KUNGL KRIGSVETENSKAPSAKADEMIENS HANDLINGAR OCH TIDSKRIFT

TIDSKRIFT Debatt A few notes on Studies

av Magnus Christiansson, Head of Section, Academy

t does not take more than a casual the journal somewhat boring, even if this reading of Proceedings and Journal to could be excused by its general purpose to Iconclude that it operates in a field with contribute within a certain field. complete absence of reflexivity. Most ar- However, what is even more problematic ticles in the journal are about the problems is that the predictability conserves more of warfare and the search for effective and than it develops. This means that content it- successful ways of waging war. They fea- self is shaped by form. This is a true irony: ture doctrines, book reviews, and debates just as are becoming more and more about technicalities in different sub-fields. dynamic and multifaceted, the perimeters Contributors reflect upon wars, not upon and focus of the field remains the same. what they are actually doing themselves. The problematic thing is that articles that Indeed, one could argue that the only ac- develop “better of the same” could not be cepted reflexivity related to War studies expected to deliver intellectual endeavours concerns ethics, and it is almost always a into the unknown. This is a vital weakness, matter of debates with activists that regardless of how one defines “science”. has completely incommensurable basic The first line of defence for such pro- values. But since readers of the journal found conclusion would be that this is are considered to encompass the basic ra- simply just wrong. How could so many tionale for making war and having armed experienced and decorated officers not be forces, focus is on war activities. ever vital and constantly on the Frontier of I find this lack of reflexivity disturbing. Science? But the burden of proof is easily For one thing it gives Proceedings and handed back again when one concludes Journal a rather predictable character, that Swedish Wars studies has often very which is problematic in times when the little to say about the major contemporary very definitions of security and war are debates in the field. If it is vital, why is it so shaking in their foundations. The predic- relatively calm in relation to the changing tability of War studies makes reading of character of war?

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The second line of defence is that the that has plagued War studies. A reflexive demand for reflexivity is in fact counter- approach would add an understanding of productive and even dangerous. These the fact that what we believe is true, and defenders are far from alone, since this indeed truth itself, is actually also a social is the kind of dismissal that many senior process. In highlighting that formulating scholars has placed upon metatheoretically and establishing truths are social acts it also informed academics in many other disci- demonstrates that these truths are indeed plines. Thinkers should focus on actions in products of other needs than just scientific the real world and not poke around in the endeavour. academic hinterlands! Reflexivity is also a fundamental point It is perhaps not surprising that many of departure for an organisation that tries officers do not even think in reflexive to find new solutions and doctrines in a terms. To ask questions like “for whom?” time of radical change. The first step in could, rightly so, be linked to a critical a redirection is to understand not only tradition with many leftist leanings. But it the legacies but also the current practices is worth mentioning that reflexivity and the within an organisation and a field of study. theoretical traditions that look critically on Thus, the reflexive approach could be as the social practices in order to discover for- “productive” and “useful” as Swedish of- gotten and repressed perspectives should ficers, and others working with War stud- not automatically be associated with a po- ies, allows it to be. litical project. To take but one example: a A fundamental point is that knowledge Foucaultian perspective on knowledge and about the needs and driving forces behind power regarding the current Swedish for- academic practice can actually affect future eign policy, could actually be interpreted research in the sense that scholars can as the excluding silence by the Social influence their social acts and not just sci- Democratic government towards persons entific view points. In fact, social science critical towards neutrality, and these critics is a form of social action. It would open up are found in the centre-right opposition. a more multifaceted interpretation of what A major point with a reflexive attitude is War studies are and could be. that it would give officers and others in the This text does not try to “prove” any- field a better understanding of the impact of thing. It does not try to be “scientific” social practices. It would display settings in any way. The major purpose is to use and circumstances that influence scholar- reflexivity and use it to provoke the reader ship in War studies, and start a debate about into asking questions. So, what needs and them. Most importantly it would finally social practices are defining and character- scrap the “scientific” approach that in- ising the field? What gives it its flavour, its volves the objectivistic separation between heart and soul, and what needs correspond the scholar and his subject, something to it? This rather short text will focus on

