- 1908 that the ‘humanitarian side’ of lems of the inner life—to which he 118 the gospel was coming to the fore. gave much attention.119 Meyer attempted to widen the scope of Meyer’s spiritual and conversion- the gospel without losing its essential ist priorities directed him throughout spiritual core. many years of his ministry towards a gospel which called for a personal re- IX Conclusion lationship with Christ and which also F. B. Meyer’s understanding of the applied itself to social wrongs. The social implications of the gospel clari- hoped-for new society, said Meyer in fied during his period at Melbourne 1907, expressed the human quest for Hall, Leicester. Meyer set himself the brotherhood, but with this there must question, in Leicester and in London, be spiritual recognition of the Father- of whether working people could be hood of God and of Jesus Christ as Sav- reached and integrated into church life, iour and ‘Eternal Brother’.120 Meyer’s multi-dimensional social strategy was 115 BW, 4 October 1906, 611, 630. See D.M. spiritually grounded and evangelisti- Thompson, ‘John Clifford’s Social Gospel’, BQ, cally shaped. It challenges any ap- Vol. 31, No. 5 (1986), 204. proach which draws back from the task 116 BW, 26 April 1906, 70. of incarnating the gospel. 117 BW, 4 October 1906, 629. 118 CW, 7 February 1907, 24; BW, 1 June 1905, 195; Free Church Year Book (London: 119 CW, 7 February 1907, 24. NCEFC, 1908), 33. 120 CW, 26 September 1907, 6. ERT (2016) 40:4, 314-326 Saved Through Childbearing: An African Feminist Interpretation and Theology

Emiola Nihinlola I Introduction This position is based on the conviction that what is real in human experience ‘Madam, open your mouth, push, and Christian theology ought to speak push with your abdominal muscles to human liberation from oppression, and not your throat. Pu-u-sh, pu- marginalization and poverty. These u-sh, Madam please don’t give up, conditions affect any group of people, don’t fall asleep, save your baby’s and feminist biblical interpretation and life, you will choke him. He is strug- 1 theology ought to be done in the con- gling and working so hard too.’ text of total experience of womanhood This quotation is a part of the mov- including the aspirations, challenges ing testimony of the experience of the and pain. process of a Christian woman while The paper recognizes that some Af- being helped to give birth to a child. ricans think that feminist theology is a Whether by natural process or even by western idea that has no relevance in caesarean section, every woman can Africa. As a matter of fact some Afri- tell the story of the pain involved in can women also support this opinion. childbearing. Childbirth is the core of Maureen O. A. Okeke, one time Chief motherhood, the experience that this Executive Officer of Megaloise in La- paper will examine critically in the gos said: ‘The Nigerian woman is not context of feminist theology. marginalized. Marginalization is a For the purpose of clarification, it thing of the mind.’2 should be stated at this juncture that Contrary to this kind of argument, the author considers feminist theology the author is of the opinion that ap- to be a valid field of Christian study. plication of the principles of libera-

1 Grace Yemi Oladokun, ‘The Birth of life’, 2 Maureen O. A. Okeke, quoted by Bisi Alabi An African Call for Life (Ibadan: Daystar Press, Williams, ‘Maureen’, The Guardian (Lagos), 21 1983), 140-141. August, 2005, 22.

Dr. Ezekiel Emiola Nihinlola, PhD (Nigerian Baptist Theological Seminary), is Associate Professor of Christian Theological Studies specializing in Systematic Theology in the African Context and President of the Nigerian Baptist Theological Seminary, Ogbomoso, Nigeria. He is also Vice Chairman of Association for Christian Theo- logical Education in Africa (ACTEA), and has sixty publications (academic and ministerial books, chapters and journal articles) in Nigeria and beyond. Saved Through Childbearing 315 tion theology to the feminist setting is I would like to corroborate it further needed in Africa because African wom- with my personal ministerial experi- en are facing exploitation. Musimbi R. ence. In my pastoral practice I have A. Kanyoro, a Kenyan feminist cultural seen wives and mothers marginalized hermeneut, asserts, ‘When we look in family lives. Some husbands have critically at our cultures, we know for abandoned their wives (sometimes in- certain that there are cases where our cluding children) for reasons like child- cultures dehumanize woman.’3 She is lessness, having only female children, not alone in this thinking. etc. Many African women are suffering In 1996 twenty seven theologians, and they stand in need of liberation. male and female, from four West Afri- Theology is an interpretative analy- can countries, and over ten Christian sis of the revelation of God in any con- denominations and academic institu- text of human experience. Feminist tions, held a conference in Nigeria to theology is the attempt to interpret the explore the theme, ‘Women, Culture Christian faith from the perspective of and Theological Education’. A part of the experience of suffering and exploi- the communique issued at the end of tation of women. Models and issues of the conference read: concern and interest constitute what is …We have observed that many called the agenda of feminist theology. women in Africa have not been This paper does not make a distinction treated as equals with men in dig- between the intellectual efforts, theo- nity, opportunity and power…, [D] retical concerns and the social/practi- own through the ages women have cal ones. The feminist agenda is wide been regarded as second class citi- and includes: equality of sexes, incor- zens, inferior to men, stereotyped poration of the experience of women into roles of despondency, submis- in theological constructs; dealing with sion and passivity. Women have masculinist bias; women’s rights in the been exploited as sex objects and home, places of work, church and soci- many have looked on them as a nec- ety; violence against woman, involve- essary evil to fulfill men’s sexual ment in state leadership and politics. needs and bear their children. They The paper is written from the have not been expressively included viewpoint of an evangelical heritage. in the power centers and decision- Evangelicals are Protestants who hold making process in church and soci- ‘to the belief in justification by grace ety.4 through faith and the supreme author- 5 This is a very strong witness in support ity of Scripture’. One of the distinct of the need for feminist liberation the- affirmations of evangelicals is the ac- ology in the West African experience. ceptance of the Bible as the true revelation of God. They give the Bible concentrated attention ‘as a guide to 3 Musimbi R. A. Kanyoro, Introducing Femi- nist Cultural Hermeneutics, edited by Mary Grey et al (Cleveland: The Pilgrim Press, 2002), 92. 5 Gabriel Fackre, ‘Evangelical, Evangelical- 4 Protus O. Kemidirim and Mercy A. Oduy- ism’, The Westminster Dictionary of Christian oye, Women, Culture and Theological Education Theology (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1983), (Enugu, Nigeria: WAATI, 1998), 175. 191. 316 Emiola Nihinlola conviction and behaviour.’6 Therefore, and then the immediate context of the to evangelicals the Bible is the first, text, if only briefly. the primary and the most important source for formulating Christian theol- 1. The Historical Background ogy. As the final authority and guide in Christian faith and practice it is used Scholars have adduced various pro- to evaluate all other sources of knowl- posed historical backgrounds for the edge. This is a presupposition of this text. According to the Disciple’s Study little theological exercise. Bible: ‘This text contradicted an early The contention of the paper is that non-biblical idea that women had to while the various agendas of feminist become males in order to be saved or theology are valid, from the viewpoint that sexual relationships and birth are of evangelical understanding as exem- evil, part of the world’s way instead of 7 plified by 1 Timothy 2:15, they are in- God’s.’ Some interpreters think that adequate and so defective if they do not the second idea is the more probable incorporate the primacy of childbear- background, that is, that the writer, the ing (understood as motherhood). This apostle Paul, had in mind those false thesis will be argued with a twofold teachers who forbade people to marry objective—to engage in an interpreta- (mentioned in 4:3). In this case, the tion of 1 Timothy 2:15, and to propose apostle tried to persuade the Ephesian a feminist theology of childbearing in church, through Timothy, not to associ- the African context with particular ref- ate his own instructions with such an erence to Nigeria. idea. Without doubt, however, the text was written in the historical context II An Interpretative Analysis of of a double background—Jewish and 1 Timothy 2:15 Greek. In both cultures, during the first century women had a very low In 1 Timothy 2:15 we find a biblical position. The apostle needed to give revelation that should not be ignored those temporary regulations not to in any serious Christian feminist theo- bring the Christian church into un- logical effort; it states: ‘But women necessary conflict with the prevailing will be saved through childbearing—if cultures. What is more, if the women they continue in faith, love and holi- were allowed a more active role like ness with propriety’ (NIV). What is the teaching and leading a congregation meaning of ‘saved’ and ‘childbearing’ they themselves would be considered in this phrase? How will childbearing loose and immoral.8 ‘save’ women? These are the major questions that this section will attempt to answer. One principle of biblical in- 2. The Immediate Context terpretation is to interpret a text in its In 1 Timothy 2:8-14 the apostle Paul context. Therefore, it is proper for us to gave some guidelines concerning cor- first look at the historical background

7 Disciple’s Study Bible, 1988 ed., 1548. 6 Fakre, ‘Evangelical, Evangelicalism’, 191. 8 The African Bible, 1999 ed., 2007. Saved Through Childbearing 317 porate worship with an emphasis on apparently as debatable and controver- some prayer attitudes of men, and the sial as the agenda of feminist theology dressing and teaching roles of woman. itself. The interpretation will focus on He alluded to the order of creation and the first part of the verse, ‘But women also referred to the historic experience will be saved through childbearing’ and of the fall of humanity. This context it will be done in two stages; the first teaches us at least two things. The is an interpretation of the constituent first is that these instructions were words—but, women, saved, through given against certain socio-cultural and childbearing. Greek and Jewish worship problems The first word is variously translated in the first century. He gave similar as ‘but’ (NIV, NASV, NAB, GNB, NLI, exhortations in some other New Testa- ERV), ‘notwithstanding’ (KJV), ‘never- ment texts (1 Cor 11:5-16; 14:33-35; theless’ (NKJV, ANT), ‘yet’ (RSV, NEB) 1 Peter 3:3-6). In view of the change and ‘so’ (TLB).11 in cultural values, it is reasonable to It is translated from the Greek word argue that the regulations under study (de) which distinguishes ‘a word or lack normative authority for contempo- clause from one preceding’.12 It can rary Christendom. also mean ‘on the other hand’. In the The second lesson is that the guide- text we see it as a conjunction of in- lines were not meant to make a case sight and encouragement. for superiority of male over female in Paul used the ‘but’ to connect the the leadership of public worship. The instructions about worship already giv- apostle himself eloquently and emphat- en (8-14) with the profound spiritual ically declared the breakdown of such revelation that he was about to give barriers in the gospel of Jesus Christ about womanhood (15). According to (Gal 3:28). However, critical objectiv- Alan G. Nute, this verse clearly ‘sug- ity demands that we recognize that he still upheld ‘the universal principle of Press, 1973), 86. 9 female submission to male headship’, 11 Alan G. Nute, ‘The Pastoral Letters’ The in every culture in relation to some is- International Bible Commentary, F. F. Bruce (ed- sues. itor) (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1979), 1477; E. Glenn Hinson, ‘1-2 Timothy and Titus’, The Broadman Bible Commentary, Volume II 3. The Text (Nashville: Broadman, 1971), 316; Stott, The It would be naive to approach this text Message of 1 Timothy and Titus (Nottingham: casually for it has been variously de- InterVarsity, 1996), 87. scribed as a ‘difficult statement’, an 12 Abbreviations for the various Bible Ver- sions: ANT—The Amplified New Testament; ‘ambiguous promise’ and one that is ERV—Easy-to-Read-Version; CV—Contempo- 10 ‘exceedingly obscure’. The text is rary Version; GNB—Good News Bible; KJV— King James Version; (Authorised) Version; NAB—The New American Bible; NASV—New 9 William Barclay, Letters to Timothy, Titus American Standard Version; NEB—The New and Philemon (Edinburgh: The Saint Andrew English Bible; NIV—New International Ver- Press, 1956), 79. sion; NKJV—The New King James Version; 10 John R.W. Stott, The Message of Timothy NLT—New Living Translation; RSV—Revised and Titus (Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Standard Version; TLB—The Living Bible. 318 Emiola Nihinlola gests to the woman that she is not to makes the meaning enigmatic. think that her contribution is of negli- If it is understood as physical salva- gible worth.’13 The phrase under study tion then it refers to ‘woman’s physi- was thus apparently meant to encour- cal safety in childbearing’, against age the women that whereas they were the background of Genesis 3:16.16 If disallowed from playing certain roles it means the physical safekeeping of in the church, they should not be dis- Christian women in childbirth, how couraged as that limitation would not shall we account for many spiritual, hinder the purpose of God for them godly women who have died in the that was meant to be fulfilled through process of childbirth? On the other childbearing. hand if the reference is to a spiritual The second word, rendered women salvation the verse can be spiritual- is also stated as ‘she’ (KJV, NKJV, NEB, ized to mean that women (as well as NAB), ‘woman’ (RSV, GNB) and ‘wom- men) ‘are saved spiritually because of en’ (NA5V, ANT, TLB, NLT, ERV, CV). the most important birth, that of Christ The Greek word (sotheretai) is to be himself’.17 translated as ‘she shall be saved’14 but This interpretation is questionable: interpreted by the context as women Is this a reference to spiritual salvation (plural). It tells us the recipient of the of the soul from sin? How do we rec- promise. The promise is thus applica- oncile that with the overall New Tes- ble to every Christian ‘she’—whether tament message that salvation is by single or married, whether she is giv- grace through faith? (Eph 2:8-9). How ing birth to children physically or not. can the physical work of childbirth pro- A Christian woman who is biologically vide salvation? Does it then mean that barren but is godly, raises and trains faithful women in Christ Jesus who do children for God’s Kingdom can appro- not bear children will not be saved? priate this promise as a bona fide ‘she’. Certainly no. The issue will be consid- It applies to every mother-in-the-Lord. ered again later. We now come to the word ‘saved’ We now come to the word ‘through’ itself. The Greek (sotheretai) means (NIV, RSV, NEB, NAB, NASV, ANT, to save from peril, injury or suffering; GNB, NLT), ‘in’ (KJV, NKJV, ERV), keep from harm, preserve or rescue. or ‘by’ (CV). From the Greek (dia) It is especially used in the New Testa- the preposition can be translated as ment to describe salvation from spiritu- through, by, between.’18 According to al disease and death (Rom 8:24).15 This the Disciple’s Study Bible here ‘through’ means that the word can apply to both does not mean ‘by means of’19 but as physical and spiritual salvation and it in 1 Corinthians 3:15, it means women will be brought (or come) safely 13 William A. Lykins, A Word by Word, Verse through the process of childbearing; by Verse Lexicon of the Greek New Testament, 1 Timothy, 1992, 14. 14 Nute, ‘The Pastoral Letters’, 1477. 16 Lykins, Word by Word, 14. 15 George Ricker Berry, Greek to English In- 17 Disciple’s Study Bible, 1548-1549. terlinear (Iowa Falls, U.S.A.: World Bible Pub- 18 Life Application Bible, 1988 ed., 2190. lishers, Inc., 1981), 542. 19 Lykins, Word by Word, 15. Saved Through Childbearing 319

‘they will be brought safely through of the key words, the phrase will now childbirth.’20 be examined as a whole. The best in- The last word is ‘childbearing’ terpretation of the phrase, ‘saved (NIV, KJV, NKJV, NLT), ‘bearing chil- through childbearing’, appears to be dren’ (RSV), ‘having children’ (GNB, one that will relate the text to the most ERV, CV), ‘motherhood’ (NEB, NAB), immediate reference to how woman ‘being good mothers’ (CV margin), (and man too) fell to the deception of ‘the Birth of the Child’ (NEB margin), Satan and sinned against God (1 Tim ‘the birth of the (divine) Child’ (ANT). 3:14). It is interesting to note that in It is translated from one Greek word the story of the fall (Genesis 3) the (teknogonias)21 and so childbearing three ideas in 1 Tim 2:14-18 also ap- is the best literal rendering. Now we pear: The offspring to be borne by know that childbearing is much more the woman will conquer the serpent, than biological childbirth but includes Satan, the agent of sin (15). She will child nurture for growth. Moreover, in bear the offspring in pain (16a); she view of the virtues of faith, love, holi- will also live as a wife and mother in ness and propriety required, childbear- submission to her husband (16c). ing is not to be considered as a mere When we put these elements of natural exercise but a spiritual respon- physical and spiritual salvation togeth- sibility. This makes the interpretation er, Paul appears to be saying that even as motherhood and being good mothers if women play visible roles in church to be very appropriate. life, motherhood is also a profoundly The definite article before the Greek spiritual role. As it was in the experi- word (tes) provides another perspec- ence of the fall of man, with the prom- tive for our hermeneutical task. Some ise made real in the experience of Mary interpreters explain that the reference who gave birth to Jesus Christ, Chris- is to the birth of a particular child, that tian women should recognize that the is, the birth of the child Jesus. In an- apparently insignificant role of child- cient times it was suggested that the bearing (motherhood) is not only natu- apostle refers here to the birth of Je- ral but spiritual and God will preserve sus Christ through Mary.22 The verse them from death (the consequence of therefore ‘refers to women being saved sin) if they play the role spiritually. The spiritually through the most significant Amplified New Testament paraphrase of birth of all, the incarnation of Christ’.23 the text is perhaps the best commen- Having attempted an interpreta- tary on the verse: tion of the text through the analysis Nevertheless (the sentence put upon women (of pain in motherhood) does 20 Disciple’s Study Bible, 1549. not hinder their (souls’) salvation), 21 David and Pat Alexander, The Lion Hand- and they will be saved (eternally) if book to the Bible (Lion: Oxford: 1973), 619. they continue in faith and love and 22 Lykins, Word by Word, 15. holiness, with self-control; (saved 23 Hinson, ‘1-2 Timothy and Titus,’ p.316. Some scholars object to this view e.g. Bruce, indeed) through the Childbearing, The International Bible Commentary (London: that is, by the birth of the (divine) Marshall Pickering, 1986), 1478. Child. 320 Emiola Nihinlola

Salvation is thus to be understood in and obeying him.25 Men who are given the comprehensive holistic sense of apparently loud, visible roles in build- finding life, satisfaction and achieve- ing the church should do so with the ment. This synthetic approach has awareness that Christ, the owner of significant meaning and application to the church, was born by a woman. Men women and men as well as to all Chris- and women are partners in the task of tians. It means that whatever role a building the body of Christ (1 Cor 3:5- woman plays in the church, her work 9). as a mother is more basic, more signifi- Paul’s statement in 1 Timothy 2:15 cant and more fulfilling; motherhood is is therefore a unique sotereological a very comprehensive feminine task. It point with profound ecclesiological im- is physical, biological, social and spirit- plications for all Christians. God is tell- ual. This is a call for greater apprecia- ing us through the apostle that trust, tion of the importance of childbearing. faithfulness and obedience in living One cannot but agree with the opinion for Christ compensate when circum- of John R. W. Stott: stances do not allow us to serve the Lord through some desirable church So then, even if certain roles are responsibilities. The Lord of the church not open to women, and even if they is telling us here that when we lack op- are tempted to resent their position, portunities to perform certain evange- they and we must never forget what listic and ecclesiological functions for we owe to a woman. If Mary had the glory of God we should carry out not given birth to the Christ-child, our family responsibilities as a task of there would have been no salvation the Kingdom of God and find joy and for anybody. No greater honour has satisfaction in nurturing our children ever been given to woman than in to live for God. Here then is a crucial the calling of Mary to be the mother lesson not only for feminist theology of the Saviour to the world.24 but even for one that may be masculin- Christian motherhood is then a call ist as well. to a salvific responsibility. Christian women who give birth to and nurture III Towards a Feminist children in the way of the Lord are performing an evangelistic task to Theology of Childbearing: The populate the church and the Kingdom Importance of Motherhood of God. This verse contains a similar Childbearing will now be examined message for men as well: Man sinned from its need, importance, impact and and so men were condemned to painful agenda. From the discourse so far, it labour. Woman sinned and so women has been clarified that motherhood is were condemned to pain in childbear- more than a natural role. It is in fact ing. Both men and women, however, social and even spiritual. The cultural, can be saved, through trusting Christ economic and political implications of motherhood call for a great appre-

