College of the Holy Cross CrossWorks
College Honors Program Honors Projects
5-14-2021
Biomedical Ethics in the Medical School Curriculum: Lessons Learned from the Holocaust
Emma Flanagan College of the Holy Cross, [email protected]
Follow this and additional works at: https://crossworks.holycross.edu/honors
Part of the Bioethics and Medical Ethics Commons, Curriculum and Instruction Commons, Curriculum and Social Inquiry Commons, Holocaust and Genocide Studies Commons, Medical Education Commons, and the Psychology Commons
Recommended Citation Flanagan, Emma, "Biomedical Ethics in the Medical School Curriculum: Lessons Learned from the Holocaust" (2021). College Honors Program. 21. https://crossworks.holycross.edu/honors/21
This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Honors Projects at CrossWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in College Honors Program by an authorized administrator of CrossWorks. BIOMEDICAL ETHICS IN THE MEDICAL SCHOOL CURRICULUM: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE HOLOCAUST
B : E F 21 C H C D P M 14, 2021
P D B , A
P M R , R
P T D , R TABLE OF CONTENTS
Ac ed e e .. .1 Ab ac ..2 I d c ...3 C a e 1: B O H .10 C a e 2: T D H .20 2.1. N D C C ....20 2.2. P D C C ..32 2.3. J P D G 44 C a e 3: A I H E STEM H P ...55 C a e 4: T H M S L ...67 C c ..80 Re e e ce ...83 F a aga 1
A
I d f e ha ad , P . Da e B a , f he g da ce a d e h he ha g e e e he a a d a ha f ea . P . B a a ad ed a a ec d g h e a d ea f he b Les M decins de l Impossible, c ce g
F e ch e d c he H ca , h ch a e ed he c e f h he .
The a a ec a d h he d ha e bee b e h h e e e a d g da ce, a d I a f e e g a ef f h e h h gh c ege ca ee .
I d a e ha f e d a d fa f g e h gh h
ce , he he be e g, ed g a ch g e e a . Add a , I d e
ha eade , P . Ma R che a d P . Th a D gh f ead g a d e a a g
he . F a , I d e ha P . E e Pe , he D ec f C ege H , f he e a d eff he ha a g h g a h . Th he d ha e bee
ha da h he , a d I a e ec a deb ed he f he he . F a aga 2
Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.
- Ge ge Sa a a a
B E M S C : L L H
The H ca , he de f 6 Je , he ed ca - a ed ge c de. Th
he e e he e f Na d c he a g, ga g, a d e e a f he
ga ed a de f E ea Je . G e he Ge a ed ca c c c ,
e a e ha h c a da a e e f ed ab he fe h f
e e he H ca . I add , a d b a f c a , a d f he a cha e ge faced b d c ed c ce a ca he ghe f
Na - cc ed E e gh e e be e e a e h c a f f e e h ca d e a . I a
e f a f he e a Science, Medicine, and the Holocaust , e f d a g a ec a f h c e ce a d ed c e e e f e ced b he c ca c a e f he
H ca . A g a he hea h- e a ed fe , he e a h gh ag ee e ha he
H ca h d be ed each b ed ca e h c . The e e ech ece a e a ed a f g H ca ed ca ed ca ch c c a. Th h dea ca de a
a c a h e a e e g he f e f ed ca ac ce a d e h ca cha e ge , ch a c b a , e ce a ca , b a g f ed c e , a d cha e ge f ge c a d
ech g e a (Re e . a . 2019). F a aga 3
I
I de ha he H ca a e b e f he dea h f 11 e e,
c d g Je . The c e be 1 f A ch -B e a c ce a ca de c he H ca a c b e e, h e g be
e ec ed g he ca he ga cha be be ed. Wha e e a ea e
ha he Na e f g he e e ec e e d c . D c e e ed he h f c h a e e e he c ce a ca , b e e a ec f he H ca a d
he g a ha eceded . The H ca fac he ed ca a c ed ge c de,
h ch ea ha he ed ca fe a e b e f g, a g, ga g a d e e g he g a ed he de f he e d d a a d c e . I add h e e fac , he e a e e c c ce ab he ed ca
fe ' e e he H ca ha ha e a ca f h ed ca
fe a ac da .
1 h :// . ad a he . g/ /e /e h b /a b _a ch / age / e ec /268_22. g F a aga 4
O e c c ce ha d c e e f ced c h Na de a d
(Che che 2021). H e e , d c eage ed he Na a , a d a ch h ghe
a e ha he fe . F -f e e ce f Ge a h c a a d h e ce f e
ed he Na Pa , c a ed e e e ce f eache (Ka e 1987, Le e e . a . 2019).
D g he e e e - a ec c c ac f g W d Wa I, a h c a e e e ced a d a a c dec ea e a (Le e e . a . 2019). A ac ed b ace h g e e, e ge c , a d S c a Da , he Na a S c a Ph c a Leag e ffe ed he a
e, a he had he ab e b g ca c e ce a a e c ea e a a e
ace a d e he a . H e ec f ca ca ed h c a he e ac h
de g e : Y , Na a S c a d c , I ca d h f a g e da , a
g e h . If f , f fa e, he a (Le e e . a . 2019, 290). Th ea
a a c a effec e, a a Ge a h c a f c ed he Na a e a d h ghe be ha he fe .
A he c c ce ab he H ca ha he d c ed c ed ac f ad c e ce h e h ca b da e . I ea , Ge a a e f he
ead g ed ca c e e he d a he e, a d a e f he f c e e ab h a
a da e h c c de. The Ge a Richtlinien a c ea ed 1931 f g a e ea ch
ca da he 1920 e ab h g de e ch a e g c e f h a e e e a a d h b g e e e a ch d e f ed a f he ch d
(R e c e 2017). The e g de e a ea ed be de ead ed ca a a d
b ca h gh he c e he Na c ea d d a he e g de e he
ea e f fe d g he H ca . Ge a a a he f c e ab h a
a da e h c c e he ed ca ch . H e e , he e ed ca e h c c e , a gh F a aga 5 b Na a e be , c ded he e a h f h a be g , a h a e e f he
h c a , a d f b c hea h e d d a a e ca e, h ch a ed a d
a ed he Na d c c he ed ca c e a d Je a d he
a g a ed g d g he H ca (Re , Wa d & We d g 2019, 3). Th c de f e h c
a ed Ge a a a b d , a d Je a a d ea e ha be e ed a d e ed
(Fe a de & Ec e 2019). A Na d c F K e ce a d, M H c a c a h e e
c a ga g e a e d f he h a b d . The Je a e he ga g e a e d f
a d. Tha h I c he (B egge a 2000, 1).
A h d c c ce ha he N e be g C de, h ch a c ea ed
e e he a c e f he H ca e ab h b ed ca e h ca g de e ,
e e a h c a da , ce Na a c e ch a he e c d e e ha e aga .
H e e , he c f ab e e a a be a ed: H d d a fe a g ha
a e a a e ec ed, c e f ca a e, a d e h ca ad a ced, e e a
de a d g f he e h ca , c a , a d c e f c b ga h ch ed he , h a e e ce , e he ad a ced c e f c edge a d fe a e h c f c g de a d he he c e aga h a ? ( H 2019, 105). I a
f a e he cce a d e f he ed ca fe , c b ed h a d c a
ca age da ha a ed he H ca g he e e ha d d. Wh e a h
ha b e f he H ca e ea e f he e e ha d d, he e
e a f b a a d d c a f e ce ed ca dec , c c . Med c e
da e e e e f ha a he 1930 . The f ab e a e g ea e ha
he (H 2019, 105). F a aga 6
The e a ea be a g g ga b c edge a d a a e e f he H ca .
A 2018 d e ea ed ha 11% f US ad a d 22% f e a had e e hea d f he
H ca , a d 66% f e a e e ab e de f ha A ch a (Sche
C g 2018). Add a , 11 US a e e e H ca ed ca K-12 b c
ch (A -defa a Leag e 2019). De e he e c ce g a c , he e a e h ef f d g a d ece a e ega d g H ca ed ca . N e - h ee e ce f US ad be e e ha a de h d ea ab he H ca ch , a d 80% be e e ha
a ee each g ab he H ca ha d e ha e aga (Sche
C g 2018). Add a , he U.S. Ne e Aga Ed ca Ac a ed I e a a
H ca Re e b a ce Da 2020, h ch c ea ed a fede a g a g a a he US
De a e f Ed ca de eache ac he c h e ce a d a g
ece a each ab he H ca K-12 b c ch . Rega d g he ed ca fe
ec f ca , 22 f 140 (16%) ed ca ch he U ed S a e a d Ca ada ha e a
e ed c c a e e e he e f h c a he H ca , a d ha f f he e (11/22)
each h a e a g a ec e f a (W a, S e , La a , 2015). A he
H ca ecede f b c a a e e , e ec a a ha acade c a d e ec a hea h fe eg a e h f a c c .
G e he ed ca c ' c c he H ca , e a e ha
h c a da a e e - f ed f he fe e e he H ca , a d ha
e ea ab he f ce ha a ed he H ca cc de e ch he f e d f b ed ca e h c da . Th he a e he e : H a he ed ca c
ed he H ca , a d h ca h h be ed a a eh c e f b ed ca e h ca
a g a he ed ca ch e e ? Th e be a e ed f cha e . F a aga 7
The f cha e , e ed B ed ca O g f he H ca , de c be Na
g a a ed a f g he Ge a ace. The e g a c de he e ge c a d e ha a a g a . The e ge c g a , beg g 1933 f g he La f P e e
f Ge e ca D ea ed Off g, ca ed f he b ga e a f h e c de ed
ge e ca fe , h ch c ded c d ch a feeb e ded e ch h e a, a c de e e d de e e , H g ' d ea e b d e deaf e g a e b d
a f a a c h (P c 1988). F g h , he e ha a a g a a he
ace 1939, a d h a a ed a g h e dee ed ge e ca fe , a g
h ch d e he ch d e ha a a g a . S b e e , he T4 g a a e e ed,
h ch e a ded he g g a ad . F ch d e a d ad , he b c a a a e
ha e e e e be g ed, a d af e ca b de a h a , a fa f ed d ag a
e bac he fa e f he a e . E e a , b c c bega a e a ha
a ha e g he e ce e , a d af e a e aga h g a , he T4
g a b c cea ed 1941. H e e , e ha a a ac ce c ed h e
d ec e h d , ch a a a , g ec e e he e ce e a d h a a e c a . The e d e ha a a ed de c be h ha e,
he e g c ea ed f 70,000 300,000 h gh he c e f he H ca
(H he d f 2016). I a a e ha he a e e e a d e h d g ed
he e g ce e e e de ed c ce a ca h gh Na - cc ed E e.
A ca be ee , he g f he H ca bega h g Ge a c e h e e
e ed b he Na eg e a h e ea e . The e e e g a ead g he
H ca h gh gh he a ce f d g he H ca a dee e e e , a d a g F a aga 8
e ha ed ca fe a da a e a a e ha he h gh ce e ha a ed he
H ca b d ha beca e e e e d a ha a d h .
The ec d cha e de a he d ffe e e f d c he H ca : Na d c
he c ce a ca , e d c he c ce a ca , a d e d c he ghe . The f g f d c a e he Na d c he c ce a ca . The e d c e e ed he e h d f e a c g ha de ed Je a d he
a g a ed c e (L f 1986). B c a , h e e , he e e e e he c ce a ca ha e ed a ed ca e e he fe e . A he a ca eg Je h e d c ed he ghe , ec f ca he Wa a Ghe . A c a f he e be ee Na d c a d e d c e a g ea dea ab
he ea g f he H c a c Oa h a d ha ea a e a a a h c a .
Th gh a ha e a g ed ha he H ca gh a a a he ed ca ch c c , da a h effec a e d ff c c e b . F he h d cha e , I c d c ed a e
a e he ac f a de g ad a e H ca c e de h e e gage a hea h- e a ed fe . The e a e ed Sc e ce, Med c e, a d he H ca ha bee a gh f e ha a decade a H C . I c ac ed a a h c e ed h c e. I d c e ed ha f h e h e ded ha a e c e a hea h fe
d g bec e e, he e a a e h gh ac f h e a h he c d c
he fe da . The e a a a h gh a ec a f h c e ce a d ed c e e e
f e ced b he c ca c a e f he H ca . A g h he da a f h e ,
he e e d ca e ha hea h fe a h ha e a ead ea ed ab he fe h he H ca g be e e ha a f a hea h fe ea a be f a ha be de c bed he e ec . F a aga 9
Th f a cha e he ee a e he e : h he d e be each ed ca
ch de da ab he a ce f he H ca he ed ca e h ca a g?
Sch a h f e d ha e ec g ed f ca eg e ha a e e - f ed b ea g ab he H ca . The e a e e a h a d de ach e a g, c e f c e c , cha e ge f c e g a e (Le e e . a . 2019) a d he h e a ch f he ed ca
fe (Fe a de & Ec e 2019). F , e a h a d de ach e a g e ha e he
a ce f ea g each a e a d e f. Sec d, c e f c e c e a a e g f a e e ed a d be g a a e f he f e . Th d, cha e ge f c e g a e a e ab ba a c g he d e a a h c a h he d e
ch a he e e c a e f d g e ea ch. F a , he h e a ch f he ed ca
fe de c be he a ce f ea g a ed ca fe a a e a ega d e f
he deg ee de e e effec e c ca a d . I d be d ff c ha e a
a da H ca c e f ed ca e h c ac a ed ca ch he US, I be e e
ha he f c h d be b d g H ca e a ed he e e g c c a de f eg a e he f a ha he a e c e ea g. E h c ge e a h d be a g a e a a e c ed c e, b e h g ha dee e ed a d
a a a ec f ed c e.
The e f cha e ee e ha ha e e ed ca de a d hea h fe a
de h d ea ab he fe h f e e he H ca a d h he
H ca ca f b ed ca e h c de f ea f he a e f he
H ca a d a e e ha he ed ca fe c d c ac he be a ha
b ca . I he d f Ge ge Sa a a a, Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it. F a aga 10
C 1
B O H
I de f de a d he H ca a c da , a
de a d ha d d a ea f h a . A acc a f g a Na Ge a a ed a g a f ac a f ca a ed f he de g a d e h d g f he H ca
cc : he e ge c g a , h ch ed f ced e a f he -ca ed ge e ca
fe , he e ha a a g a , h ch ed he g f he -ca ed ge e ca fe , a d he 14f13 g a , h ch ed he g f he -ca ed ac a fe a d h e
f he c ce a ca . The Na de g f he e g a a e a e
fe ge e f he ge e Na - cc ed e e . Th d a f
e ge e be a ed ff g, a d d c ea e a ge , hea h e , a d e
e Ge a ace. Pe e h -ca ed fe ge e '' e e h e h e e ha d ca ed a d
e a . I a a e ha ce a ace a d c e e e c de ed fe a d e e
a e acc f he f ca f he Ge a ace.
