Examining Social Media Adoption and Change to the Stakeholder Communication Paradigm in Not-For- Profit Sport Organizations

Michael L. Naraine1 Milena M. Parent2 1Deakin University 2University of Ottawa and Norwegian School of Sport Sciences

The purpose of this study was to examine social media adoption within not-for- profit sport organizations to illuminate the impetus for change, the type of change undertaken, and change resistance. Using a contextualist approach depicting the external and internal forces as well as the change process, semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten Canadian national sport organizations (NSOs) representing varying degrees of social media presence. The findings suggest that, although social media is espoused as a radical, transformational vehicle, NSOs have only made incremental adjustments to their stakeholder communication and have situated social media within their extant organizational condition due to capacity constraints and resistance from staff and reticent stakeholders. Adopting social media in light of limited organizational capacity thus diminishes the utility of the communications tool. Theoretical and practical implications include how to improve social media- related capacity and the importance of continuing the social media and sport domain’s organizational theory agenda.

ith fluctuations in human organizations may desire or anticipate resources, new programs and change, or have it simply thrust upon them W services developed and offered, due to internal or external pressures (cf. and innovations in organizational design Amis, Slack, & Hinings, 2004a; Kikulis, archetypes (to name a few), sport Slack, & Hinings, 1995). Change is also organizations are subject to change thought to ensure sustainability in highly decisions affecting their routines and competitive marketplaces, although operations (Slack & Parent, 2006). Sport organizational inertia and stability in

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routines and practices can also provide online (i.e., using the World Wide Web) do optimal outcomes (Yi, Knudsen, & Becker, not appear to have been fully realized (cf. 2016). With technological innovations and Girginov, Taks, Boucher, Martyn, Holman, strategies gaining notoriety (cf. Caza, 2000), & Dixon, 2009). examining change to structures, processes, Thus, the purpose of this study was to and/or mechanisms is important for the examine social media adoption and change effective management of sport to stakeholder communication within the organizations (Cunningham, 2002). context of NSOs. Specifically, this study One of the more recent technological illuminates the overall impetus for change, innovations to emanate and subject sport the type of change undertaken (i.e., radical organizations, especially those in the not- or convergent, evolutionary or for-profit sector, to change has been the revolutionary), and any (if at all) resistance emergence of social media. These to the change (given change is often difficult organizations, including national sport to achieve, as per Skinner, Stewart, & organizations (NSOs), have identified the Edwards, 1999). Although a collection of importance of social media and have begun scholarship exists pertaining to change and to develop and maintain social platforms sport organizations (e.g., Legg, Snelgrove, & (e.g., Abeza & O'Reilly, 2014; Thompson, Wood, 2016; O’Brien & Slack, 2004; Welty Martin, Gee, & Eagleman, 2014). The Peachey & Bruening, 2011), there remains a adoption of social media as a stakeholder dearth of understanding reflecting and communication tool is of particular interest relating to contemporary technological given their many challenges (cf. Misener & advancements in online communication Doherty, 2009), including a lack of exposure (e.g., social media) and change to sport by traditional media sources (cf. Eagleman, organizations. Understanding the nexus 2013). Indeed, with a specific focus on between social media and organizational NSOs, scholars have also noted an inability change in NSOs is relevant given the to diversify the range of content published influence these organizations typically have on social media, succumbing to coercive, on sport systems (particularly in terms of mimetic, and normative pressures (e.g., long-term athlete development), and the Naraine & Parent, 2016). This is a aforementioned constraint on resources particularly unique approach given the often found within these organizations. variance amongst social media usage by for- To address this study’s purpose, the profit sport organizations (cf. Armstrong, contextualist approach to organizational Delia, & Giardina, 2016; Pronschinske, change was employed as the theoretical Groza, & Walker, 2012; Wang & Zhou, framework. Initially conceptualized by 2015). Moreover, it remains unclear why Pettigrew (1987), the contextualist approach NSOs (specifically) would choose to adopt is composed of three primary dimensions: social media and change the means by content, context, and process. Here, content which they communicate with stakeholders (not to be confused with social media given previous attempts to communicate content) refers to what aspect of and enhance stakeholder relationships organizational change is taking place (e.g.,

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products, structure, technology). Context including the types of change and why refers to both the environmental and intra- change is resisted, and the theoretical organizational elements influencing the framework of interest, the contextualist change process, revealing why change approach, along with identifying the study’s occurred. Finally, the “process” elements specific research questions. However, we reveal insights from the change to depict preface this section with a brief review of how the change manifested in the the pertinent literature on social media and organization. Although there are various sport organizations. perspectives on organizational change, Social media presents sport including resource dependence (e.g., Pfeffer organizations an additional avenue by which & Salancik, 1978), life-cycle approach (e.g., to connect to their publics online in a Kimberly, 1980) and even Cunningham’s synchronous and asynchronous manner (2002) model incorporating multiple (Williams & Chinn, 2010). For some dimensions of organizational change, the organizations, this has enabled additional emphasis on the interrelationship between marketing ploys to develop, allowing for environment, internal structure, and human greater relationship building to occur (e.g., agency in depicting organizational change Hopkins, 2013; McCarthy, Rowley, underscores the suitability of the Ashworth, & Pioch, 2014; Waters, Burke, contextualist approach for the present Jackson, & Buning, 2011). However, others study. Simply put, the contextualist have viewed social media as a strategic approach marries both the internal, external, communication tool, downplaying its and circumstantial factors which explain abilities to leverage and activate change processes. In doing so, this sponsorships (Eagleman, 2013). This can be undertaking occupies a unique space within perceived as a potential flaw or inability to the extant literature, adhering to Filo, Lock, utilize these platforms to their full potential, and Karg’s (2015) call to advance social particularly given the desire of stakeholders media and sport research using to want to consume and engage with organizational theory frameworks. organizations via social media (cf. Mahan, Moreover, the study provides important 2011). In fact, Gibbs, O'Reilly, and Brunette implications for practitioners in similar (2014) revealed fans of sport organizations circumstances an opportunity to reflect not only seek information from social upon how social media adoption occurs, the media, but desire promotional and degree to which social media may change interactive content. Part of the rationale for organizational actions, and the type of this desire stems back to the passion and resistance that may be experienced as a camaraderie social media provides to this result of the adoption process. stakeholder group (Stavros, Meng, Westberg, & Farelly, 2014). Nevertheless, Review of Literature and Theoretical there remains a significant appetite for Framework social media content from sport In this section, we provide an overview organizations by its stakeholders (e.g., fans). of the organizational change literature,