24 Stott, The Message of Timothy and Titus, 87-88. 25 Life Application Bible, 2190. Saved Through Childbearing 321 ciation by society. The starting point is need at the moment is not more law- the biological childbirth. yers or accountants. What we need, It can be said that a woman is a I said, is more decent people, of the womb-man, a man with womb. That kind only strong families and dedi- definition is a significant assertion of cated parents can produce. We need at least two facts. The first is that it people of character—self-controlled states the equality of woman with man, people who know right from wrong equality of the two sexes, female and and are committed to the common male. Male chauvinism is thus a hoax good.26 and the idea of superiority of one sex In the biblical revelation the family is over the other is theologically unten- the fundamental means of Christian able; it is a product of the imagination nurture and education (Deut 6:1-9; Eph of the sinful state of the human mind. 5:22-6:4). This means that the family is The second fact is that a woman has the most effective means to humanize a special structure (the womb) for an and personalize society. If this is true additional responsibility (to give birth then it is counterproductive for society and nurture human life). According to to place greater value on building the modern midwifery, true labour takes career of the parents at the expense place in three or four stages between of family development. For instance, 7 to 12 hours. Mothers have always when a woman is given maternity stated that there is nothing compara- leave to nurture her baby, it should be ble with labour pain in their life experi- recognized as an important service to ence. Whoever has watched a human the community and the payment of her push in labour to deliver will have a salary and allowances in the place of rough idea of what that means. Most work should be done willingly and ap- men desert their wives at that point. preciatively (Ex 2:9). Is child nursing A woman gives up her life at the not more tedious than most jobs in life? moment of delivery to give birth to Reuben Abati once complained that another life. I understand no woman the way female bankers are sometimes knows exactly the moment the baby is treated in Nigeria threatens family delivered. She ‘dies’ momentarily and development. According to this well- she wakes up to discover the baby by known social and political commenta- her side. God gives her life back to nur- tor: ture the child. Motherhood should be valued more. The woman’s right to maternity Childbirth is significant but there is leave is further abridged, and nurs- more to childbearing. While the birth of ing mothers are given no conces- a child takes place instantly, child-nur- sions whatsoever… It is an assault ture is a life-long task. Unfortunately, on family values that is not ex- modern society seems not to adequate- tended to male employees. Are the ly appreciate the vital role of moth- banks saying that female bankers erhood to develop a better-cultured, must forsake marriage and moth- more-humane world. Katherine Ker- sten thus lamented most appropriately: 26 Margaret Myles, Textbook for Midwives (E Clearly, society’s most pressing & S Livingstone Ltd., 1953), 241-242. 322 Emiola Nihinlola

erhood in order to be successful in of spouse (100), divorce (73), marital their chosen career?27 separation from mate (65); these rat- If this warped value system is not cor- ings may be compared with being tired rected, how shall we not be building a at work (47), retirement from work 30 society where parents pursue wealth (45). but have children that lack parental This is not just a western, psycho- care and so become morally bankrupt? logical theory. It is the reality of Afri- It is a materialistic tendency that is al- can human (female and male) experi- ready rearing its ugly head, a twisted ence. This is the corroborating opinion trend that is already bearing fruits of of Gloria whose marriage broke up: social and cultural dislocations and an- ‘Marriage is a serious business and I thropological poverty. failed in it. That is why I said it was 31 There is no alternative to mother- my lowest point in life.’ She is not hood in family upbringing for human- alone in this confession. Maureen also izing a community. God has given a said one of the most tragic moments in woman a womb for this purpose as ‘one her life was the death of. her first boy- friend. She lamented: ‘The death of my of the most important roles for a wife first love shook me to the very founda- and mother is to care for her family’.28 tion of my life.’32 It is the people and This is particularly an African cultural things we appreciate and value that value that should be cherished and pre- can give us pain, grief and stress when served for our good. Gloria Waithe, now we lose them. living in Lagos, is a Jamaican by birth The truth is that in African experi- and parentage but British because she ence, family problems give most people grew up there. She confessed, ‘I have more stress than problems in the place come to see the way marriage is taken of work.33 It is for this reason that it seriously and the family commitment is a bit easier for a woman to have to to it. In the West it is not like that.’29 give up her job to join her husband in The impact of family life on people another town or country to take care is another indication of the gravity of of their children; that is, under normal motherhood. In the area of crisis care circumstances, it is not expected of a and counselling, Christian psycholo- Christian woman to sacrifice her mari- gists have drawn the Social Readjust- tal relationship for the sake of her ca- ment Rating Scale. They have deter- reer. In the final analysis, childbearing mined the stress value of life events is more important to a woman than ca- that produce grief. According to the study, the life events that give the highest mean stress values are: death 30 Kamai Tayo Oropo, quoting Gloria Waithe, The Guardian (Lagos), August 28, 2005, 20. 31 Howard Clinebell, Basic Types of pastoral 27 Katherin Kersten, ‘How the Feminist Es- Care and Counselling (Nashville: Abingdon tablishment Hurts Women’, Christianity Today, Press, 1984), 188-189. 20 June, 1994, 20. 32 Waithe, The Guardian (Lagos), August 28, 28 Reuben Abati, ‘Banks: A Moral Dilemma’, 2005, 21. The Guardian (Lagos), 7 March 2005, 52. 33 Okeke, The Guardian (Lagos), 21 August, 29 The NIV Study Bible, 2190. 2005, 23. Saved Through Childbearing 323 reer. There are women who even sus- to do something and at home being a pend their professional development mother and a wife. But by His (God) while their children are young so they grace I have been able to balance it can give adequate care and attention to all.’36 the children. It is therefore heartening to see that Along with motherhood, some oth- highly placed African women are pursu- er important concerns that feminist ing this holistic agenda for the welfare theologians and practitioners should of women and for the good of society. continue to speak to are: promotion Chief (Mrs.) Oluremi Tinubu, the wife and protection of ‘women’s rights by of former Lagos State Governor and a improving knowledge, exercise and Senator of Federal Republic of Nigeria, development of rights under custom- commented during a conference organ- ary, religious and statutory laws’ of a ized for wives of state officials: 34 nation, violence against women such The woman has to take her place as sexual harassment of youth and in the home as a woman and as a rape; participation of more women in working woman; she must learn to partisan politics and governance. balance both and try to be the real If motherhood is a noble task, an helpmate for her husband. Being a important, indispensable factor for hu- woman is enough pride, she should man development, then conferences play her role well. No amount of that are organized with ‘the objective achievement you get should make of empowering womenfolk for eco- you to jeopardize your home, you 35 nomic, mental and spiritual growth’ have to be a wife in totality.37 should include a strong emphasis on This opinion is well grounded and ex- motherhood. Intellectual support for pressed. It boils down to one point— childbearing should be one important ‘whatever else is true a woman is pre-occupation of African feminist the- queen within her home.’38 This is the ology. importance of motherhood in the con- Since motherhood, spiritual/com- text of balancing all valid feminist in- munity service, and a professional ca- terests. This is the foundation required reer are all integral parts of a woman’s to build a feminist theology, the skel- life we need to consider how to balance eton needed to develop a theology of these concerns. It is encouraging to childbearing. observe that African women are already achieving the sensitive balance. An example is T. S. Aina-Badejo, who, while serving as the General Manager of Lagos State Radio, said that ‘moving from the office, I am going to church 36 Dafe Ivwurie, ‘Elishammah’s Street Love’, The Guardian (Lagos), 5 June 2005, 12. 37 T. S. Aina—Badejo quoted by Andrew Iro 34 I testify that in my pastoral practice I Okungbowa, ‘A Rebel in the Air’, The Guardian myself handled counseling for family life prob- (Lagos), 4 August 2005, 53. lems more than any other aspect of human life. 38 Oluremi Tinubu quoted by Omolara Akin- 35 ‘On violence against women and girls’, toye, ‘Women Reaching for Greater Heights’, The Guardian (Lagos), August 28, 2005, 5. The Comet (Lagos), 24 October 2005, 18. 324 Emiola Nihinlola

IV A Feminist Theology of ditional Yoruba culture. Elsewhere Childbearing God is described as nursing mother (Is 49:15), midwife (Ps 22:9-10), and fe- In view of the foregoing interpretation male homemaker (Ps 123:2).40 Women of 1 Timothy 2:15, and the biblical, are especially endowed by God through cultural and practical issues related to the process of childbirth to bring new the primacy of motherhood, the stage life into the world. Being created in is now set to formulate a feminist the- the image of God, women imitate God ology of childbearing. For the purpose through childbearing. By the enable- of clarification it should be stated that ment and grace of God women continue this feminist theology is done from the to push today physically to give birth perspective and experience of woman- and spiritually to give rebirth. hood.39 It is not basically a liberation from oppression or marginalization. The paper will adopt a contemporary 2. Alienation and Childbearing fourfold scheme being used to examine One of the ways to define the biblical a biblical/theological issue: creation, concept of sin is ‘the break of relation- fall (alienation), redemption and con- ship’. It illustrates the nature of sin as summation. ‘a state of our being that separates us from the holy God’.41 The breakdown of 1. Creation and Childbearing relationships in the world validates the story of the fall of man as the history The Spirit of God hovered over the of the fact that sin has entered the hu- waters at creation to give life and or- man race. derliness out of the formless, empty The first Eve (in the presence of and and dark earth (Gen 1:2). Is this not a with the active consent, support and good picture of God ‘pushing’ (though collaboration of Adam) chose to be de- without effort) to bring forth creation? ceived by Satan, to disobey the word of There and then God gave the male and God and rebel against divine authority female the awesome task of childbear- (Gen 2:15-17; 3:1-7). Their disobedi- ing to responsibly populate the earth ence alienated them from God’s pres- (Gen 1:27-28). ence, plan and favour (Gen 3:8, 23-24). I propose that there are hints of It also alienated human beings from feminine imagery in the Genesis 1 ac- one another. After the fall we read the count of creation, God pushing to give story of how Cain killed Abel his broth- birth to the earth. Creation was an er and he was cursed (Gen 4). event of childbearing. In the Genesis 2 However, as a good parent of crea- account the Lord God is also portrayed tion and humanity, God took the re- as a designer, a potter who fashioned sponsibility to reverse the alienation the human from the dust of the earth. Pottery is also a feminine task in tra- 40 Barclay, Letters to Timothy, Titus and Philemon, 79. 39 L. Peacore, ‘Feminist Theologies’, Global 41 Conn, ‘Feminist Theology’, S. B. Ferguson Dictionary of Theology (Nottingham: Inter-Var- (ed.), New Dictionary of Theology (Leicester: sity Press, 2008), 317-322. Inter-Varsity, 1988), 256. Saved Through Childbearing 325 of man. God arranged for the offspring At the dedication of Jesus on the of the woman to defeat the devil (Gen eight day, Simeon prophesied that a 3: 15). The second Eve, Mary, through sword would pierce the soul of Mary submission to God gave birth to the (Lk 2:35). About thirty three years second Adam, Jesus Christ who ful- later this prophecy was fulfilled as she filled the promise (Rom 5:12-19). This stood in pain and agony to watch the is a sensitive and fair theology which sacrificial death of her son as the lamb shows that not only was woman part of to atone for the sin of the world (Jn the problem of the historic cause of al- 19:25-26). Just as a woman has to ‘die’ ienation in the experience of humanity, to give birth to a child, Jesus also had but also that she was actively involved to die to give us new life (Jn 12:23- 24). in the provision of God to reverse the Through the experience of Mary the resultant alienation. entire mankind was saved in childbear- A Yoruba proverb, ‘Eni to ba bi omo ing. For Mary and all Christian women oran ni yoo’ pon’ translates as ‘the today, childbirth and child nurture are woman who gives birth to a child with not only physical, biological functions problems will have to take care of but spiritual and ministerial assign- the same’. This was true in the roles ments. When women give birth, they played by God in the biblical story of are also required to snatch their off- creation, alienation and redemption. spring from sin, evil and wickedness Today, Christian women have signifi- in the world, lead them to the Saviour cant roles to play in the efforts of the and nurture them in faith. Such godly church to deal with the problem of sin children will deal with the various al- which manifests itself as disconnec- ienations in the world, restore relation- tions in the family, church, working ships and harmony between man and places and the larger society. Women God, man and fellow men, man and (and their husbands) give birth to the creation. children responsible for so much evil and atrocities in our world. They also 4. Consummation and have an equally crucial role in saving Childbearing our crooked generation. Creation participated in the judgement, curse, suffering and pains that came 3. Redemption and Childbearing as a result of the alienation of man. Since womanhood was significantly in- The Lord cursed the ground because of volved in the event of alienation, she the sin of Adam and Eve (Gen 3:17b- had to be equally involved in that of 18). The earth also groaned as Jesus redemption. Alienation came through bore the weight of the sin of man on Eve, redemption came through Mary. the cross at Calvary (Mt 27:45). The In her submission to serve the Lord the shaking of the earth, the splitting of Holy Spirit came upon the latter (Lk the rocks, the opening of the tombs 1:35, 38). She became pregnant by the and the violent earthquake that accom- power of the Holy Spirit (Mt 1:18-20). panied the death and resurrection of Mary ‘pushed’ to give birth to Jesus Jesus are symbolic of the beginning of Christ (Lk 2:6-7; Mt 1:21). the experience of redemption of crea- 326 Emiola Nihinlola tion (Mt 27:52; 28:2). Since then crea- That is the continuation of the tes- tion has been waiting eagerly for its timony of the birth of life used at the full redemption (Rom 8: 18-25). beginning of this article. It is consid- The New Testament speaks of the ered suitable also as the conclusion to mystery of wisdom and insight (Eph a paper, which has argued that femi- 1:9-10), for the unity of all things nist theology is valid and necessary. through Jesus Christ.42 These cosmo- The phrase, ‘saved by childbearing’, logical and eschatological implications of redemption make the gospel of sal- has been subjected to some exegesis vation full and perfect. God has called and hermeneutics. The paper has also on women through faith in Christ to contended that childbearing is vital to contribute to the process of reconcili- womanhood, to society, to the church ation of the cosmos through the birth and to the Kingdom of God. It is not and rebirth of children, thereby raising just a biological activity; it is eminently a great multitude ‘from every nation, social and spiritual.44 tribe, people and language’ that will While women should be encouraged stand before the throne and in front of to aspire and excel in economic and the Lamb (Rev 7:9). Christian women political development of a society, it have a sacred and divine task to con- should not be at the expense of moth- tinue to ‘push’ in childbearing to give erhood. Since childbearing is so signifi- birth and rebirth to godly children who cant, it ought to be an integral part of will establish the will of God in the human heart and prepare men and wom- the agenda of feminist theology, social en to enter the Kingdom of God at the concerns and ministerial actions. end of the age. As a practical theological undertaking, the author is appreciative of the roles wives and mother play. The V Conclusion paper implores women to continue to My love and compassion for the push, push and push for birth and re- struggling infant brought me birth. Holistic childbearing is the hope strength. I really pushed, as agoniz- of creation, the continuation of the hu- ing as it was. Then came, the thrust man race, the social development of and then the cry: ‘Congratulations, the human community and the evan- Mummy’, said the doctor to me. gelization of the world. Women will Tears of joy and wonder rolled down find joy, satisfaction and fulfilment in my face.43 life now through motherhood. God will congratulate them for it. They will be 42 J. E. Colwell, ‘Sin’, New Dictionary of The- ‘saved through childbearing’. ology, 641. 43 Emiola Nihinlola, The Fullness of Redemp- tion (Ibadan: Sceptre Prints, 2004), 37-39. 44 Ladokun, ‘The Birth of Life’, 141. ERT (2016) 40:4, 327-345 Can We Measure the Success and Effectiveness of Entrepreneurial Church Planting?

Samuel Lee

I Introduction for my neighbour’. The growth of the church in the Glo- Missions have matured to where a bal North has been accompanied by a lost soul is seen in a larger context. commitment to share the gospel with This results in a greater appreciation those beyond its national borders. The of the circumstances of people on the approach used in missions was a di- other side of the world and a fuller re- rect reflection of the dominant under- alization of who my neighbour is and standing of what the church’s mission how I need to care for my neighbour. was, the understanding of the culture Contemporary missions, regardless of the targeted groups and the policy of the sending country, often include of sending the best representatives of socio-economic dimensions. the gospel. Social, economic and tech- One application of the socio-econom- nological advancements, combined ic aspect is Entrepreneurial Church 2 with the emergence of a global society, Planting (ECP), which uses business have resulted in changes in the north- entrepreneurs and clergy members to ern churches and in their missions launch spiritually and economically program. Additionally, missions is no integrated communities of faith as il- longer the domain only of western na- lustrated by the Redeemer Community tions due to the rise of southern Chris- Church and Dayspring Technologies in tianity as a powerful religious force San Francisco, California. (These en- in the twenty-first century.1 Southern Christianity has begun to challenge the more complacent definition of many 2 Entrepreneurial church planting (ECP) western nations regarding ‘how to care is an umbrella term describing the birth and growth of the new expressions of churches by using entrepreneurial approaches. It goes under various designations of ‘fresh expressions 1 Philip Jenkins, Next Christendom : The Com- of church’, ‘organic church’, ‘liquid church’, ing of Global Christianity (Oxford University ‘tentmaking’, ‘business as mission’, and ‘mis- Press, 2002), 1. sional communities’.

Samuel Lee is a Ph.D. Intercultural Studies candidate at Asbury Theological Seminary. He is currently working on dissertation research focusing on models for combining viable businesses and effective church planting. He has published several articles regarding Business as Mission (BAM) in various theological journals. 328 Samuel Lee terprises will be discussed later in this the success and performance of ECP paper.) In some cases, ECP suggests activities, and 3) how do the measure- that one outgrowth of the business is ments help them achieve their initial a church plant. In other cases, ECP objectives. shows that a church is started first and it helps to set up a business. Either the church or the business may come first II Entrepreneurial Church and still be appropriately designated as Planting (ECP) an ECP. Church-planting efforts combined with Simply put, ECP is the intersection a business model have taken various of entrepreneurship and church plant- forms throughout history. A brief ining. By combining entrepreneurship vestigation into the diverse Christian and church planting, ECP has sought to traditions illuminates this point—for reach the unchurched and dechurched example, one could consider Paul’s by creating ‘Third Space’.3 ‘Third tent making, the Nestorians, the Mora- Space’, a relatively new concept, refers vian Missions and the Basel Mission. to implementing ventures of creative Though history offers a basis for the neutral spaces, such as a café, that are melding of a church-plant with a busi- more inviting to strangers than tradi- ness venture, there are fewer contem- tional ecclesiological models and are porary examples of viable businesses used for bringing the gospel to people. combined with intentional, effective While it may be conceptually invit- church planting. ing for spiritual and business forces Globally, the ECP movement is now to co-mingle in reaching the lost, dean emerging phenomenon with exam- churched, and unchurched, activities ples appearing in Asia, Africa, Latin need to be evaluated as to whether America, North America, and Europe. they are accomplishing the goals of the While the greatest flowering of this Great Commission (reconciliation), the enterprise has been in Britain and the Creation Commission (stewardship), United States, by integrating business and the great commandment (trans- and church planting, ECP has served formation). In a world that measures as a revitalizing force for churches and success economically, how is success whole denominations throughout the being measured in ECP endeavours? world, including missions. In-depth study is needed now to con- One of the main appeals of this sider outcomes relative to goals. strategy is that it incorporates a broad To that end, I want to ascertain: approach to include those who are un- 1) how practitioners of ECP activities reached and those outside the church. define success, 2) how they measure No longer do missions want to create ‘rice’ Christians, but to provide a culturally sensitive economic and social 3 David E. Fitch, The Great Giveaway : Re- environment to nurture nascent Chris- claiming the Mission of the Church from Big tians, and to reach people who mistrust Business, Parachurch Organizations, Psycho- therapy, Consumer Capitalism, and Other Modern older, traditional western evangelical Maladies (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2005), approaches. 63. Just as many American churches Success and Effectiveness of Entrepreneurial Church Planting 329 have attempted to reshape ecclesiology cusing primarily upon church planting through socio-economic engagements results in a secular-sacred division that by integrating business and church consecrates the church-plant and sees planting as illustrated by bi-vocation- the commercial side as an unavoidable al ministers, Business as Mission vice, thus resulting in financial drain. practitioners,4 and fresh expressions of In this way, planting a church com- church entrepreneurs,5 mission organi- bined with operating viable for-profit zations have sought outreach oppor- business presents significant chal- tunities with spiritual, developmental, lenges, especially when the creation of and social dimensions. a spiritual community is also a desired The additional appeal of ECP in for- end. eign contexts is the creation of com- In view of these advantages and dis- munities for seekers and/or converts. advantages of ECP, evaluation becomes In situations where conversion causes necessary. What thwarts assessment ostracism, the community provides of ECP is the difficulty of measuring both an economic and a social home. its effectiveness. Those who use ECP Furthermore, foreign governments are as their mission model typically utilize open to business opportunities that business metrics or mission metrics. are inherent in ECP activities. In less However, few, if any, of the commonly developed countries, economic oppor- recognized metrics measure the multi- tunities for the disenfranchised are dimensional goal of the Great Commis- welcomed. sion, the Creation Commission, and the However, consideration of ECP Great Commandment. also demonstrates that a combination ECP has been implemented in of business and church planting has enough places to make it time to evalu- not always been productive. A focus ate this strategy more thoroughly and on multiplying profits reduces the at- determine its effectiveness. Given the tention to church planting, produces a time required and money invested to poor witness, and results in a decline find appropriate people with the needed in spiritual interest.6 In contrast, fo- skill sets, language study, time to identify good locations, obtain government permits, do demographic research of 4 The models of Business as Mission (BAM) the target community, etc., we need to utilize business to fulfill the Great Commis- use strategies that are known to be ef- sion and are focused on setting up businesses fective. among unreached people groups. 5 A fresh expression of church is defined as ‘a How, then, can we assess the ef- new gathering or network that engages mainly fectiveness of ECP? A tremendous with people who have never been to church’. number of books and articles have http://www.freshexpressions.org.uk/about/ been written about various theological whatis aspects of ECP, but fewer have tackled 6 Tom A. Steffen and Mike Barnett, Business the problems of identifying what con- as Mission : From Impoverished to Empowered / stitues effectiveness. To address the Edited by Tom Steffen & Mike Barnett, Evangel- ical Missiological Society Series: No. 14 (Pa- issues of determining when success sadena, Calif. : William Carey Library, c2006., and effectivness have been achieved, 2006), 167–180. it is important to consider what has 330 Samuel Lee been written about the goals of ECP the Tent-Making movement. This mis- and what suggestions have been drawn sionary model was originally inspired from actual measures of ECP. by the examples of Paul, Aquila and Thus, drawing on written reviews Priscilla, and came into the scholarly and a case study approach, this study spotlight by the late 1980s. Based on investigates a definition of goals for Paul’s mission strategy, Christians ECP activities and the process of iden- used their professional (business) tifying concepts to measure ECP out- skills to establish a business as a comes. Based on this, my research will means of contact with locals and even- attempt to identify what factors result tually plant a church. in economic sustainability and church This model permits access to coun- planting and what effectiveness in ECP tries where traditional missionaries looks like. are denied entry. One early example The argument of this paper is that would be the Nestorians in the sixth we can measure the success and ef- century who financially supported fectiveness of entrepreneurial church themselves through business and planting, and that rather than measur- planted churches,9 and another would ing success or effectiveness economi- be the Moravian Missions and the cally or spiritually, ECP success and Basel Mission Trading Company.10 In effectiveness should be gauged on the 1985, the Lausanne Tentmaking State- grounds of holistic transformation. It is ment was created and recognized the to these issues that we now turn. role of Christian lay people.11 Since then, many mission agencies have used the ‘Tent-making’ model. III Three Models of ECP In recent years, this approach is A review of relevant literature identi- becoming less viable as foreign gov- fied three models: 1) ‘Business for ernments continue to deport business saving souls and planting the church’, men/women who are not involved in 2) ‘Business for human develop- actual businesses or who seek to hide ment’, and 3) ‘Business for holistic transformation’.7 These models aid in pointing to the goals of ECP. Below I version to Christ Jesus. See Dana Robert’s will sketch out these three models book, Christian Mission (Chichester: Wiley, 2009), 90, and Andrew Walls, Missionary Movement in Christian History (Maryknoll, Or- 1. ‘Business for Saving Souls and bis, 1996), 43-54. Planting the Church’ model 9 Samuel H. Moffett, A History of Christian- ity in Asia / Samuel Hugh Moffett (Maryknoll, The ‘Business for saving souls and N.Y. : Orbis Books, 1998-1998), 29. planting the church’ model8 represents 10 William John Danker, Profit for the Lord : Economic Activities in Moravian Missions and the Basel Mission Trading Company, Christian 7 Stephen B. Bevans and Roger Schroeder, World Mission Books (Grand Rapids : Eerd- Constants in Context: A Theology of Mission for mans, [1971], 1971), 32. Today, American Society of Missiology Series: 11 The Lausanne Tentmaking Statement No. 30 (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 2004), 35–72. is available at http://www.globalopps.org/ 8 Here ‘saving souls’ refers to personal con- lausanne.htm. Success and Effectiveness of Entrepreneurial Church Planting 331 their church planting activity. So we discipled.14 see church planting as nested within However, the last is emphasized business activity. less. One of the reasons is that many The significant characteristic of the ministers focus on membership (quan- Tent-making movement is that it is a tity-oriented metric) rather than dis- church-centred view. For tentmakers, cipleship (quality-oriented metric), business is understood as a signifi- which is one core of Jesus’s Great Com- cant part of the church planting strat- mission to his disciples (Mt 28:19). egy. The ultimate goal remains church The danger with the tent-making ap- planting but business is seen as one proach is that it is less holistic due to a step or stage toward this objective. failure to adequately address structur- This long-held approach understands al problems and social justice concerns the church as the origin and goal of in the larger society where the activity mission. The church-centred approach is located. Furthermore, this view does sought to extend the church and to ex- not appreciate the world as the place pand the gospel message specifically where God is active. The world de- to non-Christian lands, often referred generated into ‘a sort of ecclesiastical 15 to as mission fields.12 training-ground’ and was defined as Personal conversion and a viable ‘not-yet-church, already-church, still- 16 indigenous church planting movement church and no-longer-church’. were regarded as the goals and metrics Finally, this view might impede of tent-making endeavours.13 Tentmak- work performance because work itself ers place a high premium on the im- is seen only as a means to an end; thus, portance of helping others to develop there is less motivation to do one’s a personal relationship with Jesus and work with excellence as a means in with other Christians. They have fo- and of itself to honour God. This false cused upon evangelistic labour or the distinction has historically had a deep impact on Christian views of wealth, realization of the Great Commission by faith, economics, and mission. means of reconciliation. As a result, many tent-making ministers use spiritual metrics of success: (1) how many 2. ‘Business for Human people have heard the Good News, (2) Development’ model how many people have been converted, In the latter half of the twentieth cen- (3) how many have joined the church, and (4) how many converts have been 14 Steven L. Rundle, ‘Does Donor Support Help or Hinder Business as Mission Practi- 12 Lalsangkima Pachuau, ‘Engaging the tioners? An Empirical Assessment’, Interna- “Other” in a Pluralistic World: Toward a Sub- tional Bulletin of Missionary Research 38, no. 1 altern Hermeneutics of Christian Mission’, (January 2014): 24–25. Studies in World Christianity 8, no. 1 (January 15 Johannes Christiaan Hoekendijk, ‘The 1, 2002): 74. Church in Missionary Thinking’, International 13 Ralph D. Winter and Bruce A. Koch, ‘Fin- Review of Mission 41, no. 163 (July 1, 1952), ishing the Task: The Unreached Peoples Chal- 324. lenge’, International Journal of Frontier Missions 16 Hoekendijk, ‘The Church in Missionary 16 (April 1999): 71–72. Thinking’, 324. 332 Samuel Lee tury, ‘Business for saving souls and sion to the world’.17 Particularly in less planting the church’ model joined developed and least-reached countries, company with the ‘Business for hu- which are often hungry for business man development’ model. During this acumen and earning potential as well time, the concept of missio Dei began as jobs, BAM’s unique approach has to gain acceptance. Since the Willingen created a door for missions. Conference (1952), the pendulum of Many BAM practitioners under- theological understanding of Christian stood that the world was regarded as mission has swung from the church- the locus of God’s mission. As a result, centred view to the theocentric view of the church was increasingly relegated mission. to a marginal position within the BAM In the missio Dei concept, mission is community. The theme of humaniza- no longer subject to the church. Mis- tion and humanitarianism was taken up as its defining word.18 sion has its source in the Triune God. Vastly different from tentmakers, The church’s mission is to participate some BAM’ers intentionally focus on in the mission of the Triune God. The working through a business and find church is viewed as an instrument for meaning in what they do. Thus work God’s universal mission. Mission be- itself is seen as a calling and BAM’ers comes the church’s reason for being. describe the economic activities as be- However, interpretation of the theo- ing missional. centric conceptualization of mission The missional aspect is displayed by has varied. On one side, some proposed practitioners as they become involved that even though the church should be with the community where their busi- neither the starting point nor the goal ness is located by undertaking holistic of mission, the church, as a foretaste community development such as social of the kingdom is the agent of God’s and economic transformation. They not mission. On the other hand, others sup- only find projects that draw on local porting the world-centred view of mis- strengths to enable people to become sion argued that the true context for financially independent, but they also mission was the world, not the church. creatively expose others to the gos- So the correct sequence is kingdom- pel, resulting in financial, social, and gospel-apostolate-world. Consequent- spiritual growth. Other BAM’ers seek ly, the church and the kingdom of God to model biblical values in the market- were viewed as divorced from each place by focusing on ethical business other in ecumenical circles. Alongside this ecumenical mission 17 C. Neal Johnson and Steve Rundle, Busi- thinking, the concept of ‘Business as ness as Mission : A Comprehensive Guide to Mission’ (BAM) came on the scene, es- Theory and Practice; Foreword by Steve Rundle pousing similar views. BAM has been (Downers Grove, Ill. : IVP Academic, 2009), broadly defined as business ventures 28. 18 James A. Scherer, Gospel, Church & King- led by Christians that are for-profit dom : Comparative Studies in World Mission and are intentionally designated to be Theology (Eugene, OR : Wipf & Stock, 2004), ‘used as an instrument of God’s mis- 108. Success and Effectiveness of Entrepreneurial Church Planting 333 practices and providing jobs for women One problem in BAM’s approach is and other outcasts. that it may downplay the importance From these considerations, it can of the church. The church is relegated be inferred that most BAM’ers focus from its status as the mystical body of first on ensuring the foundation of Christ to that of a body of Christ, mean- business effectiveness such as profit- ing that it is only one of several sacred ability. Miroslav Volf describes it as a venues advancing the Kingdom of God. ‘vocational understanding of work de- Additionally, the ‘Business for human veloped within the framework of the development’ view tends to campaign doctrine of creation’19 or stewardship. strongly for the status of calling over- In other words, BAM practitioners re- shadowing the conceptual framework gard church planting as just a part of of being a people of God. More specifi- the larger role of serving the needs of cally, this model so closely identifies greater human development. one’s specific job as one’s calling that it Consequently, most BAM practition- may result in identity crisis if, for some ers have a financial focus, emphasizing reason, one loses one’s job or skills, financial sustainability, profitability, through dismissal, retirement, or medi- and larger scale operations—the typical disability. cal financial metrics of success. They mainly adopt existing financial reporting systems20 such as the ISO 2600, 3. ‘Business for Holistic the Global Reporting Initiative, or Glo- Transformation’ model bal Compact.21 These standards are fo- In recent years, Volf’s pneumatological cused on measuring economic, social, understanding of work22 has been influ- and environmental goals alone. ential, resulting in the view that Chris- tian business in partnership with the community of faith can be a means to 19 Most discussions of work in the ‘Business overcome materialism, individualism, for human development’ view have tended to focus on seeing work as one’s vocation, as and self-centredness. We find activities one’s calling, because most Christians start that combine lean startup business with the creation account in Genesis where principles23 and church planting vision. God is seen as at work, and we, as bearers of God’s image, are called to work as well. Miro- slav Volf, Work in the Spirit : Toward a Theology 22 Volf suggests an alternative, a ‘pneumato- of Work (Eugene, OR : Wipf and Stock, 2001), logical one developed within the framework of ix. the doctrine of the last things’. Volf, Work in 20 See Global BAM Think Tank report 2014, the Spirit, ix. He proposes that we frame the which reviews various existing Christian and way we think about work in terms of the cen- non-Christian assessment tools, with analysis trality of eschatology in Christian faith, and on what they do, how they do and why they that we think of work in terms of the Spirit might be helpful, retrieved June 17, 2015, inspiring us in every step of our lives as we available at http://bamthinktank.org/wp-con- walk forward toward the full coming of the tent/uploads/2014/05/BMTT-IG-Measuring- Kingdom, the New Creation. BAM-Impact-May-2014.pdf. 23 Lean start-up, led by Steve Blank and Eric 21 Cf. http://www.regententrepreneur.org/ Ries, is a revolutionary methodological shift wp-content/uploads/2012/10/NamieBimba. in entrepreneurial practice that makes start- pdf. ing a business far less risky. Lean start-up 334 Samuel Lee

