Environmental Factors (Conditions) and Road Fatalities

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS (CONDITIONS) AND ROAD FATALITIES:

A CASE STUDY OF KAMPALA-MASAKA HIGHWAY.

MPUUGA TONNY

16/U/7134/PS

216006320

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY, ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A DEGREE OF BACHELORS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE OFMAKERERE UNIVERSITY.

OCTOBER 2019 i

DEDICATION

This research is dedicated solely to my young siblings, Harriet Namagembe, Leonard Jjunju, Brain Bayise, Oliver Nabaccwa, Moreen Nambejja and John Bosco Kato Zzimbe. The stride is yours.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to extend a heart of praise to God almighty for the enablement in terms of resources and ability to make this write-up. Then I am highly indebted to my supervisor, Mr. Kenneth Balikoowa of Makerere University for the academic guidance, encouragement and critics in my research content and for all his time and contributions during the research and its compilation.

Special thanks to my father Mr. Richard Mugema, my precious mother Gaudensia Namuyanja for their financial support and motivation during my academic studies. Am indebted to the irreplaceable contributions of my late Aunt Imelda Nalukwata who did all what she could to have me attain education may the almighty God judge her mercifully.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. APPROVAL ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. DEDICATION ...... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... v LIST OF TABLES ...... vii LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... viii ABSTRACT ...... ix TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. CHAPTER ONE: ...... 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ...... 1 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ...... 2 1.3 GOAL AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ...... 3 1.3.1 Goal of the study...... 3 1.3.2 Specific objectives ...... 3 1.3.3 Hypothesis...... 3 1.4 JUSTIFICATION ...... 3 CHAPTER TWO: ...... 4 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 4 2.1 HUMAN FACTORS OF ROAD ACCIDENTS ...... 4 2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ...... 4 2.3 OCCUPATION RELATED FACTORS ...... 5 2.4 THE IMPACT OF ROAD FATALITIES ON THE POOR ...... 5 2.5 ROAD TRANSPORT, MOTOR VEHICLES AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ...... 7 CHAPTER THREE: ...... 8 STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY...... 8 3.1 BIO-PHYSICAL AND DEMOGRAPHY OF THE STUDY AREA ...... 8 3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION ...... 8 3.3 INTERVIEWING...... 8

3.4 DOCUMENT REVIEW ...... 9 3.5 DATA ANALYSIS ...... 9 CHAPTER FOUR:...... 10 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 10 4.2 Factors responsible for RTAs on Kampala-Masaka highway ...... 22 4.2.1 Predisposing factors in human error ...... 22 4.2.2 Predisposing factors in vehicle defects ...... 22 4.2.3 Predisposing factors in traffic law ...... 22 4.2.2 Other methods suggested are ...... 23 4.2.3 Some antecedents to the RTAs on Kampala-Masaka road ...... 23 4.2.4 Strategies for better safety on this Highway ...... 23 CHAPTER FIVE: ...... 24 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 24 5.1 CONCLUSION ...... 24 5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 24 REFERENCES ...... 26 APPENDICES ...... 28 APPENDIX 1: KAMPALA-MASAKA ROAD QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 28

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4. 1 : The coverage of different project components in the ESIA written on the upgrading of the highway as compared to the International Highway Design Standards (IHDSs)...... 10 Table 4. 2 : Auxiliary lane length guidelines for construction of highway Interchanges as provided by NCHRP which the ESIA for Kampala-Masaka highway upgrading does not provide...... 18 Table 4. 3: Recommended Median Widths for modern intersections (Interchanges) on IHDSs not described in the ESIA for improving the interchanges on Kampala-Masaka highway...... 19 Table 4. 4: The different weather conditions and their impact in accident causation on this road...... 19 Table 4. 5: The best measures suggested by the respondents to curb accidents on this road...... 20

vii

LIST OF ACRONYMS

AASHO - American Association of State Highways Officials

DETR - Department of the Environment Transport and the Regions

DFID - Department for International Development

ESIA - Environmental and Social Impact Assessment

IHDSs - International Highway Design Standards

MoWT. - Ministry of Works and Transport

NCHRP - National Cooperation for Highway Research Program

NEMA - National Environment Management Authority

ROU - Republic of Uganda

RTAs - Road Traffic Accidents

RTIs - Road Traffic Injuries

TRRL - Transport of Road Research Laboratory

UNRA - Uganda National Roads Authority

WB - World Bank

WHO - World Health Organization

viii

ABSTRACT

Background: Road traffic accidents (RTAs) are an emerging public health problem. It is estimated that more than 1.3 million people die annually as a result of RTAs worldwide. Currently, RTA is the tenth leading cause of disease burden in the developing countries of which Uganda is inclusive. The goal of the study was to explore the possible environmental conditions of road fatalities and offer guiding suggestions regarding preventive measures, as well as identify the road design and driver factors that contribute to road accidents.This survey was conducted on Kampala-Masaka Highway. 40 motor vehicle drivers were interviewed where by 95% were males and 5% were females, and also the current state and design of the road using an observation checklist was observed. Review of different documents was also done which included different ESIAs conducted for the construction and reconstruction of different Highways in different parts of the world. The ESIA written on the upgrading of the road in 2015 does not meet the IHDSs as set by NCHRP and AASHO. Contributory factors to frequent RTAs on this road included human errors; bad road; defective vehicles. Antecedent factors associated with RTAs on this road included over- speeding, overloading and laxed laws. RTAs continue to cause avoidable injuries, disabilities and mortality. I show that antecedent factors on this road to RTAs are modifiable through training, improved road design and maintenance, motor vehicle repairs and proper policing.

