sustainability

Article A Tale of North and South: Balanced and Sustainable Development of Primary Education in ,

Jiali Wan 1 ID , Yanfang Liu 1,2,*, Yiyun Chen 1,* ID , Jiameng Hu 1 and Zhengyu Wang 1

1 School of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China; [email protected] (J.W.); [email protected] (J.H.); [email protected] (Z.W.) 2 Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Systems, Ministry of Education, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China * Correspondence: yfl[email protected] (Y.L.); [email protected] (Y.C.); Tel.: +86-27-6877-8863 (Y.L.); +86-27-6877-8863 (Y.C.)

Received: 25 January 2018; Accepted: 19 February 2018; Published: 23 February 2018

Abstract: Education is the driving force of social development, while regional differences have restricted the balance of educational development. This paper provides a political and geospatial analysis of regional inequality across the province from 1990–2015 under a comparative spatiotemporal conceptual framework. Great differences in terms of the distribution and dynamic changes in primary school were found between southern and the northern Ningxia. The southern region has a large number of primary schools with a sharp reduction in these numbers, especially in recent years, while the north has a small but stable number of schools. Spatial accessibility analyses revealed that due to the imbalance between the south and the north, the spatial accessibility of the southern region is much worse than that of the northern region. Our study found the imbalance in the number and spatial distribution of primary schools in the north and south of Ningxia was formed because of multiple factors of policy, geography, and social-economy. The government has pursued a policy of promoting education fairness. However, neglecting differences between north and south, on the contrary, has brought negative effects to the south, worsened the educational environment, and increased education inequities. Our case study in the Ningxia district demonstrates that this research can provide a practical basis for the formulation of policies to guide the rational planning of primary education in Ningxia and/or other similar areas.

Keywords: primary education; regional differences; spatial accessibility; sustainable development

1. Introduction Education plays an important role in the development of both the individual and the society. For individuals, education can enhance their skills and abilities [1,2], affecting employment opportunities [3–5], individual income [6–8], and healthy conditions [9,10]. With respect to society, education has a significant impact, including a reduction of social income inequality [11–13] and an increase in social cohesion, citizenship, and political participation [14–16]. In China, education is regarded as the basis of national development. Chinese leaders often say, ‘Education is the foundation of a nation and a symbol of national prosperity’. Primary education, as an important part of compulsory education, has long been elevated to a high status. Since the foundation of the new China, driven by the ambitious goal of ‘building a socialist country’, and the achievement of full literacy goals, the central government has vigorously focused on the development of primary education. The number of primary schools in China increased considerably from 1950 to 1990. In fact, the number of primary schools and primary school students across the nation rose from 346,800 and 24.39 million in 1949 to 894,000 and 14,328 million in 1981, respectively [17].

Sustainability 2018, 10, 559; doi:10.3390/su10020559 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2018, 10, 559 2 of 16

The Chinese government has enacted a series of laws to guarantee the sustainable development of education. Since the founding of the new China (New China: The People’s Republic of China, founded in 1949), the government has taken various steps toward the development of primary education to achieve the goals of universal literacy and primary education popularisation. In 1980, the State Council issued the ‘Decision on Several Issues Concerning the Popularization of Primary Education’, which clarified the significance of primary education and established a clear ten-year goal to achieve universal primary education in the entire country; it begins with a comprehensive development of primary education after the ten years of the ‘Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution’. In 1986, the Chinese government enacted the ‘Compulsory Education Law’, which, for the first time, defined the importance of compulsory education and proposed the Nearby Enrolment Policy by-law. In 2012, China’s central government formally introduced the ‘Advice on the norms of school mapping adjustment of rural compulsory education’. The document reaffirms the government’s obligation to ensure the enrolment of children living closest to the schools and strictly regulates school merger procedures and behaviour which must be approved by the higher government. The government has issued a series of laws to ensure the sustainable development of Education. However, rapid economic development and urbanization, regional natural endowment, and human factors have led to unbalanced regional economic development, which has consequently become an increasingly serious problem [18]. The regional economic development differences often lead to the unequal development of education, like a poverty trap [19]. Especially in western China, the level of urbanization is low, economic development is weak, and education development is in a serious imbalance [20,21]. With the further expansion of urban, rural, and regional differences, the problem of inequality in education has become increasingly serious [22]. This imbalance in development is not only reflected between provinces [23], at the same time, the gap within the province is also very obvious. Therefore, at the provincial level, the study of the distribution of the differences between primary schools in terms of time and space will have a positive effect on the overall understanding of the state of education development. This paper is organized as follows. The next section reviews the literature on regional differences in educational development. Then, the study area, data, and methodology are introduced. This is followed by a detailed analysis of the imbalance of primary schools in the north and south regions of Ningxia. A detailed spatial analysis is made to reveal the differential development of the south and north of Ningxia from geographical, economic, and political perspectives. Furthermore, we then explore the inequality in the development of primary education caused by regional differences. Finally, this paper concludes with major findings and policy implications.

2. Literature Review Equalization of education is the key factor in realizing the sustainable development of education. However, there are many factors restricting the equalization of primary education, which have been extensively studied from a variety of perspectives. Fennell studied gender equality in education from a policy perspective [24,25], Hannum and Wang argued that geographic disparity has led to educational inequality in China [12], and Yang proves that the disparity between urban and rural areas is the biggest reason for inequality in education in China [26]. By using panel cointegration techniques, evidence on the effect of regional economic development on education inequality is found [27]. Thomas used the Gini coefficient and the Theil index to study the issue of inequality in education [28]. Some scholars adopt the ArcGIS as a technical tool for the description and analysis of the spatial distribution of educational equality [29]. Setyono used ArcGIS analyses of the scale and service capacity of public service facilities in Indonesia [30], and Cao assessed the service capability of schools to study the impact of spatial distribution and educational equity in [31]. In China, because of the great differences in social-economic development and geography, regional inequality in education is very serious, however, Yu found a robust non-linear nexus between inequality in educational attainment and economic growth [27]. Sustainability 2018, 10, 559 3 of 16