A mounting body of literature is the central concept, because business developing regarding ‘Business for and church planting occur within the holistic transformation’, 24 categorized contexts of relationships in the larger by various expressions: ‘fresh expres- community. sions of church’, ‘organic church’, and In short, the ‘Business for holistic ‘missional communities’. New contex- transformation’ model recognizes that tual churches are freshening the reli- God’s reign in the world is unthink- gious landscape of the global North. able without the church,25 because One core theological principle of the church can help build an ethos the ‘Business for holistic transforma- of mutual civic responsibility and action’ model is the belief in a ‘kingdom- countable communities of discipleship shaped church’. Here the kingdom of where the temptations of greed, self- God gives rise to the church, which is centeredness, and materialism are con- taken to be the sign of the coming king- fronted. Additionally, at the core of the dom. The church in the ‘Business for ‘Business for holistic transformation’ holistic transformation’ model intends model is a focus on spiritual and eco- to offer loving relationships—with God nomic transformation. Transformation and with others, in contrast to the pre- happens as churches are planted and dominate consumer-oriented relationships found in the world and in other businesses are established that create models. an environment where people can con- So this model pursues on-going nect with God, others, and the rest of contact with potential believers and creation. emphasizes the need to listen to what However, the risk with the ‘Busi- they are saying. Relationship becomes ness for holistic transformation’ model is that there are differing understandings of God’s kingdom. Divergent con- is unconventional in that it favours experi- ceptions of the Kingdom of God have mentation over elaborate planning, customer led to differing ideas of the calling of feedback over intuition, and iterative design 26 over a large development policy. Steve Blank, the church. Howard Snyder enumer- ‘Why the Lean Start-Up Changes Everything’, ates eight kingdom models.27 He em- Harvard Business Review 91, no. 5 (May 2013): phasizes that models of the kingdom 66. Eric Ries, The Lean Startup: How Today’s have changed and will change, and Entrepreneurs Use Continuous Innovation to Cre- ate Radically Successful Businesses (New York : that the church, therefore, needs a new Crown Business, 2011). kingdom theology for a new millenni- 24 Michael Moynagh, Church for Every Con- text : An Introduction to Theology and Practice; with Philip Harrold (London : SCM, 2012), xx. 25 Charles Edward van Engen, Dean S. Gilli- Michael Volland defines the entrepreneur as land, and Paul Everett Pierson, The Good News follows: ‘A visionary who, in partnership with of the Kingdom : Mission Theology for the Third God and others, challenges the status quo Millennium (Maryknoll, N.Y. : Orbis Books, by energetically creating and innovating in 1993), 73. order to shape something of kingdom value.’ 26 Howard A. Snyder, Models of the Kingdom Michael Volland, The Minister as Entrepreneur: (Eugene, OR : Wipf and Stock Publishers, Leading and Growing the Church in an Age of 2001), 13–17. Rapid Change (SPCK, 2015), 3. 27 Snyder, Models of the Kingdom, 18. Success and Effectiveness of Entrepreneurial Church Planting 335 um.28 He presciently remarks that the role in the outreach activities, even to forces of ‘globalization/glocalization’ the point of discipling and leading a call for a renewed model of the King- church. dom of God with regard to ecology and In sum, the previous discussion has economics.29 helped us to understand the utility of Thus far, we have reviewed the liter- a joint venture—church planting and a ature on the business for saving souls business enterprise. Common to both and planting the church, the business is the need to reach out to others, and for human development, and the busi- hopefully in so doing, establish rela- ness for holistic transformation mod- tionships with people. However, none els. A summary of similarities and dif- of these models indicates how to main- ferences among these three analytical tain balance between church planting lenses is reflected in Chart 1 on the and business activities. The different next page: goals lead to different outcomes. If we start at the bottom of Chart 1, the To actualize the goals of economic continuum demonstrates graphically fruitfulness and church planting, we the lack of overlap among the differ- might take into account aspects of all ent models. While BAM is not totally three types. They probably need each business-oriented, neither is HT totally other to create a truly novel church transformational in its style and we that is economically sustainable and note the significant gap between BAM to liberate themselves from leaning too and HT. Therefore we cannot equate closely on a one-sided goal of economic BAM and HT. fruitfulness or church planting to the The upper portion of the chart re- detriment of the other. It is assumed veals other similarities and differences that balance may be achieved by the among the models. We note a similar- integration of three theological em- ity between tent-making and BAM with phases (the Creation Commission, the regard to the success metric. Both re- Great Commandment, and the Great duce their assessment to countable Commission). elements. Of course, it is not as easy Lest the discussion of ECP remain to count souls saved and the number theological and theoretical, I believe it discipled as it is to detect closing a is important to evaluate the ECP strat- business year in the red or black. How- egy in terms of its ability to combine ever, this approach may miss the intan- church planting with economic activi- gible element of those in the process of ties. To accomplish the assessment transformation. of ECP, a case study of one business/ Additionally, we see the integrated church planting endeavour was care- place of the church in both Tent-mak- fully chosen for thorough study. In the ing and in Holistic Transformation. section that follows, I will note an ef- While implicit, all three of these mod- fort by one Christian community to els open the door for laity to have a full practise entrepreneurial church planting.

28 Snyder, Models of the Kingdom, 133. 29 Snyder, Models of the Kingdom, 140-141. 336 Samuel Lee TM how to achieve goal how to achieve church relegated to edge of churches job=calling limits God's reach to just the church doesn't deal with & social structural justice issues work as end, not to honour God Problems Reconciliation (spiritual) sustain financial activities and church and build relationships profitability & profitability financial sustainability #hear gospel # saved # discipled Success Metric - HT Establishing good relationships whether for Business or the church Create profitable businesses with concern for public responsibility corporate & eco justice Christians use a pro fessional skill for job, meet people, plant a church Activity Transformation (holistic) foretaste of Kingdom of God Inter-cultural theocentric/world- centred Creation Commission (stewardship) Cross-cultural church-centred Great Commission Cross-cultural Orientation BAM sustain business & plant a church for profit tent-making Archetype Business for Holistic (Holist Transformation HT) Transformation: Business (economic Business for Human Development (Business as Mission: BAM) Business for Saving Business for Saving Souls & Planting church TM) (Tent-making: Models CHART 1. Comparison of Characteristics of Three ECP Models CHART 1. Success and Effectiveness of Entrepreneurial Church Planting 337

IV A Case Study of a ECP er Community Church led by Danny. Model: Early on, Grace Fellowship Community Church had a non-profit community development program called Grace Urban 1. Redeemer Community Church Ministries in Bayview-Hunters Point. & Dayspring Technologies30 Danny and Chi-Ming (a member of Dayspring Technologies is a successful Grace Fellowship Community Church) web development company with 16 em- were conducting the youth group. They ployees and a revenue of $1.7 million. recognized that there was a social and Their clients include International Jus- cultural ceiling limiting the goals of tice Mission, Mercy Core, and Golden these young people. They wanted these State Warriors. The firm is located in teens to go to college and enter into the Bayview-Hunters Point neighbour- professional jobs. So Redeemer was hood of San Francisco. Bayview-Hunt- planted in the Bayview Hunters Point neighbourhood. ers Point is in the southeast corner Dayspring Technologies was found- of the city where unemployment and ed by three church members of the households below the national poverty Redeemer Community Church (Danny, level are nearly double compared with Chi-Ming, and Alyssa) with a vision of the rest of the city; in this area, the opening up work opportunities to em- poverty line is $23,000 for a family of power and motivate the youth to as- four. pire to higher education and jobs. The Redeemer Community Church is collective vision of Dayspring and Re- also located in this neighbourhood. Re- deemer Community Church has been deemer Church and Dayspring Technol- to demonstrate the redemptive quali- ogies work together. Initially the two ties of the workplace and economic entities wondered what it might look exchange in order to bear witness to like to share space and seek the wel- God’s work in the world. fare of the same local neighbourhood. How, specifically, did Dayspring They moved ahead together, establish- and Redeemer Community Church ing both the church and the business. announce the Kingdom of God in the They share not only a common local world of the workplace, marketplace, address, but also a common desire to and community? be a blessing in the neighbourhood. Let us first consider the workplace. Historically, Redeemer Community One aspect of a business is determining Church was an outgrowth of Grace Fel- the level of remuneration of its staff. lowship Community Church. In 2002 a Dayspring has intentionally organized group of people was sent from Grace its salary scale to reflect better a scrip- Fellowship Community Church to plant tural vision of economic distribution. A another church that became Redeem- policy of a 2:1 employer-to-employee salary scale has been implemented by Dayspring. This policy is referred 30 I conducted a semi-structured interview with Danny, the co-founder of Dayspring Tech- to as Isaiah 40. Just as Scripture nologies and the pastor of the Redeemer Com- speaks of valleys lifted up and moun- munity Church. tains brought low, the Isaiah 40 policy 338 Samuel Lee smooths the peaks in salaries. They To guarantee that the workload actually discount the high-end salaries stays controlled, they structure their and boost the bottom end salaries; this business in a way that attempts to re- is understood as a means to practise strict their working hours to 40 hours concretely the love of neighbour in the a week, not requiring staff to work eve- workplace (The Great Commandment). nings or weekends. This practice also Another way that Dayspring Tech- honours God by no one working on the nologies bears witness to God’s re- Sabbath. To complement this practice, demption of the workplace is by creat- Dayspring executives are known to ing a work environment where people turn down some business opportuni- labour with confidence, not needing to ties in order to protect their staff and expend energy watching their backs prevent over-extending themselves. In for adverse actions of other staff mem- this way, an environment of righteous- bers. Staff comments have consistently ness and justice is cultivated. Thus the pointed out that Dayspring lacks the gods of produce more, work harder and political environment so common in longer do not determine the principles the working world. of this business. For example, the practice of ‘rank Now that we have examined the and yank’ is not found at Dayspring; relationship between Kingdom val- in the ‘rank and yank’ workplace ues and Dayspring’s operations in the structure, all the people on a team workplace and marketplace, we can are ranked and the bottom 10% are push the discussion into implications yanked, meaning they are laid off. Day- for the broader community. Dayspring spring rejected this practice. Of course, has been working in partnership with Dayspring Technologies pursues excel- Redeemer Community Church on lence, but brutal competition is a mark the question of how a business and a of the worldly market, not of the king- church could express love to its neigh- dom of God. bours in the community. So what is an alternative workplace One of the things they do is through vision? A lack of divisiveness gener- the Neighbour Fund; this is relation- ates the feeling that you do not need to ship-based investing or relationship- stand watch for your own well-being. based small business loans. These Thus far, we have addressed the loans apply the principle of socio-eco- workplace. Similar ideas of Kingdom- nomic reconciliation as a way of bear- thinking are discovered in the market- ing witness to the reconciling power of place. Dayspring attempts to embody Christ. The loan committee is partici- the gospel through Sabbath remem- patory, meaning that borrowers sit on brance. While the company esteems the committee and recommend loans to the value of work, the Sabbath bound- be made to other borrowers. They want ary serves to prevent the idolization of to break down the barriers that exist labour. In this way, employees are en- between borrower and lender. couraged to spend Sundays with their A distinctive is that they want bor- families and churches, resulting in a rowers and lenders to become friends. more balanced and spiritually vibrant This is done through the sharing of a schedule. meal in order to promote an atmos- Success and Effectiveness of Entrepreneurial Church Planting 339 phere of camaraderie. Something the New Creation. unique happens as people fellow- Accordingly, the case study clearly ship around the table. In these ways, shows that a combination of business Dayspring and Redeemer believe that and church planting can provide a way God is actually at work reconciling all of blessing others, binding people to things to himself through Jesus for his one another, and eventually to God, in Kingdom. beautiful ways, and, and getting indi- In sum, Dayspring Technologies and viduals to walk forward toward the full Redeemer have reflected the Kingdom coming of the Kingdom, the New Crea- of God by embodying redeemed econo- tion. mies such as Isaiah 40 or shared access to the land and resources,31 cre- 2. Outcomes of the Operation of ating a supportive environment where Redeemer Church and Dayspring people get connected, loved, and rec- Technologies onciled to Jesus and the community of Our case study has provided thus far faith so that the Holy Spirit may usher an account of the establishment and in the coming new creation. This is a basic operational practices of Redeem- unique combination where the Creation er Church and Dayspring Technolo- Commission, the Great Commission, gies. Now we need to examine these and the Great Commandment meet for institutions to consider what they have achieved. Insight about their accomplishments came from asking Danny, 31 Christopher Wright uses the term, ‘Re- the co-founder of Dayspring Technolo- deemed Economies’, in his article entitled ‘Biblical Reflections on Land’. Cf. C. Wright, gies and the pastor of the Redeemer ‘Biblical Reflections on Land’, Evangelical Re- Community Church five basic ques- view of Theology 17, no. 2 (1993): 161. tions:

Questions Issue Addressed

What is the primary goal of the ministry Goals of the ECP model of the Redeemer Community Church and Dayspring Technologies?

With regards to the business enterprise Theoretical definition of success along you have established, how do you define the continuum from business to trans- success? formation

How do you measure success? Operational definition of success of a How do those metrics help you achieve Kingdom-based business the objectives you set out?