The e ge c e e Ge a a ed b a e e f c e a
a he U ed S a e a d he f he 20 h ce . T e f e a e had a ed a ca g f c e a f he c a a e a d he e e c de ed ge e ca fe (L f 1986, 22). O he E ea c e had a a ed a
eg a a d he a e e, a d Ge a h c a beca e e e f ha he c e
e e ad a c g h f e d e ha he e e (P c 1988). Se e a c e e e
e a he g f a e H e e ge c a . F , D . E R d , a S b
e a a ch a a d e a a d ge e c , ded c e f c eg ac F a aga 11 f he Na e a g a , a h a fe a e ab h a ge e c ba f
ch a c c d (L f 1986, 28). Sec d, R d f Ra , a ed ca fac a he
U e f Be a d a e f- c a ed ca e a e f he ace, c ea ed a a a f d c e a g h he eeded bec e c a f ge e , a h c a he V a d a b g ca d e (L f 1986, 30). Th d, Ge ha d Wag e , he ch ef h c a f he Re ch a d he c -f de f he Na a S c a Ge a D c Leag e, a ed he c ea f e a a d e ha a a a a a g e f f g a d e g he g
he Ge a A a ace.
U H e a e a he cha ce f Ge a 1933, he ed ca fe
a f c d a ed a g e, h e a ch ca c e a e c a g he
Na a S c a Ph c a Leag e, h ch a b d a e he Na a S c a
a . Te ed Gleichschaltung, h ce f ed he Ge a ed ca c a g e
ca e de he c e e c f he Na a S c a Ph c a Leag e a d acc da ce h he F h e f he ed ca fe , Ge ha d Wag e (P c 1988). Th
ce a ed he ed ca c , b a h a he a ec f Ge a
fe. The e a a F h e e e b e f ed ca a d he a , e affa , de ,
, h, eache , fa e a d e. Th ga e e e e he Na a S c a
a , a g he c a f a a d ed a a a ab e he b c. The c e f
he ed ca fe ec f ca a a d a a c c ea e e h gh Gleichschaltung,
a f g he ga a f he ed ca e , he a e f he ed ca fe ... he
c e a d e f ed ca e ea ch, a d h c d a d c d a c a e Ge a
ed c e f f Na de g (P c 1988, 74). Th e be a e a ea F a aga 12
h he H ca a ab e cc - he ab f chec a d ba a ce d d e c e dec f he Na a S c a a .
C c e h he f a f Gleichschaltung, a e e f a e e a ed h
he g a f c ea g a e N d c ace de e ge c e e . F , af e a ea e a
a a ed Ja a 30, 1933, H e a ed he La f P e e f Ge e ca D ea ed
Off g J 14, 1933 (P c 1988). Th a ca ed f he b ga e a f
h e c de ed ge e ca fe , h ch c ded c d ch a feeb e ded e ,
ch h e a, a c de e e d de , e e , H g ch ea, b d e deaf e , g a e b d a f a , a d a c h . I beca e c f d c e he e ge e c defec e f a e c f de a . Ge e c hea h c e e e ab hed
1934 a e he he ce a a e h d be e ed. O f 84,525 a ca , e 90%
f he e e e dec ded fa f e a . Whe h a a a ed, a f e ge c
e ; d d a e f e a ac a g d . H e e , 1937,
Rheinlandbastarde, he ff g f b ac F e ch cc a a d a e Ge a , e e
ec e a d ega e ed.
Se e a h af e H e a e , he Na Pa de ed he beg g f he
Na c ce a ca e de a d e Na e Ge a .
O Feb a 28, 1933, he Na Pa a ed he Dec ee f he Re ch P e de f he
P ec f he Pe e a d S a e, e c a he Re ch ag F e Dec ee,
h ch dec a ed a c a e f e e ge c he Ge a Re ch. Th a ed he Th d Re ch de a ca e h a , a a ge g c , c a de c a , a d
ab ac (B gge 2015). Ab e h d ed c ce a ca e e e ab hed F a aga 13
aba d ed fac e , , e c. a d h e de a be ee 150,000 200,000
e e h a he ea 1933.
D g h e, a e e f N e be g a e e a be g a ed, a ed a e e g
he fe a ad a ce e f Je . O A 7, 1933, a a e g f f A a a ce f g e e e e a a ed, a g b e ega d c a e aga
-A a he fe a d. The e a a ed ge e ca e a a e Je a d
he fe g f he A a Ge a . O Se e be 15, 1935, a a h b g
a age a e a c ac be ee Je a d -Je a a ed, a d h af e ,
N e be 15, 1935, a a a a ed d g h g c e (A a Ge a ) f
hab a ( - a ed e a d -A a ) h ch ed Je f a c gh
(L f 1986). The e a had e ge c a beh d he . Wh e he d d g fa a
e e he e ac a a d c a fe ace , he e a e e a ed a f g he
A a Ge a ace b e a a g Je a d he -A a ace fe a a d
e d c e - c ea g d c g a a ec f fe. Th e a a a e d ca e
he Na Pa c a fa e d c f he de ab e a h he A a Ge a
ace, a d he he g a a d ad a age b e g he e d c f he
de ab e a a g he e e .
The e a g a a b gh a e d h he e f W d Wa II a d
1939; 5% f e a e e e f ed af e h e (P c 1988). Be ee 1934 a d
1945, 350,000 400,000 f ced e a e e e f ed de he Na , he ea he
U ed S a e , a d 60,000 e e e f ed d g h e e d (Kae be 2011). Se e a fac e e ed h e a . F , c f c a e h Na eade h c ce g
he ad a f he e a a . S e c a ed ha e a e e cc g F a aga 14
h ade a e f ha he defec e e ge e c a a . Sec d, a d a , he e ha a a g a bega Ge a 1939, a d a e e ed a d h g a a d a a f he e a g a .
E ha a a ac ce bega 1934, he e a h a e e e c aged eg ec
he a e . Each ea , f d e e ed ced a d a e ec f a da d e e e he
ade e f c e ded a ge he (L f 1986, 48). The Na a f e ha a a a a ec c e, a a he a e c aged he h c a d c e f h hea h ca e a g e e e e e be h he c (P c 1986, 185). M e d ec e ha a a ac ce , he e he a e e e ac e ed b h c a , ace h d c e ha a a d ec e : ch d e ha a a a d ad e ha a a.
E ha a a bega h d ab ed ch d e Na Ge a de he e gnadentod,
e c f dea h. Th e c f dea h, he e e f he Na , a ee a a b e g he ch d, e e g he f g a fe h g a d a e a g he a e f he b de f ca g f a d ab ed ch d. F he e, he e e c g d ed ce he eed f
he g e e feed e e ea e . Ch d e ha a a ac ce bega he he Re ch
M f he I e a ed a dec ee A g 18, 1939 ha a h c a , e a d
d e e e b fa a d ch d e de he age f h ee h h ed g f
e e e e a h ca d ab (L f 1986). I Oc be , fa e e e e c aged ad ch d e h d ab e e f a d 30 ec a ed ed a c c c ,
Kinderfachabteilungen, h gh Na - cc ed Ge a , a he e e d ha he g e e d ge de f a c a f he ca e f he ch d f he d d c (Kae be 2012). Pa e e e f ed f he ch d dde e ec ed dea h, af e ha g bee d he ch d a a ed ece e ad a ced ea e b h ee ed ca F a aga 15 e a a . T ea e a a a h de , g he fa e , a d
he e ce e e g ea eff ee h a . A ge he , a d 5,000 ch d e e e
ed h gh e ha ec a a .
S b e e , he T4 g a a ed a he e c g f c ab e ad bega
Oc be 1939. Th a af e H e had g ed a d c e da ed bac Se e be 1, 1939, he da W d Wa II bega , h ch a ed: Re ch e e B h e a d D . ed. B a d a e cha ged
h he e b e e d he e f ec f c d c ch a a ha , af e he ca ef a e e f he c d , h e ffe g f e e dee ed be c ab e a be g a ed a e c dea h (H he d f 2016). The e c ab e e e fe de e f he f g ca eg e : h e h ec f ed d ea e de he e a a ch a
ch h e a, e e a ed e a fac e f f e e c ea , he c a a e, a d a e h e e Ge a c e . A d 200,000 ad a e
e e e e f g ce e , he e a d 70,000 e e e ec ed be ed h gh ca b de a h a . The b c a a a e ha a e e e e he e ce e f
ea e , b e e a a a e f he g a g ace. The fa h e ga cha be a c ea ed he B a de b g g ce e , a d e ed a a de f he h a
(P c 1988). The g a e f he e ha a a g a a ee a 1000:10:5:1
de : f e e 1000 Ge a , 10 eeded e f f ch a c ca e, 5 e ed c ca e, a d a g he e e h d be de ed. The g a e c e h ched e, a
f he Ge a a f 65-70 a he e, 70,000 e e ed a he e d f he ga g ha e. U c e a f he b d e , a fa e dea h ce f ca e a fab ca ed h a d ea e c e h he h b he a e . A e e a he e he fa e
f he decea ed d ca g he ca e f dea h a d ha he b d had bee c e a ed a a e de c F a aga 16
e e ea e. If he fa a ed f he a he , a f a a d a he a g e , a d
he decea ed a e a ab e e e e ed he fa e e .
A d 1940, e ha a ea af e he beg g f he g a , b c c bega
a e ha a ac a ha e g a he e ce e . Pe e g a he ce e d f e e ea b ba a d d hea , e e e ea g a ec f ha he e e d g a
(L f 1986). The e a a d ec e e de ce f he e f he c e a b d g , a d ch d e a ch Hada a , e f he g ce e , e e e ed
h ea e each he h h a e ch a Y e d he Hada a e ! (H.E.A.R.T.
2007). A g c d e a e bega aga he e e a g ace a he e ce e , a d he Ca h c ch ch a ed a ac e a d b c e he e e (P c 1988). H e
a e cea ed he T4 g a A g 24, 1941 e e he e e , b he had a ead ach e ed h g a ba ed h 1000:10:5:1 e h d. A h gh he g a ff c a e ded a h e, g cc ed, b e b a d ec e - e ed d e ha a a.
I ead f g h gh ca b de a h a , e d ec g e h d e e
ed a d b c c , ch a g , ec , a d a a . S a g a d
1941, e ha a a a ace ge e a h a , a he e a a d ha d ca ed e e
ed ec ca a d Ge a a eff . The ea g a ha he e a e e e
a g a bed ha c d be ed b Ge a d e , he e e c g ch f d, a d e e g ch e ha c d ha e bee ed a fac e g . I e a ed ha a ch a ge be f e e e e ed h a - 70,000 dea h h he
T4 g a c ea ed 300,000 dea h h d e ha a a (H he d f 2016).
I A 1941, e a 14f13 a ace b he Na Pa , h ch ca ed f he e e a f he c a d h e ge ab e he c ce a ca . Th F a aga 17
e ed a a a g f he a f he de c f he e a h e c de ed ac a fe , a H e e ec e de he c ce a ca c de
Je h e a . Whe e a e ec ed a ge f , f e e be f ed
d ca g he d ag f he a e , c d g e ace a d he he he d d a
a ffe g f c ab e h ca a e (P c 1988, 208). Ma f he a e
e e f he T4 g a e e d e ed he c ce a ca ad e h
g a , a d he ca b de a h a g e h d g e fec ed he T4 ce e
a a a fe ed he c ce a ca .
The a f he a a a f he de c f he e a he de c f h e c de ed ac a fe a a c ea e, b bega he ed ca
e ed e ha Je e e ed ca fe . F e a e, e e a ed ca e
ed e ha Je ffe ed f e e e ha -Je . I 1902, a ead g A a
ed ca a e ed ha Je ffe ed d a e f a a d ac e ch , e ec a ch e f a he ed a -dege e a e a e (P c 1988, 196). O a F e he
Ve ch e , he d ec f he F a f I e f Rac a H g e e, de a ed e de ce h
1937 b ge e c a h g ha Je ffe ed f e d abe e , he h a a d e d de ha -Je (P c 1988). The e e a f he Je h b e a a ed ca
b e he ed eg e he F a S a ed ca ba ha he Na a c d
de Je h he a e a a e ha he ed de he ha d ca ed a d e a .
The e e a f he Je h b e a a ed ca b e a a e a
a d he c ea f Je h ghe he Ge e a g e e e , he Ge a cc a e e ab hed af e he a f P a d 1939. The e ghe , h ch be de c bed f he
cha e 2.3: P e D c he ghe , e e de g ed h e he e e Je h F a aga 18
a f a ce a c a a ed, ff c e - ed ec f he c . O e c d g a d a c a ed a e e e ec a ce b e f d ea e. The e ab h e
f he Je h ghe L d a g a f ed a a ece a ea e ec he e f
he c aga d ea e e de c (Hage 1978). Whe d ea e beca e a a he ghe ,
he b a e a a b ed he Je h he age, a d he fac ha he e e c f ed de e ghe h e ed ca ea e a a ab e. Th ded he Na a
h f ca f Je h c f e e e f a ed ca a a e, b a f ca f he e e a (P c 1988).
I Ja a 1942, Re ha d He d ch, H e ec d c a d f he SS, c e ed
he Wa ee C fe e ce Be h 15 Na b ea c a c d a e he F a
S . Th F a S he Je h Q e gh f g e e h d g e
a d he de f a a E ea Je a b e. The g a a ca ed f he e e a f a 11 Je ac E e. The f a d fea b e e a d h
a a he e ac a f e ab hed ghe he Ge e a g e e e , ce he e de c
he ghe ed a da ge he e f c e , a d he a f Je e e ee a f
(The H P ace 1997, 1). O e a Re ha d a a c de a e f he a de ed a h c fe e ce de a Je he Ge e a g e e e e f h ee ec f ca de g ed g ca : Be ec, S b b , a d T eb a. I a e ha he a e
g e h d g a d he a f e e f he T4 g a e e d e ed he
g ca ca h g a (P c 1988). F e a e, I f ed Ebe , h a he
ed ca d ec a he B ade b g e ha a a ce e , a d a e b e f e g a d
ead g he T eb a g ca (L f 1986). F a aga 19
The each g f he H ca a a a beg h he d ace e , d e , a d e e a de a f Je a e ab e e a ca . Na e ge c a d e ha a a g a a e f e ed he ge e f he H ca .
Whe ea e ge c ed he f ced e a f he -ca ed ge e ca fe , e ha a a ed he e e a f he -ca ed ge e ca fe , a d he f a
ed he e e a f he -ca ed ac a fe , e h d c c de ha a f
he e g a a e he a e de he e f he H ca a a h e. The a f he e e a f h e c de ed ge e ca fe he e e a f h e c de ed
ac a fe a a c ea e, a d he ca be ega ded a he a e e f g a d e he d ffe e a a e beh d he e e a f he e g a . The e e a
ch e ga e beh d he a f he e ha a a g a he H ca e e . H e e , he c f each f he e g a e e a c de ed fe h
g de he e e f he Na Pa f e a ec a he (P c 1988, 221). The e
e e g a ead g he H ca a c da h gh gh he
a ce f d g he H ca a dee e e e , a d a g e ha ed ca
fe a da a e a a e ha he h gh ce e ha a ed he H ca b d
ha beca e e e e d a ha a d h . F a aga 20
C 2
T D H
The c c f d c he H ca c ea . Ye , a d c a ed he a e
e. Na d c ac e a c a ed he a g a d e e g f he e a c a
de f Je a d he a g a ed g he c ce a ca . B f c a ,
e d c e e a ed h c a bef e e he c ce a ca , a d
e e f ced bec e d c he fe e h e de he c f Na d c .