In order to improve education equality among regions and between urban and rural areas, the government proposed the School Consolidation Policy in the mid-1980s. This policy is not unique in China. In the process of urbanization in developed countries, the practice of reducing the number of schools or merging schools is widespread. The aim of the School Consolidation Policy was to promote the balanced development of education and educational quality [32]. However, different scholars have different views of the policy. Coton’s findings suggest that smaller schools have lower dropout rates [33]. Lee found that very large or very small schools are often at a disadvantage, but small schools are more conducive to promoting equality in education [34]. In contrast, Conant proposed the theory of scale rationality and reported that only by eliminating small schools can we make effective use of the money spent on schools and provide students with a relatively high quality of education [35]. Beeson stated that the rural economy is depressed and the number of rural students has been reduced; thus, the number of schools should also be reduced by merging small rural schools [36]. In China, most scholars think that the disadvantages of school consolidation outweigh the advantages. School consolidation has led to a serious imbalance in the distribution of educational resources. A large number of repaired teaching buildings have been abandoned in rural areas, while the merged schools have become overcrowded and over sized [37–39]. Moreover, the increase in the cost of attending school has resulted in a heavier burden on family education, including accommodation costs, transportation, fees and some other miscellaneous fees [32]. Due to the increase in the distance to school, students have frequent accidents on their way to school, and such problems are particularly serious in underdeveloped areas [40,41]. What is more, the reduction in the number of schools has not only failed to effectively integrate educational resources to allow improvement in teaching quality, but has also led to a large number of educational resources moving to the cities and further increasing the inequality of inter-regional education [42]. Many studies have been conducted on educational inequality in China, but a large amount of them, because of a lack of data, have only focused on qualitative analysis or had a very small research scale (e.g., township or village level). Therefore, the overall situation has not been well reflected. On the basis of introducing the spatial accessibility index into this study, we have analysed the challenges for the sustainable development of primary education in the case of the regional difference between the north and the south of Ningxia. Further, we have reviewed the development of China’s primary education policy to explore the large-scale regional differences and to find out how to better achieve the sustainable development of primary education.

3. Study Area Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (Ningxia for short) lies in the upper reaches of the Yellow River in western China. To outline the Ningxia territory, the terrain is cross shaped, north and south areas are long, west and east areas are short, with a total area of more than 6.64 km2. The topography of Ningxia slants toward the north with an elevation from 1100 to 2000 m. In 2015, Ningxia’s gross domestic product (GDP) was Chinese Yuan Renminbi (CNY) 291,177 million and the per capita GDP was CNY 44,015, which was lower than the national average of CNY 50,251. Among China’s undeveloped districts, , the capital of Ningxia, accounted for more than half of Ningxia’s GDP. Economic development has lagged, and the development has been extremely uneven. The distribution of primary schools in Ningxia’s 22 counties is shown in Figure1. On the basis of the locations of and , along with the manmade geographical lines, Ningxia is divided into two regions—the north and the south—with obvious regional differences, and the difference in the amount of economic development between the north and the south is huge. The per capita GDP in the northern counties was higher than that of the south, and eight counties in the southern region were listed as poor counties in China. Poor counties are a standard set by the state to help poor areas. The delineation of the national poverty-stricken counties is based on the average annual net income, mainly concentrated in the central and western regions. The current total number of poor counties in China is 592. The Ningxia area was utilized for this case study. Sustainability 2018, 10, 559 4 of 16 Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

Figure 1. Study area. Figure 1. Study area. 4. Methodology 4. Methodology In this study, the Geographic Information System (GIS) was used for obtaining the settlement, transportation,In this study, school, the Geographic and other data.Information Charts System and spatial (GIS) statistics was used of for the obtaining distribution the settlement, of schools, residentialtransportation, and trafficschool, road and network other data. data forCharts different and sp residentialatial statistics education of the service distribution equalisation of schools, levels, spatialresidential accessibility and traffic analysis, road socialnetwork and data economic for diffe datarent analysis, residential qualitative education analysis, service and a equalisation quantitative analysislevels, spatial of the accessibility distribution ofanalysis, the educational social and facilities economic were data used analysis, for highlighting qualitative the analysis, contradiction and a betweenquantitative the numberanalysis ofof primarythe distribution schools andof the sustainable educational development. facilities were used for highlighting the contradictionSpatial accessibility between the was number analysed of prim usingary twoschools sets and of indicators. sustainable One development. was the distance used to calculateSpatial the accessibility average distance was andanalysed the longest using distancetwo sets from of indicators. each residential One was location the distance in the district used to thecalculate nearest the primary average school. distance The and second the longest indicator distance was the from commuting each residential time. First, location buffers in the were district built usingto the thenearest distance primary from school. the road The network. second Then,indicator buffers was were the commuting classified according time. First, to thebuffers commute were time,built forusing example, the distance 10 m, 20from m, the and road 30 m, network. respectively. Then, The buffers commute were timeclassified was calculatedaccording accordingto the commute to the roadtime, grade.for example, Different 10 roadm, 20 grades m, and would 30 m, allow respec differenttively. The speeds. commute The speed timeof was the calculated fast city road according design withto the all road kinds grade. of channels, Different city road trunk grades roads would or city allo roads,w different city branch,speeds. andThe ruralspeed roads of the is fast 70 km/hcity road or 50design km/h, with 40 km/h,all kinds 30 of km/h, channels, and 40 city km/h, trunk respectively. roads or city roads, city branch, and rural roads is 70 km/hThe or 50 Theil km/h, index 40 km/h, was introduced 30 km/h, and as an 40 indicator km/h, respectively. of the educational balance. The Theil index was proposedThe Theil in 1961 index [43 ],was and introduced since then, as itan has indicator been widely of the appliededucational to the balance. analysis The of Theil equilibrium index was in variousproposed fields, in 1961 such [43], as regional and since development then, it has disparity been widely [44], applied spatial disparityto the analysis in energy of equilibrium efficiency [45 in], various fields, such as regional development disparity [44], spatial disparity in energy efficiency [45], health disparities [46], and regional income inequality [47]. Many scholars have also applied the Theil Sustainability 2018, 10, 559 5 of 16

Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16 health disparities [46], and regional income inequality [47]. Many scholars have also applied the Theil indexindex to to the the balanced balanced development development of of education education [[4848–51].–51]. We We calculated calculated the the Theil Theil index index of ofinequality inequality usingusing the the following following standard standard formula: formula:

n n1 y y T1= yi i log( yi )i T = n  ylog(y ) ∑i=1 n i=1 y y

where T is the overall Theil index, yi is the school per capita number of students of the county, n is where T is the overall Theil index, yi is the school per capita number of students of the county, n is the the total number of counties, and y is the average school per capita number of students of all n total number of counties, and y is the average school per capita number of students of all n counties. counties. 5. Results and Discussion 5. Results and Discussions This section is divided by subheadings. It will provide a concise and precise description of the This section is divided by subheadings. It will provide a concise and precise description of the experimental results, their interpretation, as well as the experimental conclusions that can be drawn. experimental results, their interpretation, as well as the experimental conclusions that can be drawn. 5.1. Imbalance of the Distribution of Primary Schools in the North and South Regions of Ningxia 5.1. Imbalance of the Distribution of Primary Schools in the North and South Regions of Ningxia Due to the dual influence of economic and geographic factors, the number of primary schools in Due to the dual influence of economic and geographic factors, the number of primary schools in the north and the south is very different. Further, these differences are in stark contrast to the degree of the north and the south is very different. Further, these differences are in stark contrast to the degree economic development. As shown in Figure2, in the southern region, the number of primary school of economic development. As shown in Figure 2, in the southern region, the number of primary facilitiesschool isfacilities nearly 3/4is nearly of the 3/4 total of forthe alltotal of Ningxia,for all of andNingxia, these and schools these are schools more widelyare more distributed. widely Indistributed. contrast, in In the contrast, northern in the region, northern there region, are fewer there are primary fewer primary schools, schools, and their and distribution their distribution is very concentrated;is very concentrated; basically, basically, they are concentratedthey are concentrated in the central in the administrativecentral administrative region. region.

Figure 2. Spatial distribution of primary school in Ningxia. Figure 2. Spatial distribution of primary school in Ningxia. SustainabilitySustainability 20182018, 10, 10, x, 559FOR PEER REVIEW 6 6of of 16 16

The number of primary schools is an important indicator of the fairness of education, which impliesThe that number in this ofregion, primary with schools a better is embodime an importantnt of indicator regional ofpublic the fairnessservices, of every education, school-aged which child’simplies right that to in nearby this region, enrolment with can a better be guaranteed embodiment. However, of regional the publicnumber services, of primary every schools school-aged in the northchild’s and right south to nearbyregions enrolmentof Ningxia can differ be guaranteed.significantly; However,in the well-developed the number ofnorthern primary region, schools the in numberthe north of andprimary south schools regions is ofsignificantly Ningxia differ lower significantly; than that in in the the southern well-developed region where northern economic region, developmentthe number oflags. primary As shown schools in isFigure significantly 3, in Ningxi lowera, thanthe number that in theof primary southern schools region did where not economic show a positivedevelopment correlation lags. with As shown the GDP in Figure or the3 population, in Ningxia,, but the showed number an of increasing primary schools trend from did not the show north a positive correlation with the GDP or the population, but showed an increasing trend from the north to to the south, forming a considerable contrast between the north and the south. the south, forming a considerable contrast between the north and the south.

FigureFigure 3.3. TheThe relationship relationship among among the thenumber number of primar of primaryy schools, schools, gross gross domestic domestic product product (GDP), (GDP), and population.and population.