Keywords: Road Fatalities, Environmental Conditions, Road Traffic Accidents.

CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Road crashes are known to be both a serious and growing problem for low income countries. All known studies have also shown that, whilst road deaths are slowly decreasing in high income countries, low income countries face a worsening situation. As infectious diseases are brought increasingly under control, road deaths and injury rise in relative importance. World health Organization (WHO’S) recent world report or road traffic injury estimates over one million people are killed and 15million seriously injured each year in road crashes (WHO 2004). The majority of those ,about 85% occur in those countries that World Bank (WB) classifies as low or middle income and where vehicle ownership levels are low by western standards (but in many cases growing rapidly) and where much investment is being made in improving infrastructure(Jacobs et al,2000).

As with other technological advances, neither the benefits nor the costs of motorization are guaranteed to be equally or fairly distributed. Clearly those who suffer the most disproportionately are the families that have had a member killed or seriously injured in a road crash. There has been concern over the vulnerability of the poor to road crashes even in high income countries e.g. in 1995, Transport of Road Research Laboratory (TRRL) researched the social, economic and environmental factors in child pedestrian casualties, and the UK Government’s Road Safety Strategy (DETR 2000), highlighted the increased risk to children from low income families and accordingly, adopted a higher casualty reduction target for children. Reducing road casualties of children from low income households has also become a public service agreement for the UK government.

The over involvement of the poor in road crashes is thus assumed also to exist, if not be worse, in low income countries. Impacts are a separate issue and the poor will undoubtedly fare worse as they will have fewer financial resources on which to rely. However , little work has been undertaken on the social-economic status of victims of road crashes in low income countries and even less is known of the impact of road crashes on the lives (and lifestyle) of victims and their

1 families .Clearly with the emphasis that governments ,aid agencies and society in general now place on poverty reduction and sustainable livelihoods.

WHO (2009) evidenced that about 1.3 million people lose life to road traffic accidents worldwide yet between 20 and 50 million people endure non-fatal injuries. WHO (2012) recorded the fatality rate with 90% of 1.3 million accident deaths occurring in middle and low income countries, besides, increasing motorization worldwide will shoot it to 2.4 million deaths per year. WHO (2004) observed that over one million people die and over 40 million people are injured or sustain physical disabilities due to road traffic accidents. The same report estimated an increase of the burden by 80% in developing countries between years of 2000 and 2020. Most developing countries have low GDP per capita thus are categorized as low income countries. Uganda is a low income country.

Road accidents are one of the leading causes of death in the world. Nearly 1.3 Million people die in road accidents each year. This is an estimated average of 3,620 people per day. In the recent past the figures attributed to fatalities on Ugandan roads have hit an all-time record with over 200 people losing their lives and hundreds others injured in the past 6 months alone. The 2015 World Health Organization (WHO) safety report also ranks Uganda as 20th in accidents per 100,000 people while other research statistics (world atlas. com) rank the country as 11th with the highest estimated road traffic death rate per 100,000 people. While there are a number of theories to explain the rise in the number of accident cases on Ugandan roads with Kampala- Masaka Road prioritized, the most indisputable include; reckless driving, poor road designs, poor training of drivers and failure to follow traffic rules and signs.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The absence of clear exploration of environmental conditions responsible for road fatalities and lack of guiding suggestions regarding preventive measures and many factors have influenced and determined the level of motor vehicle crashes due to inadequate exploration of these factors

And to an extreme extent lack of awareness to the impacts of road fatalities on people, High rate of variability in environmental conditions in Uganda is also responsible and the absence of mitigation measures to the impact has made it severe and unapproachable.

1.3 GOAL AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1.3.1 Goal of the study

To explore the possible environmental conditions of road fatalities and offer guiding suggestions regarding preventive measures.

1.3.2 Specific objectives

This study encompassed several specific objectives

(i) To identify the road design and driver factors that contribute to road accidents (ii) To assess the extent to which the EIA covered impact of fatalities on the road (iii)To assess the extent to which the proposed mitigation measures for accidents during all phases of the road project 1.3.3 Hypothesis

This research is aimed at determining whether:

The experience of road fatalities is associated with negative attitudes to environmental factors.

The experience of road fatalities is associated with rejection to driving policies by a personal choice.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION

Setting clear rules governing road usage in a way of protecting road fatalities.

Assurance of knowledgeable drivers and operations management team, which is sensitive to road fatality issues.

Assurance of an enabling environment where regulatory agencies and government planners look for and encourage sound resource use.

Documentation of the results for use by administrators when taking decisions.

Assurance of community engagement in averting road fatalities.