What kind of story do you want to share with your denomination or friends? 340 Samuel Lee

Earlier the point was made that invented in their business endeavours. the goals and visions associated with Unlike most church planters, Danny kingdom-based activities might drive is critical of the thinking that equates the outcomes. The goals of Redeemer the metrics of success (how much, how and Dayspring are to bring glory to often, and how many) necessarily with God and create a space where people kingdom advancement. Most church can experience God’s kingdom (the planters assume that if they keep an New Creation) through relational rec- eye on these three analytics, then their onciliation with Jesus Christ (the Great business/church plant will be success- Commission) based on the relational ful. Instead, at Redeemer Church and expression of love for God and others Dayspring Technologies there is an (the Great Commandment), occurring emphasis on ‘faithfulness’ and ‘bless- in transformed business practices (the ing’. Creation Commission). Relational rec- Thus we find a greater focus on how onciliation refers to restoring relation- peoples’ lives are transformed by the ship to self, to others, to the rest of integration of the church and business. creation, and to God through Jesus and There is concern to count success as the church (2 Corinthians 5:18).32 Jesus did: seeing the lost redeemed and The relational expression of love transformed. Too often entrepreneurial church planters can have large congre- for God and others refers to the ac- gations and even have significant offer- tion that flows from spiritual reconcili- ings, but there is virtually no impact ation.33 When our other relationships for the kingdom in the neighbourhoods have been transformed, what emanates surrounding the church, as Reggie Mc- are business practices that reflect our Neal points out.35 However, the laud- right relationships to creation in stew- 34 able intangible indicators of success ardship or transformed business suggested by transformed lives are not practices. Thus we see that the goals useful when seeking outcomes that of Redeemer and Dayspring Technolo- can be tracked or counted. gies do drive their activities. As we move to establish an opera- With the establishment of goals and tional definition of success, the qualita- activities, it is important to consider tive approach guided by the Holy Spirit their theoretical definition of success. manifests itself as Danny elucidates From the beginning it is obvious that their guiding principles for business the definition of success has been re- assessment. Our metrics for Dayspring are business metrics [but]… we use them 32 Steve Corbett and Brian Fikkert, When Helping Hurts : How to Alleviate Poverty without differently. Redeemer and Dayspring Hurting the Poor-- and Yourself (Chicago, Ill. : operate, using a fourfold relational ap- Moody Publishers, 2009), 75. proach: 1) Are we operating in a way 33 ‘The Threefold Call: A Trinitarian and Re- that manifests the love of God? 2) Do formed Theology of Vocation in Response to Volf’s “Work in the Spirit”’—ProQuest Disser- tations & Theses Full Text—ProQuest, 277, 35 Reggie McNeal, Missional Renaissance : accessed February 14, 2016. Changing the Scorecard for the Church (San 34 ‘Threefold Call’, 283-284. Francisco, CA : Jossey-Bass, 2009), xvi–xvii. Success and Effectiveness of Entrepreneurial Church Planting 341 our products and services provide up’, ‘the community is being built up’, healthy benefits to customers, the com- ‘friendships are being formed’, ‘across munity at large, and the creation? 3) racial boundaries’ convey the relation- Are the values of the Kingdom of God al connections to the community, espe- reflected in all business procedures cially to the community of faith where (hiring, training, evaluating, reward- trust and cooperation for the common ing, and dismissing employees)? 4) good occur. From these relationships Are the values of the Kingdom of God lives are being transformed enabling present in relationships with suppliers, members to live together well and to distributors and contractors? stand in solidarity with the people in The common theme found in the need. four questions Danny gave is relational All things taken together, the an- connections: between mission Dei and swers to the five questions about goals human participation, between com- and outcomes make it clear that if a pany and the creation, and between ECP is to be sucessful, entrepreneurial business and clients. There is intent church planters should focus on the to have business practices that reflect relationship between Kingdom values the basic relationship with God as they and business operations in the work- deal with other people and creation. place and marketplace, their relational To take the analysis a step further, connections with others through Jesus what drives their definition of success and the church, and their relational is relational righteousness where peo- righteousness through God and others ple are transformed through loving and for God and others. relationships with God and others. Relational righteousness is alluded to when Danny spoke about ‘work hard’, 3. Discussion ‘be willing to take a lower salary’, ‘give The ultimate goal of the study of Re- away 5% of our time’, ‘pay a living deemer Church and Dayspring Tech- wage’, ‘ a policy of a 2:1 employer-to- nologies was to identify factors that employee salary’, and ‘give away 10% distinguished this missional endeavour of our net income to the community’. and then to determine how to measure There is a premium on relational right- outcomes. The missional aspect has eousness even at the cost of typical been considered previously. Based on profit maximization strategies used by the preceding discussion we know how businesses. Yet this business thrives Redeemer Church and Dayspring Tech- and is able to expand. nologies define success. Following More revealing about the signifi- Danny’s lead, we use a kingdom-based cantly different orientation of Day- orientation for a quantifiable assess- spring is found in its non-business ment of success and effectiveness. activities. When asked what story Reflecting on what Danny said he wants to tell with regards to Day- about missional activity and success/ spring, he responds with ‘partnership effectiveness, we note that there are built with the community’. He then three dimensions to how and what talked about the Neighbour Fund. The Redeemer Church and Dayspring expressions, ‘partnership to be built Technologies do: generate a sense of 342 Samuel Lee belonging or relational connectedness, sufficient to guarantee success. At develop reflected love or relational times, one component will be more evi- righteousness, and recognize blessings dent or emphasized, but the outcomes or relational stewardship of resources. being sought require all three factors. Three dimensions emerge: belong- Thus we find that success for ECP ing, reflected love and blessings. Be- may be defined as both establishing a longing, a fundamental psychological sustainable business and creating spir- need, is frequently the starting point itual community, or the relationships for people’s entrance into a community. established with other believers and Welcoming others to fulfil the Great Jesus. Ideally, within the spiritual com- Commission requires God’s people to munity, spiritual transformation oc- have a relationship-building orienta- curs so that loving relationships with tion. It is important to understand that God and others are established and belonging is a process, where the de- the transformed themselves become gree of interest in becoming a part is agents of reconciliation. Furthermore, key. Therefore it is incumbent on the ECP effectiveness should be evaluated church and/or business to provide out- on the grounds of holistic transforma- reach ministries that neighbourhood tion rather than simply measuring ef- people define as helpful and desirable. fectiveness in terms of economic devel- Next in the process of building a opment or just leading people to faith spiritual community is reflected love in Christ Jesus. where the love shown to others begins With our more developed under- to be reflected back. In essence, peo- standing of success and effectiveness, ple are being divinely loved into the we are now ready to suggest opera- Kingdom. As people participate in the tional variables for the dimensions be- community of believers they find loving longing, reflected love, and blessing as acceptance that, in time, they begin to shown in Chart 2 on the next page reciprocate. Reflected love is found in Belonging tries to capture a sense of the transition from receiving love to be- inclusiveness generated by the church coming a source of love for others. An and the business towards the residents ethos of helping each other is created of the community as evidenced by lo- within the community. As reflected cal residents getting jobs in Dayspring love is expressed it can establish the Technologies or increased participation groundwork for reconciliation with in church-run programs. It is contact God and others, and it fosters the oc- that starts the process of reaching peo- currence of divine transformation. The ple so that in time spiritual reconcili- last dimension is blessing or the return ation occurs. The greater the number that comes from the generation and of different contacts, whether making stewardship of God-given resources. a prayer request or church attendance, There is a synergy among these the greater the belongingness. This is three factors where authentic and not an exhaustive list of possible ways healthy relational connectedness re- people can ‘belong’. quires all three of these elements in Reflected love happens as people be- order to foster holy interaction. Each gin to respond to the loving overtures component alone is necessary but not made toward them. Within the neigh- Success and Effectiveness of Entrepreneurial Church Planting 343

CHART 2. ECP’s Success & Effectiveness Dimensions

Belonging Reflected Love Blessing

• Access to ungospel • Greater neighbourliness • Relationships-based people by providing occurring (e.g. an increase in investing (e.g. or economic footing the sense of responsibility and relationship-based small (e.g. employment, accountability) business loans) small loan)

• Community • Make community a better • Value creation in a people make prayer place (e.g. a decrease in responsible relationship requests socio-economic problems or between the creation and immorality) clients (e.g. corporate social responsibility)

• Requests assist- • Vocational stewardship by • Graduates of job- ance of ECP (e.g., giving our vocational self to training program getting the woman who the society and God’s mission full-time work needed help packag- (e.g. a talent donation, join a ing her food for the neighbourhood project) media)

• Attends different • Mutually giving/sharing • Local teenager going to types of meetings community college

• Frequency of • Faithfulness, diligence, and • People who have meetings integrity in business transac- experienced reconciliation tions

• Church attend- • Peace, harmony, and justice • Story shared by clients ance/participation through the transformed (when and staff in ECP’s sponsored the righteous prosper, the com- activities munity and society rejoices.) bourhood, reflected love is like ‘playing return for additional services, as resi- kindness forward’, because as people dents request other types of assistance receive assistance from the church for the good of the neighbourhood, and plant, they show kindness to someone as there is evidence that neighbours else in need. One facet of reflected love are helping each other. is to note how ECP revenues are used The last dimension, blessing, indi- to help the lives of others within and cates accomplishments and advances outside the community. realized as the result of having access Reflected love for an economic ac- to ECP. The blessing indicator can be tivity is the expression of the reign measured in part by things such as sto- and love of God in its business trans- ries shared by clients and staff, gradu- actions; it is the faithfulness and dili- ates of job-training programs getting gence exhibited on the part of workers full-time work, local teenagers going as their loving response. Tabulation to community college, and the experi- of reflected love can occur as people ence of reconciliation among different 344 Samuel Lee people. It is through qualitative sto- there is a progression from belonging ries, the level of socio-economic and to reflected love. Are the people who education participation, and faith in are involved in activities associated Jesus that one may track the spiritual with ‘belonging’ advancing to demon- transformation and blessing in people’s strate ‘reflected love’? At this juncture, lives. there is need to quantify these activi- These variables will depend on the ties to see if what we are hypothesizing type of business established and the about the operation of ECP is an accu- various ministries of the church. As- rate description of their actual experi- certaining the number of unemployed ence. If the process associated with who had access to job training and ECP, for example, works for five years employment coaching, number of jobs and then ceases to produce additional created, amount of revenue generated, ‘blessings’, it is essential to know this. how money was used, and how resourc- We must not be afraid to scrutinize es were stewarded are illustrations of what we are doing to advance the King- possible variables. What flows through dom of God. these indicators and the variables used The danger with creating quantifi- to measure them is the importance of able results is that people get obsessed relationships. The variables for each with the numbers and fail to keep the dimension are not tabulated to see if statistics firmly attached to the minis- a specific score or number is reached, tries. Quantification is a tool for good but they provide a systematic way of management but can be misused by assessing what is occurring in both the people who want quick answers and church and the business. who fail to understand the real focus This brings us to the last topic we of ECP. Numbers may also be useful want to discuss—how do the meas- to identify areas of weakness in ECP urements help Redeemer Church and endeavours that are struggling or not Dayspring Technologies achieve their fully developed. It is important that as- initial objectives? Danny did not have sessment efforts continue in order to much to say on this point, but scores understand and actualize the benefits. provide a way of seeing if various programs, whether in the church or the business, have returns and what V Conclusion: New Age—New the returns are relative to last year’s. Methods Tracking of outcomes fosters assess- Missions, like many other activities, ment of different ministries. It helps to have fluctuated as theological shifts determine how much use is being made occurred. Accompanying these chang- of different services and whether min- es has been a swing from counting istry programs need to be improved or conversions to demonstrating financial replaced. As a community ages, child- stewardship. Besides the change in care needs may be replaced by needs theological tilt, global changes have for tutoring students or organized also affected missions. One steady activities to keep young people away force in the face of change has been the from gangs and drugs. call of the great commission. Another use of scores is to see if While this call has been a continous Success and Effectiveness of Entrepreneurial Church Planting 345 theme, what constitutes the great com- of Redeemer Church and Dayspring mission has changed from conversion, Technologies reveals the possibility of sometimes achieved in culturally in- developing measures of success—not sensitive ways, to conern about the en- just simple quantifialble metrics but tire individual—spiritual, physical and also ways to assess holistic transfor- social—in culturally appropriate ways. mation. We cannot be content with The response to the call has continued, measures that poorly capture the proc- but in different forms. At the conver- esses at work in ECP. Perhaps more gence of theology, global restrictions, careful study of ECPs in operation and and Spirit-guided response, we see the less theorizing is needed at this time. emergence of church/business endeav- To further the Great Commission re- ors. quires time-consuming case studies. What has guided the evaluation of What becomes clear is that there the church/business approach in this is not one way for an ECP to operate. paper is a concern for stewardship. The emphasis on relationships permits Whatever mission strategy is used, diverse paths to achieve the ultimate fruitfulness must be achieved and at a goal of kingdom-based business done reasonable cost, ie, good stewardship as church planting. There is no single in operation. A current example of a effective model for ECP ministry that fruitful entrepreneurial church plant- fits all communities. Instead, relational ing (ECP) model is Redeemer Com- cooperation opens up the opportunity munity Church and Dayspring Tech- for neighborhood contextualization in nologies. Careful examination of this terms of ECP ministry. enterprise was done to identify salient characteristics of effectiveness, and Those who use ECP need to look be- three emergent dimensions were iden- yond business outcomes or aspects of tified—belonging, reflected love, and running a church to outcomes of king- blessings. Common to all three was a dom transformation. In the process of relational aspect. kingdom transformation as the precur- The relational view of ECP to ad- sor to the new creation, there should dress the three commissions offers a eventually be large scale growth be- corrective to the tension between busi- yond the individual; the scope of atten- ness (economics) and ministry (church tion must be broadened to include the planting). These three dimensions community and society with its struc- identified from qualitative study of tural operations. one ECP need to be tested more thor- We need to introduce and main- oughly. However, on a practical note, tain Kingdom culture within our own this case study provides substantiation sphere of influence as participants of that Kingdom-based business is eco- missio Dei. It is additionally incumbent nomically viable. on us to show others the operation of For practitioners of ECP, the study Kingdom culture in our communities. ERT (2016) 40:4, 346-355 The use of Su¯ra 3:64 in interfaith appeals: dialogue or da‘wa?

Gordon Nickel

I ‘A Common Word’ ‘A Common Word’ appeals to Chris- During the first decade of the 21st cen- tians on the basis of a claim of what tury, one of the most highly publicized Christian and Muslim faith have in events in Christian-Muslim encounter common. In seeking to establish that was the release of the Muslim state- the common belief is love for God and ment, ‘A Common Word between Us the neighbour, the Muslim statement and You’. The statement was posted on appeals to both Christian and Muslim scripture. One of the key texts brought the internet by the Jordanian Royal Aal - al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought into use from the Qur’an is Sura 3, 3 on October 13, 2007,1 and quickly be- verse 64. The verse is quoted in full in came the centrepiece of a flourishing the document’s opening ‘Summary and discussion among Christian leaders in Abridgement’, and again at the start of the West.2 its appeal section. Both passages add free exegesis from the authors. The verse appears a third time in the docu- 1 ‘A Common Word between Us and You’, ment’s final call to Christians to ‘come The Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic together with us on the common essen- Thought, Jordan, 2007, viewed 27 November tials of our two religions’: 2015, http://www.acommonword.com/the- acw-document/. Say: ‘People of the Book! Come now 2 One of the best known of these is the response of the Yale Center for Faith and Cul- ture, ‘Loving God and Neighbor Together: A 3 Michael Nazir-Ali called Sura 3:64 the Christian Response to “A Common Word be- ‘centre-piece’ of the statement’s argument. tween Us and You”’, October 12, 2007, viewed ‘Lingering questions about the Muslim letter’, 28 November 2015, http://www.acommon- The Church of England Newspaper, October word.com/loving-god-and-neighbor-together- 25, 2007, viewed 27 November 2015, http:// a-christian-response-to-a-common-word-be- anglicanmainstream.org/lingering-questions- tween-us-and-you/. about-the-muslim-letter-bishop-nazir-ali/.

Gordon Nickel, PhD is adjunct professor of Islamic Studies at the University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada, and he teaches at other universities in Western Canada and at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School in Chicago. His research is focused on the Qur’a¯n and its relationship to the Bible as well as on Islam in the Modern World. An earlier and more detailed version of this article appeared under the title: ‘Responding to Da’wa: Potential Ambiguities of an Interfaith Appeal’; in Peter G. Riddell, ed., Islam and Christianity on the Edge: Talking points in Christian-Muslim relations into the 21st century, (Brunswick East, Victoria: Acorn Press, 2013), 235-251. The use of Su-ra 3:64 in interfaith appeals 347

to a word common between us and ment itself signals this orthodox reflex you, that we serve none but Allah, when it brings in the classical exegete and that we associate not aught with al-Tabarı- (d. 923/310)6 to help explain Him, and do not some of us take oth- the meaning of Sura 3:64.7 ers as Lords, apart from Allah.’ And The principle that Qur’a- nic texts if they turn their backs, say: ‘Bear come together with a tradition of in- witness that we are Muslims.’4 terpretation is further articulated in another 2007 publication of the Aal al- Bayt Institute. Often misunderstand- II Su-ra 3, verse 64 in Context ings about the Qur’an can be easily Several prominent responses to ‘A cleared up by referring to the classical Common Word’ seem to have shown and recognized Qur’anic commentar- little interest in the question of how ies, such as those of al-Tabari (Jami‘ Qur’a- nic passages used in the state- al-bayan ‘an ta’wil ayat al-Qur’an), Fa- ment have been understood by Mus- khr al-Din al-Razi (Mafatih al-Ghayb, or lims. Yet this would seem to be an al-Tafsir al-Kabir), Ibn Kathir (Tafsir Ibn essential component of becoming fa- Kathir), al-Qurtubi (al-Jami‘ li-ahkam miliar with meanings and intentions al-Qur’an), al-Baydawi (Tafsir al-Bay- in dialogue with Muslims. For most dawi), al-Zamakhshari (al-Kashshaf ‘an Muslims, the Qur’a- n comes along Haqa’iq al-Tanzil), and many others with a tradition about how it is to be who are well known to the scholarly understood. This is especially impor- tradition, and which are our starting tant for the ‘Common Word’ statement, point.8 because the Aal al-Bayt Institute rep- This short essay takes the question resents Islamic Traditionalism, not of the meaning of Su- ra 3:64 into the Modernism or Islamism.5 The docu- classical Muslim commentaries recommended by the Aal al-Bayt Institute as - supplying clear understandings of the 4 Translations from the Qur’an, unless oth- - erwise indicated, are those of Arthur Arberry, Qur’an. Among the many interesting The Koran Interpreted (Oxford: Oxford Univer- details in these explanations, attention sity Press, 1960). Here and throughout this will be focused on how traditional Mus- study I have put ‘Allah’ in place of Arberry’s lim tafsı-r has characterized the terms ‘God’, because neither the context of Su-ra 3:64 nor the Islamic interpretive tradition on of the interfaith encounter to which the verse indicates a generic understanding of commentators understand the verse to ‘God’. In fact, this would seem to be one of the main points of Su-ra 3:64 as well as of many other verses in the Qur’a- n. 6 This indicates the year of al-Tabarı-’s death 5 Jon Hoover, ‘A Common Word: More posi- in both A.D. and A.H. (‘Anno Hegirae’—lunar tive and open, yet mainstream and orthodox’, years dated from the hijra in 622 A.D.). Theological Review, vol. 30, 2009, 50-77, here 7 ‘A Common Word between Us and You’, 55. Jon Hoover (53-57) explains that one of immediately on pages 2-3, and more fully on the reasons for the organized effort behind page 14. the ‘Common Word’ statement was a desire to 8 Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought, wrest control of discourse about Islam away Jihad and the Islamic Law of War (Amman, from Islamists and Islamic modernists. 2007), p. 77, nt. 5. 348 Gordon Nickel refer.9 The subsequent discussion will mentaries on the Qur’a- n, including the explore the range of possible Christian earliest complete extant commentary, responses to ‘A Common Word’, com- the Tafs-ır of Muqa- til ibn Sulayma- n (d. ing out of a thorough familiarity with 767/150).13 the Islamic interpretive tradition on Ibn Isha- q enclosed the entire text of - Su- ra 3:64. Al ‘Imra- n 1-64 in a narrative about the encounter of Muhammad with the Na- jra- n Christians. The Christians, writes III Traditional Narrative of the Ibn Isha- q, attempt to make a case for First Recitation of Q 3:64 the deity of Jesus to Muhammad. They The ‘common word’ verse and its confess, ‘he is Allah’, ‘he is the son of Qur’a- nic context come together in Allah’, and ‘he is the third of three’. Muslim thought with a very strong Muhammad commands the Christians tradition about its so-called ‘occasion to ‘submit’. At this point, according - of revelation’. Muslim commentators to Ibn Ishaq, Allah sends down the - - 14 are generally agreed that the first first 80 verses ofl A ‘Imran. Many - - eighty or so verses of Su- rat Al ‘Imra- n Muslim commentators on the Qur’an were recited in response to a delega- offered the story of the delegation of - tion of Christians who came to Madı-na Christians from Najran closer to their - - from Najra- n.10 This is the claim of the explanations of Sura 3:64. Muqatil be- - earliest Muslim biography of Muham- gan his narrative of the Najran visit at mad, the Sı-rat al-nabı- of Ibn Isha- q (d. verse 59 and continued it through his 767/150).11 The best-known Muslim interpretation of verse 64. His inter- work of the ‘occasions of revelation’ of pretation of these six verses could be Qur’a- nic verses, the Asba- b al-nuzu-l of said to be completely within the narra- - al-Wa- hidı- (d. 1076/468), supports this tive. For Muqatil, the antagonists were dating of the passage.12 This tradition the Christians until verse 65, where he is also offered by many Muslim com- turned abruptly to include the leading Jews of Madı-na. The traditional narrative of the visit 9 Greater detail on the Islamic interpretive of the Christians from Najra- n is that a - tradition on Sura 3:64, as well as on the con- delegation comes to Madı-na from the text of the verse, is provided in Gordon Nickel, Yemen to make terms with Muham- ‘“A Common Word” in Context: Toward the roots of polemics between Christians and mad when his conquest of the Arabian 15 Muslims in Early Islam’, Collectanea Christiana Peninsula seems unavoidable. The Orientalia, vol. 6, 2009, pp. 167-200. Christians explain to Muhammad their 10 Mahmoud M. Ayoub, The Qur’an and Its In- terpreters, Vol. II, The House of ‘Imra-n, (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), 1. 13 Tafsı-r Muqa-til ibn Sulayma-n, ed. Abd Alla-h ------11 Ibn Ish.aq, Sırat al-nabı, ed. Muh.ammad Mahmud Shihata (Beirut: Mu’assasat al-Ta’rıkh Muhı-ya- al-Dı-n ‘Abd al-Hamı-d, ed. (Cairo: al-‘Arabiyya, 2002), I:261. Maktaba Muh.ammad ‘Alı- Sabı-h wa Awla-d, 14 Ibn Isha-q, II: 414-415. 1963), II:415. 15 Ibn Isha-q, II:412-422. English transla- 12 Abu- al-Hasan al-Nı-sa-bu-rı- al-Wa-hidı-, Asba- tion Alfred Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad b al-nuzu-l, (Beirut: Da-r al-Kutub al-‘Ilimiyya, (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1955), 270- 2006), 50. 277. The use of Su-ra 3:64 in interfaith appeals 349 belief in the deity of Jesus, and Muham- These strongly negative descrip- mad denies their claims. At the end of tions connected in the mind of Muqa- til Muh.ammad’s recitation of Su- ra 3:1-64, to the Christian refusal in the story to according to Ibn Isha- q, Allah com- give up their belief in the deity of Je- mands Muhammad to challenge the sus and accept tawhı-d. When he came Christians to mutual invocation of a to Su- ra 3:64, the exegete understood curse (mula- ‘ana).16 The Christians dis- ‘a word common’ (kalimatin sawa- ’in) cuss the matter among themselves and to mean ‘a word of justice (‘adl)’.19 decide not to participate in the cursing On the phrase, ‘and do not some of us ceremony. Instead they leave Muh.am- take others as Lords, apart from Al- mad in his religion and return to Najra- n lah’, Muqa- til explained, ‘Because [the to practise their own religion.17 Christians] took ‘ı-sa- as a lord’.20 ‘If they turn’ means ‘if they reject (aba- ) tawhı-d’. IV Interpretations during the Al-Tabarı-, the first of the great Mus- early Muslim Centuries lim exegetes of the classical period, The great Muslim commentators of signalled his approach to Su- ra 3:64 the Islamic interpretive tradition had - already at the beginning of his com- much to say about Su- rat Al ‘Imra- n in ments on the third su-ra. He wrote that general, as well as about Su- ra 3:64 the message of the verse applies to the in particular. As noted above, Muqa- til Christians of Najra- n as well as to any interpreted Su- ra 3:64 in the midst of other people ‘who share in their rejec- his narrative about the delegation of tion of faith (kufr) in Allah by taking Christians from Najra- n. In the verse another being beside Him as a lord and immediately preceding, Muqa- til a god and a deity (ma‘bu-d)’.21 understood the Christians to be ‘the At the end of the third Islamic cen- - workers of corruption’ (mufsidun); tury, al-T.abarı- knew traditions which he completed the scriptural phrase connected Su- ra 3:64 with the Jews of by adding ‘…in the earth through Madı-na, as well as traditions which - - 18 rebellion’ (al-ma‘ası). identified the Christians from Najra- n.22 al-Tabarı- concluded that the verse concerns the ‘people of two books’, be- 16 Ibn Isha-q, II:422. Widely known in Mus- lim tradition as the muba-hala. R. Strothmann, cause both the people of the Torah and ‘Die Muba-hala in Tradition und Liturgie’, Der Islam, (1957), 33:5-29. 17 Ibn Isha-q, II:422. The earliest Muslim An Arabic-English Lexicon: Derived from the sources offer a diversity of details of the dis- best and most copious Eastern sources (London: cussion which occurs among the Najra-n Chris- Williams and Norgate, 1874), book I, part tians in response to Muhammad’s muba-hala 5:2069). - challenge. See Gordon Nickel, ‘”We Will Make 19 Muqatil, I:281. The noun ‘adl can have a Peace With You”: The Christians of Najra-n in number of other senses, including equity, rec- Muqa-til’s Tafsı-r’, Collectanea Christiana Orien- titude, equivalence, and balance. Lane, Book talia, (2006) 3:171-188. I, 5:1974. - 18 Plural of ma‘siya. The verb ‘asa- carries 20 Muqatil, I:281. - the sense of disobedience, rebellion, opposi- 21 al-T.abarı, VI:151. tion and resistance. (Edward William Lane, 22 al-Tabarı-, VI:483-5. 350 Gordon Nickel the people of the Gospel were intended ties, are that no other being except by this call.23 From the expression ‘a Allah be obeyed, bowed down to, wor- word common (sawa- ’)’, al-Tabarı- un- shipped, or prayed to.27 What the op- derstood a ‘just (‘adl)’ word.24 ponents are ‘turning away from’ is the al-T.abarı-’s discussion of theologi- oneness (tawhı-d) of Allah, and loyal cal issues begins at the start of his worship of him. comments on the verse and continues al-Zamakhsharı- (d. 538 A.H./1144 throughout. The ‘just word’ that the A.D.) was another major Muslim ex- verse is referring to is that ‘we declare egete who understood Su- ra 3:64 to Allah to be one, and not worship other be addressed to ‘the people of the two than him, and remain free from every books’—the delegation of Christians deity except him, and not associate from Najra- n and the Jews of Madı-na.28 anything with him.’ In his preliminary The expression, ‘common between paraphrase of ‘we do not take one an- us and you’, he took to mean ‘on the other as lords’, he wrote, ‘we do not same level (mustawiya) between us and owe obedience to one another, by which you’, concerning which the Qur’a- n, we would defy (ma‘a- sı-) Allah, and mag- Torah and Gospel do not disagree. nify [another] by worshipping him in This ‘word’, wrote al-Zamakhsharı-, is the way the Lord is worshipped.’25 then explained by the rest of the verse. To support his point, al-Tabarı- He immediately wrote that the call in brought in a cross reference from Su- ra these words means that ‘we not say 9:31: ‘They have taken their rabbis that Ezra is the son of Allah or that the and their monks as lords apart from Messiah is the son of Allah’. Allah, and the Messiah, Mary’s son— Here the exegete is using the and they were commanded to serve but wording of Su- ra 9:30, a verse which One God; there is no god but He; glory strongly assails Jews and Christians be to Him, above that they associate.’ for making these confessions. Neither By quoting this verse in connection Ezra nor the Messiah may be called with Su- ra 3:64, al-Tabarı- made explicit the son of Allah, ‘because each of them that he had in mind not only religious is a human being (bashar) like us’.29 leaders, but also Jesus. He transmitted al-Zamakhsharı-’s concern was wrong a tradition that through such worship, authority and obedience: he wrote that Jews and Christians commit acts of the verse is a call to not obey the rabbis disobedience (ma‘siya) against Allah.26 in their ‘innovations of prohibition and His concerns, and those of his authori- permission without recourse to what Allah has prescribed’.30