TheThe reason reason for for this this contradiction contradiction is multifaceted is multifaceted and andincludes includes geographical, geographical, socioeconomic, socioeconomic, and politicaland political factors. factors. The Thesame same educational educational policy policy under under different different socioeconomic socioeconomic and and geographical geographical conditionsconditions may may have have considerably considerably different different results. results. The The national national policy policy orientation orientation results results in in a a considerableconsiderable difference difference in in the the number number of of primary primary schools in the north and the south.south. The existenceexistence ofof a a largelarge numbernumber ofof primaryprimary schools schools is is a a result result of of the the ‘one ‘one village, village, one one school’ school’ policy. policy. Since Since the the founding founding of ofthe the new new China, China, the Chinesethe Chinese government government has made has a ma considerablede a considerable effort to ensure effort primaryto ensure education primary for educationall in order for to all eliminate in order illiteracy.to eliminate At thatilliteracy. time, theAt that primary time, education the primary policy education promoted policy by thepromoted Chinese bygovernment the Chinese was government to set up a was primary to set school up a inprimary each village. school Inin theeach context village. of In this the rationale, context China’sof this rationale,‘one village, China’s one school’ ‘one village, policy virtuallyone school’ covers policy all ofvirtually the rural covers areas all in China.of the rural In fact, areas a large in China. number In of fact,primary a large schools number have of beenprimary established schools inhave the vastbeen ruralestablished areas of in China the vast as a rural result areas of this of policy.China as a result However,of this policy. differences in the geographical terrain have resulted in an uneven distribution of primaryHowever, schools differences in the north in the and geographical south regions. terrain From have a geographical resulted in point an uneven of view, distribution Ningxia can of be primaryroughly schools divided in into the the north northern and south plains regions. and the Fr southernom a geographical mountains; point the elevation of view, fromNingxia the northcan be to roughlythe south divided exhibits into an the increasing northern trend, plains and and the the average southern elevation mountains; in the northern the elevation region from is 1000–1400 the north m toand the that south in theexhibits south an is increasing 1400–2300 trend, m (see and Figure the1 ).average Ningxia’s elevation northern in the region northern is flat, region and the is terrain1000– 1400slopes m and gently; that therefore,in the south the is distribution 1400–2300 m of (see the Figure residential 1). Ningxia’s areas is morenorthern concentrated. region is flat, In and contrast, the terrainthe southern slopes partgently; of Ningxiatherefore, is athe mountainous distribution areaof the with residential a high altitude areas andis more complex concentrated. geology andIn contrast, the southern part of Ningxia is a mountainous area with a high altitude and complex Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16 Sustainability 2018, 10, 559 7 of 16 geology and topography; therefore, the distribution of the settlements is more dispersed and topography;characterised therefore, by small the distributionsize and a large of the number. settlements The is differences more dispersed in topography and characterised have also by small led to sizedifferences and a large of number.transportation. The differences Under the in same topography commut haveing time, also the led service to differences scope of of the transportation. schools is also Underdifferent the same due commutingto the difference time, theof terrain service in scope the north of the and schools south. is also The different more complex due to thethedifference terrain, the ofsmaller terrain inthe the school’s north and service south. range. The moreTherefore, complex with the respect terrain, to thethe smaller policy theof ‘one school’s village, service one range.school’, Therefore,the number with of respect elementary to the policyschools of in ‘one the village, northern one pa school’,rt is relatively the number small, of elementaryand, as there schools are more in theresidents northern in part the is southern relatively part, small, the and, number as there of prim are moreary schools residents in inthe the south southern is obviously part, the more number than ofthat primary in the schools north. in theIn addition, south is obviously the difference more thanin socioeconomic that in the north. development In addition, has the led difference to large indifferences socioeconomic in the development number of primary has led schools to large in differences the northern in theand number southern of parts primary of Ningxia, schools which in the is northernreflected and in southernthe considerable parts of differences Ningxia, which in the is level reflected of urbanization. in the considerable differences in the level The differences of the urbanization rate in the north and the south of Ningxia are/could be of urbanization. another reason for the unequal distribution of schools. In Ningxia, the urbanization rate in the north The differences of the urbanization rate in the north and the south of Ningxia are/could be another and the south is significantly different: in the northern county it is high and in the southern county it reason for the unequal distribution of schools. In Ningxia, the urbanization rate in the north and the is low, as shown in Figure 4. Ningxia’s northern counties have an urbanisation rate of more than 40%, south is significantly different: in the northern county it is high and in the southern county it is low, as with the provincial capital Yinchuan City (including Jinfeng, Xixia, and Xingqing) and its shown in Figure4. Ningxia’s northern counties have an urbanisation rate of more than 40%, with the surrounding counties, such as Huinong and Dawukou, accounting for more than 80% of the provincial capital Yinchuan City (including Jinfeng, Xixia, and Xingqing) and its surrounding counties, abovementioned rate. In contrast, the southern counties have an urbanization rate of less than 40%, such as Huinong and Dawukou, accounting for more than 80% of the abovementioned rate. In contrast, in fact, the rate is approximately 25%. This implies that most of the southern part of Ningxia is rural. the southern counties have an urbanization rate of less than 40%, in fact, the rate is approximately Thus, to achieve the goal of ‘one village, one school’, the southern part of Ningxia has intently focused 25%. This implies that most of the southern part of Ningxia is rural. Thus, to achieve the goal of ‘one on the development of its rural primary education. Further, the government has sufficient financial village, one school’, the southern part of Ningxia has intently focused on the development of its rural resources to improve the quality of primary education and consider primary school development as primary education. Further, the government has sufficient financial resources to improve the quality of part of the sustainable development of the region. In contrast, the economic development of the primary education and consider primary school development as part of the sustainable development southern region is poor, but the number of primary schools is large. Thus, the government does not of the region. In contrast, the economic development of the southern region is poor, but the number of have sufficient financial resources to improve the quality of primary education and cannot even meet primary schools is large. Thus, the government does not have sufficient financial resources to improve the basic daily expenditure of each school [21]. the quality of primary education and cannot even meet the basic daily expenditure of each school [21].

FigureFigure 4. Per4. Per capita capita GDP GDP and and urbanization urbanization rate. rate.

InIn China, China, primary primary school school education education is partis part of of compulsory compulsory education, education, and and in in accordance accordance with with the the law,law, all all the the expenses expenses for for students students to to receive receive education education should should be be borne borne by by the the state. state. Therefore, Therefore, the the developmentdevelopment of of primary primary education education must must be be supported supported by by the the government’s government’s fiscal fiscal revenue. revenue. However, However, after 2000, the central government transferred the expenditure of primary education to the local and Sustainability 2018, 10, 559 8 of 16

Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16 after 2000, the central government transferred the expenditure of primary education to the local and countycounty governments.governments. InIn otherother words,words, locallocal primaryprimary educationeducation expensesexpenses hadhad toto bebe supportedsupported throughthrough thethe countycounty government’sgovernment’s revenue.revenue. BecauseBecause ofof thethe contradictioncontradiction betweenbetween economiceconomic developmentdevelopment andand thethe numbernumber of of primary primary schools schools in the in southern the southern and northern and northern regions of regions Ningxia, of the Ningxia, local governments the local ingovernments the southern in regions the southern could not regions support could the fiscalnot suppo burdenrt ofthe its fiscal large burden number of of primaryits large schools.number So,of theprimary government schools. had So, tothe either government decrease had the to number either de ofcrease primary the schools, number or of reduce primary the schools, funding or for reduce each school.the funding Moreover, for each it introducedschool. Moreover, numerous it introduced fees on rural numerous households fees on in orderrural households to generate in income order toto easegenerate the pressure income ofto theease education the pressure costs of [52 the–54 education]. This resulted costs in[52 some–54]. studentsThis resulted receiving in some poor-quality students primaryreceiving education poor-quality and aprimary significantly education high numberand a significantly of dropouts, high which number made of the dropouts, elementary which education made developmentthe elementary unbalanced education and development unsustainable. unbalanced This has createdand unsustainable. a huge imbalance This between has created the financial a huge powerimbalance and between the administrative the financial power power ofthe and government, the administrative resulting power in the of vicious the government, trend of ‘the resulting poorer, thein the harder; vicious the trend harder, of ‘the and poorer, the poorer’. the harder; Free th primarye harder, education and the poorer’. in poor Free areas primary in China education generally in providespoor areas low in education China generally quality dueprovides to the low poor education local fiscal quality revenue, due which to the results poor inlocal low fiscal enrolments revenue, of poorwhich children results inin higherlow enrolments education [of55 poor,56]. Whatchildren is more, in higher poor education leads[55,56]. to What poor labouris more, market poor outcomeseducation ,whichleads to again poor reproduces labour market poor outcomes education ,which [19]. again reproduces poor education [19].