CHAPTER TWO:

LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 HUMAN FACTORS OF ROAD ACCIDENTS

Human factors in traffic accidents are composed of the driver, pedestrian, passengers and traffic police, (Yasser, 2007); these coupled with negative psychosocial factors of the driver –work environment exacerbate into stress and subsequent taxi crash. Other research has detailed lack of education (Torfaen, 2011) as an element contributing to accidents among taxi drivers. Education in this context encompasses driving training, road traffic information, driving license (seltzer, 2008) and formal training in general. In resonance with the person environment fit theory stress results when the supplies or demands of the environment do not match the needs or abilities of the person. Various road safety studies have discussed other driver related factors and accident involvement. These include, route to work e.g. drivers who start as taxi charges collectors,(mebrahtu,2002),social cultural factors e.g. sex (evans,2004) and age (vagil 2000;Elliott and Baughman 2003; Seltzer 2008) alcohol use ( Seltzer 2008),sensation seeking and risk taking (Waylon and mc Kinas 2008,lund and random 2009), aggression , competitive driving speeding ( parker 2002 ,aurar 2003) over taking traffic in motion, maneuvers of vehicles account for 92,94,97% of fatal serious and slight injuries respectively.(mebrahtu,2002) cell phone-motor radio preoccupation (,Beede and Kiss 2006, Kais et al 2007) ,fatigue (Blander, West and French , Pelzer 2008), passenger- driver effect, witchcraft (peltzer,2008).besides . Often taxi drivers in African countries work long hours and work when they are worn-out.

Although these factors are commonly cited as causes of accidents, they may possibly be secondary to latent and more understated or interacting psychosocial factor at the respective micro-mesa-macro levels.

2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

The most road traffic accidents are caused by human error coupled with other factors, such as road conditions, climate and road worthiness of the vehicle (mebrahtu 2002). Additional evidence reports that a high prevalence of old taxis in the transportation business that usually load many more people than they are designed to carry, lack of safety belt, poor road infrastructure and maintenance and the traffic mix on roads are other factors that contribute to

4 the high rate of crashes among taxi drivers in developing countries. Besides, admass 2001 demonstrated that a larger section of accidents in Africa occur along main roads. Accordingly, driver-accident involve me not is a combination stress at work and driver stress.

2.3 OCCUPATION RELATED FACTORS

Reconditioned or old taxis contribute to accidents, for instance of the 200 taxis only 11.5% were new by the time of use (mebrahtu 2002) older vehicles with mechanical defects and poor maintenance are frequently exposed to accidents. The majority of traffic accidents in general are associated with defects related to brakes, tires, lights and other mechanical defects. but in Addis Ababa, these problems account for the lowest number of accidents (mebrahtu 2002) pages 65- 66.Witchcraft as expressed by one south African passenger ,further illuminates taxi driver accident involvement e.g. there are times when a driver can get involved in an accident claiming he sees a cow before the taxi in transit but when the passengers do not see anything,(Pelzer 2008).Thus it is deduced that due to witchcraft the driver will optically get hallucinated and perceive non existing elements in the roped environment. However it leaves room for other deductions such as the driver may be experiencing acute symptoms of mental illness which can delude him to such optical hallucinations and consequent accidents. Tears do not see anything (seltzer 2008).thus it is deduced that due to witchcraft the driver will optically get hallucinated and perceive non existing elements in the environment.

Nonetheless as previously noted at the beginning of this chapter the guiding principles of IPAs emphasizes that the researcher brackets existing knowledge, ideas and theories in order to perceive the data anew. Thus the above theories and related literature are used for purposes of broadening our perception and synthesis of the study phenomenon.

2.4 THE IMPACT OF ROAD FATALITIES ON THE POOR

In recent years, mu publicity has been given to the over-representation of road casualties in low- income countries. The global road safety partnership co-funded the report “estimating global road fatalities” that highlighted the discrepancy in low and middle income countries where 85% of the road fatalities occurred with only 40% of the world’s motor vehicles(Jacobs et al,2000).This report also summarized the road user modes and age distribution of fatalities and

5 showed the problem to be one of male pedestrians and bus passengers in the prime of life, with women and children more likely to be the bereaved and careers of the injured.

In 1999, Department of International Development UK (DFID) commissioned TRRL to carry out a study on transport safety and the poor and this documented the lack of information available on the poor sectors of society (Jacobs el al, 1999). DFID subsequently funded a scoping study and the previously mentioned full research study on road crash costing in low income countries (Babtie et al, 2003). The impact of road crashes on the poor was a key issue to be explored and the final report recommended the human costs component be inflated to reflect the social priority of reducing poverty.

The World Bank (WB) has also sought to understand the impact of road crashes on the poor.in 2000, the WB held a transport and poverty conference that also acknowledged that little work had been done to determine the impact of road crashes on the poorest sectors of communities (booth et al, 2000).an unpublished analysis of demographic, health and crash data from Cambodia by the WB indicated that casualties increase with income. However the author makes the point that the population in the richest quintile is little better off than those in the poorer quintiles and the result almost certainly reflects greater access to vehicles and increased mobility.

In Uganda, the traffic and road safety act of 1998 allows for up to half of any traffic fine imposed to be shared with the victim, although this rarely happens in practice. Several high income countries already impose a victim surcharge on motoring offences which is dedicated to support services for victims while others allocate part of the traffic fine revenue to rehabilitation programs (e.g. Australia).