The e e d c e e e e ed h ecede ed a d e a , e a e e ab e
a e he a a a h c a . A de he c f Na d c , Je h
e d c he ghe faced a ed ca e . Wh e he d d face he ed a e da ge f dea h ha e d c he c ce a ca e e e ced, he c age ac ea a e a c e e e ce-de ed ghe . The e e h ee
ec c a e a d c a he e f he e d ffe e e f d c , a d h each ca eg ca de a ab e gh he f e d f b ed ca e h c da .
2.1: N D C C
The ca eg Na d c e e be f he Na a h ac ed a ed ca
fe a de Na a dea h a , d c ff ce , c ce a ca , a d a he e he Na a c d e e e a ed ca e g. Th cha e ec f ca f c Na d c he c ce a ca . F , I de c be he e ha he Na d c f f ed he c ce a ca . Sec d, I e he d ffe e e f Na F a aga 21 d c ega d g he e a e he ca . Th d, I a e a a f ce ac g
he e d c . F a , I d c he af e a h f he H ca ega d g he e Na d c , a d h he ha e f e ced b ed ca e h c da .
Na d c e e ed a e e e f he g g a he c ce a ca . S acc eca ha Na d c e e e e f he e beg g f he a a , c d g d g a b a ce he c e a a, e ec g h d be ed he ga cha be , ch g h a e e f ga h d be h he ga cha be a d h h d d , b e g h gh a h e he ga cha be h a e e
e e d g, a d e e a fa a e ac g ee h f he dead b d e (L f 1986). U de T4
c , he ge be g he ha d f he h c a , a d he a e h h he d he c ce a ca a e (L f 1986, 71). Th ed ca a f g a ee a a h b Na d c ca he de f he F h e . SS d c Ka B a d e a ed h he ad e ed e ha ec a a b c ac h ch he e b e h c a
he Re ch b ec ed he e e he ac ca ca g h gh f he F h e de . (L f
1986, 71).
U a a , Na d c e ec ed h d be e he ca a d h d be
e he ga cha be be ed. SS d c E B. h gh ha ha g d c e f he
e ec ade he e ec ce ee e ed ca eg a e, e e h gh e
e e e ec ed he ba f g ca ab (L f 1986, 173). F he e ha
e e e he he ga cha be a a , Na d c e e a ed he
e ec ce f e h ge ee ed f he ca ; e , he f e
ec ed e d c e f he e e ec f he , h ch be de c bed e de a cha e 2.2. A d d-1942, IG Fa be b a bca f A ch -B e a F a aga 22
a ed M h e e eeded a a ab f ce. Na d c e e h e
he ce f e ec g ea e a e f dea h ha add a d ec e had be a e e e ha IG Fa be a d he c a e had e gh e f he ab (L f 1986,
180-181). Th e ec ce c d be de c bed a a c b a f eff c e c , e e e
a d e , a d b a a d h a (L f 1986, 182).
N e e Na d c ed h ca ac ega d g he g ce , b
he e e a ed dece e ac c e e cha f cc g d g he e ec .
S ec ea e ha Na d c c ea e a f a c . O e ch
ea e a ha g a Red C a b a ce e e a he e f a e ec ea e
e e ha ed ca ca e a a a ab e f eed be. The c , e de , ch d e a d eg a
e e e d ge he e Red C a b a ce ece e ca e, a d e e ead a e d ec he ga cha be . The d c d e e ha e f e d c e a h he
e , a g H a e ? a d Wha cc a d ha e (L f 1986, 166)? E e
he ga cha be , Na d c c ed h dece . O e ec ha he he a e ed b e g a he ga cha be , a Na d c d h be ca ef
(L f 1986, 166). U he e e d, Na d c de be a e c ed he e ac dece e ac e e eac f he e .
Na d c ca be cha ac e ed b he e a e a d a f g he
Na a . F , he e e e e e h e e a a e a d de beb a e ed he Na
a a d dea - e ed O d F gh e (L f 1986, 116). The e O d F gh e e e e
f he ea e e f Na de g , a d e e f e a a e a a c. O ce he
Na a e 1933, he e e h gh a ed a d ece ed efe e ce he e e . The a e e f e ac e ed he a g a d e ec f he g F a aga 23
ce e he c ce a ca . O e e a e f a d f gh e A ch We e
He de, h de c bed b L f a ha g ch a h c a d ad c e de c e h a bad
e a a ea Na h had h b (L f 1986, 117). Af e e g he a a age 16 d g he a h f W d Wa I, a d a c a g a e e f ga a a d e e c ec ed h Na a S c a , he beca e a ee g d a ch a h
ed he Na Pa Ma 1, 1933 a d he SS ga a 1935 (L f 1986, 118). He beca e a ce a f g e he ed ca eg a f he e ha a a g a , a d a ed a
a ge e he a g f dece a d g ced e . He a e e ded h a c a
he e ed ca ed g ced e he c ce a ca d g e a 14f13. H
a a e e e h Na de g ed a a c e e g e he
a e f hea g f he a e f he Na a .
Sec d, a he d f gh e , he e a a ge e a f ge h c a h a ac e ed he Na a ea . I f ed Ebe , a A a h c a , ed he
a a age 21 1931. Sh af e he c e ce e f he T4 g a , Ebe beca e he
ed ca d ec f he B ade b g g ce e 1940, a d a ed he a e e a he
Be b g g ce e 1941 (Je h V a L b a 2021). W g a a ec a de
He de, he a ed e g fa e ca e f dea h he e g ce e he
a a he b e f ge f he e ha a a g a , a d he beca e a e e ad ca e f he
a ha d eg a e he e ha a a ec (L f 1986). Af e b c e aga he e ha a a g a , he a a fe ed he Che c ce a ca a he g
e h d g f he T4 g a Je a ge be . He e he e e ha he a he h c a bec e a c a da f a dea h ca , T eb a, e g
J 1942 (L f 1986). He a ea he g e a ha he c a ded e F a aga 24 a a a d ga ed e e e ha he fac c d ade a e ce . He a d ed f h h af e , a he a ab e c cea he deca g c e f he e a a , ca g cha a d g he ched e. I d g hab e f a - h c a h a de a d g Je , he beca e a e ed he dea f he Na a he
f f g he A a ace (L f 1986, 125).
Th d, he e a a g f Na d c h ca be cha ac e ed a ca ee , h
e e e e e ed he fe a e ha he c ce a ca ffe ed he .
The e - f he e ca ee J ef Me ge e, h fa c d c ed e e e A ch -B e a . Bef e he Na a ca e e , Me ge e d d h
ed ca d e a ge ea g , a d a ed a e d a A ch f he e e ach
e , e a g ha he e d e e be a he cha ce e (L f 1986, 357).
Me ge e a f h e e e , h h ch he h ed f d he ge e c ba f a a f he e f de a g he A a ac a e .
Whe he e f ed e ec , he d d a he ca a , a d a ab e c ced he a d g he gh h g, a d a d ec a c a ed he g ce (L f 1986, 344). H
a f a g h ge e c de e a d ac a c de a ab e gh
he h a ca ac c e hea g g.
The f a a d e ha he a ge ca eg f Na d c e e d a e e h ag eed h Na de g ge e a , b d d ece a ag ee h he g ce e
ed ca he e de g e . Ma f he e d c had e e e e ce, a d e e
e aded b de , e g Na d c a c a e he e ha a a g a a d c ce a ca . O e e a e f h H D. - a SS ch a he e ha a a
g a h e e ed h Ja L f . Af e be g e ed a e ce bef e F a aga 25 c e g h ed ca he , he a f a ed b he ac f ed ca e a a ab e h . He a he e aded he Na a a d a c a e he e ha a a g a b
ch a fe , e f h ch be g We e He de, h c ced h ha he e ha a a d ffe h be e ed ca e ha he d ha e acce he e
(L f 1986). The h gh a d g a d e ga c a d he ed a f e ce h ch he had bee e ed d g h ed ca a g f e ced h a d d a e e he
a a d he g a . He a de he e ha a fe e ec e e a g ace f ed b e c g , b H D. bega fee c f ab e a d g ea g
ha a e e e ed a e be g e he ga cha be . He a e a ed h he
g a d e a a e f a a d ac f ce - a e b he V (L f 1986,
106). He e a c ed b c c g h e f ha h a he a e f c e ce, a d ha he a e a e b e, ce a he dea a d de f he a . D g h
e e , he ad ed he e f f e ce f he a h dec a : The h e
e ad a ed ha a h . L e , I a a f I had ch ce. I a h eb
- h e f a h (L f 1986, 106). Re e ed b he ce a f he T4 g a , he
a a e ea g ed he a f he e a de f he a . He a beca e a
b e c a af e he a a e a e h g b b g g fe he d. He d ec ad ed h gd g a d g L f : I he e b f da ch a c
eade he h a be g he a e , ha e fee b ga ed he h a d d e ega d h a e h g e ca h e a a (L f 1986, 107). Wh e he c d
a be cha ac e ed a a ca ee , he d ffe f Me ge e he e e ha he d d ag ee
h he e h d g a d ac ce f he Na a , b a e a ed f a he
a a d he V . F a aga 26
Wh e a Na d c fa he ca eg ab e, he e a a b e f Na d c h e e a e aded he a a d g a , b a e e e ab e
ea e. O e e a e f h W fga g R., a he SS d c e e ed b Ja L f . He had bee ed Na dea g ea , a d a e f he f de H e a ed f ce , he Wehrmacht. S a H D., D . R. had bee h he a bef e c e g h ed ca a g, a d a he a g ed a d e ab e a a e ha a a ce e . He a b efed b a ch ef d c a h fac ha he g a a f
c e e hd a e a a e de c e e f d d g a e (L f 1986,
108). Wh e he ad ed e a g a b e ca e f dea h f a e ba ed he cha , he a e a e ab he he he a ca ed he g ce e . Af e ab a h, he
a d a ed b he c e e ac f ch a a d dece ab he e a e f he
g a , a d d he ch ef d c ha he a a f ed f h . He a he ffe ed a cha ge a g e h a d ff c ha e e (L f 1986, 108). He fe e e g ea g, a d a e a he a h he a ace ge ea g e f
ec e SS ff ce ee f he had a Je h he age. I h e e h L f , he e e ed h d da f he Na a a d he dece he e e ed e e be : e
e ed a h g a he e (L f 1986, 107). Wh e W fga g R. a ab e e e h e f f he g ce , e H D., b h e e hea f e ced b he a
he Na a .
E e a a d e a ch g ca f ce e Na d c a e g
ed he g a . O e e e a fac , a e e ed he B ed ca O g
f he H ca cha e , a e e ed b Gleichschaltung, a a a ed a c d a , a d Na f ca f a e a d c e . Th c ea ed a e f e a d a e e f a a a F a aga 27 c , a Gleichschaltung e a ed a b e a d a ed Na eade
ed ca eade h . S ce e F h e , Ge ha d Wag e , a e b e f he e e
f he ed ca fe , c d g ed ca ac ce, c , ed ca a d e , Na d c fe , a d a ed fee , a e e f he e e a d e e he ac ce he e e de ed, a d e e h ea e ed, d . Th a ed he a fe e b a d he g f
he a c a he Na a ead f he e e . E ec a f ge , e e e ced d c , a e d ff c e he e ac ce ce a Na d c e c ag g
he e ac ce , e e e -ed ca ed, a d e ec ab e fe a .
A he e e a fac ha a e e h he c ce a ca , a c a
A ch -B e a , a c a a . The a f a de a de a
A ch a a he d f e h ch Na a e be e e e ed he ac f he a h h ch he e e c a ed c . SS d c e e a he
e c d c e ec he a , he e e 60-90% f a a e e e he ga cha be , b he a de a ged f e h a a b a e ce e c a ce
e a ef a (L f 1986). U a e , h gh c a a , A ch beca e a ace
ha a a e a a e f he e f he d e a e a , he e a c a d d
fee a h gh he c d e def a de g e (L f 1986, 200). Af e he
a eac , e ec beca e a e ha ea a a d e ha g b f Na d c , h h ch a c h a ece a ada h a (L f 1986, 195)
I e a , Na d c de e a e a d a d d a - ch g ca h f f e acce a ce (L f 1986, 195). O e Na d c de c bed h a : I
he beg g a a b e. Af e a d beca e a e. Tha he a
. (L f 1986, 195). A a e a d g f ce ha he ed a e h a F a aga 28
a a e e a a d b ga he Re ch. C f a a e a f a g
a he g ce a A ch , a e a a f ef g g a g h he
g a d ha e bee h ab e h g e e e e (L f 1986). Wh e he fac ab e ca he e a h he H ca ca e ha e , e be ca ef
e he e fac a f ca .
Wha , f a h g, ca be ea ed f b ed ca e h c f a d f Na d c ?
De g he Na d c f he H ca ca ha e he e ec ed c e e ce f
g he e e a ce f he ac f he e a d e h ac ce ed c e da .
M h a d f ca ha h de he H ca f e b ed ca e h ca e a a
be d e ed de ea f he e e e a d he f ce ha a ed a e
ace. A h Ca a ha a ed e e a e ega d g h dea: If a f ca ca be g e f h e e dee ed a de a a e he a e f b c hea h he
ha g d b e h c ? (Ca a 2010, 84) a d Wha he f d g b e h c , f
each g c e e h c ed ca , g, a d b c hea h de f he e a d h e d deed a d c e ca be f ed b a ea ? (Ca a 2010, 86). B e h c
a ha e bee e f g ega d g he H ca d e he ab e d ega d f h a
gh he e ha f he e e e c d c ed aga he f he a e ed, b
e ce f g ead . I e gh a e ha he H ca c d e e ha e aga , a b e h ca a c ed cc af e he H ca .
The c ea f he N e be g C de a e a he e ab h e f a e
a da d f ed ca e h c af e W d Wa II, e h d d c b a f e h ca ea e
f h a a c a e ea ch. The N e be g D c T a f 1947 ed he c ea f
he N e be g C de, h ch e ab hed g de e f he e h ca ea e f h a b ec . F a aga 29
The e g de e c ded ec h a a c a f ha , c d g
a f ed c e , c a ed he a c a , a d he ab
e a e a c a he e e he ch e d . Th , h e e , e c ded a e h
ac ed ca ac c e , ch a c c a e , ch d e a d he g . A he C d
Wa bega , he N e be g C de ca e be ee a e g d h c g
a g age, ce he c de e c f ed c e eded eff de a d
ad a e e f ea f a de c (R be fe d 2014, 14; Ba e 2021).
Add a , he c e f he N e be g C de d d ha e a g f ca ac he
A e ca e ea ch e ab h e , a d a e g ed b e ea che B a h
be e ed he g de e d d a he , ce he e e Na (Ba e 2021, 33). The
Dec a a f He a he e ea ed a a e ed ca e h ca c de 1964 acc f
ga e c e he ca e f ega ca ac a d h a a e eed f a cab e e ea ch e h c .