23 al-Tabarı-, VI:485. - 24 al-Tabarı-, VI:483, 486, 487. 27 al-T.abarı, VI:488 (obey, worship, pray) & 25 al-Tabarı-, VI:483. 489 (bow down). - - - - - 26 al-Tabarı-, VI:488, trad. 7200. The term 28 Abu al-Qasim Jar Allah Mahmud ibn ‘Umar - - - ma‘siya also carries the sense of ‘insubordi- al-Zamakhsharı, al-Kashshaf ‘an haqa’iq al------nation, refractoriness; insurrection, revolt, tanzıl wa ‘uyun al-aqawıl fı wujuh al-ta’wıl (Bei- - sedition’. Hans Wehr, A Dictionary of Modern rut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilimiyya, 2006), I:363. - Written Arabic (4th edition) (Wiesbaden: Otto 29 al-Zamakhsharı, I:364. Harrassowitz, 1979), 723. 30 al-Zamakhsharı-, I:364. The use of Su-ra 3:64 in interfaith appeals 351

In support of his argument al- tion of authority for law. ‘[This phrase] Zamakhsharı- then quoted Sura 9:31, means that we not follow them in mak- with its specification of taking rabbis, ing lawful or unlawful except what Al- monks or the Messiah as lords. He ap- lah has made lawful.’36 The exegete parently agreed with the claim of Mu- brought in Su- ra 9:31 for cross refer- qa- til and al-Tabarı- that the Christian ence: ‘They have taken their rabbis confession of Messiah as Lord clashes and their monks as lords apart from with the worship of one God. God….’ The Jews and Christians gave their rabbis and monks the same status as their Lord in accepting their V Letter to the Byzantine prohibitions and sanctions when Allah Emperor had neither forbidden nor permitted Born at the opposite end of the Mus- these.37 Apart from Allah, wrote al- lim Empire, the Spanish exegete al- Qurtubı-, people must not take anyone Qurtubı- (d. 1272/671) seemed inter- as lord, ‘not Jesus and not Ezra and not ested mainly in the legal implications the angels’ (which connects partly to - 31 of Sura 3:64. He mentioned that the Su- ra 9:30). These have no status to de- verse had been connected with a docu- termine law, ‘because they are human - ment (kitab) which Muhammad is re- (bashar) like us’.38 ported to have sent to the Byzantine emperor Heraclius.32 Though this story is not cited in the commentaries sur- VI Meaning and Response veyed to this point, it is offered as a A survey of other traditional interpre- - - - hadıth in the kitab al-tafsır in the collec- tations of Su- ra 3:64 reveals a remarka- - - 33 tion of al-Bukharı. The letter, accord- ble consensus among Muslim exegetes - ing to al-Qurtubı, contains a charge to during the formative and classical ‘the mighty one of Rome’ to submit periods of Islam that the verse and and embrace Islam. ‘Then Allah would its Qur’a- nic context were to be under- grant you a double reward. But if you stood as part of a polemical challenge turn away, you will have to bear the sin to non-Muslims. All of the commen- - - 34 (ithm) of the Arısiyyın.’ Following this taries, from the earliest in existence charge, the text of Su- ra 3:64 is includ- through to the present day,39 under- ed in the letter.35 stand Q 3:64 to be addressed to people In his explanation of the phrase, who have a false concept of deity. They ‘and do not some of us take others as Lords, apart from Allah’, al-Qurtubı- seemed concerned about the founda- 36 al-Qurtubı-, IV:106. 37 al-Qurtubı-, IV:106. 38 al-Qurtubı-, IV:107. 31 al-Qurtubı-, IV:105-107. - 39 The direction of interpretation of 3:64 in 32 al-Qurtubı, IV:105. popular modern Muslim commentaries is indi- - - - 33 Muhammad ibn Ibrahım ibn al-Mughıra al- cated in Gordon Nickel, ‘”A Common Word” in ------Bukharı, Sahıh al-Bukharı (Cairo: Mustafa al- Qur’a- nic Context and Commentary’, The Cen------Babı al-Halabı wa Awlad, 1926), kitab al-tafsır. tre for Islamic Studies & Muslim-Christian - 34 al-Qurtubı, IV:105-106. Relations, Occasional Paper no. 9, August 35 al-Qurtubı-, IV:106. 2009, 13. 352 Gordon Nickel perceive the challenge of Su- ra 3:64 to that the Aal al-Bayt scholars were not be a call to the Muslim concept of deity, familiar with the interpretive tradition summarized by the term tawhı-d. on Su- ra 3:64 seems problematic and None of the Muslim commentators possibly insulting. That they did in- surveyed in this study—and recom- deed know the tradition is suggested mended by the Aal al-Bayt Institute— by their reference to al-Tabarı-’s inter- - . understood the expression sawa’ in Q pretation of Su- ra 3:64 within the docu- 3:64 to refer to a theological concept ment.42 held ‘in common’ by Muslims, Chris- The Aal al-Bayt Institute is Tradi- tians and Jews. Some of the exegetes tionalist by its own self-identification, saw the verse to be part of an exem- and the larger project of which ‘A Com- plary argument for the Muslim view of mon Word’ is a part seeks to reassert Jesus. However, two of the commenta- the priority of traditionalist scholarly tors took the verse in a political direc- authority.43 On the other hand, for non- tion. By bringing in the story of a letter sent by Muhammad to the Byzantine Muslims to assume that the state- emperor Heraclius, al-Qurtubi and also ment’s authors are simply taking a Ibn Kathı-r appear to have associated ‘Protestant’ or post-modern freedom to Su- ra 3:64 with military negotiations interpret the verse in a new way seems related to the expansion of the Muslim unhelpful—this freedom is exactly Empire.40 what traditionalist Muslims repudiate. These findings raise two questions Christians who are familiar with the related to the meaning of ‘A Common Islamic interpretive tradition described Word’ and an appropriate response to in this essay will wonder about the it: What does the ‘Common Word’ doc- prominence of Su- ra 3:64 in the Mus- ument mean when it makes prominent lim appeal. This could lead to a wide use of Su- ra 3:64? How are Christians range of responses. To interact vigor- to respond authentically to the docu- ously with the content of ‘A Common ment knowing the Islamic interpretive Word’ seems to suit the spirit of the tradition on this verse? classical commentaries on Su- ra 3:64, The Aal al-Bayt Institute has stated as well as the story which Muslim ex- that the Islamic interpretive tradition egetes have indicated as its ‘occasion represented by the commentaries ex- of revelation’. It must be noted that amined in this study is the ‘starting medieval commentators did not under- point’ for a clear understanding of the stand making a strong theological case - 41 Qur’an. How then are non-Muslims to be an act of disrespect toward the to understand the use of Su- ra 3:64 in partner in the dialogue. In fact, al-Ra- zı- the ‘Common Word’ appeal? To assume seems to have seen the content of Su- ra 3:64 and the strength of Muh.ammad’s 40 On the story of Muh.ammad’s letter and theological argument to be proofs of re- its meaning, see Gordon Nickel, ‘Conquest and Controversy: Intertwined themes in the Islamic interpretive tradition’, Numen, 42 ‘A Common Word between Us and You’, p. (2011)58:232-258. 14. 41 Jihad and the Islamic Law of War, 77, nt. 5. 43 Hoover, ‘A Common Word’, 55-57. The use of Su-ra 3:64 in interfaith appeals 353 spect for Christians.44 as Son of God and Lord. He called for ‘mutual witness and learning’ in place of the ‘one-way street’ he perceived in VII Possible Christian the Muslim appeal.46 Responses In a similar response to Nazir-Ali’s, One possible response to ‘A Common Jon Hoover wrote that even apart from - Word’—on the basis of its use of Su- ra its use of Sura 3:64, ‘A Common Word’ 3:64—would be to treat the entire strikes an overall tone of what he calls 47 document with suspicion. The Barna- ‘the inclusive supremacy of Islam’. bas Fund drew attention to the promi- The Muslim document in fact appeals nence of Su- ra 3:64, described tradi- to Christians to change the way they tional Muslim understandings of the conceive their faith, but not in the tra- verse, and characterized the letter as ditional way of simply calling Christian faith false. Rather, ‘A Common Word’ a classic expression of Islamic mission does this ‘obliquely’ by classifying (da‘wa).45 central aspects of Christian faith as Another possibility would be to re- ‘formal’ rather than essential.48 But spond to an undercurrent in ‘A Com- the document does not address, and mon Word’—neither hidden nor ex- certainly does not countenance, essen- plicitly declared—of a dictation of the tial differences between the two faiths. terms of the dialogue. Michael Nazir- Hoover suggested that participants Ali, for example, found the document in the ‘Common Word’ discussions to be calling for dialogue on the basis of at least acknowledge the difficulty of the Muslim concept of the unity of God. this ‘supremacy’ approach so that the The document implies that Christians conversation can move ahead meaning- have compromised their monotheism, fully. said Nazir-Ali, by referring to verses With the interpretive tradition of which have traditionally been under- Su- ra 3:64 in mind, some Christians stood to deny Christian beliefs about have also sought to respond to the per- Jesus. Nazir-Ali rightly pointed out that ceived polemical challenge in ‘A Com- Su- ra 3:64 has been associated with Su- mon Word’ by affirming the truth of ra 9:30-31 in the Islamic interpretive the gospel. The response of the World tradition—verses which explicitly crit- Evangelical Alliance, after expressing icize Christians for confessing Jesus gratitude for the Muslim initiative, acknowledged the call to Christians in - - the document ‘to become Muslims’, 44 al-Razı, vol. VIII, pp. 85-86. One wonders then responded in kind. ‘May we…in- whether at least some of the traditionalist authors of ‘A Common Word’ were not anticipat- vite you to put your faith in God, who ing a more vigorous response from Christians. forgives our opposition to him and sin 45 Barnabas Fund, ‘Response to open letter and call from Muslim religious leaders to Chris- tian leaders’, 13 October 2007, viewed 27 No- 46 Nazir-Ali, ‘Lingering questions about the vember 2015, http://www.quranandinjil.org/ Muslim letter’. downloads_files/Response_to_open_letter 47 Hoover, ‘A Common Word’, 76. _and_call_from_Muslim_religious_leaders_ 48 Hoover, ‘A Common Word’, 73, referring to to_Christian_leaders_13_October_2007.pdf. ‘A Common Word’, 13. 354 Gordon Nickel through what his son Jesus Christ did concluded that from a Christian per- for us at the cross?’49 spective, ‘I come to know God as He Along with this, a Christian re- revealed Himself in Jesus Christ, not sponse may want to question and per- through the commandment or through haps challenge the use of scripture a text.’51 At the heart of God’s self- in other parts of the document. This revelation in Jesus, wrote Awad, is the naturally leads to a questioning of the redemptive death and resurrection of document’s claim to common beliefs, Jesus. ‘The cross and resurrection reveal built as it is upon its treatment of the Love of God for us, and consequently those scriptures. It seems remarkable the knowledge that God is Love.’52 Fur- that several prominent responses to ther, Awad explained that people are ‘A Common Word’ apparently declined to love their neighbour, which in the to probe the statement’s claim that teaching of Jesus extends to the enemy, love of God and neighbour is a central ‘because we were loved by God when we theme in Islam—especially consider- were still enemies of God’.53 Awad based ing that there is no command in the his statement on Romans 5:6, 8 & 10: Qur’a- n to love either God or people, and that the verses incidentally refer- …When we were still powerless, ring to human love for God are limited Christ died for the ungodly….But to a maximum of five.50 Approaching God demonstrates his love for us the mild end of the spectrum of possi- in this: While we were still sinners, ble responses might be an affirmation Christ died for us…. For if, when of the Muslim statement’s indication of we were God’s enemies, we were love as a central theme in Christianity reconciled to him through the death and a request to Muslims to seek to of his Son, how much more, having understand Christian meanings. Beirut been reconciled, shall we be saved New Testament professor Johnny Awad through his life! wrote that when ‘A Common Word’ Fully appreciative of the Muslim claims that Muslims and Christians initiative, Awad invited the writers of share a belief in love for God and love for neighbour, Christians must be clear ‘A Common Word’ to put aside Muslim about who they believe God to be, and preconceptions and to begin to look at what they mean by divine love. Christianity the way Christians under- Awad quoted Hebrews 1:1-4 and stand it.

49 ‘We Too Want to Live in Love, Peace, Free- dom and Justice’, p. 2, viewed 27 November 2015, http://www.acommonword.com/lib/ downloads/We_Too_Want_to_Live_in_Love_ 51 Johnny B. Awad, ‘Who is My God and Who Peace_Freedom_and_Justice.pdf. is My neighbor? A Response to “A Common 50 A careful survey of the Qur’a- nic vocabu- Word Between Us and You”’, Theological Re- lary of love is Gordon Nickel, ‘The Language view, (2009), 30:81. (Italics Awad’s.) of Love in Qur’a- n and Gospel’, in Sacred Text: 52 Awad, ‘Who is My God’, 82. (Italics Explorations in Lexicography, eds. Juan Pedro Awad’s.) Monferrer-Sala and Angel Urban (Frankfurt 53 Awad, ‘Who is My God’, 86. (Italics am Main: Peter Lang, 2009), pp. 229-235. Awad’s). The use of Su-ra 3:64 in interfaith appeals 355

VIII Greater Honesty and interrogative responses to ‘A Common Effectiveness in Dialogue Word’ may actually facilitate interfaith mutuality more effectively. Christian responses which have found ambiguity in ‘A Common Word’ and Christians seek to abide by the ex- have raised questions about meanings hortation: ‘If it is possible, as far as it and intentions should not automati- depends on you, live at peace with eve- cally be seen as contrary to the goal of ryone’ (Romans 12:18). Whenever and authentic dialogue. As Michael Nazir- wherever Christians fail to obey this Ali suggested, ‘The letter writers are command in relationship with Mus- theologically serious and Christians lims, there should be apology and re- owe it to them to respond with equal pentance. But beyond even peaceful seriousness.’54 On the wider phenom- coexistence is the peace of the gospel, enon of interfaith dialogue, both Chris- which comes through the death and tians and Muslims have criticized some resurrection of Jesus. ‘He himself is official statements and gatherings as our peace’ (Ephesians 2:14). The peace not actually representing orthodox be- which reconciles people to God and to lievers in either Christianity or Islam, each other comes ‘through his blood, and thus not addressing the important shed on the cross’ (Colossians 2:20). differences between the two faiths.55 When Christians put gospel witness Lamin Sanneh has further sug- to the side, even for the goals of friend- gested that the separation of dialogue ly relations and interfaith dialogue, from witness by some leaders in the they risk losing the only message West has cut off important dimensions which can lead to true peace with God which a missionary tradition can con- and neighbour. A commitment to gos- tribute. ‘Witness would demand mak- pel peace cannot mean abandoning the ing an effort to understand and be truths of the gospel upon which peace understood by others, with persuasion the rule in intercultural relations.’56 is built. Therefore, coming out of a fa- Seen in this way, some of the strongest miliarity with the Islamic interpretive tradition, a reasonable and appropriate Christian response to ‘A Common 54 Nazir-Ali, Lingering questions about the Word’ could include a combination of Muslim letter’. components: an expression of grati- 55 One charge against dialogue, as Lamin Sanneh has described it, is ‘attempting to cre- tude to the Aal al-Bayt Institute for ate a speculative syncretism in order to undertaking the initiative; a respect for the mine faith in the interests of interfaith har- partner in the dialogue; a return query mony’. Piety & Power: Muslims and Christians concerning meanings and intentions; in West Africa (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, a lively loyalty to Jesus Christ as Lord 1996), pp. 6-12, here p. 6. 56 Sanneh, Piety & Power: Muslims and and Saviour; and a freedom to affirm Christians in West Africa (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis the gospel distinctives which are es- Books, 1996), 9. sential to biblical faith. ERT (2016) 40:4, 356-368 Three Horizons for Theology

Klaus Bockmuehl

Why do theology? To which end, and for ‘no longer live for themselves’ (2 Cor what purpose does one teach and study 5:15)—how would something not be theology? determinative for Christian theology In a time which questions the past and which characterizes the Christian life all traditions that are thoughtlessly in- as a whole? herited, and in a time that endeavours The problem arises from the tension to live rationally, one needs to have inherent in theology’s position: it has reason for doing theology. There are to acquire knowledge and then to dis- enough people around who challenge pense it, i.e., to serve with it, to apply theology as unnecessary, or even ille- that knowledge. It is a dialectic of take gitimate; as immaterial, irrelevant, un- and give, of collecting and dispens- productive, or as ‘mere theory’. What ing, of theory and practice, truth and is theology for? would be a question love—another of those cases where naturally asked e.g. by all who have you need to have both, two times one imbibed America’s spirit of pragma- hundred per cent. tism. Often, those who do theology As fallible human beings, we never have themselves little theoretical clar- find that easy. Nevertheless, the con- ity about their purposes and horizons. cept of teaching contains already, (If they had this clarity, it would much structurally, the two sides of collecting more visibly influence their everyday and dispensing, taking in and giving work.) out, inasmuch as teaching itself pre- The answer to these questions lies supposes learning. Christian theology in a rediscovery and recapitulation of in its very nature addresses itself to theology’s intrinsic purposes and hori- people, i.e., to a horizon and purpose zons. Theology does not rest in itself, beyond itself. it does not hold its meaning in itself. It receives its dignity from its points of reference. I Theology’s Horizon: The Using a term from recent philo- Church sophical anthropology, we might speak The horizon of theology that comes to of theology’s ‘eccentric’ (ex-centric) mind most immediately is the church. existence, i.e. as an entity that has its Theology is to serve the church, to help centre outside itself. Christians are to towards the edification of the ‘Temple