HI jar et al 2004, analyzed road traffic injuries in Mexico using interviews conducted in hospitals and found that one third of those injured had limited education. Of those, pedestrians had the highest medical costs with over 80% having to meet their own pocket costs. Road crash victims were usually poor, unlikely to have health insurance and were often the head of the household and thus the providers. Similarly Le line et al 2002, analyzed injury data in Vietnam and found that almost 50%of those injured were the primary income source of their households and that 93%of those households had less than a US $130 monthly income. These findings were presented at a conference in Massachusetts on the Health Equity of Road Traffic injuries in 2001.

An unpublished report by WS, Atkins 1998, in which road casualties in four developing countries were interviewed, found clear evidence that poorer sectors of the community were much more likely to be involved in road crashes than those who were better educated and with higher personal or household incomes. Similarly a study by Sandakan in Thailand found that over 50% of road injuries were either laborers or students.

2.5 ROAD TRANSPORT, MOTOR VEHICLES AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Uganda’s road network comprises of national roads (21000k) of paved and unpaved surface, district roads (32000kms), urban roads (2800kms) of which 750kms are paved, and community roads (approximately 85000kms, MoWT 2014). The construction of these roads diverts traffic from busy urban centers, can also decrease traffic congestion in towns. However they also have environmental impacts such as air pollution, noise and vibrations, impacts on land use including habitat destruction, biodiversity disturbance, aesthetics and encroachment on fragile ecosystems such as wetlands. An increase in the road network reduces traffic congestion minimizing the amount of time a vehicle spends on the road thus decreasing emissions. Road infrastructure development should put emphasis on environmental conservation.

It is estimated that the total number of vehicles in the country including motorcycles is between 700,000 and 1000, 000(ROU, 2014). .Motor vehicles registration rose by 38.9% between 2012 and 2013. Motor vehicles use fossil fuels to run and are a leading contributor to greenhouse gases. In order to address this environmental threat, the second schedule to the financial act imposes an environmental levy of 20% on motor vehicles (including goods vehicles) which are eight years old and above. The excise tariff (amendment) act, 2005 provides a system for imposing excise duties on some goods and services. For instance, excise duty on one liter of motor spirit (gasoline) is Ug.sh720, excise duty on one liter of gas oil (automotive, light, and amber for high speed engine) and other gas oils is 450UGX and that on one liter of illuminating kerosene is 200UGX. P4etroleum, gas oil’s and kerosene produce carbon dioxide a leading greenhouse gas.

CHAPTER THREE:

STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY 3.1 BIO-PHYSICAL AND DEMOGRAPHY OF THE STUDY AREA

This survey was conducted on Kampala-Masaka highway which traverses a diverse biophysical and social economic landscape. It is proposed to run in a southerly direction beginning from a point on Queensway near the kibuye roundabout covering a distance of approximately 120kms.Ranging from dense urban informal clusters of mixed commercial and residential units through peri-urban areas to rural diffused and sparse settlements. Ecologically, the highway is equally diverse stretching from lacustrine or riverine wetlands that have been deeply reclaimed to extensive fallow lands punctuated by remnant patches of woodland.

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION

A descriptive survey research design to make intensive investigation of the extent of environmental conditions and road fatalities. Hence, to maintain triangulation in its findings, the design manifested the basic features of both the qualitative and quantitative research

The observation method was used in gathering of information/data through vision as its main source and it involved commitment of the observer to the cause of the study. With this method all observable features, as long as they were accessible, data was collected from them by use of an observation checklist.

3.3 INTERVIEWING

This method involved verbal questioning of all stakeholders/concerned and the data got from them was collected and recorded. It also involved defining the target population and sample size, the sampling frame was acquired and the sample of 40 respondents was drawn and interviewed where by 38 were males and only 2 were females. The questionnaires were distributed to the public, who signed informed consent forms, as well as working within the parameters of ethical standards. Respondents were chosen from the public using probability sampling procedures. Executed the survey, coded the data and punched it for computer analysis.

3.4 DOCUMENT REVIEW

A number of existing documents both in hard and soft copies were reviewed which included an ESIA written for the upgrading of the highway, 2015, Alaska Highway Preconstruction Manual, 2019, Roads and the Environment: A handbook, World Bank Technical paper No.376. And Roads Geometric Design, Said M. Easa Ryerson Polytechnic University. The review of these documents revealed a difference between formal statements of program purpose and the actual program implementation that is the ESIA for improving this highway as compared to the International Highway Design Standards as provided by the World Bank Report, Roads and the Environment.

3.5 DATA ANALYSIS

Elaborate coding and preparation for statistical, and other analyses which were appropriate by digital computer were also crucial for use in this study. The less sophisticated methods like maps and hand-processed graphs were also used. A careful checking and proofing of data as it is coded was performed appropriately to avoid/reduce mistakes which may easily affect data viability. Finally, the results was determined by me and appropriate cartographic displays and reports were made.