Wh e he Dec a a f He ha bee c da ed ce a age a d
e a f da a f e a a ed ca e h c da , h d d e e a h a b ec e ea ch f a g ace. Th bega cha ge he a e ea che a d
h c a b c ed e h ca e ea ch a g ace. F , Ha a d ed ca e ea che He
Beeche b hed a a e 1966 c g e 20 e e e b hed ead g c ca
a ha a ed he f ed c e a da d f he N e be g C de a d he Dec a a
f He (Beeche 1966). Th ed he S ge Ge e a ca f a e e f a g a f ded b he US P b c Hea h Se ce, USPHS. Add a , Pe e B , a f
H ca ef gee , d c e ed a g g d he 1970 T egee ha a ed
f ed c e g de e . Beg g 1932, h d dece ed Af ca -A e ca e F a aga 30
h g he e e ece g ea e f bad b d, b e e ac a be g d ed f
ea ed h (Ba e 2021, 34). Af e he USPHS e ec ed B e , he f ed he
Washington Star ab he e e e , g a US c g e a e ga ha ed
e a . Th ed he c ea f he 1979 Be Re , h ch e ab hed he ce
f a b a d e e , a a , a d g g g f c g h a
b ec e ea ch. Th e added a a d e ec f e he e h ca c e f d he N e be g C de a d he Dec a a f He , a f g c e f a
ega c ce a a c ce (Ba e 2021, 34).
E h ca a d d e d he e. I a f d he e f 2013 ha he
Ca f a De a e f C ec had e ed 148 fe a e a e be ee 2006 a d 2010
h a e a a (K ch 2021). The e e g h a he h a b ec
e ea ch a cc da ha e a e a a e f. Wh e e a a e h ca g de e c d e e he ca e f he H ca f e e ha e g aga , c ea ha he f ce ha a ed a e ace c ed af e he H ca , a d e e c e da . Th h gh gh
he a ce f a g e ha ed ca fe a da a e a a e ha he h gh
ce e ha a ed he H ca b d ha beca e e e e ba a ha a
d h .
C de a f Na d c a e e a f a ac e a g e ade f he g ca e h c a h h . A he a e e, h e e , a a g e ha bee
ade ha he Na d c a c bed a e h ca e . R be fe d (2014) de c be h ee a e h ca e he d c g b ed ca e h c e f he H ca : Je h ed ca e h c , de ec a b ed ca e h c , a d Na ed ca e h c . Each e g ded b e d a c e ha g de h he ac ed c e. I Je h ed ca e h c , h a fe F a aga 31
ed; de ec a b ed ca e h c , a ed; a d Na e h c , e ge c ed. The Na ed he c e f S c a Da f he ac ,
he e ha e e a ece a be ef he V , he Ge a a e, a a c e a e h ca , a d he gh f he d d a c d be d ega ded. I h e e, ca be a g ed ha he
e a c g f Je a d he g f e e c de ed "ge e ca fe " a e h ca acc d g he a da d , ce e g he ed he V he g b e a g
" fe ge e ." Je h ed ca e h c a e f e ed e a h Na e h c a d he ac ha e ed de he a e e h ca , ce Na e h c d a e h a fe e he hea h f he c e .
A e ha a e f h : ha a ha e e h ca e be e ha a he f e a e g e e h ca e dee a he e h ca ? Th a e ha a
ece a ha e a e a a e . H e e , he c e f ed c e, he de e f he c ec e c e ca e e e de he be e e f he a e . Th a a d a ce f he
fe ha he e e , acc d g he H c a c Oa h, de ed e f he
H c a c Oa h, e e e e h ca c de e ab hed b a a ed ca a c a , ch a he AMA C de f Med ca E h c . Whe c ea g he Dec a a f Ge e a, a de ed
ed ca f e h c -W d Wa II, he W d Med ca A c a ed ha d g he
H ca , he c f ed ca ch ad e a a h d c g ad a
ece g a ce e ac ce ed c e had fa e d e bec e a e e f a
(W d Med ca A c a I c. 2015, 2). A h gh e e h ca e e , ed c e
he e e, a d he Na a fa ed a c be . F a aga 32
2.2: P D C C
Wh e de ha , d g he H ca , Na e f ed g e e ed ca e e e a e a c ce a ca cc ed E e, e e - he ge e a b c ha e he ca h ed ca bac g d e e f e f ced bec e d c , de he c f he Na , he fe - a e . The e -ca ed e d c e e e a g a e 1942 he e ab a ed a d he c
eeded hea de (L f 1986). P e d c e e aff ded a eged a
he c ce a ca , c d g e f d a , be e c h g a d h g a a ge e , a d he e ed ca a g f e ga e he a f f e ce h
he Na d c a d he dec . The e e a ed a f e e e ed he h
ecede ed a d e a ega d g he ea e f he fe a e , ce he faced a be f b e ac a d a cha e ge . I h cha e I f de c be he e
ha e d c f f ed he c ce a ca . Sec d, I e he d ffe e
e f e d c ega d g he e a e he ca . Th d, I a e he
ecede ed a d e a ha faced e d c ega d g he ea e f he fe
e . F a , I d c a h ch e d c ac ca f he f e d f b ed ca e h c da .
I he c ce a ca , e d c e e a ed h b ch a e ec ,
a e ge , a d a e ea e . Wh e Na d c e f ed a a e ec ce
a a a he ca , h ch de e ed h d be e de he ca he ga cha be , e ec a cc ed de he c ce a ca . S ce SS d c f e d d
ha e ch ed ca bac g d, he f e e ed e d c a e g d F a aga 33
e ec (L f 1986). S ce e d c e e d ec ch h he c a e , he had he e a d he edge e ec h e h e e e e d e, a d a e h e
h e e e e e. I h e e, b e ec g h e h d e d e a a ,
e d c e a a ed he e f h e h had a cha ce f a . Th f e
e e ed e d c h a hea g- g a ad : A e d c c ea ed he hea h f he ca a , h d a ab c ea e he f e a a ha
d be e he ga cha be . Th he be e he g a hea g, he g ea e he d ec c b he g f c f he ca . L f e a he a ad : O e c d a e
e b c b g A ch e ec c e ; e c d a d ha e e b ef g e e c e e ca ac a e e (L f 1986, 221). A a d e a
e e ed e f he e d c had dec de h ch c e a e e ec , a
e d c d e be c de ed dea h f he ef ed a c a e e ec .
P e d c a e f ed ge e , a he SS d c d d ha e he ed ca
a g d he afe a d acc a e . H e e , e e h gh e d c had e f ed
ge e bef e he H ca he da e , he e e g e ade a e g ca
e f he e ge e afe . F e a e, he Na e e c ce a ca ea
S a b g, F a ce, e e e ed a a a he e he e he d d e
(Be adac, 1968). D c Be , a e d c , a a ed h h a a , b had
g ca a h d a . I ead, he had a f E a , a a f e , a a f d
c , a e a a a d a a ca e . The ca e ec c a a ed h e ec c e e e a a e , he a a ed h a e g eed e a d h ead, a d he che a ed h a b che fe. The e a e e a g ca ab e, a d e had be fab ca ed f
a f he ca e e . A he e e e b ed a f h ache e f he SS F a aga 34 chef, a e a a a a ac g. Be cce f e f ed he a a , g e
he c c a ce , a d h ee h a e he he a e a be a ed, he A e ca ge
h f ed he a a h e ed ca e e a a hed b he eff cac f he a a .
I add ge e , e d c a had be c ea e h ea e a
he e ed ca e e a a ab e. F e a e, he Fa e ee c ce a ca
ea Be , a b ca f he O a e b g c ce a ca , F e ch e d c B e a
ed e e a a c e ed ca ced e he ab e ce f ed ca (Be adac, 1968). F e
e ffe g f e a, h h fa de e e effec e, B e a e ed a a c e ech e ca ed e e g he e he c e ed a b a e a d
ed he a e he b a e b g h fe e d . The ech e a g effec e, a d he a e ca e f h c a e e a h af e he e . W h a he
a e h a ffe g f a fec ed h eg , B e a ced a bbe be, a d
he ece c ade he ha d cce f c e he h eg .
I ega d he ac c ce g de f SS d c , e d c ca be cha ac e ed e e f he f g ca eg e : a e e , ac e e ,
a e c ab a , a d ac e c ab a . M e d c fa he a e
e ca eg , he e he de ed SS de h e a ea g be de a e
e e . O e a e d c de ed de a b fa f g d ag e de
e e a e f be g e ec ed f dea h (L f , 1986). Th beca e h e h ce a c ag d ea e ch a h e e e dea h a d e de c f ead g he ca . T h d f e be d ag ed a he f de e e a a e f be g e
he dea h. P e d c d e e ha e c ea e h ca f f he e F a aga 35 d ag e SS d c ha he e a eg a e. O e e a e f h he
Na e e c ce a ca , he e e d c B gae a d Laff e e e cha ged h d ag g a hea h g b h a e d c ha he d d ge de ed a ca
he e he d e be e ec ed (Be adac, 1968). The d c dec ded e a e h f a e d c , b a SS d c ed be g e e a he e a . The e d c dec ded b e he he a e d f a e a d fe g a e d c ha he b c d a ge he f a . G e e d c f f e ce a g he SS d c , he c d a e e a a ge f ce a ec d be a e ed ex post facto (L f
1986).
Add a , e d c d he e e d a a , ch a c ec g a hf f b ead f each e a d g g a ge a he ea e
e (Be adac 1968). I add a e a g he e h ca hea h, e d c a he ed a e he f he e a e he a a e. I
O a e b g c ce a ca , F e ch e d c A f ed Be a f g
a he SS g a d g e c age a d e e a e he e c d he e
a ea b e ha e h e (Be adac 1968). He d f e a e a ca , a d e
e, ga e a fe a e SS g a d a face c ea ade f feca a e f he d e e a d. M e
e , e d c d e e a e f g g h e c e e . I
he Na e e c ce a ca , e e ca e he f a a defea ed, a d
he F e ch e d c Be ga e h a e a ea , a d e d h h e , ge h ac ge he , a d ha f he d d ha he d d e (Be adac 1968, 44). F ed b a f
c he beh d, he e bac he e da , g a ef f Be gh e. The e
ha ed he d c f a [ g h ] fe h [h ] c [h ] a (Be adac 1968, 44). Th F a aga 36
h h he a ac f e d c e e e e e a ha ed ca
ea e e e .
The ac f e d c c d a fa a e ac e f f e a ce,
he e he d e def SS de . A c a f ac e def g SS de h d e c e e ce a c a ab a he ha f ge e a d he ed ca
ced e (L f 1986). S ce he SS d c e e f e e e e ced e e e ced a a , he f e d d ha he c ec c a g de he e d c f he c a ed ha he d d h e f a ce a ced e. Th e c e c d be ed a he e, a d a e c f he SS d c , b c d he e d e
a . D . Z, he A ch c ce a ca , c a ed ha he d d h
e f e ha he ec ha he d be e e f d g (L f 1986). S e
e d c e ed SS de e def a a ha he e a f
h e . I he Ebe ee c ce a ca A a, F e ch e d c Re e
Q e e ac e e ed a de a a e h a he ec b e g he SS c a e ec e h [h e f], g ha he c a d d h (Be adac
1968, 88). Th a a e, a Q e e c d ha e ea bee e ec ed f a g bac he SS d c def a . S b e e , he SS c a f bade he ba ba c
a e ec a a f f e ec (Be adac 1968, 88). A he e a e f ac e
e a ce a he O a e b g c ce a ca he e e f be a : A 19, 1945
(Be adac 1968). The de a ha e e e a be e ac a ed he e g, b
B e a ef ed e h d g a e g he ad . He e a ed h he SS a , a d he cha ged he de ha e e e b he f a a e ac a e. Th def a ce a e
ed he a f h d ed f e . F a aga 37
Wh e a e d c c age ed he e a e he e , he e
e e e e d c h c ab a ed h he SS d c . T e e e , a e d c a e c ab a ed h he SS d c de e e he a ha he c d c e a e e ; h e e , he a beh d he c ab a ac e e
a ed. Th d ffe e a e he def f a e a d ac e c ab a . I he c e f h
a e , a e c ab a def ed a a c a Na ac h a e h ea f dea h de he d ec e e ha e e d be a ed f he e e ed. Ac e c ab a he he ha d, def ed a a c a Na ac h he e
h ea f dea h ha not de he d ec e e ha e e d be a ed f he
e e ed.
O e e a e f a e c ab a cc ed he M d g bca f Ma ha e
A a he he Na e ha be a a e (Be adac 1968, 122). P e d c H.J. ef ed a de f he Ka f he f a ed ce he be f a e f 120 40 b he e ec f 80 a e . I a e , he Ka a d a Ge a e bega e ec g he a e h gh aca d ac ec f he . S ce he e e g a
a d a d h e h he ea cha ce f a , D . H.J. e g ed h e f a c a g
he e ec ha he ge had a cha ce e, a d he Ka ed ha e e e he f a d be ed f he a e e e e. The a c a
f e d c e ec a a ac ha he ed e e e, ce he
e d c e h ch e d d e he ea f e ega d e . H e e , he
Ka a d Ge a e e e f ed he e ec , a d he a e e e ffe g
c ea ag . D . H.J. dec ded a c a e he he ec beca e he dea h a
e ab e, he a e ffe g d be g ea ed ced, a d he e ec had be F a aga 38 c e ed b a ce a e. A he a e ha he Ka a d he e e e c e g he , he
d be c e ed e a d e e e d be ed. D . H.J. a c ced he Ka a d he g a d he be f e ec 50 ead f 80. The f 40 e e ea ch e, a he e e he c e a e , b f he a 10 h e e a e a c , d c bega a g D . H.J. a d he d c a g h . Each d c a ed a e
he e e f he a a , a d he ag eed a e e e a e ce age f each
a a a he a be f e e. The a f a c a g he e ec e e a he e e ha he he ed a e e e e ha f he d d
a c a e; h e e , he d c d d ha e he ch ce a c a e he e ec h e f.
A h gh e e ded, ha d a he he D . H.J. e fa . H e e , g e he
be f ecede ed a d e a ha he e d c e e faced h e e da ,
h a he e d a he e f he e e h ch a e d c a c a e Na d c ac . I h a , he , a he ca a e ac a ed he e g, a d he SS a e h he e a g f a a e h had ed a c c a
e ec . Th e e a e f he a d e a h h ch e d c e e faced, h ch be d c ed de a a e he cha e .
De e he c age ac ha a e d c a e e e
ha e e a b e, he e a a g f e d c h ca be de c bed a ac e c ab a h d a ed beha a h e f Na d c . The a f
e d c h d a ed ac e c ab a e e a ed. Ma ac e c ab a
e d c e e a e c he e e . F e a e, Ada T. a a a e c P h
e d c he A ch c ce a ca h a a a e be f a P h
e a ce g (L f 1986). Ada T e h b ed c beha de ge he F a aga 39
SS d c g d de c ea e h cha ce f ge g f he ca . He ca e e e b e
Na d c e f g ge Je h e ea he e a , a d
ed ha he a h g a ha he e ed h , h e e a g h
e a d ege (L f 1986, 293-4). He a a c ea g a he c a d SS d c a d he beha a a a f defe d g h beha . F a ce, he c a ed ha
SS d c e e f ced d e ec b he P ca De a e . A he P h e d c , W ad a De g, e f ed c e e e e a e a Je h a e he
A ch c ce a ca (L f 1986). He a ed ch ef e d c a d a
ead g Ka b D . Ed a d W h , he ch ef SS ca d c , 1943. Th a ed h
e f e a e e e , he e he e ed he a e a d e c e f a d 200
Je h a e . He f e ed h f e ce ha e Je h a e ha he d d e e
he ga cha be . Ac e c ab a e e e e e a fa a e e e h ca e ce a d ad c beha , a d a ed b P h e d c , Ze Ze e e , h h ca ab ed Je h e d c g de h (L f 1986).