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The desire to consume social media and the ability to moderate the impact of change sport content has also led to an evolution in processes (e.g., products/services, how content is presented. As Armstrong et technology, human resources). Greenwood al. (2016) found, organizations are and Hinings (1996) denoted two types of introducing an animated, earnest persona to organizational change: radical and interact with fans, as well as competing convergent. Radical change refers to major, sport organizations. Yet, concurrently, sport transformational change which significantly organizations like NSOs remain reticent to alters the organization’s operations, while evolve their social media strategy to this convergent changes are slight, minor extent or even simply to build stronger modifications to existing practices and relationships (Abeza & O'Reilly, 2014). This routines. In the context of sport inability to adjust their strategic use of social management, scholarship has focused media to align with competitors and others primarily on radical change (e.g., Amis, in their operational environment raises Slack, Hinings, 2004b; Legg et al., 2016), questions about why social media has been though both types of change are difficult for adopted altogether, leading to the purpose organizations to manage (cf. Skinner et al., of the present study. 1999). Resistance to change. Part of the Organizational Change explanation for change being difficult to Organizations are often subject to manage is the resistance organizations environmental disturbances and internal encounter. For Jaffe, Scott, and Tobe influences which stimulate change. Even if a (1994), resistance is linked with the concept so-called comfortable level of stability – of denial, as agents exhibit a lack of trust where comfort level is defined by the and belief that change is necessary. As a organization itself – is achieved and the result, employees may withhold their organization has enacted a course of inertia, participation in the process, exhibit rapid changes in the organization’s defensive behavior about the change, or environment (e.g., technological even go so far as to persuade managers and innovations) may force the adoption of other staff not to support the change. As change (Slack & Parent, 2006). In some Isabella (1990) suggested in her analysis, cases, the external turbulence is attributable even in the aftermath of a change, to political (e.g., Girginov & Sandanski, pessimism about the change may persist. In 2008; Zakus & Skinner, 2008) or social (e.g., such circumstances, staff may actively voice Skirstad, 2009; Stronach & Adair, 2009) their displeasure or distrust of the adoption. stimulants. From an internal perspective, Resisting change is not solely attributable to change may manifest itself as a result of an distrust however; agents may disagree with anticipated need to change to remain change based upon their own self-interest, competitive and make the organization differing assessments of change more efficient (Slack & Parent, 2006). consequences, and the costs associated with Irrespective of where the pressures of enacting change (Slack & Parent, 2006). change originate, organizations still retain When change occurs, there is the potential

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for some agents within the organization to However, resisting potential changes to the lose resources, prestige, or professional dominant organizational condition is not competence; opponents of change are self- always possible, especially when interested and looking to preserve the environmental trends dictate organizations power they have within the current align themselves accordingly (Boeker, 1997). organizational dynamic (Ybema, Thomas, & With the prospect of change, but a Hardy, 2016). Beyond the intrinsic desire to maintaining stability, organizations motivations to resist, agents may also worry may opt for evolutionary change. These about the unintended consequences of incremental adjustments to the change. For instance, an organization organization’s routines allow change to be adopting a new service or structure may be adopted, but mitigate possible incongruence restricted from future changes as a result of (Tushman & O’Reilly, 1996). Similar to the expended resources, poor results, or simply concept of convergent change, evolutionary fatigue (cf. Burgelman, 1991). As a result, changes are slow and continuous, enabling while change in itself is not necessarily the organization to preserve the integrity of challenged by certain staff, the possibility of their design and structure, while change may be problematic and challenge incorporating minor changes. In essence, an organization’s ability to adapt should evolutionary change balances resistance with modifications be required. Finally, the need to change to reflect current trends. individuals or groups within the However, evolutionary change is not always organization may perceive the adoption as possible, as environmental stimuli may an inefficient use of the organization’s warrant a larger, more impactful change. (limited) resources (cf. Hannan & Freeman, The resultant revolutionary changes are 1984; Suddaby & Foster, 2016). Regardless swift and often discontinuous, as the of the type of resistance, managers may re- organization attempts to respond to major evaluate, pivot, and/or choose not to enact external developments. For instance, the the proposed action based upon the institutionalized pressures to radically shift resistance they receive (Slack & Parent, an organization’s form from a simplistic to a 2006). professional bureaucratic structure to secure Evolutionary and revolutionary revenues would constitute a revolutionary change. Given the threat change may bring change (cf. Slack & Hinings, 1992). to reliable, predictable operations (cf. Miller, Despite advances in organizational Greenwood, & Hinings, 1997), the various change scholarship, particularly those in a types of change resistance may also instigate sport organization context (e.g., Legg et al., organizations to seek inertia, providing 2016; Zakus & Skinner, 2008), our stability to their present form and processes understanding of new communication and (Yi et al., 2016). This is especially true of technological developments in these older and larger organizations which tend to organizations remains weak. As Burgers have well-established hierarchies, policies, (2016) noted, the implementation of new and routines considered normative communication technologies and operations (Shimizu & Hitt, 2005). developments can be considered within an