Despite the large populations affected by motor vehicle crashes, a relatively small sample of the population affected was picked which was a total of 40 respondents. Accordingly, the tables describing the analysis which provided both the percentage and the absolute number in order to avoid any misinterpretations that the percentages refer to large base numbers were made. The survey data was analyzed using SPSS with conducting chi-square tests on the categorical data fields. Urban and rural deaths and seriously injured was analyzed separately. For continuous variables, one way ANOVA tests were undertaken.

CHAPTER FOUR:

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 4. 1 : The coverage of different project components in the ESIA written on the upgrading of the highway as compared to the International Highway Design Standards (IHDSs).

Project Coverage IHDSs Explanation of the Functions component in the ESIA highway component

Super The 7% of the The outer edge of the It is provided on all elevation highway maximum pavement is raised sharp curves and it maximum super gives a factor of with the respect to the super elevation safety for drivers inner edge, thus elevation rate is who misjudge the providing a transverse rate adopted recommend curve and negotiate slope through out is 6% ed. it too fast. The length of the horizontal curve. This transverse slope to the pavement surface

is known as super elevation or banking. The super elevation ‘e’ is expressed as

the ratio of the height of outer edge with respect to the horizontal width.

Cross Not The sub The subgrade or soil The sub grade sections of mentioned grade sub grade is a layer of supports the road the road should be

10 structure: with natural soil prepared to structure sufficient I),subgrad receive the layers of and form the bed for e strength so pavement placed over the road. that the it. loads are received and dispersed to the earth mass.

Not Boulder Sub base course is a 1. It reduces the mentioned stone or layer of granular traffic stresses on the II), bricks are material placed on sub grade and subbase recommend protects it. sub grade, generally ed. natural gravel. 2. Acts as a working platform for the construction of upper pavement

layers.

III), Base Not It should be Base course is a layer It bears the course mentioned strong immediately under the loads of the traffic. enough to weaning course. It is bear the an

loads of the important structural traffic. part of the road.

Providing Asphalt is Surface course is the Provide adequate the coarser recommend top most layer of a friction hence IV),Surfac surface in ed rather road which is direct curbing the skidding e course all slippery than tarmac contact off of vehicles while

and worn because it with the traffic. on the road. out sections can be of the scrapped off highway. and reprocessed which makes it more environment ally friendlier than tarmac. Asphalt is more flexible than tarmac and it can take stress without cracking.

Shoulder The Shoulders are provided Serve as an width,2x2.5 minimum along the road edge. emergency V),Shoulde m shoulder rs lane for vehicles to width be taken out of the recommend pavement. ed on the IHDSs is 2.5 m.

Not It should The portion of the road It provides space for mentioned have the beyond the road way road reserve VI),Road following in boundaries sufficiency: Parking lanes,

Bus bays,

Service roads,

Cycle track,

Foot path, Guardrail.

VII),Traffi Lane width Highway To ensure effective c lane 3.65m,No of pavement,3. flow of traffic. width lanes 4 5-3.7m is recommend

ed per lane

Traffic Installation Traffic signs Traffic signs or road Correct and signs of the must attract signs are traffic aids or necessary signage different the visual traffic devices. They help drivers make

classes of attention of are right decisions. traffic signs the driver at planned, designed and in their a range erected, for the appropriate greater than purpose of regulating, positions. the reaction warning and guiding distance. the traffic. Size, shape,

color of signs and lettering are

very important for their effectivenes s. Symbols are more valuable in aiding rapid

message than letters.

The On the The marking are made Road marking are markings highway of lines, patterns, special signs Road are made hot-applied words, symbols intended to control, markings using thermoplasti warn guide or within or near the normal c road roadway. regulate the traffic. paints in markings contrast with glass with color beads are and recommend brightness er of the pavement.

Safety Guardrails They are provided at They serve to barriers are designed G-4W the edge of the prevent the vehicles and on either barrier shoulder usually from guardrails side of the When the road is on an running off the

carriageway Obstacle 15 embankment. embankment, and for the feet deep by especially when the median. 10 feet long height of the

embankment exceed 3 m.

Bridges The The Make the minimum To ensure efficient concrete standard deck thickness 6 drainage of the road. class C30 bridge rail inches, including with a should be prestressed units. All minimum the “Oregon reinforcing steel in the cube Two-Tube” deck (for precast crushing rail with girders this would strength of curb, with include the stirrups) 30 N/mm2 PL-2 rating. shall be epoxy-coated. at 28 days Bridge rail Minimum concrete age and must cover on reinforcing reinforceme comply with steel in cast-in-place nt steel with NCHRP 350 decks shall be 2.5 a yield test level 2 inches, with a strength of or 3. minimum cover on 460N/mm2 prestressed units of 2.5 was used. inches. Deck consists of a 250mm thick slab on 1000x400 beams at 2.60m

centers.

Road Not On a high The position occupied It ensures clear alignment mentioned ground, it by the center line of a visibility. should road in plan. The ensure center line of the road longitudinal is marked before its gradient of actual construction. road surface and the flat curves

Camber Not Camber is Camber is the cross Quick drying of mentioned measured in slope provided to raise pavement which in 1 in n or n middle of the road turn increases safety. % (e.g. In 1 surface Surface protection of in 50 or 2%) in the transverse roads especially for and the direction to drain off gravel and value rain water from road bituminous roads. depends on surface. the type of the pavement and the amount of rainfall.