5.2.5.2. ChangesChanges inin thethe NumberNumber ofof PrimaryPrimary SchoolsSchools inin thethe NorthNorth andand thethe SouthSouth InIn Ningxia, the the number number of of primary primary schools schools ch changedanged tremendously tremendously between between 1990 1990 and and2015, 2015, (see (seeFigure Figure 5). A5). large A large number number of primary of primary schools schools were wereshut down; shut down; the reduction the reduction in the insouthern the southern region regionwas considerably was considerably larger than larger that than in the that northern in the northern region. With region. eight With poor eight counties poor countiesin the southern in the southernregion, the region, number the number of primary of primary schools schools in this in thisregion region decreased decreased by bymore more than than 100. 100. The The largestlargest reductionsreductions werewere inin three three counties counties of of the the southern southern region: region: a a decrease decrease of of 475 475 in in Yanchi Yanchi County, County, of 423of 423 in Tongxinin , County, and and of 359of 359 in in Haiyuan Haiyuan County. County. The The change change in in Ningxia Ningxia is is only only a a microcosm microcosm ofof thethe wholewhole countrycountry (see(see FigureFigure6 6).). The The number number of of primary primary schools schools in in China China has has decreased, decreased, and and the the rate rate of of decreasedecrease waswas extremelyextremely rapidrapid aroundaround 2000.2000. ComparedCompared withwith thethe nationalnational raterate ofof reduction,reduction, thethe overalloverall raterate forfor NingxiaNingxia isis slightlyslightly lower.lower.

Figure 5. Temporal changeschanges inin thethe numbernumber ofof primaryprimary schoolsschools fromfrom 20002000 toto 2015.2015.

There are several reasons for the large-scale reduction in the number of primary schools concentrated in the poor and undeveloped areas of southern Ningxia. First, since the founding of the new China, the state has called for vigorous efforts for the development of primary education and the elimination of illiteracy [57,58]. The large-scale development of primary school education is a political movement akin to a revolution [57]; in fact, the state and local governments have not considered the regional balance and population trends. As a result of the one-child policy [58] and Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16 the relocation of a large number of peasants to the cities [59,60], the number of rural children has dropped sharply; this has led to a large number of schools that are unused and a serious waste of educational resources. Secondly, after the reform of the tax sharing system in 1994, the central government devolved a large number of powers to the local governments, which implied that the local governments had to shoulder more responsibilities [61,62]. In 2000, the central government issued a series of rules and regulations, leading to the county government being responsible for the funding of elementary education in its district. However, in China, the greater the number of rural areas, the less developed is the economy, and the lower the local financial revenue, the higher the number of primary schools. As in Ningxia, a large number of primary schools were concentrated in the economically undeveloped areas of the south. A large number of schools and a serious shortage of local fiscal revenue inevitably resulted in the relative shortage and backwardness of the hardware and software facilities of the schools. In this context, the local governments of economically undeveloped areas, in orderSustainability to cope2018 ,with10, 559 the considerable financial pressure and solve this dilemma, had to quickly9 and of 16 effectively respond to the new regulations.