P e d c e e b ec ed ecede ed a d e a he c ce a ca . O e a a d e a fac g e d c a d he ch ce a dec d g h ch bec e a a f he e a d c e a e e ec (L f 1986). A h gh
e d c a c a e ec g f e e d g ce a a e he dea h, e c d a e e b c b g A ch e ec c e ; e c d a d ha
e e b ef g e e c e e ca ac a e e (L f 1986, 221). I h
e e, a c a e ec he ed a e e ce e d c e f ha d h ch
a e e e e e e, a d h ch a e d d e he ea f e ega d e F a aga 40
f be g e ec ed. Ch g he ea e e be e he dea h he ed a e e c a ed he a f e a ed f he SS d c he e e ade he e ec .
A he a a d e a e a dec d g h ece e ed ca a d ha d e. A e d c had ed a a d e f ed ca a a ab e he ,
he had dec de he he g e a a e eed a , ff c e d e , he he ch e h ch a e ea h h ghe , ff c e d e a he c f e f he .
F he e, h d e a a e a ed ed a f acc e , f d, e c. A be Haa , a H ga a e d c he Ma ha e -G e II ca A a, de c bed ch a e h ca d e a h e e a g a fe e :
I had a - ec d dec a e [ ]. Sh d I e e ce e E a a a a e c c a d d g a , a e ba e f fe a g fa ? I dec ded a e , a d a ed ha he a he ab e d d e bef e I bega c . A a d c G e II, I had a e ch e b e ch ce a da . (Haa 1984, 5)
I add e ec , e d c e e had ce a Ka h e e dee ed da ge e a a e h e e d ff c c de ec he e
f he . D . E e C he , a D ch e d c A ch , a f ced he e
e ha ade e he a c f h b c de f he SS
Sch affe , a d fa e c e e h a d ea ha he a d he e f h b c
d be ed ead (C he 1973). I h ca e, he dea h f e e a ed he e f
he he e , b a D . C he , ha he c d c e a e e . He d c ed he de h f h g a d ha e ha he ca ed f h ac af e be a , b ad ed, Tha e, ha f c g e f ca , ha e . I ha e be
e ha (C he 1973, 84). F a aga 41
Pe f g ab e e a c ace, ce he he a d fa e e f e
ed b h. D . G e a Pe , a R a a Je h g ec g h ed de D . J ef
Me ge e he A ch c ce a ca , ed he fe ec e e f ab
eg a a e ea g ha a eg a e e e ed af e e e e a .
She dec ded ha a he d a e he e eg a e f dea h b e ab g
he b bab e . I he e I was a doctor in Auschwit , Pe de c be h d e a:
N e e e ha ea e de he e bab e . Af e ea a d ea f ed ca ac ce, ch db h a e he bea f , he g ea e ac e f a e. I ed h e e b bab e a a d c b a a he a d a aga a d aga a d aga ch d h I ed a e he fe f a a . E e e, he ee g d he h a e c e e h ch c e ed he f f he ba ac e f a de e h e , h a e , h he e e e a e e e f h g e e, I a ed G d he e a e he he I d e e ch a eg a a aga . A d f I had d e , b h he a d ch d d ha e bee c e de ed. G d a g d e. B a ac e, h ch e e d c d e a fa a e, e e e f he e e ec e ed a d a ab e , h ch, a ea f a h e, a ed he fe. (Pe 1948, 58)
Pe e bec e a g ec g af e he a Ne Y C , a g bef e each de e , G d, Y e e a fe, a g bab (B a 1982).
The a d e a a d ac f e d c ca be h gh f a e he f e d
f b ed ca e h c . U de a c c a ce , he ac e d c a e e
d be c de ed h gh e h ca ega d he H c a c hea . H e e ,
he c c a ce e e ed he c ce a ca e ed e d c a e he e h ca a da d de a e a a e e a b e, e e a he e e e f
he e . S ch ch ce e ch ce a e he e : I he e a ab e ed ca c de f e h c ? The H ca e ea ed ha a e ca be ca ab e f b d f g a c e e , e
a e d c e e ab e a e he a a a d c . Pe ha F a aga 42 c e a c de f ed ca e h c ca be ef f a a a f he dec a d ac
a e b e d c .
B e h c ed ca ch a e a gh ab ha d . Th eache
de h a d a g e , b d e ece a each he h e ab e a d be d h ba e e. The d f b e h c a d he H ca f e f c e Na a c e e a h e ea he a e f he a , b a a a f e d c ca hed gh e b e h c , a d e f h e gh ca he e a d
a e f ed c e da (Wa e a & Y 2019). Ma h c a he c ce a ca a a ed a dee h a c ec he a d he he face f
ag ab h a c d . Wh e he h faced b e d c he c ce a ca ca be c a ed he cha e ge f c e a ed c e da , he ac f e d c h e ab e a d be d he e a a d c a e e ca
ffe gh f ed ca fe a da fac g a d e a c d g he cha e ge f c e g a e , ca c f e ce , c a ce ed c e, a d he g ef a c a ed
h e a d dea h.
D . G e a Pe , a d c ed ea e , ed he fe he a a a e a he c d.
I add e f g ec e ab eg a e a e he e , Pe e f ed
he ab e ac f e a ce D . Me ge e. O e ch cca c ded a e he e D .
Me ge e e e ed a he e he a d he f e d e e ea g ega ac ed f d. K g
he c d be ed f he d c e ed h , D . Pe cce f d e ed h a e a
a e e ed fe (Pe 1948). I a he a ce, Pe b d a e f he a d he ea f ge ega e h e f a e h d be e he c e a f he
e e e e (Pe 1948). Pe e a fa a ac f e a ce de a e ha e e F a aga 43
he a e e , h c a ha e e f ch ce a e ega d g he ca e f he
a e , a d e e he a e dec ca a e he g ea e ac a a e ' h ca a d
e a e -be g.
Add a , D . V F a , a Je h A a e g de ed he Te e ghe A a a d he A ch c ce a ca , he ed e e f d
e h g e f . I Te e a d A ch , he e ab hed a f g he a e gage de de a d c da e . He a c a he ed he e f d e h g
e ha d d a e f , ch a a ch d, f hed c e f c e ea ch, he he face f e e e h e e c d . Wh e Te e , he e a a c e ed Man s
Search for Meaning h b e a f he e g he a e , a d a h gh a
a e f h h a a A ch , he a ab e e e he b h 9 da f h be a , a d ha d e e c e da . E e he F a a fee g de de , he f d he e g h a d c age c e he g he , e a g h
E c age e a e ece a ha e e (F a 1984, 98). H g ac
e ea h e a a d a ca e e a , f e, a ha h ca ca e, a d h e e he e ab e ca e c a h gh a ec e ed e.
The e c age a d ad ab e h c a ade g f ca e a ac f ce f he
a e , a d g e he a e f he ed ca fe , he e e a ac f ce a e dee
fe a ac (Wa e a & Y 2019, 375). Med c e ca be ee a a ac f
e a ce aga ffe g a d dea h, a d he e d c e e ab e a c ec ed he
fe a de h gh e a ac f e a ce a e . A e a d d cha e ge face
he ed ca fe da a d he f e, he gh f e d c ca de
e gh h e a h a e e e he face f ag ab e c c a ce . F a aga 44
C 2.3: J P D G
D g he H ca , Na Ge a bega e ab h g ghe ec f c e
he e a Je e e f ced e, he ab e f h ch be g he Wa a ghe . Je h
D c he e ghe f c ed de a e-e g ed ca c e, b e e de
he c f Na . The e d c aff d a he e a e h d c ac ed
he c d c f he fe de ha g c c a ce . I h cha e , I f de c be he c e f he Wa a ghe a d ed ca e . Sec d, I de c be he
ege a d e f he e d c . Th d, I de c be he a d e a faced b d c
he ghe . F a , I d c e f he d c he ghe ha ca f b ed ca e h c da .
The Na a e e f Wa a , a a ce e f Je h fe a d c e P a d,
cc ed Se e be 29 1939, a e e 28 da af e he Na aded P a d. A
ed a e , Ge a ff c a e ab hed a Je h c c , he J de a , ed b Je h e g ee
Ada C e a , beg e e g a e ab h a ghe Wa a he e a Je
e e f ced e. Ge a aga da a ed he Wa a Je a d , ce- fe ed,
e ec ed a d a g a a e , f gh g f he e ab e e , h e e e ec a
ce b e h a d be c f ed ec he e f he Wa a a (R a d
1992, 22). A Ge a dec ee Oc be 12, 1940 e ed a Je h e de f Wa a
e a de g a ed ec f he c e c ed b a 10 f a f he e f he c . Th
425 ac e a ea he d 30% f Wa a a 2.4% f he c g a ea (R a d 1992).
B Ja a 1942, he a eached 400,000, a d g c d e e ba e ab e. The
ed hab a ece ed ca ce a f f d a , c ea a e , e ec c , acce F a aga 45
e ed ca ca e, a a . S gg g a d ad g e e c ace, a he Na
e e ed he a f g d be d he ff c e a . Ja Ka , a Ch a P e,
ed he Wa a ghe a d de c bed he c d he a :
E e h g he e ee ed ed b dea h, he e ch f g c e , f h a d deca . I a ca ef a d ch g a a a h a be g. I d ha e ef ed a d f a e ha c f dea h f I had bee d g f h . I be e e I e e he d b ea h a ch a I c d de b ea he e f he c a a ed a . (R a d 1992, 28)
U de he e h b e c d , Je h d c he ghe ed ea a e h
eage ed ca e .
I he Wa a ghe , a ee g f c a ed ca e a ad ed b Na
h ed a a e e ec e he de a d e e he c e ega d g Je .
The Hea h de a e h he J de a a e b e f a a ec f a a a d
ed c e he ghe , a d a headed b D . I ae M e , a Je ed he ghe (R a d 1992, Offe 2020). Th de a e e a he f c g f hea h ce e ,
h a , h ee a e c c , e gh d fec , f ba hh e , h ee ace f
a a e, ha ac e , a d a f b c e fa e. O e ch abb e a ed TOZ a a c a e fa e ga a f he Je h a . The e a
e a b a ce f he a 500,000 e e he Wa a ghe ea 1941, a d a
a ed gg e e f he b ac a e . Add a , he Je h Hea h C c , a ached he hea h de a e a c ea ed 1941. Led b L d g H fe d, a Je h
c b g ed he Wa a ghe , a c ea ed c e f c he e c ba a d d fec d ea e he ghe a d f a e a a e (Offe 2020).
The e e e a ed ca c e e f he 800 h c a e ab hed a he beg g f he ghe : e f h a h c a , a d e f b c h c a , e de a h c a . F a aga 46
D c he ghe e f ed a ch a e ec a d c g e de c .
D c he ghe ed he h a , b a e f ed h e , a d
a a ed a e ac ce . Af e cc a Feb a 22, 1940, he J de a a de ed
ec d c e a a e 35,000 e e de g a ed eg e f f ced ab (Offe 2020).
The faced e h ca d e a ega d g e ec : f he d d a c a e e ec , he c d be g ed a d f he a c a ed, he c d e a a e hea h e e e h
a ha e e f a cha ce e. D c e e cca a f ced e d fe
h c a he c ce a ca . Whe he d c ef ed acce h a , a d ff c e e ed. O Ma 24, 1941, C e a a aged e ea e he f a
he ca f he ed ca e a a c f ed he c d . D c e e a
e ed f a b a g ed b he Na . F e a e, ea 1940, h c a e e
ec ed f he h ca e a a f a a e aged 14-60, h ch a c e 150,000
be , de e ga e c e a be ee ce a ed ca c d a d d ffe e
ace (R a d 1992).
A e de c , a c a he h e de c, e e a a he Wa a ghe , d c e e a f e e ec ed e f a a ec , a h e a e
ea e , ce fe a ea e , a d h g d fec (Offe 2020). The Ge a
e de c a age e a a ac he ce. U a e ca e f h , he
fec ed a e a e a a e f a c e ee , a d he he hab a e e
e ed g ba hh e f e a d fec g a d de g h e he a a e a a de ed. D g a a e, h e e , f d a a ed be b gh , a d
a e a ed. Ge a a e e ade e e e a d he c d h e he a a e a d fec ed a da , a d h e d ced e d ea e ha e e bef e F a aga 47
(R a d 1992). The ba hh e beca e b eed g g d f d ea e, a e e e e e ed
a de a ed he c d bef e g g he ba h h e. The e c e ed a ch fea he a e a he d ea e d d, c ea g a a he e f a c. I 1942, he J de a ,
a c a C e a , H fe d a d M e , e e e a ef g e de c
c . The J de a a aged e c d he ba hh e , e ch d e
ch h g e e, c d a e a h e a , ef d fec ce e , a d c ea e ad e e e de f a a d a e a a e e f he ca e f h a d a
e e (Offe 2020). Je h d c a e e ec e ea ed a e he h e a d he b a d fec ce .
D c he ghe ga e ed a ege . D c e e a a d ad a age he beg g f Ge a cc a a d he f a f he Wa a Ghe , a he had ea
ec a a ba d a d a e e a e ed f he c a ac f e ge a. The d c d d
aff d a eged a he de a f Je f he Wa a Ghe , he
Grossaktion, bega J 22, 1942, ce a eed f f ced ab a ed a d d c e e eeded ee a a e e a e a d f a b e (Offe 2020). S ch
ege c ded ha g a e e h e, he ab ea e he ghe , ece g he h
acc e, a d c fe . The ab ea e he ghe a a ed d c gg e
ed ca . The Wa a ghe e a e f c ed a a a c e , h ch ece a ed
e f e ce ch a ed c e. The ef e, d c a d e e e e a e a g he
cce f g he ghe a d g a d f he e ce , e e d c he c ce a ca . H e e , a a e d d ha e e a f ed ca e a a a d ea e , ea g a d c (R a d 1992). F a aga 48
E h ca d e a ha faced d c he ghe fa e f ca eg e . The f e e a he d e a f he e e h ch d c h d e da ge he e e
de a e e a d h e eed (Offe 2020). The ec d ca eg e he dec e a g c f c g a a e . O e d e a he f ca eg
e he d e a f aba d g a e a e he e e bef e a d af e he c ea f
he ghe . I fea f cc a 1939, d c had he ch ce a a d e e a e f ee a afe a ea a e he e e a d he fa e . Th c ed h gh cc a af e a e e , ch a A ( he de a a d a de f Je f he Wa a
Ghe he T eb a dea h ca beg g J 22, 1942) Ja a f 1943. S ch a d e a de c bed b N e Sab a G f e -G ce , h ade he d ff c dec e d he da gh e he A a de h e he a ed c e ea g a e : A ba e f
e f f ce aged hea : he d f a e h c a ded e a d d e h
he a e a d he h a aff, a d he e e f he h d, h ch de ed e e a a
ce de a e da gh e (Offe 2020, 581). A he d e a h ca eg
e he dec fec f a e hh d ca e ec he e e .