The descriptions below provides the identified gaps of the road components which were described in the ESIA written for the upgrading of this road as compared to the IHDSs as provided by AASHO in table 4.1 above.

Faulty geometric design of the road components like shoulders, super-elevation, transitions, sight distance and inadequate traffic control devices cause accidents. The super elevation rate adopted in the ESIA was 6% rather than 7% recommended on the IHDSs. On the highway hot-applied thermoplastic road markings with glass beads are recommended well than the markings which are made using normal paints in contrast with color and brightness of the pavement which were adopted in the ESIA because they can easily be rubbed off in a small time. Results also show that the lane widths adopted in this ESIA was 3.65m which is in the same range with 3.5-3.7m per lane recommended on the IHDSs.

The results also shows that the procedures for eliminating sharp corners and establishment of the climbing lanes are not mentioned in the ESIA but in the implementation program were incorporated, this exactly justifies the difference between the formal statements of the program purpose and the actual program implementation as in this case the ESIA for upgrading of this road is selected.Road alignment is poor in some sections of the road where by many valleys are not lifted to enable clear vision by the drivers, in this case a valley at katende was highlighted not meet the IHDSs described in the above table by AASHO because this is a valley with no clear vision.

Significant drop offs at pavement edges, improper banking of curves, potholes and uneven pavement, narrow and steep shoulder drop-offs, missing or defective guardrails, slippery of some sections of the road due to poor tarmac which was applied, climbing lanes which were constructed poorly like a climbing lane with a big corner at Nakati near St Lawrence was highlighted poorly and non-super elevated sharp curves and a poorly super elevated corner at kampiringisa where by the driver stretches unaware of a corner.

Table 4. 2: Auxiliary lane length guidelines for construction of highwayInterchanges as provided by NCHRP which the ESIA for Kampala-Masaka highway upgrading does not provide.

Auxiliary Lane Length Guidelines

Signalized Intersections

Approach Length Component

Left-Turn Bay Right-Turn Bay

Free-flow, Main Storage & Deceleration Deceleration Street

Stopped, Minor Street Storage Storage

Signalized Intersections

Approach Left-Turn Bay Right-Turn Speeds Bay1

30-35 mph Storage Storage

40-45 mph Storage & Storage & Deceleration Deceleration

> 50 mph Storage & Storage & Deceleration Deceleration

Table 4. 3: Recommended Median Widths for modern intersections (Interchanges) on IHDSs not described in the ESIA for improving the interchanges on Kampala-Masaka highway.

Median Function Minimum Width(feet)

Separation of opposing traffic streams 4 Provide pedestrian refuge 6

Provide width for signs or appurtenances 4 12 Provide storage for left-turning vehicles 18 Provide protection for vehicles crossing the through lanes Provide for U-turns, inside lane to outside lane 18

Provide for U-turns, inside lane to inside lane 30

Failure to install traffic signals, faded centerlines and lack of reflective markers, inadequate lighting at all constructed interchanges along this road has also made the road very notorious. In this case Buddo junction is referred to as a blind corner because its design does not meet the IHDSs suggested in tables 4.2 and 4.3 by NCHRP, kalagala junction which is in the trading center was also selected not to meet the IHDSs. The Auxiliary lane length guidelines and median width for modern interchanges are not described in the ESIA for upgrading of this road generally hence making the audit of the interchanges constructed on this road difficult because the baseline information is not provided.

Table 4. 4: The different weather conditions and their impact in accident causation on this road.

Weather condition Respondents in percentages

Dust 15.0

Smoke 10.0

Heavy rainfall 60.0

Dry and windy season 2.5 Fog 12.5

Total 100

Twenty four respondents (60%) reported heavy rainfall, six (15%) reported dust, five (12.5%) reported fog, four (10%) reported smoke and one (2.5%) reported dry and windy season. Heavy rainfall was suggested as the most risky environmental condition to drive in while on this road as provided in table 4.4. Whenever it rains the highway is too slippery because of the poor tarmac used and in some sections it’s worn out thus creating pot holes which reduces friction hence skidding of the vehicles and eventually causing accidents.

Table 4. 5: The best measures suggested by the respondents to curb accidents on this road.

Measure Respondents in percentages

Installing speed governors 32.5

Monitoring drivers competence 12.5

Installing speed limit signs 27.5

Installing traffic hold up points 17.5

Constructing humps 10.0

Total 100.0

All road users had the knowledge on how RTAs should be prevented and they suggested the following ways; installing speed governors (32.5%), installing speed limit signs (27.5%), constructing humps (10%), installing traffic hold up points (17.5%) and monitoring drivers’ competence on the road (12.5%) as provided in table 4.5. Stationing of traffic guides along the road but potentially in the high accident risk locations to warn and guide road users.