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three aspects of social practice in Swedish undergo a dialectical struggle, or war as War studies. decided by the three factors people, army, and government, has been replaced by a * lack of political superiority over violent ac- tions. In the latter situation we find Michael Anyone familiar with the Swedish military Ignatieff’s “warriors”, not the expected system knows the outstanding “soldiers”. Warriors engage in a fight alle position that Carl von Clausewitz holds. gegen alle or in a struggle that is precedent The Swedish system signals the same to in a traditional meaning. devotion shown by scholars like Bernard Yet Clausewitz prevail. To study and Brodie and On War is perhaps the true ex- know him is to show hommage to an es- emplar in the field. Thousands of officers tablished culture in the armed forces. This have been trained and educated with a phenomenon is quite comparable to other profound respect for Clausewitz and it is social acts that are upheld by officers: to difficult to underestimate his emblematic behave in a certain way at the Officers status in War studies. Mess or honour the monarchy. So Clause- Scholars like Martin van Creveld and witz is not only an important theorist – he John Keegan are known and respected, is also eine echte legende. but their critique is far from gaining the But just as any other social prac- prime position in the field. Even if in its tice, the interpretation and adherence to bud, the same fate is so far shared in large Clausewitz’s works develop over time. by the more technology leaning contem- The very character of his texts facilitates porary analysts like Steven Metz. The this, since they invite to adjustments and post-modern writers like Paul Virilo and contextual interpretations. So adjustments Jean Baudrillard, and their thoughts on and changes could be managed within its dromology and media war, are not even current theoretical form (mainly On War), received and discussed. The old master without any major replacement of the con- certainly has his critics, but no one is even cepts themselves. close of his status. The importance is thus that he provides There are certainly many arguments a fairly stable framework for making sense for, at least, modifying Clausewitz. The of war activities. It provides a mainly two main ones reach the very core of his rational connection between being an of- thoughts: the technological impact on the ficer and its relationship with war. This battlefield and, related to this, the changing imagery or rather preconception is strong, meaning of the battlefield. These trends, it and it is very usable for creating a profes- has been argued, undermine a description sional legitimacy of a traditional kind. This of war as a rational tool for political ends. process is remarkably resistant to deeper Clausewitz’s image of two wrestlers that alterations. It is expressed in the way he is

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regarded as more “timeless” compared to seems fair to conclude that theory seems to his colleagues of his time. Warfare might undergo a social test as well. Clausewitz’s change, but the essence of being an officer instrumental and highly flexible approach will never change. to war is winning, not because of some There are mainly two reasons why this inherent brilliance but because of social sociological explanation is more con- factors. To make a parallel to economics: vincing than the alternative explanation War studies are not only driven by the sup- that emphasises him as simply a “better ply side, they also have a demand side. theorist”. Even if he has an outstanding rank and position among theorists in the * military education system, it would be a mistake to believe that his texts are actually A striking feature of the scholarly style of studied! I have met a number of officers Swedish War studies is the use of military (some of rather high rank) that confess history. The Swedish National Defence their complete lack of deeper knowledge. College (SNDC) has a small but respected, They have heard about Clausewitz, not and distinguished department for Military read him. It is true that this perhaps says History, and all Courses features more about the Swedish military educa- studies in history. To know history con- tion system than anything else – and this cerning the “great ” is considered is exactly the point! Clausewitz is more of to be a virtue. Historic campaigns and an icon, someone that should be generally decisions are studied closely. One respected, and doing so means that only could go so far as to say that it would be a rudimentary understanding of him is difficult to separate from required. The On War seminars very often War studies – they are part and parcel of come close to exegetic ceremonies that the same field. says as much about the participants as it This respected position is very much reveals substance in the text. connected with the argument that there Furthermore, the issue in itself is not would be no without mili- only a matter of scientific excellence. Con- tary history – since history provides the temporary and alternative theorists could empirical material. This general approach be regarded a threat since they provide a makes it natural for military historians to critical element that disturb the very foun- re-construct the past. The major purpose dation of what it means to be an officer. behind the bulk of research at SNDC is to To provide sound and fruitful theory is find out what happened in a specific histori- not decisive, since the scientific arena is cal situation and, preferably, explain it. not relevant for deciding hegemony and One could point to a number of projects dominance in the military education field. that displays this ambition. The major em- Since scientific quality is not decisive, it phasis of the project that writes the history