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organizational change framework, context of change explores environmental particularly given these changes could be factors in which change is occurring. incremental (i.e., convergent, evolutionary) Pettigrew (1987) noted there are both or immense (i.e., radical, revolutionary). As internal and external contexts which explain such, while scholars have discussed social the impetus for change. Within an media usage by sport organizations, organization (i.e., inner context), structure, especially those in the not-for-profit sector culture, number of staff, types of leadership, (e.g., Naraine & Parent, 2016; Thompson et and staff opinions can affect the change al., 2014), the context of adopting this process. By contrast, the outer context change to their stakeholder communication refers to the broader circumstance (e.g., remains unclear. By understanding the economic, social) affecting change. For context in which this change has been instance, changes in best practices or adopted, the impetus and type of change turbulence in the operating environment can be illuminated, in addition to discussing may influence how an organization the presence and basis for change perceives its competitiveness and relevancy, resistance. and how the organization initiates the change process (e.g., Girginov & Sandanski, Contextualist Approach 2008). The third and final element is Examining organizational change is concerned with the how of change. The difficult to explain without articulating the process of change suggests actors, actions, actions and processes which impact the and activities are key conduits in adopting adoption and implementation of change change, as they can enable or inhibit the (Armenakis & Bedeian, 1999; Pettigrew, implementation of new or modified Woodman, & Cameron, 2001). Pettigrew practices (Pettigrew et al., 2001). (1987) conceptualized an approach that Although Pettigrew’s model has sought not just to illuminate what the change remained relatively unchanged (with regards was, but also why change was occurring and to the interconnected elements), Dawson how that change impacted routines and (2003) advanced a refined version of the operations. The result (i.e., the contextualist framework. In this update, considerations approach to organizational change) was a were made to identify the type and scale of set of three interconnected elements: change (e.g., radical or convergent), while content, context, and process. The first the process element incorporated the element refers to the areas and elements politics associated with change vis-à-vis subjected to transformation. The content of resistance and conflict. Using the original change addresses what specifically has approach with these refinements, the changed in an organization. Thus, content change literature is able to move beyond may refer to changes in human resources identifying the outcomes of adopting personnel, products and services offered or, change towards why and how outcomes are in the case of the present study, shaped by contextual processes (cf. Wells, technological advancements. The second 2016). element focuses on the why of change. The

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An important part of the contextualist of the Norwegian General Assembly of approach to change is situating the notion Sports over the course of three decades. of time. As Pettigrew et al. (2001) proposed, However, it is Caza’s (2000) work which research on organizational change should be sets a precedent to apply the contextualist cognizant of the challenge of studying approach in the present study. Caza’s change processes longitudinally while examination of technological change vis-à- depicting change as it happens concurrently. vis implementation of computer scoring, as Although the former sentiment (i.e., change well as a new method of ranking athletes, over time) adopts a chronological highlight key aspects of receptivity related to interpretation of change, the latter the context of change (e.g., effect of sentiment emphasizes the factors causing leadership, goals and priorities, change in the interim. As such, applying a environmental pressures). The ability of the contextualist approach can be done in both contextualist approach to illuminate considerations of time, which is helpful catalysts and stimulus for the adoption of given the present circumstance where social technological innovations, in particular, is media adoption has occurred in a short thus a useful guide for the present study. timeframe (cf. Eagleman, 2013; Thompson Here, the contextualist approach is et al., 2014). applied to examine how and why social media Although there are other ways to has been adopted by NSOs, but does so conceptualize change in organizations (e.g., with a slight departure from past Resource Dependency Theory, Life-Cycle scholarship. Due to the rapid increase of Approach), the contextualist approach social media usage in a short period of time, offers a logical, simple framework which has the present study is not concerned with been supported by previous sport change longitudinally; rather, it is concerned management research, particularly studies with the change experienced by NSOs as it focusing on not-for-profit sport has occurred. Second, while others have organizations in various geographical areas utilized the approach to document the such as (e.g., Thibault & Babiak, content, context, and process of change 2005), Bulgaria (e.g., Girginov & Sandanski, (e.g., Girginov & Sandanski, 2008; Thibault 2008), and Norway (e.g., Skirstad, 2009). & Babiak, 2005; Skirstad, 2009), the content Thibault and Babiak (2005) applied the of change in this circumstance is already approach to the Canadian sport system, known (i.e., social media adoption). As documenting change from a bureaucratic to such, the contextualist framework is applied athlete-centered system longitudinally; here to draw out the additional elements of Girginov and Sandanski (2008) examined change (i.e., context and process) to Bulgarian NSOs over time to assess changes complement existing knowledge. as result of political, economic, and social transformations the jurisdiction experienced Research Questions moving from socialism to democratization; As the purpose of the study is to Skirstad (2009) utilized the contextualist examine social media adoption and change approach to illuminate the gender imbalance to stakeholder communication within the

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context of NSOs, and being informed by presence (cf. Naraine & Parent, 2016). Once the literature and framework noted above, data collection ensued, two additional the following research questions are interviews were deemed appropriate to advanced: confirm theoretical saturation achievement RQ1 – What internal and external forces (cf. Charmaz, 2014), which resulted in a have enabled social media adoption by final sample of ten organizations (see Table NSOs? 1). Participants representing these NSOs RQ2a – What type of change was (with staff sizes between three and 30) experienced as a result of social media consisted of actively employed personnel adoption by NSOs? who organized, controlled, managed, RQ2b – What resistance, if any, was and/or oversaw the social media operations experienced by NSOs in the adoption of within their organization. Based on these social media? criteria, participants had various roles including chief executive officer (n = 2), Method director of marketing and communications A qualitative design was implemented to (n = 4), communications and media uncover the experiences of individuals relations manager (n = 2), and manager confronted with social media adoption specifically in charge of digital content (e.g., within NSOs. Specifics on the participants, websites and social media) (n = 2). All as well as data collection and data analysis participants were given pseudonyms to techniques are provided below. protect their identities while reporting the results to adhere to this study’s ethics Participants certificate guidelines. Moreover, additional Drawing upon Naraine and Parent’s consideration was given to protect (2016) work, a purposeful sample of eight participant identities, including not explicitly Canadian NSOs were initially used. reporting job titles of participants, linking Although 61 NSOs in the Canadian sport those titles to the selected organizations, landscape are currently funded by Sport and/or revealing the number of staff Canada, the sample represented a balance of working at the organization during data summer and winter sports and a range of collection. social media presence (as defined by their followership – with the presumption being Data Collection high followership would indicate larger, The lead investigator conducted semi- salient, and potentially more resourceful structured interviews with each NSO organizations). Preliminary contact was representative via phone conferencing given made with the same eight organizations via geographic distances. Interview questions e-mail to assess availability and willingness (see Appendix A) were devised based upon to participate. Since two NSOs indicated the characteristics of the sample noted in they would not be participating, they were Table 1 and previous literature on social replaced with organizations with the same media in sport (e.g., Armstrong et al., 2016; sport seasonality and similar social media Gibbs et al., 2014; Stavros et al., 2014),