This is a re-print of an article first published in our issue of January 1981 (11:1), pages 5-20. At the time, the author, Professor Klaus Bockmuehl, (D Theol, Basel) was professor of Systematic Theology at Regent College, Vancouver, Canada. Bockmuehl, a former chaplain and parish minister, had also served on the faculty of St Chrischona Seminary, Basel, and was a member of the WEA Theological Commission 1976-1980. Three Horizons for Theology 357 of God’ which is made up of human be- ans, has given us a handy and concise ings. Theology serves to expand and formula for these aspects of service, constantly to restore that building, the which theology must adopt: it is com- church. mitted to ‘the defence and confirma- One may see this perhaps under the tion of the gospel’ (Phil 1:7). That in- image of St. Francis’ reconstructing a cludes defence: the theologian will in small dilapidated chapel outside the part resemble a watchdog who defends city of Assisi, originally dedicated to the flock, or at least detects, engages, the delivery from the plague. This was perhaps unmasks the assailant. This the first step which St. Francis of As- represents the task of apologetics. For sisi chose to take after his conversion a variety of reasons, that today is a dif- in order to demonstrate his love of God. ficult and unpleasant task. But in prin- Or one might compare it to the more ciple, the church is always, as it were, elaborate masons’ guild who work to- moving in hostile territory where the wards the completion of a cathedral duties of reconnaissance and defence but continue all the time with the work are indispensable. of restoration that never comes to an Using a reference that has often end with such a large structure, espe- been pondered in the history of Chris- cially today when industry’s emissions tian doctrine, we might say that the- of acid smoke attack and corrode the ology, serving the church, in its own building material. ways continues Christ’s threefold The church is never established work, his prophetic, priestly, and royal once and for all. This is obvious in view offices: the prophetic office in the task of the ever-flowing stream of genera- of teaching, the priestly office defined tions of humanity. The people of God as ‘presenting every man mature in are under the charge ‘that we should Christ’ (Col 1:28), and the royal of- not hide the things that we have heard fice, not in the sense of dominion (Mt and known, that our fathers have told 20:20), not according to the human ad- us, but tell the coming generation of age, ‘Knowledge is power’, but in the the glorious deeds of the Lord and his Old Testament sense of a king’s task might and the wonderful works that he of shepherding and service to the peo- has done’ (Ps 74:3f.). ple—in a word, pastoral work. This then is the horizon of theol- Teaching, nurturing, shepherding ogy: the future life of the church; to and defending the church: this is the present each generation anew with continuation of Christ’s own work. the evidence of God’s grace and glory. This was at first the work of the apos- Therefore theology must always be- tle, summed up by Paul in the words, come contemporary, although it has its ‘my concern for all the churches’ (2 fundaments and its basic content, its Cor 11:28). It is then also an attitude ‘dogma’ in the past. Dogma, i.e., that and ethos which the theologian must which is to be taught, is for us not just follow. If we pray for the church with a collection of doctrinal propositions, the words of the Psalmist: ‘O God, see but primarily the facts of the history of and have regard for this vine and the salvation. vineyard which your right hand has Paul, in his letter to the Philippi- planted’ (Ps 80:14f.), we must also 358 Klaus Bockmuehl be ready to be employed by God in the God’s creation. respective work of cultivation in God’s This can be seen in at least three plantation. directions. One is the basic work of Some of us indeed need a new dedi- the sustainment of the lives of people cation and commitment to the church in times of material need. In Scrip- as such. This applies in two ways: ture, the symbolic figure for this kind one, that we distinguish between the of work is Joseph in Egypt, Joseph the ‘macro-’ and the ‘micro-’ aspect of Provider who understands his commis- the church (as they speak of macro- sion as: ‘God has sent me … to pre- and micro-economics). We must learn serve life …, to keep alive many survi- to concern ourselves both with the vors’, through a period of utter poverty present and with the prospects of the and starvation (Gen 45:5–7). whole of Christianity (‘my concern for Theology’s task, then, is to teach a all the churches’), the macro-aspect, householder-ethic, to keep this horizon and with the welfare of our immediate of preserving life in mind all the time fellow-Christian or our own congrega- and to inspire and train those people tion, the micro-aspect. who are meant to take practical re- Secondly, commitment to the life of sponsibility in this way. the church may mean that we put its Second, this programme of physical welfare and prosperity before all other preservation has its counterpart in the considerations. If we all now apply our- realm of the moral and spiritual. The- selves to social ethics: to the poor, to ology mediates what sometimes has race relations, and to the problems of been called the ‘civilizing effect of the peace, who will make the well-being gospel’. This comes to pass primarily of the ‘vineyard’ their overarching pur- through the proclamation of the com- pose? mandments. Their work is the civi- Clearly, theology is the maid-servant lization and ordering of the wild and of the church, and those are mistaken untamed drives and inclinations of who pursue theology as an end in itself humanity. We can think of the moral or feel responsible only to a community education of humanity as cultivating of of scholars. If it should come to pass some acreage or even as opening up a that we become estranged from this whole continent. It takes the form of first horizon of theology, the commit- ‘forays into the primeval forest’, the ment to the church, we might at least creation of clearances which are then begin to recover ground by permitting tilled and cultivated to bring produce this horizon to form and determine our and fruit in the sustainment of social prayer, our prayer of intercession. life. In his attempt to prove the non- existence of God, John Wisdom, the II Theology’s Horizon: British agnostic, devised the intriguing Humanity analogy of a clearing in the jungle, with Christian theology has a commitment nicely laid-out garden beds, but where to a second horizon, i.e. to humanity. you were never able to see the gar- Its purpose here is the physical and dener, nor ever to trap him—perhaps spiritual sustainment of humanity as by night, through spread-out wires or Three Horizons for Theology 359 some means—proving in effect that and women who have a distinct and re- there could not be a gardener at all. generating effect on the life of society The British philosopher, A. J. Ayer, also. Again here, theology must teach chose a very pertinent and meaningful the macro- and the micro-aspect of the image. The world, human society and Christian commitment to the sustain- civilization especially, indeed is similar ment of humanity, to mankind as much to such an opening in the midst of na- as to the man who fell among the rob- ture seen as a vast, unchartable forest. bers. (The image, by the way, also intimates The physical and moral sustainment that the question of how order in the of humanity is not a horizon of theol- midst of chaos and wilderness could ogy to which evangelicals relate easily. have come about, whether by chance or Sometimes their general attitude is not not, i.e. the teleological argument for dissimilar to the mediaeval lifestyle of the existence of God, can never come withdrawal and contemplation of an- to rest!) other world. Even when their interest However, not only is the develop- is directed to the world we are living ment of human life and culture a task of in, evangelicals tend to concentrate moral education in the beginning: civi- on and limit their loyalty to church or lization and culture need continued care chapel. and maintenance; they must constantly Such attitude tends to be little con- be defended against the pressure of the cerned with the question, ‘Where is surrounding jungle of moral anarchism humanity going?’ and dispenses itself and chaos. Of this battle in defence of from the household-ethos laid out ear- civilized human existence against the lier. Sometimes, therefore, one has to destructive forces in human nature the look to some of the mainline churches Spanish philosopher Jose Ortega y Gas- to find a place where the sustainment set said, ‘Rest and relax for a moment, of creation and compassion for the and the jungle creeps in’. There can large flock of sheep without a shepherd be no culture or civilization without a find a denominational homestead. moral and spiritual structure that is In a dramatic way, shortly before constantly serviced. the outbreak of World War II, evangeli- Theology has this task of teaching cals were challenged to recover this and maintaining God’s creational or- wider horizon of the biblical household- dinances and commandments and so er ethic. In a memorable speech given helping to fulfil God’s cultural commis- in Sweden in 1938, Frank N. D. Buch- sion to sustain human life. Without this man, the founder of the Oxford Group ongoing work, nations will sink into movement, challenged his listeners godlessness, anarchy, and self-destruc- to go beyond their established inter- tion. At the same time, this means set- ests. Some wished to see their own ting up the presupposition for the fulfil- lives changed, he said. That was good ment of Christ’s great commission. and indeed necessary. Some hoped to The third contribution of theology learn how to change others. Very good towards the preservation of culture also. Some were looking out for a re- and human existence lies in the prac- vival. Even better! But then there was tical presentation of regenerate men a fourth level of concern, namely the 360 Klaus Bockmuehl question: how can a crumbling civiliza- sponds to the observation of the divine tion be saved? ordinance for creation and the blessing This is where evangelicals some- coming with it. ‘To save a crumbling times find it difficult to follow. It is con- civilization’ means nothing else than ceivable that in the summer of 1938, to go back to the Ten Commandments some people would have made fun of and especially the First, and to teach the phrase, ‘to save a crumbling civi- nations respectively. lization’, because they could not per- In addition, theology—through the ceive a threat to society of that magni- church—owes the world the proclama- tude. Worse, some evangelicals might tion of the gospel, the implementation have said to themselves as a matter of of the Great Commission, making disci- principle: ‘What do I care? I hold no ples of all nations. It is not without rel- brief for saving civilization. It is going evance that Frank Buchman expressed to crumble anyway.’ concern for the survival of civilization Less than a year later World War after he had spoken about personal II had begun. In its course, it brought change. He envisaged no prospect of untold death and suffering to many na- saving humanity without the concrete tions, not least to God’s own people of conversion of at least a creative minor- Israel. I wonder whether evangelicals ity. looking at World War II and the Holo- This exactly fits the Old Testament caust really mean to shrug their shoul- principle of the ten just people for the ders and say: ‘What do you expect? sake of whose presence a city may be That is the lot of fallen humanity’. spared. Abraham for one prayed to this Since the end of World War II, we extent, pleading for the salvation of his have seen western civilization, i.e. city. Christians should do no less than the civilization of those nations that that. They have been expressly taught received the gospel, crumble in yet to make ‘requests, prayers, interces- other ways: in the breakdown of its sion and thanksgiving for everyone— moral structure and the consequent especially for kings and all those in au- misery of large numbers of human be- thority …’ (1 Tim 2:1f). This prayer is ings—the destruction of family life for the beginning of the exercise of Chris- millions, a tidal wave of dissolution of tian concern for humanity. marriages, of cruelty and crime, of annihilation of unborn children. The one thing still missing to date is the logical III Theology’s Horizon: God end of it all: civil war and general an- We have reminded ourselves that the archy. Again, should all that suffering, life of the church must be the horizon of borne by guilty and innocent alike, as theology. We have pointed to the exist- the outcome of man’s rebellion against ence of humanity as a second horizon God, leave the Christian unperturbed of theology. The third emphasis must and merely evoke a scolding, ‘I told be on God as the horizon of theology. you so’?! This can easily seem to be a truism: Theology does have an immediate is not God the object of theology any- correlation to the well-being of human- way? Indeed, but that definition does ity, because the latter directly corre- not safeguard theology against exam- Three Horizons for Theology 361 ining God just like a flower or a stone proper biblical rendering of that term or a corpse. borrowed from the Greek, ‘theology’. If God is truly the horizon of theol- Whoever preaches the First Command- ogy, then theology in itself must be di- ment, the foundational principle of the- vine service, service of God. If it is true ology, will also have to look towards that the First Commandment is the ba- its positive complement, the command- sic presupposition of all theology in the ment, ‘You shall love the Lord your God biblical mode, then the first petition of with all your heart, and with all your the Lord’s prayer, ‘Hallowed be your soul, and with all your mind. This is the name’, must be theology’s primary in- first and greatest commandment’ (Mt tent. Theology must become doxology, 22:37f.). In doing theology, love of God glorification of God. Psalm 71:14, ‘I then is the true corollary of knowing will yet add to all your praise’, must be God. It is the proper safeguard against its watchword. dealing with God as with a dead object, Christian theology will therefore alan attitude that we can otherwise nev- ways include a spiritual commitment. er be sure to avoid. In the last analysis, a formula like What is love of God? It is not the ‘Theology and Spirituality’ ought to mystical fusion between man and god- be a tautology, saying the same thing head, a process in which man thinks twice over: theology already includes he can enthusiastically surpass—and spirituality, inasmuch as it is doxology, master—that which the Bible teaches. praise of God. It is surely essential to On the other hand, love of God over- have courses on Christian spirituality. comes the distance of servanthood However, spirituality cannot be seen as others have described the God- merely as the topic of a special lecture relationship. It is neither merger nor course as an appendix to the theologi- distance; therefore Scripture speaks cal curriculum, just as academic excel- of Christians as ‘children of God’. Love lence cannot be the subject of a partic- of God is like the trusting and obedient ular class. Both academic excellence love children might have towards their and spirituality are part of, and must parents. permeate, the whole of theology. Love also means friendship. Love What we are looking at, theology of God includes identifying with God’s and doxology, can be further described concerns (something that theology as under two aspects, one internal and mere knowledge of God again does not the other external. guarantee). This is well expressed in The internal aspect is best ex- the lines of Manfred Siebald, a Chris- pressed by saying that theology has the tian singer popular in Europe: ‘I will love of God as its presupposition and rejoice when people speak well of you, its aim. Theology must always take to and will be sad, when someone scoffs heart the words of blessing in the An- and jeers.’ Or, with other words from glican Order of Communion: ‘The peace the same source: theology, when it of God … keep your hearts and minds loves God, will ‘penetrate the world in the knowledge and love of God and of and bring it back to God’. his Son, Jesus Christ our Lord.’ Such love of God is the basic pre- ‘Knowledge and love of God’ is the supposition of Christian theology. 362 Klaus Bockmuehl

The Old Testament already indicates: mula for faith in Romans 1:17. Knowledge comes through commun- Concerning this, Protestant the- ion. Love of God is therefore the pre- ology has a long way to catch up. In condition of true knowledge of God. Protestantism, we are faced with a tra- The best model for love of God we have dition of disregard for, if not discrimi- is in Jesus as, e.g., the Gospel of John nation against, love for God, and the depicts him. His is not a sentimental virtual reduction of our God-relation- but a determined love, comprising ut- ship to the attitude of faith. Probably ter trust, unity of mind, obedience, and this represents a reaction to the wrong a commitment to loyalty, come rain or place that love of God was given in the shine. mediaeval doctrine of salvation. Jesus expects the same from his dis- The Catholic church taught that ciples. The question in John 20, ‘Do you faith alone did not save, but only a faith love me?’, seems to define the one and characterized by love (fides caritate only condition for working in Christ’s formata). That, of course, smacked of kingdom. It addresses the theologian, works-righteousness and was rejected too. It is by far not taken seriously outright by the Reformers. However, enough in today’s theology; the same there is yet a whole life to be lived on is true of the commission in the same the basis of justification by faith alone, chapter, ‘Feed my sheep’. and it is a life of love for God and neigh- However, love of God, where it bour. To separate love from faith would comes about, is a gift from God (Rom be nothing but another example of el- 5:5); it must first of all be received. evating a negative reaction into a posi- Therefore we can safely say: all theo- tive proposition—which is at best but a logical endeavour worth its salt will dim reflection of the truth. have to begin with a prayer of supplica- There may yet be another reason for tion—for the Holy Spirit who creates the lack of an attitude of worship and the love of God in a person’s heart. love of God in theology, the destructive That is the beginning of theology. consequences of which are incalcula- Love of God is not only the prereq- ble. The problem is that theology has uisite, it is also the end and target of long been taught merely as a ministry theology; theology’s task is above all of knowledge, hardly ever as a service to promote, inspire, encourage, uphold of love. That is a Greek inheritance. and strengthen love of God in people. ‘Greeks sought after wisdom’ (1 Cor In all its labour, theology is to work 1:22). St Paul and St John, however, towards the goal that people love God united truth and love, and in so doing with all their heart. ‘That is the first separated Christianity from the Greek and greatest commandment’, and at mentality. the same time it fulfils the actual pur- Even beyond that necessary correc- pose of the divine work of salvation. tion of theory, what is practically need- If, then, love of God is both the pre- ed in theology today, is more eagerness supposition and the aim of theology, we and determination for the glory of God, are facing a sequence of ‘loving God— so that we earnestly seek God’s honour knowing God—loving God’, from love in theology, church, and national life. to love, which matches the same for- There seem to be far too few people Three Horizons for Theology 363 who pursue such purpose single-mind- cal procedure into love of (Christian) edly, even if they still go about it in a brother and love of neighbour. In a somewhat dilettante way. Both among nutshell, then, it can be said that theol- the old and the young there is too little ogy must do its work in fulfilment of the zeal for God today. ‘Double Commandment of Love’. Theology is doxology. Love of God The two sides of this ‘Double Com- speaks: ‘I will yet add to all your mandment’ are closely interrelated, in praise’ (Ps 71:14). This leads to the the sense that whosoever loves God second, i.e., the external aspect men- will necessarily become a benefactor tioned. If theology is essentially praise of people. One thinks of Psalm 84:5f., of God, it must have the immediate ef- Israel’s pilgrimage psalm: ‘Blessed fect of proclamation of God’s glory. This are those whose strength is in you (O is something that we are more easily Lord), in whose heart are the highways aware of. It is theology’s natural desire to Zion. As they go through the valley and horizon to ‘proclaim and publish’ of Baca (misery, a desolate place), they (Jonah 3:7) the honour of God, until make it a place of springs.’ ‘the whole earth be filled with his glory, Those who find in God the source Amen and Amen’ (Ps 72:19). of their strength and the goal of their When the psalmist proclaims, ‘All journey, then begin to create new pros- the earth shall worship you and sing pects for life even under adverse con- praises to you; they shall sing praises ditions, create springs, and oases in to your name’ (Ps 66:4), then that is a desert, and establish ‘sanctuaries’, still in the future, and on the horizon. both places of worship and places of Pointing the way towards it today, refuge in the torrents of history, for however, is the task of theology. those generations of humanity that seemed to be bereft of grace. To turn a dry and dismal situation IV The Three Horizons: into ‘a place of springs’ is a task of spir- Inter-Relations itual as well as material dimensions. In enumerating three horizons for Where there is love of God, everything theology, we have spoken first of the is set up for bringing about the benefit church, second of humanity, and third for people, too. On the other hand, not of God. This sequence was prompted much substantial welfare work can be by the degree to which people might expected, where the premise of faith habitually connect theology with any and friendship with God is missing. of these horizons. The proper order It is, moreover, the natural thing would of course be first God, second that all three horizons be kept in mind the church, and third humanity. simultaneously. Perhaps it does not If we list them in this order, and so even take separate acts to address put ‘love of God’ in first place, we will them all, if we do theology in a truly see behind the three horizons of theol- biblical fashion. As an analogy, the ogy Christ’s ‘Double Commandment of great spiritual oratorios, those by Jo- Love’—love of God and love of neigh- hann Sebastian Bach among others, bour—thereby dividing the second the Christmas oratorio, or the St. Mat- commandment according to the bibli- thew Passion, seem to serve all three 364 Klaus Bockmuehl horizons: they glorify God, they contain to exploit the pericope of Martha and spiritual edification and instruction for Mary for his purpose. The monk and the believer, but in addition they obvi- nun, sitting at the feet of Jesus, like ously have a generally civilizing effect. Mary have chosen the one thing nec- I wonder whether the same cannot essary. Suddenly, however, the author also be said about the great cathedrals becomes aware of a third position that and their sculptures, friezes and paint- needs looking after: the one ‘in agro’, ings—that is, wherever art is used to the priest, in the field, where the task enhance the communication of the gos- is, as it were, the continuation of the pel. Theology’s work is not dissimilar work of Christ himself, sowing the to this, and also alike in its manifold Word of God into the field of humanity effects. (‘the field is the world’, Mt 13:37)— Theology can be like the building the proclamation of the Word, making of a cathedral or the composition of an disciples of all nations. oratorio. More often, it will perhaps be Our monastic author then acknowl- like the ongoing, more humble work of edges the existence of three modes of restoration of the chapel that has suf- life: life in the world, in the church, and fered from corrosion and neglect over in missions, and with God, although he, time or the present-day performance of of course, attaches different value to an oratorio created in the past. Both, them. Also, in his time he felt that the however, the original and the reproduc- three lifestyles were cast into three dif- tion, have an intrinsic dignity, even if ferent groups of people: the workaday they mean toil and labour, because of layman in the ‘mill’, the parish priest the majesty and magnitude of the ob- in the ‘field’, and the monk in the pres- ject implied. ence of God through contemplation. God, church, and humanity are the The Reformation, reverting to the three indispensable horizons of theol- New Testament, attempted to show ogy. Let me underline this with a fur- that fundamentally all three modes ther reference. That threesome seems of life are both the privilege and duty to have impressed itself on a medi- of every Christian: to work under the eval monastic author (published under cultural commission of the Creator, to the name of St. Bernard) even as he fulfil the Great Commission of the Sav- planned to write otherwise. In a trea- iour, and to experience the fellowship tise on ‘How to Live Well’, this author of the Holy Spirit with God the Father has an extended chapter, arguing the and his Son, Jesus Christ. And they all superiority of the contemplative life of three have their own intrinsic value re- the monk and the nun in the monas- spectively. tery over the active life of the working Thus, likewise, theology must be man and woman in the world. These committed to three horizons of the latter live ‘in mola’, in the mill (taken Christian: to God, church, and human- from Mt 24:48)—really a treadmill!— ity. whereas monk and nun are ‘in sinu’, in Abraham’s bosom, in the bliss with God (taken from Lk 16:22). Of course, the author does not fail Three Horizons for Theology 365

V Opposition: Secularism the salt that ‘is good for nothing but to If the commitment of theology is, as be thrown out and trampled underfoot has been said, rightly represented by by men’ (Mt 5:13). This description fits the Psalmist’s prayer, ‘I will yet add a theology that has forgotten God. For to all your praise’, then theology must theology, therefore, along with its first always find itself in opposition to and horizon, God, the two other horizons combat with another form of commit- also are at stake. This means, essen- ment, dedicated to the pursuit of a tially, that there cannot be a partial un- quite different horizon. For the resolve, ion of theology with secularism. ‘I will yet add to all your praise’, is the In the eternal confrontation of these direct antithesis to secularism and hu- two competitors our own age seems to man autonomy. This is the attitude of present the picture of an overall ad- Prometheus, the ancient rebel of Greek vance of secularism. Indeed, in terms mythology, who rejects the idea of sub- of the success of its propaganda and mission to God, and wants to be the of its actual accumulation of power, Creator of his own world, collecting all the advance of secularism is as real, the praise for himself. manifold, cunning, and seemingly ir- Secularism, the philosophy of hu- resistible as was Hitler’s advance and man self-rule and self-development, expansion in Europe in the years be- may perhaps welcome theology’s con- fore World War II. Those who early on cern for humanity. It will sometimes studied the nature of this phenomenon even allow for theology’s occupation felt stunned and helpless year after with the church, as some sub-division year, when he landed one scoop after of humanity. In the manner in which the other, and one territory after the secularism does at times respect eth- other fell into the orbit of the dictator. nic diversity, it might concede a breath- Secularism, the system that rejects ing space or a niche of existence for the or ignores the sovereignty of God, has church on the grounds of the preserva- been similarly successful in our time. tion of folklore. God has allowed its advance. One is There is some of this sentiment reminded of Psalm 74:15, ‘You broke around today in the more enlightened open fountains and brooks; you dried universities and in liberal govern- up mighty rivers’. Such can be said ments. However, secularism will never also of periods in the spiritual his- be reconciled to theology’s first hori- tory of humanity, and of Christianity in zon, the primacy and kingship of God, the West: rivers of spiritual life, once because it is in itself the very negation mighty, have dried up under the scorch- of the same, and the solemn confession ing breach of secularism. of man’s autonomy and omnipotence. The history of Israel presents us Insofar as theology’s first horizon, with striking analogies to the spiritual the kingship and honour of God, is crises of our time. Does not the psalm- the strength and inspiration of its two ist’s wailing over Israel as God’s vine- other horizons, the denial of that first yard also apply to some contemporary horizon would quickly make theology churches: ‘Why have you broken down useless also in its intended service to its wall so that all who pass along the church and humanity. It would become way pluck its fruit … and ravage it?’ 366 Klaus Bockmuehl