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of Swedish military power between the 16th for historical literature on kings, warlords, to the 20th Century is to re-construct what and battles and campaigns (not least related actually happened. The same goes for the to W.W. II) has exploded, especially since book that presents an extensive collection the 1990s. History has been exploited by of military battles between 1361 to 1813 the state and the civil society and com- with Swedish connection. The scholars mercialised by media. inevitable need for summaries and syn- Thus, one of the major reasons for this thesising is actually seen as a problem and development is common for the societal the underlying assumption is that the more developments in general and War studies historical facts we know the better it is. in particular. It is to a high degree a ques- This is indeed a narrow approach to tion of identity. History tells us where we history. It is an ideal that relates to history come from, where we currently are, and as facts. But there are many other ways of provides us with prospects for the future. using and understanding history. There is More importantly it answers the question: of course room for a pluralist approach, who are we? This is a common way of but the problem is that history as facts is interpreting “why history came back” dur- a bit problematic when related to military ing the 1990s. These arguments underscore theory. The military historians at SNDC the need to understand the importance of can re-construct any number of battles historians in the military society, as they without escaping the fundamental question are one of the strongest guardians of a connected with such a project: What les- professional identity. This is another aspect sons could be learnt from the past? What of history that is hidden by the definition steps and measures should we take today as of history as facts. a result of the French failure in May 1940 or the Indian Wars of the 19th Century? * Historical facts in themselves will not help a military theorist today. In general, Swedish officers seem to have However, the interest in history (as facts) a somewhat schizophrenic attitude towards is widespread among officers. Indeed this social sciences. There have been a num- is for many the only and “natural” way of ber of initiatives to promote an academic approaching the subject. Especially when education style in the Armed Forces, and dealing with battles and military issues. a further adaptation to civilian standards The national book club for military his- and requirements. On the one hand, many tory (SMB) has a massive support from officers are sceptical because of a, not very officers. This tendency is, however, not accurate, fear of dispersion of classical, unique for the military community – it mainly practical officer skills. Why should is something it has in common with the young Cadets study books and abstract Swedish population in general. The market thoughts, when they are badly needed as

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instructors at Regiments and Flotillas? This quated behaviourist leaning. How shall we fear has been explained with reference to understand the fact that Swedish officers the peculiar Swedish system that refuses are being educated in a scientific tradition any drill sergeants and NCO:s. The point that is more or less dead at the country’s is thus that there is a legitimate risk in universities? treating, to use an analogy, nurse students The absolute position of historical source the same way as brain surgeons. criticism is in line with this. Its application Be as it may, alongside this scepticism has a long and rich tradition in the Swedish there is also a widespread respect for community of historians, reaching back to science. But the academic ideal that is the period around W.W.I. However, its sta- dominant, at least in the top of the military tus at Universities has diminished over the hierarchy, is a very old fashioned form of last decades and even the infected debate “foundationalism”. Basically, the scholar about its application is becoming irrelevant uses academic theories to study reality, in most historical research. Maybe this and the empirical results and observations development is understandable since many decide the usefulness of a theory. Science of the positivist lancers have recognised can contribute, in principle, to progress and the need for the theoretical reformation enlightenment. of source criticism. However, this debate The SNDC student text compound on has not yet reached the SNDC and conse- “scientific theory and method” features, quently the scientific ideal gives a slightly in the parts dealing with the “scientific anachronistic impression. approach”, only a foundationalist under- The foundationalist approach limits the standing of knowledge – students are even inquiries in the military education system. urged to be “objective” and to “establish If the task is to establish facts, questions facts”. It is interesting to note that the like “who?”, “when?”, and “where?” key words used in the Swedish Armed becomes norm. One could actually claim Forces official introduction to Military that norm in this case means normality. To Theory include “systematise”, “experi- formulate questions that relates to effects ment”, “observation”, and “explanation” or reflexivity becomes anathema or even regarding the meaning of scientific theory. provoking. The major point is that the very This hints a theoretical heritage from Karl definition and conceptualisation of science Popper and even Anglo-Saxon sociology hides this fact. from the 1950s, with names like Talcott I have many personal experiences of how Parsons. The same introduction book actu- students in the military education system ally goes as far as claiming that a measur- have been evaluated with a clear emphasis able definition of war is a precondition for on akribeia and precision with regards to systematic empirical studies, something formalities. Many officer teachers in the that is reminiscent of a somewhat anti- system are posted only for a few years, and