Road traffic deaths occur among young adults between 20 and 41years of age because they are the most involved in driving with their number rated at 82.5% as (WHO Report, 2009) provides. Most of the fatalities are young males who are an economic assert to society. The study revealed that vulnerable road users include pedestrians, cyclists, motor cyclists and minicars drivers. They account for a much greater proportion of road traffic collisions. Road traffic injuries cause emotional, physical and economical harm. There is a moral need to minimize such losses. Beside loss of lives road crashes consume massive financial resources that society can ill afford to lose. It is important to estimate the cost of road traffic injuries to society: to justify the expenditure necessary in promoting road traffic injury prevention to make the best use of investments when different options are available; to ensure that the most cost-effective safety improvements are

21 introduced in terms of the benefits that they will generate in relation to the cost of their implication.

4.2 Factors responsible for RTAs on Kampala-Masaka highway

Most of the factors contributing to accident occurrence and rates on this road as provided by the respondents may be grouped and labeled as ―economic factors. The World Bank (2004) relates much of the accident problem in developing countries to a shortage of funds, for both owners of vehicles and the governments. Some of the factors affecting accidents may be conveniently divided into 2 groups: a) direct factors- which contribute directly to the occurrence of individual accidents. These include: road user behavior, drivers ability and attitude, traffic engineering, roads and environment and medical services. b) Indirect factors- that contribute to the total population and rate of accidents in the country. They include demographic (population structure and distribution), and vehicle population and characteristics (number, type, usage and occupancy).

There was a significant relationship between Human errors, Environment factors, Defective vehicles, Faulty geometric design of the road (road defects) and RTAs. Human errors, Faulty geometry of the road and lax traffic laws were identified as the major causes of RTAs on this highway. These factors are expounded as below:

4.2.1 Predisposing factors in human error

Respondents reported that over-speeding, miscalculation or poor judgment, avoiding potholes and over-taking, overloading of passenger vehicles, overloading of merchandise trucks, dilapidated vehicles, driving while intoxicated have contributed a lot to RTAs on this road. There was a relationship between over-speeding and miscalculations or poor judgment.

4.2.2 Predisposing factors in vehicle defects

Blow outs and worn tyres, defective brakes, headlights, windshield wipers. Steering and suspension faults all of these can make all road users susceptible to accidents.

4.2.3 Predisposing factors in traffic law

Lax laws against traffic offenses, a slow and corrupt justice system were also suggested by the respondents as causative factors to the rampant motor vehicle crashes on this road.

4.2.2 Other methods suggested are

Observing and enforcement of traffic rules , avoiding over-loading , avoiding over-speeding and over-taking carelessly , stopping drunk driving , widening the road , use of seatbelts , having well trained drivers , banning un-roadworthy vehicles , educating road users on road safety , maintaining vehicles and vehicle inspection , stopping police leniency, strict punishments to traffic law violators, can go along to prevent road carnage of this road.

4.2.3 Some antecedents to the RTAs on Kampala-Masaka road

Drunken drivers, bad road design like narrow, sharp corners, median guardrail absent, slippery with pot holes, mechanical failure, excess number of passengers, break down in law enforcement and perceived over speeding are some of the antecedent factors to RTAs on this highway.

4.2.4 Strategies for better safety on this Highway

RTAs are a significant but preventable, cause of death, disability and economic loss in developing countries and particularly in our Country-Uganda. Comprehensive strategy for accident reduction and prevention is required to improve road safety in our country. WHO (2004) proposed such a strategy and produced guidelines that draw a clear distinction between accident reduction and accident prevention, with both being necessary. Theoretically, reduction of accidents requires: (I) reducing personal travel (and consequently road traffic). (II) Reducing the risk, severity and consequences of road traffic accidents. These approaches can be applied in a variety of ways: 1) ―Technical- which is direct measures, intended mainly to improve safety. These include measures related to land use development, road and road user, vehicle design, traffic laws and their enforcement, medical services and insurance premiums. 2) ―Institutional- which can improve road safety indirectly and are related to road safety organization, financing, research and development and staff education training. An accident reduction program should entail the following stages: a) Identification of problem locations (black spots) through the analysis of accident data. b) Diagnosis of the symptoms (namely factors involved in accident occurrence). The result also suggests that road accident fatality rates could be reduced by improving the road engineering, re-training drivers of public service vehicles, adopting right driving behavior, observing traffic rules, timely medical services and education.

CHAPTER FIVE:

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION

The results shows that the poorly conducted ESIA for the upgrading of this road has seriously made the road a very notorious massacre road. Taxis (public mini cars), buses and small cars are also selected as one of the leading causes of accidents on this road. Human errors and failings, defective vehicles and bad road contribute significantly to RTAs. Pedestrians, cyclists and motorcyclists make up almost half of those killed on this road, highlighting the need for these road users to be given more attention in road safety programs. The results suggest that road safety laws on this highway need to be made more comprehensive while enforcement should be strengthened. The results clearly show that significantly more action is needed to make the road safer.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