(Ps 80:12; cf. 79:1). This image seems and confessions of philosophy. to fit some Protestant churches which Theology, like all our thinking, is were planted and ‘took deep root and embedded in language and terminol- filled the land’ (Ps 80:9) after the Ref- ogy. Nevertheless, who rules over ormation, but are now stripped and whom, who determines policy and di- torn up by every bypasser—i.e., by all rection, and who are the free citizens, the philosophical and ideological fash- who are the ‘hewers of wood and draw- ions that come and go, by existential- ers of water’, ought to be established ism, sociologism, psychologism, group clearly between theology and philoso- dynamics, anarchism, diverse political phy. Therefore there is no such thing as programmes, etc. an ‘absolute’ theology which would not It is ever so absurd that the church, make use of existing thought-forms, vehicle and representative of the divine doctrine of salvation, should welcome categories, and concepts. and submit itself to all these secular Who serves whom? At present, the- programmes of salvation—for such ology serves far too often as lackey and they all are. Man cannot avoid produc- train-bearer of secularist philosophies, ing his own myths of salvation once he paying homage, burning incense to the has rejected the biblical gospel. The idols of public opinion that are intel- irony and tragic paradox in today’s lectually in fashion at any moment. church is that we apparently prefer to Whenever theology becomes a fellow- listen to worldly prophets and obtain traveller in the parade of the saeculum, our revelations from paganism. an alienation from its own true God In addition, the cry, ‘O God, heathen must quietly have taken place before, have come into your inheritance’ (Ps a period of attempted self-sufficiency, 79:1) seems to be the proper descrip- self-rule, self-confidence, self-service. tion of the advancement of secularism At one point, there must have been within theology itself. Originally, the a deliberate stop to listening to God’s plan was to be the reverse: ‘He [God] Word, followed by an effort to construe apportioned the nations for a posses- the highest good from below, with ex- sion and settled the tribes of Israel isting materials and thus in a syncre- in their houses’ (Ps 78:55). That was tistic manner. From there it is only a to be the analogy to the relationship short road to the new subservience to e.g. between theology and philosophy: idolatry. existing thought concepts were to be made serviceable to theology and thus Whom does theology serve? That is to the people of God. the key problem. Its solution will have As an aside: this indeed is a task far reaching consequences either way. of continuing relevance for theology. The decomposition of theology and ‘Freedom of theology from philoso- church, i.e., of the temple as the place phy’—that popular slogan can only where God’s praise should have its mean theology’s supremacy, not the dwelling, will mean that other fields of annihilation or ignoring of philosophy. human valuation, literature, econom- Theology will utilize elements of the ics, must also decay because the centre form, but not the contents, the creeds is no longer intact. Three Horizons for Theology 367

VI Conclusion: What Is To Be tween withdrawal and surrender to Done? secularism. This course must determine the solution of all individual prob- ‘Why do the nations conspire and the lems, from epistemology to ethics. peoples plot in vain … against the Lord Here we get into the question of ap- and his anointed?’ (Ps 2:1). It some- propriate strategy. If we compare the how seems to be ‘normal’ that God advance of secularism in the church is surrounded by human enmity. How with a tidal wave or flash flood then the should it be easier for theology? In the task is to recover lost territory. We will midst of secularism, theology must need to build dykes, to ‘draw a line’. stand up for the hallowing of God’s That looks like defensive action. How- name. Its task is to announce God ever ever, the Dutch have shown us that anew to an ungodly and godless gen- building dykes (e.g. the great closing eration. And perhaps it will fall to our dykes in the north and west of Holland) lot, where circumstances demand it, to can very well be a means of offensive. even announce God afresh to theology. We sometimes may need, in our In a situation characterized by the individual lives as well as in the lives advance of secularism, love of God and of churches or nations, a fundamen- the First Commandment need to be tal decision comparable to building a given new emphasis. Some try to evade dyke, behind which we can then begin this confrontation. They endeavour to to wrestle patches and sections of ‘pol- keep the salt pure by separating it from der’ land from the sea, winning fertile the earth. Christ, however, called his acreage, positively cultivating new life disciples to be ‘salt of the world’. That under the protection of a basic refusal. clearly is a paradox, a forceful con- How does all this apply today? What junction of two antithetical elements. does ‘I will yet add to all your praise’ Christ’s disciples are to be ‘in the mean in our generation? It would mean world, but not of the world’. The same the emergence, in the remaining two goes for theology. The best service that decades of this century, of new spiritu- it can give to the world is the unabated al power centres, of movements of con- proclamation of God’s law and gospel. centration towards the love of God and This is something that neither the praise of God, in the sense of the three withdrawers nor the Christian advo- first petitions of the Lord’s Prayer. cates of accommodation or submission There have been such ‘nodal points’ to the spirit of the age seem to under- before in history, periods of intensifica- stand. If the people of God are to ‘live tion of awareness of, and commitment in their houses’ (Ps 78:55), i.e., if the to, God. We should strive for such a de- truth of the gospel is to find a home velopment in our own generation. in the houses of the heathen, then the A word of warning: to bring human- solution of the Rechabites (Jer 35) imi- ity back to God and to turn theology tated by some evangelicals today, i.e., God-ward again, or at least to incor- to culturally and intellectually live in porate a public alternative to secular- tents next door to society, cannot be ism—this is not necessarily identical the way. We find ourselves with the with evangelicalism. Admittedly there task of steering straight through be- are valuable points and possessions in 368 Klaus Bockmuehl this camp. However, there can also be basic problem, even the paradox of among evangelicals, both quite unre- theology:—i.e., entrusting to human generate stubbornness and incompe- hands a divine task. We are faced with tence regarding some of the relevant human incapacity for the task of theol- issues. Conversion to God is never the ogy, speaking of God. same as conversion to a peculiar eccle- One becomes conscious of this prob- siastical party or denomination. lem only when one understands what We are after all a re-Christianization theology truly is. As long as we think of theology. Again, this is not a matter of theology in terms of religious anthro- of the spirit of a certain locale which pology, or of the history, psychology, so- was traditionally associated with re- ciology, phenomenology, of religion, we newal. Also, it is not a matter of a par- are on relatively safe ground—because ticular kind of language. Indeed, how we are dealing with nothing but our- difficult is it even to utter ten coherent selves. As soon, however, as we have sentences towards this concern with to understand and speak the things of some degree of force and authority! It God, we are incompetent, as incompe- is always difficult to spell out a vision. tent as any other human being. It takes What it takes, is a continuous, qualita- a cleansing of our lips (Is 6); it takes tive, spiritual change in our theological an act of forgiveness on God’s part (Ps work. And that can begin anywhere. 78:38ff.) to establish and restore theol- One needs to be thankful for all that ogy to its proper position and so to its has already been given to us. In addi- three horizons of commitment. tion, one would dearly invite everybody It also takes an act of God to bring who shares the vision, wherever he or about another nodal point in history she may come from, to help to point out when his truth prevails again over hu- the way to a renewal of theology. man’s lies and rebellion, and when he There is one final concern which, himself, now seemingly distant, as well if we didn’t notice it for ourselves, as the distant church, distant human- the psalms quoted would quickly ity, and our distant neighbour come call to our attention. It refers to the into focus again. ERT (2016) 40:4, 369-380 Books Reviewed

Reviewed by Jim Harries Reviewed by Raymond J. Laird Craig Calhoun, Mark Juergensmeyer Archie J. Spencer and Jonathan VanAntwerpen (eds.) The Analogy of Faith: The Quest for Rethinking Secularism God’s Speakability Reviewed by Thomas Schirrmacher Reviewed by Heiko Wenzel Thomas H. McCall Reinhard Schulze Forsaken: The Trinity and the Cross, and Der Koran und die Genealogie des Islam Why it Matters Reviewed by Boris Paschke Reviewed by Don McLellan Dave Andrews Rosaria Champagne Butterfield The Jihad of Jesus: The Sacred Openness Unhindered: Further Thoughts Nonviolent Struggle for Justice of an Unlikely Convert, on Sexual Reviewed by Amos Yong Identity and Union with Christ Justo L. Gonzâlez Reviewed by Tony Waters The History of Theological Education Thomas Schirrmacher Culture of Shame/Culture of Guilt: Applying the Word of God in Different Situations Book Reviews

ERT (2016) 40:4, 369-370 become a social fact may be problematic for Europeans who are foundationally Rethinking Secularism averse to it in the name of secular- Craig Calhoun, Mark ism. Theological language has become Juergensmeyer, Jonathan offensive, especially to Europeans. Disciplines, like that of international VanAntwerpen (eds.) relations, having been developed prior Oxford: Oxford University Press, to the re-realisation of the necessary 2011 prominence of religion in human living, 978-0-19-979668-7 have ended up with unrealistic represen- Pb, pp 310, Index. tations of contemporary life. Reviewed by Jim Harries, Kenya In important ways, it is only notions of secularism that have resulted in the Religion is back on the agenda, our au- development of the concept of religion thors tell us. The secularist thesis that in the West. Western understandings of was constructed to show that people did ‘religion’ are that it is something which not need religion is now being disman- is in juxtaposition to secularism. When tled (270). Even the advocacy and valu- non-western ‘religion’ is explored, it is ation of rationality depends on ‘higher invariably found to be less narrow. De- order values’ (19). Religion having spite the narrowness and lack of spread 370 Book Reviews of their belief that the transcendental is other people who do not have a Chris- optional, secularists consider them- tian history are encouraged to draw on selves to be the most advanced people in the benefits of a secular ideology—one the world. Secularists laugh at others’ which is rooted in a transcendence that beliefs. Because attempts at imposing is apparently at odds with their own secularism prompt fundamentalist move- traditions. Presupposing that it stands ments to protect their culture/religion, in contrast to a religion that is of the na- secularism has become a source of ture of Western Christianity makes the conflict. Especially because religion and application of secularism to non-western culture are inseparable; remove religion contexts complicated and confusing. from human society and everything else How can there be ‘values without theol- stays the same, is evidentially incorrect. ogy’? Science has become a god. Globally the term ‘secular’ can mean Missionaries who have gone to the ma- many different things. Whereas western jority world and who have been honest secularism considers itself to have done about the origins of their values, have at away with the need for religion, the Chi- times been seen as enemies of secular nese endeavour to destroy ‘religions’ in progress. Asia is not as secular as the the name of secularism. Indians, on the west thinks, we are told: Asians are ‘all other hand, use the secular to modernise things to all people’ (256), i.e. religious other ‘religions’. In India, secularism is with a secular veneer. It is imperialism to be rehabilitated. It deals with what that has forced a misleading appearance is objectionable in religion. It should of secularism onto non-western people. tolerate religions, while maintaining a principled distance from them. So also All in all this book promotes a very religions need to tolerate the secular. enlightening view of a global force Similarly, in the case of Indonesia where (secularism) that seems to have pitched not becoming an Islamic state is enabled itself against Christian belief. In a by an adherence to an adaptation of sense, secularism is a (heretical) branch western secularism. of Christianity, we discover. There are One of the great troubling and disputed many versions of secularism. It is not (by some) ‘secrets’ of secularism is the western secularism that has spread fact that it actually developed in Chris- around the world. It is adaptations of tian history and theology. Secularism western secularism that fill in some arose from western efforts at develop- ways parallel roles in different parts of ing a Christian order, we are told. It the world. Although our authors do not ‘emerged first as a theological category categorically state this; it is challenging of Western Christendom that has no to consider in the light of their analysis equivalent in other religious traditions how secularism’s usefulness points to the or even in Eastern Christianity’(56). truth of the Christian gospel from which Western secularism has clear roots in it emerged. belief in a transcendent being. Hence it is a kind of ‘alternative religion’. Concealing its roots in transcendent belief has been perhaps its master stroke, but also a great deception. This issue is particularly sensitive when Muslims and Book Reviews 371

ERT (2016) 40:4, 371-372 is simultaneously the heart of so-called ‘Social Trinitarianism’. Forsaken: The Trinity and the McCall investigates this view from pas- Cross, and Why it Matters sages within both OT and NT, as well as Thomas H. McCall from the perspective of Church History. He comes to the conclusion that Jesus Downers Grove (IL): InterVarsity was never separated from the Father Press, 2012 in terms of his divinity. However, with ISBN 978-0-8308-3958-2 respect to his humanity, he experienced Pb, pp171. alienation from God coming from sin; we Reviewed by Thomas Schirrmacher, cannot interpret his cry literally, as Mol- Executive Chair of the WEA Theological tmann does, but rather understand it as Commission part of what was quoted from Psalm 22. In the second chapter, McCall turns to This book poses the following questions the doctrine of ‘impassability’. This is with respect to the cry of ‘My God, My traditionally rendered as the ‘Leiden- God, why have you forsaken me?’, which sunfähigkeit Gottes’ in German (literal Jesus made upon the cross: Did God the translation: God’s inability to suffer), Father kill his Son? What happened to which is quite inappropriate. The teach- the Trinity on the Cross? Was the Trinity ing of the ancient church is morally broken or ruptured at that moment? objectionable for Moltmann and his Thomas H. McCall, Associate Profes- successors. In his defence of the clas- sor of Biblical and Systematic Theology sical view (67-73), McCall emphasizes at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, with the words of Richard A. Muller that seeks to justify the traditional view that the exclusion of suffering never meant reigned until the beginning of the 20th an exclusion of feelings in themselves century. That view said that the Trinity (‘the exclusion of “passions” from the was never interrupted and that the sepa- divine being never implied the absence ration from God had to do only with the of affections’, 68) What is not involved human nature of Christ. Furthermore, he is the stoic ‘apatheia’. To be sure, it is a seeks to defend this view over against question of God’s care, love, goodness, the predominant understanding held at and compassion. Perfect loves demands, the present time. however, that God not be subject to Above all, he investigates Jürgen Mol- emotional swings such as we experience tmann’s view which has strongly influ- as people, and according to which he enced the theology of all denominations. would love us more at certain times and According to Moltmann’s view, every- less at other times. Rather, God’s emo- thing can be understood only in light tions remain the same and are reliable. of his idea of contradiction, such that Additionally, McCall differentiates, along God is revealed only as God when God’s the lines of St. Thomas Aquinas, that forsakenness reveals what happened Jesus suffered with respect to his human on the cross (15-18). God becomes the nature and not with respect to his divine enemy of God, and God’s fatherhood and nature. Jesus’ state of being a son temporarily What should one think of the book? die. The Trinitarian relationship has to McCall’s defence of the classical view is be broken for God to truly be God. This welcomed, since it is arguably still held 372 Book Reviews by the silent majority and yet seldom ERT (2016) 40:4, 372-374 soundly justified. This classical view has been lost more ecclesio-politically than Openness Unhindered: Further exegetically and doctrinally. What Mc- Thoughts of an Unlikely Convert, Call says about Jesus’ cry from the cross on Sexual Identity and Union with is very conclusive and well documented. Christ McCall also repeatedly goes into the complementarity of God’s love and anger Rosaria Champagne Butterfield and sees the two jointly. Love, however, Pittsburgh: Crown & Covenant is superordinate. Publications, 2015 One could have wished for a better ISBN 978-1-884527-99-9 exegetical foundation for his view of Pb, pp 206, endnotes, recommended ‘impassability,’ such as for instance reading list. that provided by Norman Geisler in his Reviewed by Don McLellan, Malyon College, Systematic Theology (2:112-136) with the Brisbane, Australia. utmost simplicity. Indeed, McCall quotes the important defences of the classical This is one of those books one wishes position, for instance Paul L. Gavrilyuk’s everyone would read. Many of us in The Suffering of the Impassible God, in the evangelical camp find ourselves a presentation of the view held by the perplexed over the LGBT issue, which is Church Fathers, Richard E. Creel’s so pervasive that we don’t need to spell Divine Impassibility from a philosophical out what those letters stand for. Until viewpoint, and Thomas G. Weinandy’s recently the evangelical stance was Does God suffer? from the theological clear cut. We stood with the Catholic viewpoint. The enormous spectrum of Church in the belief that homosexuality opinions can be seen there, whereby is anathema. But, with the adjustment there is naturally still plenty of room of medical science to the view that it is available for contributions to be made. not a pathology, along with the massive Where McCall is very successful is in social pressures exerted by the LGBT clearly setting forth the idea that the lobby, there are prominent and influen- question he addresses from Mark 15:34 tial conservative Christians who have counts as one of the central and basic wavered. It is not surprising therefore decisions to be made with respect to that many people in our churches are doctrine. Moreover, it is much too often also wavering. deemed to have already been completely Worldly wisdom has it that no one can sorted out. control their sexual orientation, and Butterfield thankfully avoids any trite response to this. Rather, she expresses a very clear understanding of what it means to be a fallen human being, and what God’s solution to that problem is. With great erudition and quite profound theology, Butterfield gives an inspiring account of how she has dealt with her same sex orientation over the past fif- teen years. She is now married, and with Book Reviews 373 her pastor husband has four adopted firm ministry of the ‘Spirit of Holiness’, children. have taught her to live in purity and Butterfield was a tenured professor of grace, in the ‘no condemnation’ of which English at the prestigious Syracuse Paul speaks in Romans 8:1, all in a per- University in New York. She was also fectly normal and healthy heterosexual an atheist LGBT activist, involved in marriage. She has come to understand demonstrations and putting pressure on Reformed theology with remarkable society, while living in a series of lesbian insights, and her clear descriptions of relationships. She tells the story of her what Christians need to do, no matter what their weaknesses, expounds bibli- conversion in an earlier short book, The cal teaching with great force. Secret Thoughts of an Unlikely Convert, and provides a brief summary of its con- Butterfield sees homosexual orientation, tents in the present work. Her journey not as a sin more nasty than others, but into Christian faith began when a Chris- as one evidence among many that we tian neighbour and his wife befriended live in a fallen world. She asserts tell- her, not with an evangelistic agenda, but ingly, ‘…homosexual lust is a sin, but so simply because they saw a woman who is heterosexual lust and homophobia. It needed friends. is sinful to write people off because they sin in ways that offend you’ (32). She In Openness, Butterfield traces her dif- knows and accepts that psychotherapy ficult journey of coming to terms with has nothing to offer to any who seek God’s judgment, not specifically on her deliverance from its practices. Rather, homosexuality but on the blanket sin of escaping from every form of sinful pride, by which she elevated herself over practice is a journey of body, soul, and the God who is revealed in the Bible. spirit under the sanctifying ministry of She traces how she came eventually the Spirit. This is her journey, and it to understand redemption; how she resonates deeply with me, an elderly embraced justification by faith; and then heterosexual male, whose temptations how she began to endure the hard and may have been different but whose God long process of sanctification which, as is still leading on in the never ending she rightly and openly affirms, is not yet journey of sanctification. complete. One can also see the sovereign hand Openness does not supply an ‘Aha!’ of God in Butterfield’s background, answer to the gay lobby—to say so because she experienced in the LGBT would be disrespectful of Butterfield’s community something that she later viewpoint and her purpose in writing saw to be a pale reflection, if not a this book. Its appeal is not merely that parody, of the true nature and purpose it tells of a woman who escaped her les- of the church. On my first reading I felt bian past, but that her struggles with sin that her closing foray into ecclesiology are so ordinary, so like the struggles of seemed like an unnecessary addendum the rest of us. While her personal weak- to this book, but it really is an essential ness inclines her to homosexuality, all of part of the story. Butterfield makes it us have weaknesses on which tempta- plain that her supportive church com- tions play. Butterfield is able to describe, munity has been indispensable to her in terms that sinners of all sorts can progress and growth as a Christian, and relate to, how the redeeming power of she unconsciously challenges all of us the blood of Christ, and the gentle and to make sure our church environment is 374 Book Reviews accepting but redemptive, empathic but cially her own United States, is a ‘guilt’ sanctifying, so that men and women who oriented culture in which individual struggle with all manner of temptation internal regulation of behaviour is more can find truekoinonia . important. This book is easy to read, as one would The classic distinction between guilt and expect of the work of a former English shame in contemporary anthropology professor, but its strength is profoundly has been subsumed in recent decades as theological in its explication of repent- the ‘culture enterprise’ focuses more on ance, justification, sanctification, and issues like social inequality, subaltern ecclesiology. I would give it to any strug- studies, gender, and other issues which gling Christian, no matter what their put the power relations described by sexual orientation, to show how our Karl Marx, Edward Said, and Eric Wolf, God, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, can at its centre. Perhaps it takes someone change a life. from outside of cultural anthropology—and the theologian Schirrmacher certainly qualifies as an outsider—to ERT (2016) 40:4, 374-375 help right the boat and return cultural anthropology to the classic cultural Culture of Shame/Culture of question of guilt and shame. Guilt: Applying the Word of God Schirrmacher revives classic questions in Different Situations about what guilt and shame are by ask- Thomas Schirrmacher ing essentially two questions from an Bonn, Germany: Culture and Science explicitly Christian theological perspec- Publication. World of Theology Series tive. First he asks, to what degree is 6, 2013 Christian Scripture shame or guilt ori- ISBN 978-3-86269-044-2 ented? Second he asks what this means Pb., pp 77, bibliog., index. for Christian missionaries from the west Reviewed by Tony Waters, California State (where presumably there is primarily a University. culture of guilt), who preach the gospel in places in Asia, Africa, and elsewhere, The dichotomy between the ‘culture of oriented toward shame and honour? shame,’ and the ‘culture of guilt’ is an As a theologian, Schirrmacher starts old distinction, dating back to anthro- with Christian Scripture. There, he finds pologist Margaret Mead’s studies in the that the Bible reflects both a shame South Pacific, and particularly to Ruth and guilt orientation, as well as both Benedict’s (1946) classic The Chrysan- individualism and collectivism. This themum and the Sword written about Schirrmacher finds most generally in the Japan. There, the distinction between commandment to love, which reflects individualism (associated with ‘western’ a ‘complementary alliance between guilt), and collectivism (associated with orientations of shame and guilt… The eastern ‘shame/honour’) are highlighted. commandment to love equally targets Benedict wrote that Japan is a ‘shame’ disgrace as it does unrighteousness,’ oriented country in which individual because it is both an internal feeling, identity is subsumed to the collective and also one that is expressed only in goals and honour of the group, and community with others. And of course it postulated that European cultures, espe- is at this point that Schirrmacher slips Book Reviews 375 beyond the dualistic East-West dichot- In anthropology itself, the shame/guilt omy of Benedict et al., and points out dichotomy has of course been passé that neither individual nor society is the for some decades—there is far more standard for human life created by God. interest in issues of power, consumption, So in Scripture, the individual is race, and gender than abstractions of important, but so are the communities the cultural habitus. What Schirrma- composed of covenants with God. In cher does with this book though, is to other words, ‘individual and community’ remind anthropologists of the utility of and ‘guilt and shame’ are not an either the distinction. Schirrmacher’s writing or choice for God, only for Benedict, very clearly develops thoughts and ideas classical anthropology, and perhaps too that are important for understanding often western missionaries preaching different cultural orientation whether in in Asia and Africa. Thus, while the two the context of Christian evangelism, or concepts may be useful analytically, a cultural anthropology. For that matter, I false dilemma is also created. Schirrma- think his nuance can be adapted in ways cher emphasizes that according to Chris- that help us to understand the more tian scripture, human dignity is neither general spread of globalized culture, be shame nor guilt oriented—you need to its origins in European religious tradi- be a strong individual like the apostle tions, Eastern religious traditions, or for Paul and therefore have some orienta- that matter modern Korean pop culture. tion toward the internal regulation The tension between guilt and shame is of guilt. But at the same time human still an important distinction—it is just dignity demands that the covenants that a matter of how it will be expressed. are the collective life binding humans to each other and God are sustained. ERT (2016) 40:4, 375-376 From Schirrmacher’s biblical perspective, Scripture does reflect a shame The Analogy of Faith: The Quest culture, or guilt culture, even if different for God’s Speakability cultures may tend toward one or the other. Still, though, the problem for Archie J. Spencer evangelists of European-style Christian- (Strategic Initiatives in Evangelical ity is how to bridge this divide. Cultural Theology) orientation, be it shame or guilt, is so Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, deeply embedded in cultural habitus Intervarsity Press, 2015 that few are aware of their own biases. Pb, pp 444, bibl. Indices And indeed, there are at least 500 years ISBN 978-0-8308-4068-7 of modern European missions to Asia, Reviewed by Raymond J. Laird, Centre for Africa, and elsewhere that are witness Early Christian Studies, Australian Catholic to the limitations of applying a guilt-ori- University, Brisbane, Australia ented cultural habitus indiscriminately. Emphasizing feelings of personal guilt The author, Assistant Professor Archie in cultures where family, honour, and Spencer, commences his final chapter, shame are more central is likely to be ‘Conclusions’ of this book with these difficult at best—and as Schirrmacher words: ‘This study was undertaken with emphasizes, not necessarily very biblical a view to establishing the possibility of either. theology along the lines of a deepened 376 Book Reviews understanding of the Christological The amount of close reading that Spen- content of the analogy of faith.’ (385). cer has had to absorb and critique to In the view of this reviewer, he has produce this work is testimony of a fine been quite successful. He certainly set and focused mind. For confirmation, one himself a massive task, beginning with may turn to the bibliography which con- the Ancient Greeks and working meticu- tains more than 400 items. The indices lously through a line of significant theo- include a long list of names mentioned logians spanning two millennia. Starting in the book, and a subject index with 15 with a glimpse of the Pre-Socratics, he packed columns of great value, and a begins in earnest with the philosophers Scripture index with chapter and verse of Greece—Aristotle and Plato. details for references from eight Old Tes- He then discusses the channels of their tament books, three Apocrypha sources, ideas to later generations, particu- and eleven New Testament books, larly the Neoplatonists whose adopted altogether a total of 276 biblical refer- metaphysics influenced Christian theo- ences. Obviously the author is thorough logians, especially Augustine, and then, in every way, and that, it must be said, following Augustine’s lead, Thomas includes his analyses. Aquinas and later medieval theologians. This book should be studied by every Spencer points out that the result of theologian, seminary student, and this adaptation was the emergence of indeed all in the higher levels of Chris- a host of analogies and ontologies, all tian leadership in teaching ministries. based on the cause-effect-resemblance For some it may be hard work, but the (CER) model. Spencer searches out the issue this book addresses is of utmost weaknesses and danger in these meta- importance for the people and churches physical models, making the point that a of the Christian faith and their strength metaphysical basis is counter-productive and relevance in facing the forces that as it works on a model that reduces God to equality with humanity. challenge their authenticity, and for the health of their inner life. I cannot com- Leaving this long and important discus- mend this book too highly. It belongs in sion which has implications for Catho- the category of one of those books that lic theology, Spencer moves into the Alexander Whyte, the great Scottish modern era with a favourable analysis preacher, and from 1909 Principal and of Karl Barth’s theology, along with Professor of New Testament Literature an even more favourable discussion at New College, Edinburgh, had in mind on Eberhard Jüngel, an interpreter of when he encouraged his students to ‘sell Barth. Here the focus is moved from their beds and buy their books’. The metaphysics to revelation, to the central reader will not have to pay the price of testimony of the Christian scriptures, a bed for this volume, but it might steal namely the revelation of God in Jesus some hours of sleep—still an investment Christ. The book ends with Spencer’s well worth the price. own presentation of an analogy of faith, an attempt to improve upon Barth and Jüngel, a very worthwhile effort that appears to be successful. Spencer is aware that he has not produced the last word on the issue, but he has provided a solid base upon which others may build. Book Reviews 377