A d f a d c he ghe c ac ed h a e , a d a d ed (Offe
2020). A e ha a e a he he d c h d be a he a a c e e f
ea he f c ac g fe h ea e g e e . Ma d c c ed e f de e he e , a d e e af e c ac g h , de a g a d c a
he fe .
Fa g he ec d ca eg , d c e e e ed b be de h d
he e e f a c a af a ce a e f e c d aff d a e ea e
(Offe 2020). H e e , h b be a ca ed he dea h f fa e h c d aff d F a aga 49 e gage ch b be . I he f gh aga fec d ea e he ghe , he Ge a e ed
ha e e ca e f e had be e ed, e e a e had be e a h a f
ea e , a d e e a e h e had de g a e e d fec ce (Offe 2020).
S ce he c d f he h a e f c ea e , ea e a d e c d be a ded h a -h e ea e , e e - -d dd e c a c e he ghe e gaged ac f b be h he d c , he e d c d g e he a c ea b f hea h a d
ec e ea he a h e f a ff fee. C e e e a ca ed f he d fec ce a
he e e f he d ea e, a d he b d g e e ec ed f c ea e , he head f he h e c ee d f e g e he d c a b be f e e a h d ed c ec ed f a a e e h hed a c a e he b be a d e h h ch a a e ea e
h he ec . Th b be ea ed he Je h d c e e e h f he ghe hab a h c d aff d a c a e ch b be . S e d c a e gaged
g f he a a e b ec ed he d fec ce (Offe 2020). De e he fac ha d c d d e gage h f b be , d ff c a h a f he 800 d c
a c a ed he e c ac . A e f d c , d fec c e e be , a d c e d ffe he e ce f h a d c a ed e he a . W h
e e a g g f a a , a d ha f, a d c e gag g b be , e
a d b a e a e e c ce g b be ac f d c he ghe .
A he d e a a he he e h ca e he a h e e e he b be
a ed. Re g ca e f e ea be g e he c ce a ca , h ch a
ha e a h gh f dea h (Offe 2020). S a , a he d e a ed he
e ec he e e , he e d c e e a ed h e ec g h e d he c ce a ca , de f h e h e ed h ca e . A ee he e d c cha e , he e F a aga 50
e ec e e a c a e h ca d e a f he d c . D c c d e h ca f he
a c a e ec , ce he had he edge f h a e d e
ega d e , a d c d a e h e h had a be e cha ce a a . The c a ce
e ec ed dea h, b a c a g e ec , he e e c ed he ab a e e .
Dec d g h ch a c a e he e e ec g f ed f d g he dd e g d be ee a c a g a a a d e a a g hea h e e be e he dea h, a d ha g ch f a e e e ec he f c ab a . The e
e ec d ffe ed gh f h e f e d c , a e ec had be ade a g
ed ca e e a e (Offe 2020). Th cha ged he e ec d a c, a d c e e
a f b h he e ec ce a d he e ec .
O he e h ca d e a ed g e e he ghe f a ea . D g
he a ge d f de a , d c e e ga e c a de e e e e f d g a e g e e dea h he ga cha be (Offe 2020). De e he e he
h e d e e eacef he face f a e ab e dea h, h a ha he e e e
d ha e ab e d ed? Te e ha e e ed ha he e ec e e e e
-c e g. A he d e a ed g bab e e a e e e e
e e f be g d c e ed h d g. I h ca e, f he bab e a e e e
a e e, ed he dea h f e e e h d g, a d e e ade e e e
de a e e e e e e. Th g a e he d e b a e d c .
The ed ca fe he e h d ch e , a ha he ab f e ce
he he e e e d e. I d e a ch a he e, d c e e faced h a ch ce
ef h g d e , b h a ha d c a e e h ca he e dec , a e he ea g? S e h ha he H c a c Oa h h d be F a aga 51
e ed f a -ca a e e ha d c d he be e ed a e a a e e a b e (Offe 2020). Ma f he e dec , e e ch ce e -ch ce , ca ed
e e a g he d c f e a da ba . E e h gh d c e e f ced c e he ad a ed ca e h c he face f he e ecede ed c c a ce , he
e e a ed f he he he e d c a ed he a e faced he Wa a ghe . Wh e e a ed h gh , e d d , a d a fe be ee . Th a ge g e a ea
f d c ac he Wa a Ghe g f e he eed f he ed ca fe ea f he H ca de c e e he e f he be e e f he a e , e e
he face f e e e, ecede ed c c a ce .
De e h a ge g e a ea, a d c he ghe e f ed he c ac he
a e he e f he ha ca e he f e d f b ed ca e h c da . O e ch h c a
a D . Ma D ec , a L h a a h c a ed he V a ghe . D g h e a a h c a he H ca , he d c e ed he a c e he e e e ced a ghe
E a a d L h a a a d e c aged he e d he a e. Af e he e ca ed he
Dea h Ma ch 1945, he e ab he H ca f The S P e bef e g g
I ea e ab h a Cha f H ca S d e a Ba I a U e (Wa e a & Y
2019). H a e he c e f Je h h c a b c hea h he face f e e e d e c c a ce . D ec a e he e f d c e a a a ac e f
f e a ce a d ef ec h d Na d c acc ab e f he ac a d b g a e he he c ac f he . The ac f a g a d ef ec a e ed
ed ca ch a d e de c e a a ea f a g e e f e e e e ce , a d
D ec ded ca a g e he ea e f h e e e ce e e he b c F a aga 52 de a e h c e he ed ca fe , e g ha he f e ca ea f
he a e f he a .
D . Ka e F e ch a , a A a h c a he Te e ghe he C ech
Re b c, d c e ed h e e e ce h gh a a he ha h gh h ca d c e a .
Af e g da f a ch g h a ffe g, F e ch a f e ed a gh ca e h a he h f ha he a d g he da : he c a gg e f Je h ch d e , ad , he a d, a d he e de e (H e g 2004, 131). He a e f he
e ed a he Wa a ghe , a d a N a Le e a , M e ha dea h, he fea ed ha he d d e e ha he e e e d g, a d e, ha he d be be e ed (H e g 2004, 131). A h gh he d ed A ch bef e be a , h a
ed e h . We ca ee h h e e a h gh a , ce F e ch a d ha e bee ed f h a a d c e ed. A he b f e f h a g , he e a h ef e ab a (C a a 1982, ):
O e f W each he ch d e g aga T e a e h a e c T d a d , O e f I e e.
F e ch a eache h h e ca a ea a d h e e e , a d h
ea g- a g e e c e a e e e a f h c a da gg g a a h e. He
ade g f ca e a ac f ce f h fe , e g he e ab e ead f ge e a g e ab .
D c a a aged c ea e a f de g d ed ca ch he Wa a Ghe h dde de he f Na -a ed Sa a C e f F gh g E de c (R a d
1992). Ada C e a a d L d g H fe d a gh a f ed ca ch c c h dde F a aga 53 b he e e de g c e g de a a ch h e a fe e e de he ghe . A h gh de d d ha e he e c e f he a a c e g h b d g, a
had ea a gh a d f e d g he da , de d ea b acc a g d c h a . The de a d fe e e h gh a ed a c a e h
ed ca ch c ea e a e e f a c , a d he f b dde a e a ded a a a f f ebe . De e he a ab e c d f he Wa a ghe , he c age a d a e e f ed b he de a d he fe a hea a g e a e f he e d c ded ca he fe a d he d e each he e ge e a f d c e e he face f dea h. The e c age e a e f e a ce b Je h d c he ghe e ea ha he e a e a e a e he a e f ed c e, e e he face f he
h a e c d , ha e h c a c d c da .
G e he de c f he ed ca fe e e he H ca he e
h ee ec , a e he e , e de ha ed ca fe a da h d be
e f ed ab he fe h de f ea f he a e a d
h f h c a he H ca . Na d c e e ed a e e e f he
g ce he c ce a ca a d c d c g a h a b ec e e e . A h gh he N e be g C de a c ea ed e e he e a c e f e e ha e g aga , h c a a e ha he e h g e ea f he
H ca , ha he e g de e a e e a ad c a Na . Med ca
fe a da be a a e ha he h gh ce e ha a ed he H ca b d
ha beca e e e e ba a ha a d h , a d ha e ce c ce g he
H ca c d ead . A a f c a , he ac ha e d c F a aga 54
he c ce a ca a a e a b e he a a a d c he face f
ecede ed c c a ce ca be f a e he f e d f b ed ca e h c . I a c c a ce , he ac e d c a e e , e e e e g he
g f he , c d be c de ed e h ca de he H c a c Oa h. H e e , g e he c c a ce , he e ac de a e he e e d c c age a e a
a e a b e, b a he fac ha he e a be a ab e c de f e h c .
S a , ac f d c he Wa a ghe ca be ed f he f e d f b ed ca e h c da , a he e e a b ec ecede ed a d e a c ce g e ec , b be , a d e de c . The c age he Wa a ghe e a f a e, a c a
he a d a ed g a f ec e de g d ed ca ch he ee
he ed ca fe a e. Wh e he e b ec a e c e , c ea ha ed ca
fe a da ha e ch be ef f ea g ab he e h ee d c e ega d
ed ca e h c . The f g cha e ee de a e he ac ha h edge ha hea h fe a h ha e a ead ea ed ab he H ca e f b ed ca e h c . F a aga 55
C 3
A I H E STEM H P
I
The h d a f h he a e ed he a ce f each g he H ca e f b ed ca e h c b e g hea h fe a de h ha e e ea ed h h h c e . A G g e f e a e a f he a 9 ea f P .
Da e B a c e he P ch g De a e a he C ege f he H C e ed
PSYC314: Sc e ce, Med c e & he H ca . The e ce f he c e de c be e a he a g a f he c e:
Th c e e ded e a e he f e ce f c ca age da he c d c f c e f c e ea ch a d hea h fe . I c ded h b ad a he d f a b ed ca e h c a e a e d g he e f h a e e e a . Sc e ce f e a ed be a b ec e d c e he ea ch f d c e a d h ab a a he e a; ha c e ce fe e ed b he e e a d c a f he ca , c a , a d c a e ; ha c e f c d c e d e e b h he e ge e a ed b he c e f c e h d; ha ed ca a d ch a c ac ce a e f ed a d affec ed b he e e f he a e . The d f he e f c e a d h c a he c d c f he e a c g f e e ea e d g he e d f he H ca f a e deb g h a e e ec e.
A f h c e e e fa a h he a e a f he cha e ab e he b ed ca g f he H ca , he ac f he d ffe e e f d c , a d he e a
f h edge b ed ca e h c da . Da a c ec ed f h e e e ed de a e h hea h fe a h d ea ab he H ca a a a f he b ed ca e h ca a g.
M M F a aga 56
U g H C G g e acc he H C da aba e, I e a ed he a f
he PSYC314 c e g he a c a g e e b P . B a . Th e a de a ed he
b ec f he , a d a a ached a e a e he f f a G g e f . Q e
c ded he a c e fe , he e e h ch h c e ha affec ed he c e
fe da , a d f h e h a e ded hea h fe a a g g a , ch a
ed ca ch e c., he e e h ch he ea ed ab he H ca , f a a . The e da a
e e ed de e e he e e h ch h c e had a ac d d a ce a
fe , a d f ha ea . The e e e e ed he agg ega e a d a ed.
R
The e a e 111 a h h c e be ee he ea f
2011-2019, h he e ce f he ea 2013, he h c e d d . O f he 111 a , 42 c e ed he e , h 26 f he e a c a be g c e e ed a hea h STEM- e a ed fe , d g bec e e. F he e f h a e ,
he e e f he e 26 a c a c e d g e e a hea h
STEM- e a ed fe be de c bed.
O f a e e , e f d h ghe e e a e f e ece a f he c e c a ed h e h he c e ea e ea . A a b e ea f h c d be ha e ece H C a a e e e chec he H C e a ha
de g ad a e . D e a a e he G g e f , he e a a d a e f 12/42 e e
e e ec ded. F a e , he a a f he e e a e b c a ea he ec affec ed b h a e. The da a h a e acc 30 e e f he 42
ece ed, e gh e g he e e e a e . N e he e , e e a e c ea ed a F a aga 57 c a ea c ea ed. We d be e e ha he acc ac f he e e affec he a d f
he e f he he e .
D
H ? F a aga 58
Of he 26 a c a c e a hea h- e a ed fe , e f d a g a ec a f h c e ce a d ed c e e e f e ced b he c ca c a e f he
H ca . T e - a c a e ded h e h a c e f 5, a d 4
a c a e ded h e h a c e f 4, h a a e age c e f 4.85/5.
T S , M H P .
D B (PSYC 314),
? F a aga 59
Of he 26 a c a c e a hea h e a ed fe , e f d a g a ec a f he ac f h c e c e hea h- fe a c d c da . T
a c a e ded h e h a c e f 2, e e e ded h a c e f 3, e e e e ded h a c e f 4, a d e ded h a c e f 5, h a a e age c e f
3.81/5.
I , .
A h gh h e a a a a c a , a e he g a f
e e e e ec ded f h e a hea h STEM+E- e a ed fe (20/24). The
e e c ec ed ca be ga ed e f f e ca eg e : Med ca E h c , Pa e
T ea e , P e D a c , P f V e , a d O he . F a aga 60
M E
E e e f 24 e e d c ed he ac f he c e he de a d g f
ed ca e h c he c e ca ee . Med ca e h c e he gh ch ce f c d c c de g he c c a ce f a a c a b e h a ed ca ca e. Th a e acc a e , fac a d g c dec de he be c e f ac . Med ca e h c e a he
b ga f he h c a he be e e f he a e . Med ca e h c a c, h e e , a d ce a e h ca dec a be c de ed e h ca a he e c e.
T c ha e a ed ca e h c da e a e a ce f ed ca ec d , e e f
e h ca c d c , e a f ega e c , ed/ f ed c e , hh d g e
ea e d e b dge e c , a d e. C ce g he H ca , c ea f he c e f h he ha e e e f he e c e ed e e a ed a e
h gh he e ge c a d e ha a a g a , a d h he c ce a a d dea h ca .
Lea g ab he e a a d h he e a ge cha e ged h gh he
H ca a c c a e a d c ea g he e h ca ed ca c e b e. Pa c a F a aga 61
ec f ca d c ed h he c e cha e ged he dea f ed ca e h c e f
f ed c e , e ea ch e h c , a d he e a e a d ab e f c e ce a d
ed c e.