Figure 6. The reduction rate of the number of primary schools. Figure 6. The reduction rate of the number of primary schools. Thirdly, with economic development and the increased educational consciousness, the views of farmersThere on education are several have reasons also changed. for the large-scaleThey not only reduction hope toin receive the number an education, of primary but also schools hope toconcentrated receive good-quality in the poor education. and undeveloped As the rural areas primary of southern school education, Ningxia. because First, since of a lack the foundingof funds, lackof the of new qualified China, teachers, the state and has calledthe overall for vigorous educatio effortsn atmosphere, for the development is undeveloped, of primary it is difficult education for manyand the rural elimination parents to of send illiteracy their [57children,58]. The to sch large-scaleools that development provide good-qua of primarylity education. school education This has furtheris a political exacerbated movement the problems akin to a revolutionof low school [57 ];en inrolment fact, the and state wastage and local of educational governments resources have not in schools.considered the regional balance and population trends. As a result of the one-child policy [58] and the relocationFrom the perspective of a large number of the number of peasants of primary to the schools, cities [59 school,60], the combination number of policy rural childrenhas played has a positivedropped role sharply; in achieving this has an led appropriate to a large number number of of schools primary that schools are unused in a sustainable and a serious manner waste by of reducingeducational the resources. number of primary schools in the country to adapt to the changes in the number of studentsSecondly, at school. after The the Theil reform index of thewas tax used sharing to meas systemure the in balance 1994, the of primary central government schools in all devolved counties inalarge Ningxia number from of 1990 powers to 2015 to the (see local Figure governments, 7). The results which show implied that thatthe maximum the local governments Theil index was had 0.206,to shoulder the lowest more was responsibilities 0.108, and the [ overall61,62]. variation In 2000, thetrend central of the government Theil index showed issued aa seriesdecrease of rulesfrom highand regulations,to low. Before leading the large to the reduction county in government the number being of primary responsible schools for in the the funding south, the of elementaryTheil index waseducation significantly in its district. higher, However,indicating in a considerably China, the greater uneven the distribution number of ruralof the areas, number the and less population developed ofis theprimary economy, schools and in the the lower southern the localregion financial (see Figure revenue, 6). The the overall higher trend, the number after 2000, of primarywith the schools.decline Asin the in Ningxia,number aof large schools number in the of south, primary showed schools that were the concentratedproblem of the in theuneven economically spatial distribution undeveloped of theareas primary of the south.schools A in large the numbersouthern of and schools the nort andhern a serious regions shortage of Ningxia of local has fiscal indeed revenue improved. inevitably The Theilresulted index in theshowed relative a marked shortage decline and backwardnessand finally mainta of theined hardware a relatively and stable software value. facilities This implies of the schools. In this context, the local governments of economically undeveloped areas, in order to cope with the considerable financial pressure and solve this dilemma, had to quickly and effectively respond to the new regulations. Thirdly, with economic development and the increased educational consciousness, the views of farmers on education have also changed. They not only hope to receive an education, but also hope to receive good-quality education. As the rural primary school education, because of a lack of funds, lack of qualified teachers, and the overall education atmosphere, is undeveloped, it is difficult for many rural parents to send their children to schools that provide good-quality education. This has further exacerbated the problems of low school enrolment and wastage of educational resources in schools. From the perspective of the number of primary schools, school combination policy has played a positive role in achieving an appropriate number of primary schools in a sustainable manner by reducing the number of primary schools in the country to adapt to the changes in the number of students at school. The Theil index was used to measure the balance of primary schools in all counties in Ningxia from 1990 to 2015 (see Figure7). The results show that the maximum Theil index was 0.206, Sustainability 2018, 10, 559 10 of 16 the lowest was 0.108, and the overall variation trend of the Theil index showed a decrease from high to low. Before the large reduction in the number of primary schools in the south, the Theil index was significantly higher, indicating a considerably uneven distribution of the number and population of primary schools in the southern region (see Figure6). The overall trend, after 2000, with the decline in the number of schools in the south, showed that the problem of the uneven spatial distribution of the primarySustainability schools 2018, 10 in, xthe FOR southern PEER REVIEW and the northern regions of Ningxia has indeed improved. The 10 Theil of 16 index showed a marked decline and finally maintained a relatively stable value. This implies that thethat decrease the decrease in the in number the number of primary of primary schools school had a positives had a effectpositive on theeffect development on the development of education of ineducation Ningxia. in Ningxia.

Figure 7. Theil index of the number of people per school.

Although the decrease in the number of primary schools was inevitable, when blindly done, the Although the decrease in the number of primary schools was inevitable, when blindly done, the reduction did not fully take into account the rationale of the spatial distribution of the primary reduction did not fully take into account the rationale of the spatial distribution of the primary schools. schools. This led to an uneven distribution, causing serious problems for school-aged children to get This led to an uneven distribution, causing serious problems for school-aged children to get to the to the schools. Ningxia is facing such a problem. After a massive reduction in the number of primary schools. Ningxia is facing such a problem. After a massive reduction in the number of primary schools, schools, primary school education is a problem; in particular in the southern region. In some remote primary school education is a problem; in particular in the southern region. In some remote areas, areas, the accessibility of primary school education is very poor, which leads to the problem of a the accessibility of primary school education is very poor, which leads to the problem of a considerable considerable distance between students, schools, and families and, therefore, students find it difficult distance between students, schools, and families and, therefore, students find it difficult to go to school. to go to school. 5.3. Differences in the Spatial Accessibility of Primary Schools 5.3. Differences in the Spatial Accessibility of Primary Schools The reduction of the number of primary schools has alleviated the financial pressure in the southernThe regionreduction to a of certain the number extent, andof primary promoted schools a relative has balancealleviated between the financial the number pressure of students in the andsouthern the numberregion to of a certain schools, extent, but it and has promoted ignored thea relative consequent balance problems between the of spatialnumber accessibility. of students Theand substantialthe number reduction of schools, of schoolsbut it has in southernignored the Ningxia consequent has led problems to a conflict of betweenspatial accessibility. the accessibility The ofsubstantial primary schoolsreduction and of the schools geography in southern of the Ningxia south. An has analysis led to a of conflict the time between accessibility the accessibility and distance of accessibilityprimary schools of the and primary the geography schools in of the the Ningxia south. An district analysis revealed of the that time the accessibility accessibility and to primarydistance schoolsaccessibility in southern of the primary Ningxia schools is relatively in the poor, Ningxia particularly district in revealed counties that with the a reductionaccessibility in theto primary number ofschools these in schools; southern these Ningxia results is are relatively particularly poor, significant.particularly in counties with a reduction in the number of theseFrom schools; the maximum these results accessibility are particularly distance significant. and the average-accessibility distance index, we can find thatFrom the the index maximum of the maximum-accessibilityaccessibility distance and distance the average-accessibility between northern and distance southern index, is different we can (seefind Figurethat the8). index The maximumof the maximum-accessibility distance appears in dist Pengyangance between County, northern which isand 10,530 southern m. This is different means that(see studentsFigure 8). in The these maximum areas have distance a long appears journey in toPengyang school. ThisCounty, suggests which that is 10,530 the reduction m. This means of the numberthat students of primary in these schools areas will have considerably a long journey reduce to the school. accessibility This suggests of education that the in the reduction poor southern of the region.number Thisof primary also shows schools that will the simultaneousconsiderably rapidreduce reduction the accessib in theility number of education of primary in the schools poor hassouthern led to region. the problem This also of poor shows spatial that accessibility, the simultaneous which rapid is extremely reduction detrimental in the number to the sustainableof primary schools has led to the problem of poor spatial accessibility, which is extremely detrimental to the sustainable development of education in the region. For the southern region, the index is much higher than for the northern region with the maximum distance varying greatly; the maximum and minimum gap was 41,336 m, and the number of schools decreased fastest in Pengyang and Yanchi, where the distance was 38,693 m and 32,425 m, respectively. This was 10,000 m higher than the northern area, indicating poor accessibility to primary schools of these areas and an extremely unreasonable distribution. Sustainability 2018, 10, 559 11 of 16 development of education in the region. For the southern region, the index is much higher than for the northern region with the maximum distance varying greatly; the maximum and minimum gap was 41,336 m, and the number of schools decreased fastest in Pengyang and Yanchi, where the distance was 38,693 m and 32,425 m, respectively. This was 10,000 m higher than the northern area, indicating Sustainabilitypoor accessibility 2018, 10, x to FOR primary PEER REVIEW schools of these areas and an extremely unreasonable distribution. 11 of 16