ERT (2016) 40:4, 377-378 portant questions like the reflection on modern assumption in studying (and in Der Koran und die Genealogie des particular in defining) religion (9-41), Islam the relationship between religion and Reinhard Schulze the question of origin (43-107) or his focus on describing the development of Basel: Schwabe Verlag, 2015 religion with processes of distinguish- (Schwabe Interdisziplinär 6) ing (109-181). These methodological ISBN 978-3-7965-3365-5 reflections find their application in dis- Hardcover, pp 677, bibliog., index, tinguishing cultic orders and the order illus. of truth (183-244), in the Qur’anic way Reviewed by Heiko Wenzel, Freie of talking about the divine (245-322), Theologische Hochschule Giessen, Germany in the relationship between ‘the Lord of the world(s)’ and the Meccan cult Der Koran und die Genealogie des Islam is (323-415), in anthropological reflections an interesting book for those who seek (417-482) and in discussing the relation- to reflect on and discuss the early years ship between the cult and the world of Islam and their connection to its sub- (483-564). sequent history. It is a compendium for stimulating discussions and frequently One important aspect of Schulze’s book surprising answers. Anybody who seeks is that it challenges the widespread easy answers might get frustrated when perspective that Islam can be reduced to reading this book. Time to reflect on the Qur’an and to Muhammad and that these early years as well as on modern later developments must be measured and postmodern western assumptions in against this definition of Islam. These approaching these questions is neces- theories of origin build on modern as- sary for appreciating the broadness and sumptions of describing and structuring density of the questions raised and the the world and probably most importantly discussions presented. on the perspective that this modern way is the ‘norm’ for describing human exist- Whoever dares to engage this book and ence in our days and in days past. gets involved in the pertinent problems Schulze seeks to replace these theories on which Reinhard Schulze elaborates of origin with his focus on development: will think differently about Islam and its ‘In light of the assumption that “Islam” early years (and their significance) after- is a normative term in modern days, I wards. This will be true not only about do not ask “What is Islam” but “How did Islam and its early years, but perhaps Islam originate?”, how did it become.’ more significantly the attitude required (17; here and elsewhere my transla- in approaching these questions will have tions). This approach avoids ‘definitions’ changed. Whether these changes are ap- and focuses on ‘genealogies’. In drawing preciated or not is of secondary impor- on Nietzsches’ ‘Genealogy of Morals’ tance. Schulze challenges widespread and Foucault’s explanation of genealogy assumptions, attitudes and perspectives, as ‘disclosing discourses as a specific even though (or because?) several of his entanglement of forming knowledge answers require additional discussions and power structures in the semantic and even though (and definitely because) field “religion”’ (110-111), Schulze some of his questions must be discussed. does not want to turn the tree upside Schulze’s study addresses many im- down. Rather, he denies origin as a 378 Book Reviews foundation for describing religion and its of ‘Islam as a political religion’. It is significance. His concern for develop- not necessary to share Schulze’s as- ment leads to a focus on describing the sumptions (which for the most part are processes of distinguishing key terms: clearly established and make his argu- symbolic/emotional, sacred/profane, ment comprehensible) or his conclusion transcendent/immanent, religious/secu- to appreciate his discussions. His way lar and axiological/nomological. of challenging widespread opinions and These key terms can offer a first glance of stimulating ongoing reflections make at Schulze’s approach, but his detailed this book a valuable contribution to the and at times complex way of arguing his contemporary study of Islam. case deserves a case-by-case discussion of noteworthy aspects which cannot be ERT (2016) 40:4, 378-380 done in this short review. A short glance at the discussion on the relationship The Jihad of Jesus: The Sacred between the cult and the world (483- Nonviolent Struggle for Justice 564) may suffice and offers an idea of Dave Andrews the ramifications and limitations of his approach. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2015 ISBN 978-1-4982-1774-3 Nowadays, many describe Islam as a political religion or as a mixture of religion Pb., pp xviii + 173, bibliog., illus. and state. Schulze’s discussion challeng- Reviewed by Boris Paschke, Evangelische es many assumptions that come along Theologische Faculteit, Leuven, Belgium. with these statements—for example, In the preface to the present book, that the oath of allegiance (bai’a) binds its author Dave Andrews (Brisbane/ the early Muslims to Muhammad’s rule. Australia) who is, among other things, Rather, Schulze argues that the oath a teacher at Christian Heritage College expresses allegiance within and for the (CHC) and a member of the Australian cultic community (522). Moreover, for Muslim Advocates for the Rights of All Muhammad’s time the reign belongs to Humanity (AMARAH) explains: ‘I simply Allah not to Muhammad (526). In addi- write this as a Christian, in conversation tion, Schulze emphasizes that the society with Muslim friends, seeking to find a in Medina was a ‘complex network of way we can struggle for love and justice autonomous, genealogically defined al- that is true to the best in our traditions’ liances (…) which is organized in a new (xv). Without doubt, this pacific concern way along the lines of the cultic commu- of Andrews is commendable. This being nity’ (545). In light of these aspects and stressed, the remainder of this review other observations, Schulze concludes will focus on the book which consists that Islam cannot be described as a of a short ‘Introduction’ (1), two parts political religion from its very beginning (3-78; 79-163) with three chapters each, (560). Rather, (the idea of) political and a bibliography (165-173). Islam is ‘the result of a long historical In the ‘Introduction’, Andrews adopts process in modern times’ ( 563). Diane Morgan’s definition of jiha-d (cf. Regardless of how convincing each Essential Islam [Santa Barbara, CA: single argument may be, Schulze’s ABC-CLIO, 2010], 87) as a basis for discussions shed noteworthy and valu- his book: The Arabic word jiha-d means able light on the widespread statements ‘struggle’. Jiha-d can take the form of Book Reviews 379 a non-violent inner spiritual struggle attempt to present a detailed account’ (‘greater jiha-d’) and an outer physical (5). For example, Amin Maalouf’s semi- struggle (‘lesser jiha-d’) that can be nal monograph Les croisades vues par les violent or non-violent. As the sub-title of Arabes (Paris: Jean-Claude Lattès, 1983) his book specifies, Andrews understands is absent from Andrews’ account. the jiha-d he attributes to Jesus in terms - Third, in emphasizing the non-violent of a non-violent jihad. and minimizing the violent character In ‘Part One’, Andrews provides an of jiha-d (101), Andrews differs from overview of the violence that has been several eminent Islamic Studies schol- committed in the name of Christianity ars like, for instance, Émile Tyan who (e.g., crusades; inquisition) and Islam states: ‘In law, according to general (e.g., military conquests; continuous doctrine and in historical tradition, the wars between Sunnites and Shiites; djiha-d consists of military action with modern terrorism of al-Qaeda and ISIS). the object of the expansion of Islam and, In ‘Part Two’, Andrews then presents if need be, of its defense’ (s.v. ‘Djiha-d’, - - - what he calls the jihad of Jesus (or Isa, The Encylopaedia of Islam, vol. 2 [Leiden: - as he is called in the Qur’an) as a prom- Brill, 1965], 538). ising way to stop the violence. Andrews Fourth, Andrews explains his book’s considers Jesus the ‘common ground’ (105) on which Christians and Muslims catchy, provocative, and misleading can engage in fruitful conversation with title by stating: ‘I contend you cannot each other: ‘I have written the following rightly pursue jihad without Jesus, or observations based on those views of Isa rightly pursue Jesus without jihad’ (xv). or Jesus that both the Qur’an and the However, from historical, biblical, and qur’a-nic perspectives, an association of Injil or the Gospels … have in common’ - (105). According to Andrews, ‘Jesus Jesus with jihad is not as self-evident was not a re-active violent revolution- as Andrews would have it. From both a historical and a Christian perspective, ary but a pro-active nonviolent revolu- - tionary—an extraordinary prophetic, an association of Jesus with jihad is compassionate activist who embodied anachronistic and impossible because the original jihad of nonviolent struggle this Arabic/Muslim concept did not for inspirational personal growth and yet exist in the first century C.E. when transformational social change’ (115- Jesus lived and when the Greek Gospels 116). Andrews concludes by stressing of the New Testament were written. that ‘it is so important for Christians Further, an investigation of the forty-one and Muslims to practice the radical, occurrences of the Arabic root j-h-d in - alternative, participatory, empowering, the Qur’an does not yield any associa- - - - nonviolent jihad of Jesus’ (163). tion of jihad with Isa (cf. Comparative Unfortunately, it now needs to be demon- Concordance to the Bible and the Qur’an in strated that Andrews’ book contains Arabic [CCBQ-5; International Seminar seven serious weaknesses. First, in for Oriental Studies (ISOS), 1997], general, it is too dependent on second- 3477-3482). ary literature while neglecting primary Fifth, according to Andrews, the biblical sources. Second, the overview of the teaching on Jesus is in agreement with violence committed in the name of su-ras 4:171 and 5:116-117 that deny Christianity and Islam is, as Andrews Jesus’s (claim to) divinity. Andrews himself concedes, superficial: ‘I will not declares: ‘I am one of the “People of the 380 Book Reviews

Scripture,” and I would say the Scriptures statement, ‘He [Jesus] drove the rip-off are pretty clear. Isa never asked anyone merchants out of the temple, using a to worship him. Jesus or Isa’s preferred whip on the animals, but not on the self-reference was not the “Son of God,” people (John 2:15)’ (115) is not backed but the “Son of Man”’ (107; italics in the up by the respective Johannine verse original). However, the Gospels contain on which J.H. Bernard even comments: several passages where Jesus (a) claims ‘It would seem that the whip was used to be God (Mk 2:1-12; Jn 5:18; 8:58; on the owners of the cattle as well as 10:30-33); (b) requires to be honoured/ on the sheep and oxen’ (A Critical and worshipped to the same extent as God Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel ac- the Father (Jn 5:23); and (c) is (and cording to St. John, vol. I [Edinburgh: T. accepts to be) worshipped as God (Jn & T. Clark, 1928], 90). 20:28; cf. Lk 24:52). Seventh, the book contains various fac- Sixth, Andrews correctly stresses that tual inaccuracies. For example, by quot- at large, the ministry of Jesus had a ing Maulana Wahiduddin Khan, Andrews non-violent character. However, in spite repeatedly expresses the idea that “the of his claim to focus on Jesus as ‘com- very word ‘Islam’ (from the Arabic silm) mon ground’ of Christians and Muslims, means ‘peace’” (92, 99, 101). Actually, - Andrews does not provide any ‘proof however, the word islam rather means - text’ from the Qur’a-n, but refers only “submission.” Further, islam did not to the New Testament in this regard. originate in Medina (27), but in Mecca. Further, Andrews does not succeed In sum, while being motivated by an in satisfactorily explaining those New irenic concern of crucial importance and Testament texts that present Jesus as global relevance, Andrews’ book lacks acting violently. For example, Andrews’ academic depth and rigour.

ERT (2016) 40:4, 380 The History of Theological Education, Justo L. Gonzâlez, Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2015, ISBN: 978-1-4267-8191-9, Pb., pp. xi + 155, index. Reviewed by Amos Yong, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, California, USA. Justo Gonzâlez has been writing historical theology (and more) for decades and this master narrator here applies his well-honed skills to unfolding the story of theological education—2000 years in under 140 pages. The history is also divided into sixteen chapters, which will lead mathematicians to conclude that these are bite- sized chunks of less then ten pages per chapter on the average. And even beyond the fact that Gonzâlez’s prose is eminently accessible despite packing in a ton into each paragraph, there are brief summaries at the end of each chapter that, when combined and read together, could well serve as a modest dictionary article on the topic. The book, originating at two separate lecture series, was motivated originally by the conviction that theological education is at the heart of the church’s work, but that its professionalized format forged over the last few centuries is in crisis and thus needs to be reconsidered in historical perspective and in conversation with ecclesial and other developments in order to chart a more sustainable future. The last two chapters thus suggest some constructive ways forward. Evangelicals in global context will be well informed by this work for the ongoing task at hand. Evangelical Review of Theology A Global Forum

GENERAL EDITOR: THOMAS SCHIRRMACHER

Volume 40

2016

Published by

WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE

Theological Commission for WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE Theological Commission Articles

Beed, Clive and Cara Beed Conceptions of Capitalism in Biblical Theology ...... 264 Bezzant, Rhys S. Remind, Rebuke, Refocus: Three Correctives after Investigating Edwards’s Use of ‘known by God’ ...... 217 Bockmuehl, Klaus Three Horizons for Theology ...... 356 Campbell, D. Keith China’s Intelligentsia: A Strategic Missional Opportunity ...... 4 Ferdinando, Keith Towards a biblical and pastoral approach to illness in an African context with particular reference to HIV AIDS ...... 111 Harries, Jim Does Faith in Secularism Undermine Mission and Development in Africa? ...... 100 Hille, Rolf A Biblical-Theological Response to the Problem of Theodicy in the Context of the Modern Criticism of Religion ...... 247 HoŠek, Pavel The Christian Claim for Universal Human Rights in Relation to the Natural Moral Law ...... 44 Jayakumar, Samuel Towards a Theology of Human Identity Competing Identities: Imagining and Inventing new Identities ...... 232 Johnson, John J. The Koran’s Denial of Christ’s Crucifixion: A Critique ...... 58 Kemp, Ian S. The Blessing, Power and Authority of the Church: A study in Matthew 16:17–19 ...... 128 Lee, Samuel Can We Measure the Success and Effectiveness of Entrepreneurial Church Planting? ...... 327 Morden, Peter J. Samuel Pearce (1766-99): An Example of Missional Spirituality ...... 14 Index 383

Nickel, Gordon The use of Su- ra 3:64 in interfaith appeals: dialogue or da‘wa? . . . . 346 Nihinlola, Emiola Saved Through Childbearing: An African Feminist Interpretation and Theology ...... 314 Okesson, Gregg A. A Theology of Institutions: A Survey of Global Evangelical Voices ...... 28 Randall, Ian Incarnating the Gospel: Socio-Political Activity in the Ministry of F.B. Meyer ...... 292 Reimer, Johannes Empowering church planters. Which training system? ...... 70 Schirrmacher, Thomas The Code ‘Christian Witness in a Multi-Religious World’ – Its Significance and Reception ...... 82 Shaw, Perry Holistic and Transformative: Beyond a Typological Approach to Theological Education ...... 205 Steuernagel, Valdir R. An Exiled Community as a Missionary Community A Study based on 1 Peter 2:9-10 ...... 196 Yong, Amos Panel Discussion: A Panel Discussion of Renewing Christian Theology: Systematics for a Global Christianity ...... 140 Books Reviewed Adams, Samuel V. The Reality of God and Historical Method: Apocalyptic Theology in Conversation with N.T. Wright ...... 282 Andrews, Dave, The Jihad of Jesus: The Sacred Nonviolent Struggle for Justice 378 Beale, G. K. with David H. Campbell, Revelation: A Shorter Commentary . . . . 281 Beilby, James K. and Paul Rhodes Eddy (eds.), Understanding Spiritual Warfare: Four Views ...... 186 Bessenecker, A., Overturning Tables: Freeing Missions from the Christian- Industrial Complex ...... 287 Calhoun, Craig et al, Rethinking Secularism ...... 369 Champagne Butterfield, Rosaria,Openness Unhindered: Further Thoughts of an Unlikely Convert, on Sexual Identity and Union with Christ ...... 372 384 Book Reviews

Chiang, Samuel E. and Grant Lovejoy (eds.), Beyond Literate Western Contexts: Honor & Shame and Assessment of Orality Preference ...... 284 Cross, Anthony R., Peter J. Morden and Ian M. Randall (eds.), Pathways and Patterns in History: Essays on Baptists, Evangelicals, and the Modern World in Honour of David Bebbington ...... 288 Davis, Charles A., Making Disciples across Cultures: Missional Principles for a Diverse World ...... 94 DeFranza, Megan K., Sex Difference in Christian Theology: Male, Female, and Intersex in the Image of God ...... 192 Dufault-Hunter, Erin, Transformative Power of Faith: A Narrative Approach to Conversion ...... 191 Gnanakan, Ken, Responsible Stewardship of God’s Creation, Revised Edition . . 96 Gonzâlez, Justo L., The History of Theological Education ...... 380 Green, Gene L., Stephen T. Pardue and K.K. Yeo (eds.), Jesus without Borders: Christology in the Majority World ...... 188 Henderson Callahan, Sharon (ed.) Religious Leadership: A Reference Handbook ...... 93 Ingalls, Monique M. and Amos Yong (eds.), The Spirit of Praise: Music and Worship in Global Pentecostal-Charismatic Christianity ...... 285 Johnson, Thomas K., The First Step in Missions Training: How our Neighbors are Wrestling with God’s General Revelation ...... 184 McCall, Thomas H., Forsaken: The Trinity and the Cross, and Why it Matters . 371 Schirrmacher, Thomas, Culture of Shame/Culture of Guilt: Applying the Word of God in Different Situations ...... 374 Schulze, Reinhard, Der Koran und die Genealogie des Islam ...... 377 Smith, James K.A., How (Not) To Be Secular: Reading Charles Taylor ...... 190 Spencer, Archie J., The Analogy of Faith: The Quest for God’s Speakability . . . 375 Talbot, Brian R. (ed.), A Distinctive People: Aspects of the Witness of Baptists in Scotland in the Twentieth Century ...... 90 Thompson, James W , The Church According To Paul—Rediscovering The Community Conformed To Christ ...... 91 Yong, Amos, The Future of Evangelical Theology: Soundings from the Asian American Diaspora ...... 182