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including those specific to NSOs and social the NVIVO 10 computer software media (e.g., Abeza & O'Reilly, 2014; program, which can facilitate data Naraine & Parent, 2016; Thompson et al., fragmentation and coding. Findings were 2014). The contextualist approach discussed between the authors to ensure framework was also utilized in the coherence. development of the interview guide. . Through careful probing, the lead Findings investigator was able to provide an Interviewee sentiments were grouped opportunity for respondents to reveal into the categories derived from the unique insights and unanticipated contextualist approach (i.e., outer context, sentiments related to their organization and inner context, and process), and organized the adoption of social media (cf. Charmaz, based on the organization’s social media 2014). Each interview lasted approximately presence (i.e., “high”, “mid-high”, “mid- 60 minutes; interview sessions were voice- low”, and “low”) to elucidate similarities recorded, transcribed (maintaining and differences in the change experience. anonymity of respondents), and returned to The findings’ implications regarding participants for verification. Only two organizational change are presented in the interviewees requested changes to their discussion section. applicable transcripts, wishing to clarify some concepts or redact names of Outer Context colleagues or perceived defamatory NSOs’ impetus to adopt social media comments. seemed to emanate from the need to engage with stakeholders, specifically fans of the Data Analysis sport, members (e.g., athletes), and even Data were deductively coded using sponsors (to a lesser extent), as well as Pettigrew’s (1987) three-pronged framework maintain the guise of a credible, modern and the refinements made by Dawson organization in a competitive operating (2003). The sorting of data fragments into environment. deductive elements provided an initial In the case of the high social media opportunity to align the present findings presence organizations, both respondents with the specified research questions, communicated the need to adopt various adhering to the approach of others who social media platforms to engage their utilized the contextualist approach (e.g., stakeholders, but with slight differences in Skirstad, 2009). However, subsequent who those stakeholders actually were. coding was performed inductively to reveal Change to their stakeholder communication additional insights or concepts not was deemed necessary and attributable to necessarily fitting into the conceptual model the environmental shift away from but addressing the study’s purpose and traditional media by other organizations. research questions, akin to Legg et al.’s Yet, for , there was also a (2016) procedure. To perform these actions, distinct focus on connecting with fans as all data were imported and analyzed using opposed to other stakeholder groups:

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I mean, it's rare that an organization it comes to social media” in that it serves as doesn't have social media presence. I “the first point of contact for a lot of people think it just is reflective of the in and outside the organization.” In this demographics, and reflective of today's sense, adopting social media within NSOs society. Traditional media, traditional was deemed critical based upon ways of communicating are out the stakeholders’ expectations. Jade extended window. Cable television and her thoughts about other organizations newspapers just don't reach people the adopting social media, stating: “A lot of way that social media do, and that's the people and organizations define themselves way the world has evolved. and the success of their organization based [Organizations] want to get things on the number of followers they have…so I done. They want to reach their fans. would question the credibility of an (Anthony, Curling Canada) organization if they weren’t on social When probed about wanting to “get things media.” In this respect, adopting social done” and reaching fans, Anthony media moves beyond simply an expectation explained his organization had “a very loyal of stakeholders towards organizations being fan base that love to engage on social media perceived as more credible and successful. platforms,” requiring Curling Canada to Although he did not make a direct link with adopt a social presence to ensure those fans this idea, Jim (from Softball Canada) remained loyal and engaged. The other explained sponsors have contacted his respondent in this grouping, Linda ( organization to remain apprised of the Canada), expressed a similar response, growth and reach of their social media indicating that adopting social media was following. The recognition of stakeholder “definitely just a reality” of the current expectations beyond simply fans and environmental landscape: “I would think it athletes was also noted by Bill at Canada was strange for sure if [organizations] Snowboard: “I think everybody’s engaging weren’t investing at all in the social space.” with so many different businesses now that However, Linda also indicated the I think it’s almost a necessary evil that you expectation to adopt social media extended have to have now in order to connect with beyond fans to include teams and athletes, your followers.” Bill’s characterization of creating “a bit more personal connection” social media as a widespread tool utilized in than traditional communication media can multiple industries supports the idea of provide with those specific stakeholders. NSOs being pressured into adopting new The mid-high social media presence processes in order to maintain credibility cohort also conveyed similar sentiments with stakeholders and operate within the about the external context in which NSOs expected norms of a modern organization. adopted social media, honing in on Organizations characterized as mid-low stakeholder expectations, as well as in their social media presence expressed perceived success. Jade, a Canadian similar environmental factors in their Freestyle Ski staff member, noted the “real adoption of social media (e.g., stakeholder responsibility that organizations have when expectations), but downgraded the notion