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their lack of academic background makes it starts to resemble humanistic and philo- it impossible to focus on deeper substantial sophical endeavours into the unknown. and academic discussions. When they cor- Hence the disturbing paradox that “in- rect essays and papers, their focus tends novation” is only possible inside a given to be on disposition, footnotes, and just epistemological domain. about everything that could be put on a It is difficult to find rival explanations for checklist. To many of them, science lay in this social remoteness. One could not eas- the footnotes. ily claim, as with the case of Clausewitz’s These tendencies are perhaps reinforced domination, that positivism is somehow by the fact that the SNDC has been fairly superior. Superiority could not be an ar- isolated from the rest of the academic com- gument for a scientific movement that is munity over the decades. One of the results marginalised in the academic community. of this is a frightfully narrow scholarly Internationally one could see a general ten- base in many sub-fields, but perhaps the dency for journals like Strategy to hold on worst effect is that War studies developed to a rationalist epistemology, and Swedish a methodologically inward-looking char- War studies fit this picture. But the overall acter. The centre became a periphery even impression is that War studies are the last if nobody knows exactly when. bastion for a scientific ideal that died years Altogether, this creates a scientific back- ago. The use of science is related to a social wardness, or rather remoteness from the need for prestige. rest of the scholarly world. The books and reports coming from the SNDC sometimes * gives an impression of being produced in a conserved and eternal 1950s academic con- This short text has used a reflexive ap- formity. The general idea is that positivism proach that articulates some major compo- makes it possible to be a scholar as well as nents that shape and characterise Swedish soldier and essays become clear, measur- War studies today. The first is the emble- able and distinct. Delivering orders and matic status of Carl von Clausewitz and studying at the SNDC could be done in the his instrumental interpretation of war. The same general style. Academic life could be second is the importance of a fact-based made adaptable to activities in the armed definition of military history and the belief forces. The argument has nothing to do in its fundamental role for military theory. with competence since it rather highlights The third is the traditional understanding of the direction and scholarly style. social science and the attachment of mixed The conclusion is thus that social science emotions for the usefulness of academic is seen as a potential ally. It is prestigious, undertakings. As has been shown, they but only if adaptable to military standards. could all be interpreted as social actions It becomes potentially dangerous the more and related to specific social needs and

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processes. know about it. The point related to reflexiv- Just like any person looking in the mir- ity is that Swedish officers should not be ror, one could take a few moments to think afraid of this development! This would about if one likes what one sees. As was certainly move Swedish War studies to the argued, this is one of the reasons for using forefront in the international debate. the reflexive approach. Could there be any Secondly, it is time for a more compre- arguments for changes, and if so, what hensive understanding of history. There constructive points can be made from this must be a wider understanding of the con- diagnosis? This question could indeed be cept. Like a large part of the community the subject for many doctoral dissertations, of historians, Swedish military historians but related to this inquiry we will mainly need to finally recognise the difference find three major points for change. between the past (what actually happened Firstly, it is time to read Clausewitz in on the battlefield) and history (our way of a different way. This article does not pro- interpreting texts about the battle). This mote a complete abandonment or general does not necessarily mean to “take a lin- distrust of the instrumentalist approach to guistic turn”, but it does involve a sound war that he represents. The international reorientation away from a narrow defini- debate on Clausewitz sometimes get stuck tion of history as facts. in a trench war between instrumentalism Alternative approaches include history (that war serves political ends) and non- as interpretation and history as conscious- instrumentalism (that war is culture or ir- ness. These distinctions have, as well as rational behaviour), which means that there philosophical implications, clear conse- is a stalemate between the position that the quences for the character of studies. The nature of war is not changing, versus the alternative approaches links concepts like opposite position. As much as this displays memory, collective memory, and morality the contrast between the international de- to history. A military battle or campaign bate and the Swedish “Clausewitz culture”, is not only interesting because of what it does not take us forward. exactly happened but also how it is re- It is rather a question of a re-orientation membered afterwards and how it is used in the reception of his texts. One way is to for different purposes. Since we can not deconstruct them in order to display the understand history in any other way than things that make the discourse of On War through interpretation, the conceptualisa- possible. Another way is to move beyond tion of military events and processes is the the fixed positions of “instrumental/lasting true meaning of military history. nature” and “non-instrumental/changing Thirdly, the foundationalist and objec- nature”, and conclude that war can still be tivistic era of War studies must come to a political instrument, even if technology an end. The discipline must form a more is rapidly changing almost everything we complex understanding of knowledge

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and research. It is embarrassing that the academic practices need to be abandoned. theoretical and metatheoretical debates, The alternative is namely to become irrel- if they exist, are stuck in the intellectual evant in the search for fruitful perspectives landscape of the 1950s (or even earlier). in War studies. Academic practice has Change in this aspect means that many changed and so must officers. of the professional anxieties regarding

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