P T
F e f 24 e e d c ed he ac f he c e he de a d g f
a e ea e he c e ca ee . Wh e a he c f ed ca e h c , he c ce
f a e ea e ec f ca e a he a c f h a fe a d he e a ea e f a a e he be e e . The c ce f e c a d c b a a e a h
he ea f a e ea e . I c b a c ce ega e c c a de be ef ab he ha ca d ffe f he c c a de . Whe c a de d ffe f e c a de , h c a a ea e ha he a e ea g e e e d ffe e ha
he , b h e he ece g e d a fee c f ed a d a da ed. A 2003 e ed
U e a T ea e c d c ed b he I e f Med c e e ea ed ha ac a a d e h c
e ece ed e ea e ha - e e e he acce - -ca e ba e e e c ed f (S ed e e .a . 2003). I c b a e d ff c ha e c b a ce a d c ec , a d f he e ea ch a d e h d g c e be de e ed de e e he e a ea e f a a e . Add a , a he c ce h he a ge c f
a e ea e he a c f h a fe, a d h he h c a a e b
he ec a d e e a f h a fe. P e a e ea e a c ea he d d g he H ca , a Je a d he g e e e c d c a ed aga a d ea ed a e a h a be g . A h gh a ee ha he h f he e c b a
f he H ca d e e ha e aga da , c a d e c b a c e. Wh e
he d a fe he a e deg ee a d g he H ca , c a d e c b a F a aga 62
e a b e da ed ca c e a d be add e ed. Pa c a ec f ca d c ed b ec ch a a e a c h c a , c a e f fe h a be g ,'' a d a c f fe he e e e a g a e ea e .
P D
F e f 24 e e d c ed he ac f he c e he de a d g f
e d a c he c e ed ca ca ee . P e d a c a fe h gh he
a e - h c a e a h , b a h he h e a ch f he ed ca fe . W h he
ed ca fe , e d a c a a e h gh d ffe e e f ed ca
fe a , ch a e . h c a , b a h gh e d e , ch a e a e
. e a aff. W h e c ca , c e a , e ec , a d a g
h c a a d be ee h c a a d a e , a e ca e ffe . W h he e a e , h e e , e d a c ha e he e a be ef a a e ed, c ea g a e a
fe a a a g a a e ed, h ch a a a e g a d f h.
O e a ea h he c ce f e d a c ha ha e a f e he
ed ca f e d bed e ce a h f g e . The M g a E e e ( ) bega 1961 h ee
h af e he a f he a f Na a c a Ad f E ch a a e he e :
"C d be ha E ch a a d h acc ce he H ca e e f g
de ? C d e ca he a acc ce ?" (Sch e 2010, 106). Pa c a f h d
e e c ed b a a h -f g e e e e e a a ac , g he
a c a , a e e f e a d ad e a h c he f he a e ed c ec .
The a c a e e a a e ha he h c e e ea , a d he e g h f he h c
c ea ed f e e g a e . The e g h f he h c c ea ed 450 , h ch
d be e ha f he h c e e ea . The e f h d e ea ed ha he a f F a aga 63
a c a ad e ed he h ghe h c e e , a be h a g e e f d c f a d e . Wh e he e e ca be ed d ec e a he e e f he H ca ,
he d de gh he e f c f , a d h h e h e e e a f e d
f e ea e dec - a g h e h ghe a h e a ch . The h e a ch f he ed ca
fe ha e a be ef a ed, b c ea ha h e c ca a d e a ea e , he e g e a f e. Pa c a h e ec f ca d c ed he M g a e e e , a e a he e c ec ed a e f c , g e e , c e, a d ch g a a e e , he e ec f h a d c e ce/ ed c e,
h b d he ca f a eade f he be e e ha gh ca a he
e b ff, e e f e h ca g, a d h e e c d be ea
f e ced.
P V
T f 24 e e d c ed he ac f he c e he de a d g f d ffe e f e he c e ca ee . S a he c f e d a c ,
a c a d c ed h he c e c ea ed he a a e e f he a ce f ee g
e f e a g e a , e ec a he ed ca f e d. Sc e f c
e c h gh e a h ca eg . Th c ce de c be h e h d e he
a d f c e f c c a e he ca be e ca e ed a d e . The c f
bed e ce a h f g e a a e h ca eg , a d e ha e he a ce f
e g f a e e ed e e he e e ed b a a h f g e. E ec a
h he h e a ch f he ed ca fe , c ace e f a a d dec g e a d ade b a h f g e . I e de ha a Na d c a d
ed ca e e d d e he a he e e g e he a a e beh d . E e f F a aga 64
e e ed , fa fe e Na d c ac e e ed aga he a a d f a g e he . The H ca e ea he a ce f a a ee g g f e ,
ed ca a b a f e d, de a e he ed ca ed a d fa dec b e. Pa c a f he e d c ed dea ch a be g e c c f
he dea a d d e e e ed e, a d ea g ab e f e a d e e e ce .
O
Th ee e e d d f a f he ab e ca eg e . The e e e d c ed
he a ce f add e g e ge e a a a a g a a e a hea h c e , a d a a e e f he ac f he H ca he Je h c he U ed S a e .
The h d e e e a ed h he c e a e a c ea g h [ he ] a e da b ha he f a ea ed h c e e a e e e a IT a e .
A STEM , H
? F a aga 65
Of he 26 a c a c e a hea h e a ed fe , e f d g ag ee e ha he H ca h d be ed a a eh c e each ab b ed ca e h c . O e
a c a e ded h e h a c e f 2, e e ded h a c e f 3, h ee
e ded h a c e f 4, a d e e e ded h a c e f 5, h a a e age c e f
4.50/5.
B E , H , H /STEM-R T P
Of he 26 a c a hea h/STEM- e a ed fe , 15 a e ded a hea h/STEM- e a ed a g g a . 7/15 a c a e ed ha he a g g a
ffe ed a e h c c e, c d g ch a Wa e F e U e , U e f
Ne E g a d, N h e e U e Fe be g Sch f Med c e, S . Ge ge U e ,
B C ege, L a U e Ma a d, a d U e f Ma a d G ba Ca . N e
f he e ffe ed a c e he H ca , a d e (N h e e
U e Fe be g Sch f Med c e) ffe ed ed ec e a he f he e e f
H ca ed ca , c d g b ec ch a e ge c a d e ha a a, Na e e e a a d he N e be g C de, he ed ca fe e e he H ca , a d b e h c a d he H ca . Th ee f 15 a e ed ea g ab Na e e e a a d he
N e be g C de, a d e ge c a d e ha a a, b he e e c e a e e ec e
h f a e a . The 14 a c a h e ed ea g e e e ab he H ca
he fe a d e g ag eed ha he c d ha e be ef ed f ea g ab
, h a a e age c e f 4.36/5.
The fac ha e a c a e ed ea g ab he H ca he e e f a c e f ec e , a d a e e a c a g ag eed ha he H ca h d be
ed a a eh c e each ab b ed ca e h c e ea a e g g f he ef eeded F a aga 66
he ed ca ch c c c ce g b ed ca e h c a d he H ca . C a ed h da a c ec ed f he L a C ee Med ca Ed ca (LCME) 2013, 22 f
140 (16%) ed ca ch he U ed S a e a d Ca ada ha e a e ed c c a e e e he e f h c a he H ca , a d ha f f he e (11/22) each h a e a
g a ec e f a (W a, S e , La a , 2015). The e f e e ea he
g ag ee e a g h e h ha e e ea ed ab he H ca he c e
f b ed ca e h c ha a hea h/STEM fe a h d ea ab he H ca h c e . G e h ag ee e , he e e : Wha he be a e he H ca
each b ed ca e h c he ed ca ch c c ? F a aga 67
C 4
T H M S L
G e he ed ca c c c he H ca a de c bed he eced g cha e f h he , e de ha he H ca de de da e e a ce ha a e e ec a e e ed ca fe a da . The f e d f b e h c a d he H ca ha e
ece ed ece e ha , ga e g a e f a a ch a he A e ca Med ca
A c a (Che che & W a 2021), UNESCO (Che che e . a . 2013), C a (Ga &
Bed 2019), a d he La ce (R e c e e . a . 2021). Sch a h f e d ha e ec g ed f
e e e c e a e h ca cha e ge ed c e ha a e e - f ed b
ea g ab he H ca . The e a e e a h a d de ach e a g, c e f c e c ,
he cha e ge f c e g a e (Le e e . a . 2019), a d he h e a ch f he ed ca
fe (Fe a de & Ec e 2019). E a h a d de ach e a g e ha e he
a ce f ea g each a e a d e f. Sc e f c e c e a a
e g f a e e ed a d be g a a e f he f e . Cha e ge f c e g a e a e ab ba a c g he d e a a h c a h he d e ch a he e e c a e f d g e ea ch, a d he h e a ch f he ed ca fe de c be
he a ce f ea g a ed ca fe a a e a ega d e f he deg ee de
e e effec e c ca a d . A de f he fac d be d ff c a da e a c e b e h c a d he H ca a US ed ca ch , he e e d be be
a gh h gh eg a h e g c c e e ha he e ea ed f he
H ca a e e c e a ed a a ec f ed c e.
E F a aga 68
Whe ca g f ffe g a e h a e a , d e ad a ced d ea e age ,
h c a , e a d he ed ca fe a f d a ba a ce ega d g he e a a d a e e a d he a e . Ca g f he e ffe g a e e e e e a d a c g de b ec e ea he a e . If he h c a bec e e a ed he a e ffe g, ca affec e ca e b c g c ca b ec b d c g a c e g, e a e e he a e (Le e e . a .
2019). S d e ha e h ha he e a h f ed ca de dec e e he c e f he
ed ca a g (Ne a e . a . 2011). H e e , he he e e e, a c e e ac f e a h c ce g ffe g a e a c ce ha he H ca ha e ea ed ha e da ge e ec . Teach g ed ca de ab he h f he H ca ca he
e he h he ea a e b h b ec e a d h ca e, c a a d e a h .
I Na Ge a , h e f e a h e ed a d he deh a a f Je a d he a g a ed g . A he 1933 La f P e e f Ge e ca D ea ed
Off g a h ed ge e c hea h c e e h e h ce a ed he ed a c d , f ed b g h gh e ha a a c c a d e e a ga cha be c ce a ca , c ea ha a e h d d f he A a -Ge a d a ee a a e a h a be g, a d a ea ed a ch. The a c e f he H ca ha e ch
each ed ca fe a a d de ab he da ge f ed ca deh a a , b
a e ha ed ca deh a a a d e a h e d d e d h he
H ca . Wh e he N e be g C de c ea ed e e he ed ca a c e he ed c ea e he b e h ca f da f de b e h ca a da d , he c de hea f c ed e e e a a d e ha a a a . Th a a e e a de e e a d b e h c F a aga 69
da , b he N e be g C de fa ed ade a e add e he de g ac a d d c a a a d h gh ce e ha a ed he e ac ce ha e . I fac ,
e h ca h a b ec e ea ch c ed af e W d Wa II. O e ch d a he US
P b c Hea h Se ce S h S d a T egee a ched 1932 a d c g f 40 ea ,
h ch d ed B ac e h ea ed h a A aba a h e dece e g
he f ee ea e (Re e b 2009). The d cea ed af e a f - age ca da e ed
he d a b a a ac a d e h ca 1972. E ge c e a a c ed he
U ed S a e af e he N e be g T a a d c ea f he N e be g C de. B 1937, 32
a e a d P e R c had a a h g he e a f h e dee ed f e
a ha f Na Ge a . The e bega be e ea ed he 1970 , he e ha
60,000 A e ca had a ead bee e ed (S e 2016). Wh e US a e e a ed a
ec f c ac a g , ce a g e e e ed d a e ha he . F e a e, N h Ca a, B ac e ade a d 60% f h e e ed, e e h gh
B ac e e acc ed f 23% f he a (Sc 2015).
A h gh g ea de ha e bee ade he f e d f b e h c ega d g he e a
ea e f a a e , deh a a c e a a e ed c e da a d
Je , e e h d ab e , e be f he LGBTQ+ c , a d he g
(S e 2021). F 2006 2010, e ha 140 e , f h a a e e e f c , e e e ed h a h a Ca f a (S e e . a . 2017). Ma
e e e ed b e h c a , D . Ja e He ch, h e a ed ha he e e
e g he a e a eg g b e c a ed ha a e e fa e a g f he e
a ed ch d e - a he c ea ed e (S e e . a . 2017, 54). Add a , f 1989
2014, a e c g a age a d a e g f e e h e a e e e e a ed F a aga 70
a a e (S e 2021). The e e a e e ea he de g e ge c a f e
h c a a d a a e da , h a e ed, cceeded, a e e g h e h he a
f f e d c g.
De e he e e a e f h c a a d a a e e e e ac f e a h a d
e ec , deh a a a a a e e e da ed c e da . A 2011 d e ea ed ha
53% f 800 ece h a ed a e fe ha he h c a e e e a he c a d ca g (L e . a . 2011). I c ea ha deh a a a d e a h e d d e d h
he H ca , a d ec a a e be a d h h e e he h gh ce e
ha a ed cc f affec g ed c e da . Lea g ab he h f g c e e ce f h c a e a h e d g he H ca ca he e f e
ed ca fe a h he a g ece a ade a e ba a ce c ca b ec h c a a e a d e a he c a e ca e.
S
Med c e ha a a b ga b dge c e ce h c e . A he Ph c a
Cha e f Med ca P fe a he Ne M e a e , M ch f ed c e c ac
h c e ba ed he eg a d a a e e f c e f c edge a d ech g .
Ph c a ha e a d h d c e f c a da d , e e ea ch, a d c ea e e
edge a d e e a a e e. The fe e b e f he eg f h
edge, h ch ba ed c e f c e de ce a d h c a e e e ce (P ec f he
ABIM F da e . a . 2002, 243). Ph c a a e c e f c a da d b acce g a he a fac h ade a e, b ec e e e e a a d e de ce. The Na e e a f e ge c -ba ed g a a d a ba ed he he f S c a Da h ff c e e de ce g , a d e e he face f e de ce d g , a e a e f ch F a aga 71
c e f c a . Med ca e h c ed ca ed ca ch d g he Na e a a a gh
e b a a , h ed a e b a h ed b R d h Ra ad ca g f he c ea g f he A a ace h gh e a a d h gh he g f he d ab ed
(Fe a de & Ec e 2019). Th ed ca e e ed a d cha e ged b ed ca
de , a g he da ge f acce g f ded e d c e ce a fac . The h f
A e ca a - g a c e a ef ec he e a . E e af e d c ed g e e a
ha ce a g a e e e e b g d ea e c c e, he e c e
e a ed f a decade (O e 2019). C e e , e ec g e - ea ed c e ce he g d f c e f c e c a a e c e f c a da d (Le e e . a . 2019). Rece deba e e e a d c a e cha ge ed ca de he e e ha he e a e
he e de e e -e ab hed e de ce a da ge e f he c e f c e h d a d
c e f c e c .
I f a f - c e f c a ha a ca ed b e ega d g b c
c e f c edge. U f ded ed ca a a d b a ed b g de he b c h
f a f e ab e a d ha he ead a d c a ed a a f , ea g
f e e a a d e g f f a (Le e e . a . 2019). The a - acc e
e e a e a e f he da ge f he ead f h f a , a he e
e he g c e f c e de ce d g a d . Th e ec a e e d g he
COVID-19 a de c, a e e e f ded e de ce a ea ge acc a ed.
Ph c a da e e e a eg e e e c a e f c e ce; a e ha e
ea ed f he H ca , he e ec f e d c e f c he e h b c c ca ha e da ge c e e ce .