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of perceived success. Carla, a look kind of funny if you didn’t have it staff member, commented hers and other now.” While Cassandra at Fencing Canada organizations have “all come to realize that made a similar comment, she suggested [social media] is not a fad, it’s not going there was an element of adoption as a away. We need to keep up with the times.” marker of effectiveness: “[Not having social The notion that organizations adopt social media] gives the perception that you’re not media as a means to adhere to the status with the times, you know you’re not maybe quo was also advanced by Carla: “I think as effective as you should be.” While the we’re just going with the flow.” Similarly, two respondents agreed that adopting social Corey at Bobsleigh Canada, remarked: media is an expectation, there was some “Everyone knows it’s there, everyone division, as Cassandra advanced her attitude understands we need to be part of it. And I towards social media adoption and bet you could poll a lot of people out there organizational effectiveness. that say they do social media for the sake of Coinciding with NSOs adopting social doing social media.” Yet, although this media because it is an expectation of their opinion was shared by the respondents in stakeholders (ranging from fans to sponsors this category, both Corey from Bobsleigh depending on the respondent) is the idea of Canada and Andrew from Canada adoption of social media platforms as a indicated adopting social media was not a means of connecting with a younger result of perceived credibility or demographic. Across all ten organizations, organizational success, or even the respondents indicated adopting social media expectation of funding partners. “Sport was attributable to its acceptance by Canada really doesn’t care how well you’re younger individuals, particularly as a new communicating with your members,” generation of athletes begin to compete in Andrew explained. “They’re interested in their respective sport. As Carla put it: “If how close you are to an Olympic medal.” In that’s the way it’s going with a younger essence, staff members representing demographic, we need to keep up with that organizations in the mid-low social media and make sure that we’re staying somewhat presence category acknowledged the relevant.” adoption of social media as a basic component of operating in the current time Inner Context period, but not a component that can Whereas the outer context revealed an overhaul how stakeholders perceive the environment in which NSOs are expected organization. to adopt social media communication as a The two respondents in the low social stakeholder-based normative behavior, pre- media presence cohort also offered similar existing communications infrastructure, remarks, citing the adoption of social media limited capacity (i.e., human and financial as an expectation. Terrence at Luge Canada resources), and NSOs’ core focus were commented: “I think it’s expected now in prominent internal factors impacting the society that there is that type of, you know, adoption. those types of platforms in place. It would

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Both respondents at Curling Canada human resources to execute.” Bill’s and explained that, despite comments were amplified when he their organization’s standing amongst other mentioned there were roughly a dozen full- Canadian NSOs, they, too, experienced time staff members within his organization. capacity constraints. Anthony from Curling Similarly, Jim at Softball Canada indicated Canada put it very bluntly: “We don’t have his organization only had one person the money behind [social media]. Let’s get charged with handling communications (out that straight.” Although Anthony estimated of eight reported staff members), indicative his organization had over 100 employees of a human resource shortfall. However, and interns, only four individuals were despite the deficiency in capacity, Jim noted devoted towards the communications it was important for his organization to function, only one of whom was a full-time focus on its task to communicate programs staff member, and tasked with media and information to athletes, fans, and relations, website creation, and e-mails provincial softball associations. In the case (among others). As such, contrary to their of Canadian Freestyle Ski, whose reported position as an organization with a high focus was elite athlete development and social media presence, social media high-performance, there was no direct adoption was added to Curling Canada’s mention of a lack of financial or human small, but functioning communications resources. Indeed, the challenge for Jade team. Linda at Tennis Canada also and her colleagues was not the initial expressed similar capacity concerns: adoption of social media to communicate “Everyone’s pretty stretched and it’s a with stakeholders, but rather managing relatively new thing to be focusing on.” In social platforms as they grow, evolve, and an organization similar in staff size and cause “bandwidth issues.” composition to Curling Canada, Linda A lack of capacity was also evident explained Tennis Canada had already amongst Sail Canada, , and utilized digital properties (e.g., website, e- Bobsleigh Canada. Within Sail Canada and mails) as well as traditional communications its reported staff of eight, Carla activities (e.g., telephone calls, newsletters, acknowledged her organization was not face-to-face meetings) to interact with alone in this experience: “I think we suffer stakeholders and, thus, adopting social very similar struggles that other NSOs have media for her organization was which are capacity issues. That’s always complimentary to the already established been our struggle.” With one person in her digital presence. organization managing all communications Softball Canada and Canada Snowboard aspects (e.g., e-mails, phone calls), it would provided similar experiences with capacity appear unlikely to add additional constraints, though Canadian Freestyle Ski communications tasks onto that individual. has some slight deviations in their response. Yet, as Carla mentioned, adopting social As Bill from Canada Snowboard explained: media aligned with Sail Canada’s values of “We’re just trying to keep our heads above communication and accountability, thereby water. It’s just getting the resources, the explaining why such a change would occur.

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This was also the case for Archery Canada; paid doing [social media]. Where us, we Andrew noted his organization was kind of try to do as much as we can, but committed to serving its stakeholders, and there are certain things we can’t, and [social social media enabled such service despite media] would be one thing.” With a minimal staff (i.e., two full-time, one part- reported staff of six individuals, Terrence time). For Bobsleigh Canada, driving commented his organization was “very interest and awareness of the sport and rudimentary” and could not allocate athletes was reported as the primary focus financial resources towards social media. of the organization, and all messaging Although Luge Canada did have centralized reflected this focus. Indeed, Corey communications with one person managing commented: “The opportunities are endless, e-mails and website activities, social media but it all comes down to a capacity issue and was considered an afterthought as the focus what are the priorities, and you’ve got to was and would always be on high- deal with the priorities first.” As such, Corey performance success, as Terrence reported. acknowledged that adopting social media could help drive interest and awareness, but Process (Politics of Change) argued the lack of capacity had significant In discussing social media adoption, two implications on the degree to which it was prominent themes emerged: the politics of utilized. communication (for Canadian NSOs) and Not dissimilar from the other groups, resistance experienced, whether internal both Fencing Canada and Luge Canada (i.e., from staff within organization) or espoused their limited organizational external (i.e., from outside stakeholder capacities for social media adoption. groups). Cassandra revealed her organization was There was a clear division in the incredibly lean (i.e., two staff members) and responses between Curling Canada and did not boast a physical office, which had Tennis Canada when it came to already placed a strain on Fencing Canada’s understanding the process of adopting operations. However, she also noted her social media. When raising the issue of organization was focused on serving its language and content, Anthony mentioned community (e.g., athletes, provincial adopting social media aided in promotional associations) by “keeping people up to marketing and sharing multimedia, but the date.” Nevertheless, when asked about tool itself raised significant language adopting social media, Cassandra concerns, specifically the tone and type of highlighted the lack of capacity ultimately content and the issue of bilingualism. affected her organization’s ability to utilize it We paint with a pretty broad brush. to a great extent. Terrence at Luge Canada We’re conditioned to the fact that we communicated a similar sentiment, but went have corporate partners who need to so far as to suggest the reality at some be respected, and may not want to be NSOs may be different than his associated with someone that pushes organization’s own experience: “I find a lot the envelope…posting out a couple of the other NSOs probably have someone of tweets about [an athlete] hitting on