Figure 8. Primary school spatial accessibility analysis map. Figure 8. Primary school spatial accessibility analysis map.

The spatial accessibility of primary schools is affected by the number and distribution of these schools,The which spatial is accessibility an important of indicator primary schoolsfor evalua is affectedting the byeffectiveness the number of andprimary distribution education. of these The spatialschools, accessibility which is anof primary important schools indicator in the for sout evaluatingh and the north the effectiveness reflects the uneven of primary development education. of primaryThe spatial education accessibility in Ningxia. of primary Spatial schools accessibility in the south can andindicate the north whether reflects the thedistribution uneven development of primary schoolsof primary in a education region is ingood Ningxia. and whether Spatial accessibility it can meet can the indicate demands whether of the theresidents distribution with ofrespect primary to educationalschools in a services. region is Good good andspatial whether accessibility it can meetdenotes the a demands rational ofdistribution the residents of primary with respect school to educationeducational in services.the region Good and balanced spatial accessibility development. denotes In contrast, a rational poor distributionspatial accessibility of primary shows school that theeducation distribution in the of region educational and balanced facilities development. in the region In is contrast, irrational poor and spatial cannot accessibility meet the demands shows that of thethe residents distribution with of respect educational to the facilities educational in the services. region is irrational and cannot meet the demands of the residentsThe results with respect showed to thethat educational the time accessibility services. of the southern region was considerably lower than Thethat resultsof the northern showed that region the (see time Figure accessibility 9). Wh ofen the the southern service regionarea of wasthe considerablyprimary school lower was than set tothat 10 of min, the northernthe results region showed (see that Figure the9 ).northern When theregion service had area more of than the primary 90% coverage, school waswhile set the to southern10 min, the region results had showed approximately that the northern 50–70% regioncoverage had. Yanchi morethan County 90% had coverage, the lowest while coverage the southern rate ofregion only had55%. approximately These counties 50–70% with a low coverage. coverage Yanchi were County the poor had counties the lowest where coverage there was rate a of significant only 55%. reductionThese counties in the withnumber a low of coverageprimary schools. were the The poor coverage counties of the where educational there was facilities a significant in the reductionsouthern regionin the numberincreased of slowly primary with schools. time. TheHowever, coverage even of theat 30 educational min, the southern facilities region in the southernof Longde region and Haiyuanincreased exhibited slowly with a coverage time. However, rate of only even 85%. at 30 min, the southern region of Longde and Haiyuan exhibitedFrom aa coveragecomprehensive rate of onlyanalysis 85%. of the data of spatial and time accessibility, the accessibility of primary schools is poor in southern Ningxia. Local governments blindly reduced the number of primary schools, resulting in a large number of students having an increase in the distance they have to travel to school. Primary school education resourcing has had a very bad impact on fairness in poor and remote areas. Southern school-age children receive a basic education in primary school, which further increases inequality among primary schools in different regions. Sustainability 2018, 10, 559 12 of 16 Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

10 minutes 20 minutes 30 minutes

Xingqing Haiyuan100 Xixia Zhongning Jinfeng 80 Shapuotou Yongning 60 Pengyang 40 Helan Jingyuan 20 0 Longde Dawukou Xiji Huinong Yuanzhou Pingluo Tongxing Litong Yanchi Hongsibu

Figure 9. Analysis of the differences in the accessibility of primary schools. Figure 9. Analysis of the differences in the accessibility of primary schools.