T F a aga 72
A h gh h c a ha e a a he e be g f he a e , h c a a ha e he c c e a e , ch a he afe f he a e , he g ea e c , he
h ch he , he a e, a d he . De e he e he a e , h c a a e
e b e f ba a c g he e a e de c ea e ec ca be ee he
h c a a d he a e b a he h c a a d c e . E h ca c de ed c e a e c ea ed e e ha h c a d e c ca fac , ch a a a ec ,
g a e f ce e , c c e , e a a d e, ab e he be e e
f he a e . If he h c a fa e he a e be e e , h e de he be ee he a e a d he h c a . Th a e da ge he e a hea h f he a e : f he
a e d e d c e a ece a f a he h c a d e a ac f , h c e he e e f ca e ha he a e ca ece e. I Na Ge a , be ee he
a e a d he h c a a b e be ee he h c a a d A a a e . A he
e e aba d ed b he ed ca fe . E e f Na h c a e e e c a e
he V a e e a d d a a e hea h, he c c Na g a de be a e
h d g ca e f ce a g a e he eg e f he a e - h c a e a h . I
a be ed ha A e ca ed c e he ea - - d 20 h ce a a e c a , a Af ca A e ca , Je , Ca h c , a d he e e e d c a ed aga he a e a d fe a ea (Le e e . a . 2019).
Wh e a e - h c a ha ed ce, d a a e h h c a c e
e a a b e he U ed S a e da . A ece e f he Pe Re ea ch Ce e f d ha 74% f A e ca ha e a e e f ed ca d c a d ha
57% be e e ha d c ca e ab he be e e f he a e a f he e
(Le e e . a . 2019, 297). O e e a e f e h d a a e c ce h c a F a aga 73 de e ce e e g US a d a e age a he US-Me c b de da , h face
a c f c h e f Na h c a (S e . a . 2021). Se e a a f US
h c a he e de e ce e ha e bee e ed.
F , h c a ha e bee e ed f ce feed d d a a c a g h ge
e e g ICE de e . The W d Med ca A c a ha e e ed c ea
f ce feed g h ge e f he a e c e e d d a , a h a e he gh a . Sec d, h c a ha e bee e ed f ce ch d e he e ce e de g de a ad g a h de e e he age. Ad de a ee a e e e f ce a ega
ec ha g a ch d e ha e, ch a he gh a -ad e a a a e e .
The e ad g a h ha e bee f d be c e f ca acc a e, ce he d acc f e h c , a a , e a hea h a d de e e h . The e ca eg e e d be e ec a a c ce g g a ch d e a d ad . Th d, g a e f a a d e e ge c ed ca ca e ha dec ed f fea ha h c a c h g a e f ce e a e a d a d . Pa e ha e a e ed ece g c ed acce ca e a d c ed ca e a d e ac a , e h c, a d g a a -ba ed d c a
(S e . a . 2021). Ma de a ee a e a de ed a e a d fa a ege a d
h c a ha e a bee e ed f e de a ee a g a d a e ha e e e e ced a h ed d c e f he g a a . F h, a e a e e d cha ged h c f a ca e a ab de b US age c ea a e f de a e ea e f de e ce e . Ph c a ha e e ed be g da ed b
he e ff ce f ea e ea e f ea e e e f ea e da ge g he a e hea h.
F a , ch d e c f de a he a e e e ed a e de ce aga he de a
ceed g . O e e a e f h a de c bed be : F a aga 74
O e b c f ded h he a ha , de d e , he ed a ga g, a e ef ed c h ga g de a d , a d he f ed h c . W h he ch d he he a c e , a ICE ec ed he e e e ha e he ch d ga g e be h a d de e h ca e f a . A h gh he e e h ch h f a ec ed de he Hea h I a ce P ab a d Acc ab Ac (HIPAA) c ea , a g he c f de ce f a e ab e ch d ee g he eg ec he ch d d g a d de e he he a ca ac e ec e fe a ca eg g d e . (S e . a . 2021, 40)
The e a ab e a ca e h c a a d e . Ph c a ha e a
e ed h ea f de a d d a , a d da b a ed age f c g
h e e ch a he e ed ab e. The e a e a e f g de e he h c a
e d d a a e a ee he ab e be (S e . a . 2021). F a aga 75
A g ba a c g he d a a e , h c a da be e -e ed h he
a d a g ece a he ec a e gh a d de he h
d c a ca e acce , a e c f de a a d ec d g e ac h
a e age . Ad ca g f ca , a e a d fede a c cha ge b h c a a d a ge
ed ca c e e ca a he ec he e gh . N c ca e e a e ea e c e affec h c a c d c , a d he H ca ha e ea ed h ea h c a ca
cc b a e e e c e a e ca e. Kee g he e f he H ca a e ed ca a g da he h d e e e acc ab e - Ph c a a a ha e c e g a e , b he f e f ed c e e e ea g f h e h fa ed
e he a e .
T
The e a ace f h e a ch ed ca ed ca a d ac ce. F e a e, he eache a d he de h d cc he a e e, a d e e ed ca fe a h d ha e
he a e e a d e b e a g e a . H e e , he e a e ega e a ec he h e a ch f ed c e ha he ed c b e he a a c a f he ed ca
fe he H ca , a d c e ega e ac e a e ca e da . I e e a a a e he h e a ch f he ed ca fe de de a d h ed ca
fe a ca b d f a h f g e .
I he ed ca f e d, h e a ch ca be de c bed a e a e g ad e be ee
ed ca fe a , ch a d c , e a d he fe a , a d be ee ed ca
fe a a d a e . S ce ed ca a g f a fe a e he a a a d g da ce f a e , he e f b ec e a e e e a a , e ce ed adhe e ce
fe a a da d f c ca ac ce, c ca a d e de g F a aga 76
(Fe a de & Ec e 2019). A de f he h e a ch be ee a fe a a d he ed a e
e , he e a a a ge ga a a h e a ch he ed ca fe ha e e
fe a c ea e a e c e , dec ea e a e e g h f a , a d dec ea e c f ca e, h ch ca c ca e e a e ca e (Fe a de & Ec e 2019, 25). The h e a ch f
he ed ca fe a e de he a e - h c a e a h , a e ab e a e
h e a h a d ed ca a e he e a f c ed ca e. O e e a e f h h e a ch he e d a c be ee h c a a d e . Ma e fee e ed be
e a e e ced ega d g ed ca e , a e he e e a d a e he e .
O e e e :
Th ab h fee g b ed eg . M de hea h ca e c e , h gh ech ca a d da ge , a d he ac f f e b e, d a c c fac a e c ca a g he ed ca h e a ch ca be dead . I deed, e e ab e ed ca e 100,000 a e a ea , a e e a decade [ ] Beca e cce f hea h ca e eed be e de e de , he e c g f e e ab c ea e e e f e . I a e ha a ead e - e a d e c ca ed, he e hea h ca e e a e e b e f e e e -be g, b he e , beha ha a a c ea e da ge a e e ab e. Whe I beca e a e, ha he d f ha I g ed f . (Fe a de & Ec e 2019, 26)
I e a , he e c g f e a ed ca fe a ca ead a defe e ce a h , h ch da ge f a e ca e.
The e h e a ch e ha e bee ha e ega e effec e fe a c ca a d e a c c e ce. The a a d a e c g f
e a d he ed ca fe a ega d g fe a a d e h ca beha ca e de e c c e ce. Ma d e c f h dea, a d e I h d e ea ed h a
ed ca de a e d ced he h e a ch f he ed ca fe h gh h a a d fea (C e e . a . 2017). O e ed ca a ee had he f g e e ega d g he F a aga 77
e ce f he h e a ch f ed c e: The e e ch he a a cha h g f he c a [ e h c a ], e e e he a d e he e d e ac ha he
a (Pa c a 40, fe a e); a he e a ed: Y e dea g h e e h e bee he e f 10 ea , 20 ea , 30 ea [ ] Y ca ea a a h g beca e
ece ed (Pa c a 10, a e) (C e e . a . 2017, 74). The e a e ce e a e
he h e a ch , a ed ca de a d a ee a e f e e c aged e de a d
e e e e ced h c a (V da e . a . 2005).
Med ca a d g de g de he Th d Re ch had e ea d be e e
he fe e . B 1945, ha f f h c a a d 30% f e Ge a had
ed he Na a , h ch a e ch h ghe a e ha he fe (C e e . a . 2017).
Sch a he f e d ha e a h ha a e ac e a c a ed f ced
e a a d e ha a a g a , a d ed ca e ea ch ab e h ch e a ce
(C e e . a . 2017). The a f e be a g h he e ge f he ed ca fe
Ge a a he e he ed ga e f he e ge c a d e ha a a g a f
he b c, b he e be f he ed ca fe . Th ha e he h ha
ed ca fe a e e f ced a c a e he e g a , b a he a ed a ac e
e he e e a . The ed ca fe a g a ac e e e e g d c a b c hea h ac ce e c e he H ca , a d e be a b d f g e e he e g h c a .
The H ca e ea he a ce f e fe a ed ca a d c ab a e e ha a ed ca fe a ha e he a d c age ea e he ee.
We ha e g c c e ce ec f he e ed ca fe a ha he a e fea f f e e c f ea g aga gd g . E h ca ed ca ca he F a aga 78 a e a e he e ega e a ec f he h e a ch f ed c e h gh a g e ac e ca e he e fe a ca ac ce ea g e h ca a . Th de
ed ca fe a h he e e e c g f ha e g he f ace, a d
he f e a e e f , c ca a d a a e c . I ce e e
he e a e a ead ace ce a ed ca c e (G b g & Ba 2017), b e a f
g a e he e a e c c a e e a ed ca fe a h d each he acc ab e.
I
A h gh he a ce f H ca ed ca ed ca ch c ea , he e deba e ab he eff c e a d ea c a c a e h ed ca US ed ca
ch c c a. Med ca ch c c a da a e a ead ac ed h a e h a f e ed e e e , a d he add f a e ed H ca c e ac a ed ca ch ee
e . Add g h d ff c , he H ca a c e a d e a cha ged b ec
ha ca be e e ed c , a d e e ade a e e f d c a d deb ef. I ead,
he be a each H ca ed ca , ge e a a d e ec a ed ca ch , ca be c a ed he d f ac d-ba e che . Ac d-ba e che c e e f he f da e a a ec f che a d a ha ca f b g , h c , e c e ce a d he STEM d c e . The d f ac d-ba e che , e he H ca , ece a e a f c ed a e , b a a be ece a ca e he e ed h gh he e e c c a d ea ab ca a a ge c e (a efe e ced b D .
Ma he W a h e e a , H Hea e Beca e K e , Ja a 27, 2021).
T c f he H ca ca be eg a ed , b a e ed , he f g e a e
(Le e e . a . 2019): (1) Teach g ha he c e f c e h d a d e ea ch e h c h d c de F a aga 79 e a e f he e f he c e f c e h d e Na c a c ; (2) C c
efe e c g he a a e f a d g e abe ed ca c d a c a ed h
Na h c a , ch a Re e , A e ge , a d Wege e ; (3) D c g he de a d
h a e ea e ha Na h c a e e a ed a e h d ab e he each g ab de e e a d ab e a d e a hea h e ; (4) Refe e c g he e ge c g a a d he a a e beh d he each g ge e c ; (5) E a g he ea e f ce a g a bh a he e e g c e c c a b a , ac a d hea h e .
The e c , a c a g he e f e a h a d de ach e a g,
c e f c e c , he cha e ge f c e g a e a d he h e a ch f he ed ca
fe , a d he , ca he de he f da e a e f e h c g g d a e
c e a d fe a e -be g. A each e ge e a ha e f a e a c ec
he H ca , e a ha e e a e e ha he h a d e f he
H ca a e g a ed ed ca ed ca ec h a gh a d he eg f he f e f ed c e. F a aga 80
C
O e f he a a ec f ed ca e h c ec g e ha e h c a acc a f edge f ha d a d ha d , b a de e . The
ha e e de e d g a e e a e cce f ha d e he d ff c e .
The H ca ca f ha f e d a e e ha e h c ee a a de e
a he ha c e , he e ha e h e he e eed he . O e e , c e a c ec f he H ca h e e he COVID-19 a de c, a he e a e
a a ec f he g ba e e he a de c ha ha e he H ca , c d g
age c a d e de c e e ea e , ch a a a e a d a . The
H ca bega he e e e e dee ed e a he , a d he COVID-19 a de c ha f a e h ha e c e a e c e affec hea h ca e da . De e
he e e a e , a h c a da ha e g e ab e a d be d he e he de c a a e ca e a d he ecede ed c c a ce f he a de c, e ea g ha
e ha e bee ea ed f he H ca , g h e f he f e f ed c e.
The COVID-19 a de c ha f a e h ha he g affec ed b
COVID a e h e h ha e h ca bee dee ed a e a ab e ha he . Af ca
A e ca , La A e ca a d Na e A e ca ha e bee fec ed a d d ed f
COVID-19 a d a e h ghe a e ha h e . I M ch ga , Af ca A e ca a e
14% f he a , e he c ed 40% f he fa a e a f Ma 2020 (S e 2021).
Add a , he c f ea g e de COVID-19 a e ha de a ed a c age b a , a ec a c ca c , hea h- c ee g ced e f a d he
c e e e e e ed f ch d e a d ad a e bef e he e e f e de , a d F a aga 81
e de a (A 2020). The f ge , a d e ab hea h e , e e d g
he beg g f he c a a de c e ea he e e ched age A e ca hea h ca e. I c ac , age , ab e a d he f f d c a hea h ca e ha e bee
ade e ec a cab e b he g ba e e COVID-19, a d e e a e a c e he e c a f a f he A e ca hea h ca e e . We a e
a g a be ga e d g h a de c, a d eed a e e e e d d a fe c , f ha he ca c b e c e , b f he he e a e a a h a be g.
The H ca ha a ed f he d e c e e ce f g ce a e e he , a d he g ba e e he a de c ha ade c ea ha he e a e e be ea ed
a e c e e ha e e e be g a he e f ce.
De e h e c d c a hea h ca e, a h c a ha e de a ed a a e g c e he fe ha de h e f he f e f ed c e. I
a c a , D . A h Fa c M.D., H C 62, he d ec f he US Na a I e f
A e g a d I fec D ea e a d he ch ef ed ca ad he e de , ha bee a c c a
ce f ea a he f he COVID-19 a de c c a ed a cha c a d ca ed e h h gh A e ca. He ha de a ed a a e g c e he c e f c
e h d de e b c a d g e e a e e e a e e e he c . M
a , he ec g e h gh h d a d h ac he a ce f b ec he
ea f ed c e: Y a c e e a ca a d - de g ca , a d c ha
ha d . I a c e a d I a h c a . A d ha (S ec e 2020, 1). Fa c a h a e a d ca g e e ce ha bee e a he effec e ha d g f he
COVID-19 a de c A e ca, a d h e d g c e he e f ed c e he F a aga 82
e e ha he ac f ce ha a h c a he H ca ade e e he a e a e f g e .
The e ea ed f he H ca a a a e he de e e f e h ca e b e a d h a c hea h fe c a d e e . S e f he c e cha e ge ha faced h c a d g he H ca a e h da , a d acade c
eade a e c c eff de e a c e a d effec e c c h fac
a g e ac . Th e e a a d eade h c e H ca ed ca b ed ca e h c de e e ha h h e a e h a d f de be a e h ca cha e ge ed c e da . O ce aga , a Ge ge Sa a a a a d,
Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it. F a aga 83
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