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showgirls might not be something employees to populate content, she that the little old ladies in mentioned outsourcing of translation Saskatchewan would be down with. services created additional costs. At Softball (Anthony, Curling Canada) Canada, Jim reported his organization was Indeed, it was suggested a professional tone capable of handling the bilingualism issue, was necessary to maintain organizational as the individual responsible for social legitimacy amongst its stakeholders, media was bilingual, but did reveal a specifically sponsors and older tendency to focus mainly on English demographics who have demonstrated a language content, because the hesitance towards adopting social media overwhelming majority of stakeholders were themselves. Translating Curling Canada English first: “You can get lazy sometimes content from English to French, an official and put more in English and kind of ignore language of Canada, was also reported to be the French.” Bill at Canada Snowboard problematic, as it took additional resources summarized the bilingualism issue as it (e.g., money, time) for content to be related to adopting social media: translated and negated the expediency of Oh, it’s a massive issue. It’s using social media altogether. Conversely, something that, you know, we do Linda did not experience major resistance have some obligation to with being a within the organization or from its bilingual country, but also our – some stakeholders, but did note the difficulty in of our funding is tied to making sure justifying a large social media presence that we’re communicating in both without identifying the return on languages with athletes that are, you investment. Moreover, with two bilingual know, primarily French or bilingual. staff members working on social media The struggle that we’ve found is based in and respectively, investing in that and the return on it. managing content in both official languages You know we’ve done a lot of did not appear to pose a problem for Tennis analytics, posting in French and then Canada. posting in English or vice versa, or Striking a balance between English and posting in both languages, and I French content was also reported to be an would say that probably 90-95% of issue for Canadian Freestyle Ski, Softball our following is at least English first, Canada, and Canada Snowboard, while the if not English primary. latter two organizations also explicitly What exacerbates the bilingualism documented the internal resistance to requirement is the organizational resistance adopting social media altogether. Jade at these organizations incurred simultaneously. Canadian Freestyle Ski indicated As Bill suggested, it remained a challenge to bilingualism in all communication was get staff within Canada Snowboard to paramount for her organization to ensure consider social media as a worthwhile funding from government partners (e.g., investment, as opposed to devoting ) remained in place. Though resources towards high-performance her organization had French-language objectives. Jim expanded on this point,

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indicating the resistance from organization of bilingualism was also expressed by staff came from a specific subset: “Older Fencing Canada and Luge Canada. administrators don’t seem to see the value Cassandra from Fencing Canada in [social media].” communicated the presence of “an age drop While Sail Canada’s insight on the off,” whereby certain age brackets would politics of social media adoption was similar not be engaged with the organization on to those of Canadian Freestyle Ski (e.g., social media platforms. Beyond this having a bilingual social media curator, resistance, she also expressed concerns limited organizational resistance), both regarding bilingual communication: “We Archery Canada and Bobsleigh Canada have a strategy to try and post in both depicted a struggle with the bilingualism and official languages, but we don’t always resistance to adopting social media. Andrew succeed in that. [Sport Canada] audits us for claimed Archery Canada worked diligently bilingualism; it’s a big issue.” This notion of to have a balance of English and French a communications audit from a significant posts, but the delay in French translation funding source illustrates Fencing Canada’s meant refraining from communicating for reservations regarding social media up to 24 hours in some cases, plus the high adoption. Along a similar vein, Terrence at costs for such a turnaround. At Bobsleigh Luge Canada revealed his organization’s Canada, Corey did not choose to divulge the cynical view of social media: “I don’t think extent to which his organization maintained anyone sees the importance of it. We’re at a a bilingual social media presence. However, stalemate, where we’ve got enough to do he did offer a comment pertaining to the with what we’re doing right now, and resistance in adopting social media; within there’s no argument in place by anybody to the Bobsleigh Canada organization, there spend more.” He expanded upon this point was a recognition that athlete success was further through his $30,000 example: if the most important priority and resources Luge Canada were to receive $30,000, and should be devoted to hiring coaches, had the option of hiring a high-performance trainers, and associated activities. Andrew coach or a dedicated social media curator, agreed with this sentiment, but also the former would be chosen, as it would reflected upon Archery Canada’s contribute directly to athlete success, stakeholders: “We have a little bit older, consequently increasing funding. As such, different generation who are very reticent to although the organization adopted social move onto [social media].” As such, media, Terrence concluded it was an Andrew believed it would be an inefficient afterthought relative to Luge Canada’s other use of his organization’s resources to priorities. expand their social media presence when their stakeholders would not be utilizing Discussion those platforms. The impetus to adopt social media The hesitance in committing significant within NSOs appears to be predominantly resources towards social media as a result of motivated by stakeholders’ expectations and internal or external resistance and the issue by pre-existing communications