• The public be sensitized through road safety campaigns to curb road carnage. This includes public education, enforcement of observance of traffic rules, avoiding over- speeding, overloading and careless overtaking; stopping drunk driving; wearing seatbelts, recognizing the rights and needs of pedestrians, reconstructing the road up to the level acceptable on the IHDSs through conducting a fully researched and participated ESIAs by all stakeholders and ensuring that all what is in the formal statement of the program is what is in the implementation program, provision of safe and efficient public transport, training and re-training of public service vehicle drivers on all road signs and other relevant traffic laws. • Formal and Regular audits should be conducted for major new road construction projects and of existing road infrastructure respectively like Kampala-Masaka road. • UNRA should ensure that road signage and guardrails are installed along all their appropriate sections of the road and maintained to retain visibility and prevent vehicles from hitting or falling into a hazard in case the driver has lost control of the vehicle respectively. Reconstructing and resurfacing the road to eliminate sharp corners and establish climbing lanes in the black spots to reduce chances of accidents. Coarser

surfaces should also be thought of to replace the slippery layers in some slippery sections of the road. • UNRA in partnership with Traffic Police should seek to cause prosecution of individuals found in breach of road use regulations. • NEMA should ensure that there is monitoring of the overall environmental performance of the road and ensure compliance with their suggested specified enhancement and mitigation measures.

REFERENCES

UNRA, Updated Environmental And Social Impact Statement For The Upgrading Of A Section Of Kampala-Masaka Road (Kibuye-Busega-Mpigi), 2015. Taylor B, Rehm The relationship between alcohol consumption and fatal motor vehicle injury: high risk at low alcohol levels. Alcohol Clin Exp Res.2012.

Morgan A, Mannering FL. The effects of road-surface conditions, age, and gender on driver- injury severities.Accid Anal Prev.2011; 43(5):1852-15.

Qui Nixon W. Effects of adverse weather on Traffic Crashes: Systematic Review and Meta- Analysis.

Pisano PA, Goodwin LC, Rossetti MA.U.S highway crashes in adverse road weather conditions. New Orleans: 88th American Meteorological Society Annual Meeting; 2008.

Admass, B, B, (2001).The pattern of Road Transport in adama, with emphasis on congestion and traffic accidents.

Uganda National Roads Authority (2012), the State of Uganda Roads.

Ministry of Works and Transport, (2012).Road Safety in Uganda.

National Environment Management Authority, 2006/07 State of Environment for Uganda.

WHO, 2009.Global Status Report on Road Safety.

CL ENVIRONMENTAL CO. LTD, 2017 environmental impact assessment for the proposed road improvement project from harbor view, Kingston to yallahs, st. Thomas (section 1a of the southern highway improvement project).

World Bank Technical paper No.376, Roads and the Environment: A handbook.

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, Washington, D.C., 2001. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Guide for the Planning, Design, and Operation of Pedestrian Facilities, AASHTO, Washington, D.C., 2002 (forthcoming).

Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report 209, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 2000.

APPENDICES APPENDIX 1: KAMPALA-MASAKA ROAD QUESTIONNAIRE

This is a research questionnaire to solicit for information on the topic “Environmental conditions and road fatalities” a case study of Kampala-Masaka road. Am a student at Makerere University pursuing a bachelor’s degree of environmental science, carrying out a research survey on the above mentioned topic? The information provided herein is strictly for academic purpose and will be treated with the utmost confidentiality. You are therefore requested to answer the questions as accurately as possible. Thank you.

1. Basic information Age…………………….. License: None, provisional, or Full

Gender: Female Male 2. Do you clearly observe and interpret all road signs?

Yes/No

If yes, give a reason for your answer

………………………………………………………………………………….

What is the meaning of the following road signs?

3. Do you think driving while intoxicated is appropriate?

Yes/no

Give a reason for your answer.

…………………………………………………………………………………….. 4. What is the legal alcohol limit for drivers?

………………………………………………………………………………………

5. Do you receive road safety campaigns?

Yes/No

If yes, how often?

……………………………………………………………………………………….

6. Which of the following is a best measure to reduce speeding among the drivers? Answers can be multiple.

-Installing Speed Governors in the Vehicles.

-Monitoring The Drivers Competence Especially Their Knowledge Of The Highway Code.

-Installing Signs for Speed Limit.

-Designing of Traffic Holdup Points along the Road.

-Constructing Humps along the Road.

If Others, Please Specify.

…………………………………………………………………………………………

7. Have you ever been checked by the traffic officers while driving during the last twelve months

Yes/no

8. Do the laws and regulations against traffic offenses implemented, complied to and enforced?

Yes/No

If no, in your view what should be done?

…………………………………………………………………………………………..

9 Why are most accidents happening particularly on Masaka road in your opinion?

………………………………………………………………………………………….

10. There have been many road deaths along the road over the past few years, what do you think can be done to reduce the number of deaths?

…………………………………………………………………………………………..

11. In your own opinion please comment on the key issues relating to road safety along the road.

…………………………………………………………………………………………….

12. Please comment on the drivers discipline while driving on this road?

…………………………………………………………………………………………….

13. During which of the following weather conditions you are most vulnerable while driving on this road? Answers can be multiple.

-Dust

-Smoke

-Heavy Rainfall

-Dry and Windy Season

-Fog Conditions

If Others, Please Specify

14. In your own opinion please comment on the geometric design of the road.

……………………………………………………………………………………………

15. Do you check for mechanical defects of your vehicle?

Yes/No

If yes, how often?

………………………………………………………………………………………….