5.4. Balanced and Sustainable Development of Primary Education in the North and the South From a comprehensive analysis of the data of spatial and time accessibility, the accessibility of primaryThere schools is a isconsiderable poor in southern difference Ningxia. between Local governmentsthe geographic blindly factors reduced and thethe numbereconomic of primarydevelopment schools, rate resulting of north inand a largesouth number Ningxia. of In students reality, havingthere are an various increase contradictions in the distance in they realising have suchto travel sustainable to school. development. Primary school The education decrease resourcingin enrolments has and had the a very wastage bad impact of educational on fairness resources in poor hasand led remote to conflicts areas. Southern between school-agethe number children of studen receivets and a the basic number education of schools. in primary With school, the massive which annexationfurther increases of southern inequality primary among schools, primary the schools balance in of different schools regions.in the north and the south has been improved and the problem of financial pressure and wastage of educational resources in the south has5.4. Balancedbeen resolved. and Sustainable However, Development because of of the Primary comp Educationlex topography in the North and scattered and the South settlements in the southern region, the decline in the accessibility of schools has resulted in a decrease in school There is a considerable difference between the geographic factors and the economic development availability, with the students deprived of their right to enrol in the closest primary school. This has rate of north and south Ningxia. In reality, there are various contradictions in realising such sustainable in turn led to a conflict between the number of primary schools and their spatial accessibility. development. The decrease in enrolments and the wastage of educational resources has led to conflicts Therefore, for the sustainable development of education, we must take into account regional between the number of students and the number of schools. With the massive annexation of southern differences, and avoid the implementation of blind policies that may restrict the development of primary schools, the balance of schools in the north and the south has been improved and the problem education. Based on the empirical data of Ningxia, we can effectively ensure the sustainable of financial pressure and wastage of educational resources in the south has been resolved. However, development of education by implementing government policies according to the local conditions. because of the complex topography and scattered settlements in the southern region, the decline in the Firstly, the rational withdrawal of the southern primary schools will promote a healthy and accessibility of schools has resulted in a decrease in school availability, with the students deprived sustainable development of education. The number of primary schools must be decided considering of their right to enrol in the closest primary school. This has in turn led to a conflict between the school attendance and the local economic conditions. An excessive number of unreasonable schools number of primary schools and their spatial accessibility. Therefore, for the sustainable development will directly lead to a pressure on local finances and a wastage of educational resources. Without of education, we must take into account regional differences, and avoid the implementation of blind adequate financial support, local primary education cannot be well developed and effective policies that may restrict the development of education. Based on the empirical data of Ningxia, we can education cannot be guaranteed, which will inevitably lead to considerable differences in the quality effectively ensure the sustainable development of education by implementing government policies of education among regions. In the southern region, economic development is slow and the fiscal according to the local conditions. revenue is low. The local governments do not have enough to invest in education. A considerably Firstly, the rational withdrawal of the southern primary schools will promote a healthy and large number of primary schools will inevitably lead to financial difficulties. This will directly limit sustainable development of education. The number of primary schools must be decided considering the improvement of the quality of education in primary schools. At the same time, the immense school attendance and the local economic conditions. An excessive number of unreasonable schools mismatch between the number of enrolled students and the number of schools has led to a wastage will directly lead to a pressure on local finances and a wastage of educational resources. Without of educational resources. Under such circumstances, only by effectively integrating educational adequate financial support, local primary education cannot be well developed and effective education resources, coordinating the number of schools and the number of students, and allocating cannot be guaranteed, which will inevitably lead to considerable differences in the quality of education educational resources reasonably, can we promote the improvement of education in southern among regions. In the southern region, economic development is slow and the fiscal revenue is low. Ningxia to achieve sustainable development? The local governments do not have enough to invest in education. A considerably large number of Secondly, the spatial distribution of primary schools should be reasonably planned to meet the primary schools will inevitably lead to financial difficulties. This will directly limit the improvement students’ right to enrol at the closest school under different natural and social conditions. From the of the quality of education in primary schools. At the same time, the immense mismatch between the investigation, we found that the local government’s blind merging of schools has led to a spatial number of enrolled students and the number of schools has led to a wastage of educational resources. accessibility problem for poor students. In southern Ningxia, the number of primary schools has been reduced, and more than half of this reduction was in five counties. The results of the spatial Sustainability 2018, 10, 559 13 of 16

Under such circumstances, only by effectively integrating educational resources, coordinating the number of schools and the number of students, and allocating educational resources reasonably, can we promote the improvement of education in southern Ningxia to achieve sustainable development? Secondly, the spatial distribution of primary schools should be reasonably planned to meet the students’ right to enrol at the closest school under different natural and social conditions. From the investigation, we found that the local government’s blind merging of schools has led to a spatial accessibility problem for poor students. In southern Ningxia, the number of primary schools has been reduced, and more than half of this reduction was in five counties. The results of the spatial accessibility study showed that the accessibility in the southern region is poor, particularly in counties with significant reductions, and the primary school coverage is very low. Because of the features of the terrain in the southern part of Ningxia, the layout of the settlements shows the characteristics of small size, large quantity, and scattered distribution. The inevitable result of a large number of reductions in the number of schools is the deterioration of the spatial accessibility. From the viewpoint of data, the number of primary schools in the southern region is still large. However, in spite of this large number of schools, the spatial accessibility in the southern region is considerably worse than that in the northern region. Therefore, the spatial layout of primary schools should take into account the terrain factors for an effective integration of educational resources.

6. Conclusions Primary school education is the most basic and most important part of compulsory education. The legal connotation of compulsory education is that it is a right given by law, but also an obligation that the people must go to school. As an obligation, you must complete the legal responsibility to accept education when you are school-aged. As a right, the country must provide the physical facilities, arrangements, and guarantee the quality of the teaching. As the most basic and important part of the development of China’s education, primary education must be the most reasonable and balanced guarantee. In particular, in undeveloped poverty-stricken areas, education is the most important condition for the development of individuals and society. How can it be effective? Balanced implementation of primary education must be fair to provide each school-aged child with the basic education facilities. Primary education faces a double conflict. On the one hand, the large number of primary schools leads to local financial difficulties. Various educational facilities cannot be guaranteed. Small scale and poor development have become a common phenomenon. Primary education development is limited. On the other hand, a reduction in primary schools will lead to poor accessibility with students not guaranteed entry to a school nearby. Therefore, the planning of the distribution of schools in the case of limited local finance is a problem that local governments must seriously attempt to resolve. Based on the analysis of the number of primary schools and of spatial reachability, in this study, we conducted thorough research on primary education in Ningxia and found that the imbalance of education was caused by the decrease in the number of educational facilities. Therefore, we make the following recommendations: (1) Reasonable spatial layout—remote and poor areas should have a relatively concentrated distribution of primary schools to enable students to get to school easily; and (2) Increased financial support in all poor areas of education development—the local and the central governments must increase the financial support for primary schools, in the form of transfer payments and special funds.

Acknowledgments: This work was financially supported by the National Key Research and Development Program (Grant No.: 2017YFB0503505) and National Natural Science Foundation (No. 41771432). Author Contributions: Jiali Wan, Yanfang Liu, and Yiyun Chen conceived and designed the experiments; Jiali Wan and Jiameng Hu performed the experiments; Jiali Wan analyzed the data; Yanfang Liu, Zhengyu Wang helped in language correction; Jiali Wan wrote the paper. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Sustainability 2018, 10, 559 14 of 16

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