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infrastructure. In the current business presence and integrate the additional tasks environment in which these organizations alongside other ongoing communication operate, incorporating social media is activities (e.g., e-mails, telephone calls, necessary to remain competitive given the newsletters). recent shift in digital technologies (Kaplan Although the motivation to adopt social & Haenlien, 2010). Moreover, the media would indicate an increased acknowledgement by respondents in the importance of adopting new present study that their stakeholders communication approaches (given expected organizations to have a social stakeholders’ expectation) and few media presence reflects this trend. This challenges (given the integration with other finding explains why many of these communications activities), the organizations succumbed to coercive, organizational capacity issue helps explain mimetic, and normative pressures with their NSOs’ subdued social media presence. It social media presence (see Naraine & should come as no surprise that capacity is Parent, 2016). The logic of adopting social cited as having a significant impact on these media in order to remain competitive is organizations’ ability to develop and exacerbated by the perceived legitimacy and maintain a social media presence; this issue relevancy such actions are believed to offer. has been previously identified as a key As explained in the findings, there was a factor in the operations of sport tendency for some to attribute the organizations (e.g., Amis et al., 2004a; integration of social media into their Misener & Doherty, 2009), and the findings organization as an act of demonstrating here suggest capacity constraints affect the modernity. The evidence provided also operationalization of social media as well. depicted the decision to adopt a social Specifically, the lack of human and financial media presence as being affected by the resources hinders the ability to offer a current process of communication with diverse presence (on multiple platforms) internal and external parties. with dynamic, engaging content as sport Communication is important for these development-expenses are prioritized over organizations to demonstrate accountability social media-related expenses. Whereas a and transparency (thus securing funding for-profit sport organization may have the from government partners), and NSOs have ability to expend resources to develop a shown a willingness to develop new presence on a variety of platforms including platforms, especially in a digital setting, to incorporating new, emerging sites, not-for- conduct these activities (cf. Girginov et al., profit sport organizations are cognizant of 2009). Thus, it is not unsurprising that a their inability to offer a high-quality social new communications tool such as social media presence to communicate to their media would be adopted by the stakeholders. What is perhaps most organizations under study; as new platforms remarkable about this finding was that the emerge that foster enhanced lack of capacity drew a consensus across the communication (e.g., instantaneous, four groups of social media presence (i.e., expedited), NSOs attempt to develop their high, mid-high, mid-low, and low). Despite

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the varying degree of commercial viability of recognition of the potential for increased and professionalization amongst this cohort partnerships and unique sponsorship (cf. Girginov et al., 2009), all NSOs seem activations that could yield additional subject to similar resource constraints which revenue to apply to athlete development. inhibit their adoption of change. Indeed, the The resistance within NSOs is also fueled findings suggest capacity limitations can by the perceived unwillingness of older stymie the extent to which social media is demographics to communicate on these adopted and advanced within an new platforms. As such, social media can organization. become a chore with a limited function. Along this vein, the challenge of Social media is not perceived as a resource balancing bilingual communication and to increase the organization’s capacity; resistance from staff members and rather, it is used to expedite communication stakeholder groups (e.g., older constituents) with certain stakeholders. This reasoning also impacted how NSOs adopt social also helps explain why there was little media. Although these organizations are variance between the messages conveyed by accustomed to the bilingual these organizations on social media (cf. communications paradigm existing within Naraine & Parent, 2016). Based on this the Canadian landscape, there remains an premise, administrators are content to inability for these organizations to reconcile deploy limited resources towards their social the expedited nature of social media media presence, and do so while communication (e.g., populating and maintaining a level of doubt about the translating content for English and French potential benefits of such communication accounts in a timely fashion). The findings (cf. Isabella, 1990). allude to the capacity issue once more, with Considering the application of few bilingual staff members tasked with Pettigrew’s (1987) contextual approach in communication, and/or an inadequate this circumstance, the findings not only budget for translation. Concurrently, NSOs uncover why and how social media has been are faced with resistance from internal staff adopted as an additional medium to members looming over their adoption of communicate with stakeholders, but this new form of communication. Despite underscores social media as an evolutionary, the espoused benefits NSOs may receive convergent change mechanism, rather than from adopting social media, including a source of radical, revolutionary change for alleviating a lack of traditional media NSOs. The external forces pressuring NSOs coverage and increased marketing to adopt social media, the resistance begot promotions (Eagleman, 2013), some within from reticent staff and older stakeholders, these organizations do not appear to ascribe and the limited organizational capacity were to these espoused benefits, and contend that not enough to preserve organizational such communication merely diverts stability (cf. Boeker, 1997). However, the resources away from core objectives (e.g., findings depict social media adoption as an elite athlete development) (cf. Hannan & incremental shift, incorporated into the Freeman, 1984). Indeed, there exists a lack existing communications paradigm, and

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mitigating the potential for incongruence purpose and goals of utilizing this vehicle. with organizational stability (cf. Tushman & Reflecting upon the results, not-for-profit O’Reilly, 1996). Social media adoption can sport organizations in a similar linguistic also be considered as a type of convergent circumstance may wish to consider making change. Developing and sustaining a social multilingualism imperative for tasks media presence has not affected major, associated with social media (and traditional transformational change in these media) communication with stakeholders. organizations (Greenwood & Hinings, Whether in the form of providing language 1996); rather, change offers a slight, minor training for communications staff or hiring modification to the organization’s bilingual staff, organizations can reduce the communication with its stakeholders. This capacity strain (e.g., costs associated with is an important consideration given the translation). While the Canada’s bilingual degree to which social media is championed circumstance may seem unique, as a paradigm shifting vehicle (e.g., Kaplan practitioners in other jurisdictions may still & Haenlein, 2010; Waters, Burke, Jackson, wish to reflect upon how their organization & Buning, 2010). Although the emergence incorporates official or de facto second (or of social media has shifted NSOs away from more) languages, reducing the potential a state of inertia, its adoption remains a alienation of stakeholder groups. For minor change with minimal impact on the instance, organizations in the United States day-to-day operations. Given the above, we should be concerned with English and posit that the degree to which social media Spanish language stakeholders, Belgium adoption can affect change is mediated by with Dutch and French, and perhaps capacity and resistance (from stakeholders Germany with its growing Turkish and staff members). This proposition contingent (to name a few). Ensuring staff should, however, be tested in other settings. understand how the adoption of social media can benefit the organization is also Implications and Contributions important to ensure resistance does not lead From a practical standpoint, the to change fatigue (cf. Burgelman, 1991) or findings provide new insight that may help belief their position is in jeopardy (cf. managers and staff within similar Ybema et al., 2016), the latter especially with organizational contexts. More precisely, older and/or unilingual employees. understanding why and how social media has For scholars, the findings presented been adopted can enable other not-for- here add to the current, fluid understanding profit sport organizations who have of social media within sport, particularly in hesitated or delayed this change in not-for-profit sport organizations. With communicating with their stakeholders. social media continuing to gain prominence, Practitioners should be conscious of the it is plausible more organizations will challenge of, and resistance to, adopting continue to adopt this method of social media, namely negotiating between communication. However, the findings also multilingual content and clearly suggest it is likely this change will be minor communicating to staff the intended and not radically shift an organization’s

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condition. This notion has important sport organizations, the sample was drawn implications within the social media and from one jurisdiction (i.e., Canada), which sport domain, including helping to explain affects the generalizability of the results. how not-for-profit sport organizations However, some of the results can still be come to exhibit isomorphic tendencies in adapted in other contexts (e.g., balancing their social media presence (cf. Naraine & multilingualism). Second, the findings were Parent, 2016). The reported impact capacity limited to the responses of the individuals has on the adoption of social media also representing the sampled NSOs; responses serves to advance the theoretical foundation were assumed to be an accurate of social media in sport. As social media is representation of the experience of their espoused as a tool with significant abilities respective organizations, but respondents (e.g., Eagleman, 2013; Kaplan & Haenlein, may have chosen to withhold information 2010; Waters et al., 2010), it is critical to or provided an account differing from those recognize the influence capacity can have on communicated by their colleagues. Finally, its utility. In the present circumstance, low the context of adopting social media was capacity resulted in diminished utility once limited to one data source (i.e., interviews), social media was adopted. While this and it is unknown whether data ascertained concept is simple and straightforward, it from additional sources (e.g., meeting raises an important consideration for documents, websites, e-mail exchanges) scholars: the inverse (i.e., high capacity would have yielded new information. resulting in increased utility) may not necessarily be true. Given the elite athlete Future Directions development focus by these types of sport This study offers a basis on which organizations, it is unclear whether an future research may continue to build. organization with significant capacity would Scholars should continue pursuing deploy more resources to their social media qualitative approaches to enhance the social presence. With calls to continue examining media and sport research agenda, including social media in sport using organizational uncovering the experiences of practitioners and strategic management models (cf. Filo dealing with the phenomena. However, et al., 2015), highlighting how high versus future studies may consider shifting the low capacity impacts the adoption, context from North America (e.g., Canada, utilization, and maintenance of a social United States) towards the Global South media presence can reveal additional (e.g., India, China). Given the capacity insights and complement the knowledge issues cited in this study, understanding how garnered in the present study. change to stakeholder communication is adopted (or not) from these perspectives Limitations can enhance the findings of the current The present study was subjected to study. Scholars may also wish to reflect (de)limitations, much of which stemmed upon how stakeholders perceive the from the methodological approach. First, adoption of social media in a given while this study focused on not-for-profit organization; the present study isolated

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focal organizations adopting the change, but future studies may wish to explore how stakeholders react to the change process. Finally, although social media is still emerging and evolving, researchers may reflect upon this change to stakeholder communication once the process has matured, taking a longitudinal approach and juxtaposing the results with those found in the present study.

Conclusion Although social media is lauded for its ability to help organizations connect with stakeholders instantaneously without spatial limitations, it does not seem to have triggered the immense change previously postulated (cf. Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). Using Pettigrew’s (1987) contextualist approach, this study’s findings note adopting social media results in an evolutionary, convergent change to the stakeholder communication paradigm within not-for-profit sport organizations. The findings reinforce the notion of organizations changing for change’s sake (i.e., to meet stakeholder expectations and maintain relevancy/legitimacy) instead of choosing inertia due to their limited capacity. Moreover, as new innovations and advancements occur in the operating environments, not-for-profit sport organizations are likely to incorporate this change without maximizing its utility. ---

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Table and Appendix

Table 1 Organizational Characteristics

Social Interviewer Twitter Facebook Organization Season media Pseudonym followersb likesb presencea Tennis Canada Linda S High 29,418 37,964

Curling Canada Anthony W High 27,470 52,365

Softball Canada Jim S Mid-high 8,827 7,116

Canada Bill W Mid-high 7,438 13,223 Snowboard

Canada Jade W Mid-high 5,602 10,677 Freestyle Ski

Sail Canada Carla S Mid-low 3,626 2,885

Bobsleigh Corey W Mid-low 2,834 1,568 Canada

Archery Canada Andrew S Mid-low 2,570 2,481

Luge Canada Terrence W Low 1,417 1,106

Fencing Canada Cassandra S Low 996 4,245

a. Based on Naraine and Parent (2016) b. As of November 15, 2016.

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Appendix A

Interview Guide (without prompt questions) General information 1. What is your role within the national sport organization?

2. How long have you served in this role? Have you performed other duties

within the organization?

3. How does your role allow you to communicate to others within the

organization and external to the organization?

National Sport Organization design 1. What is the primary function of your organization? Who does it serve? Why

does it exist?

2. What is the mission of the organization?

3. What are the organization’s vision and values?

4. How many staff work in the organization?

Social media 1. How would you describe the social media presence of your organization

compared to traditional modes of communication?

2. How does a social media presence align with your organization’s mission,

vision, and values (if at all)? Do you use social media to advance these at all?

3. What is the greatest strength and challenge to your organization in using social

media?

Isomorphism and credibility

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1. Are sport organizations more credible if they have social media platforms? Less

credible if they don’t?

2. How would you compare your organization’s use of social media compared to

other national sport organizations in Canada?

3. Do you mimic or adopt practices of other NSOs with respect to social media?

If so, which ones and why? If not, why?

4. How does your organization differ from other similar organizations with its

social media?

Future 1. Will social media become more important, less important, or remain the same

for your organization? Why?

2. How does the emergence of new, salient social media platforms affect your

organization?

3. Does the emergence of new social media trends or platforms affect your

organization’s strategy? Why?

4. Is there more your organization can do to connect to stakeholders via social

media? If so, what?

Final question 1. Is there anything else you would like to mention in regards to what we’ve

discussed today?

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Three, Issue Two Naraine & Parent, 2017 81