The Efiect of Anger and Relaxation on the Visual Perception of Distance

The Effect of Anger and Relaxation on the Visual Perception of Distance Tory R. Spindle and Cedar R. Riener* Randolph-Macon College

ABSTRACT. Previous research has shown that negative emotions such as sadness (Riener, Stefanucci, Proffitt, & Clore, 2011) and fear (Stefanucci & Proffitt, 2009) can alter distance perception so that distances are perceived as farther away. The current study inquired whether anger and relaxation also alter distance perception. We hypothesized that angry participants would overestimate distances compared to relaxed participants because other negative emotions lead to similar relative overestimations. Forty-two students participated in the study. Anger was induced in half of the participants by asking them to solve impossible anagrams while listening to a high-pitched sound. The other half listened to relaxing music for 5 min. The manipulation was effective, as participants in the anger condition were angrier than those in the relaxed condition as assessed by the Anger Onset Scale (Mittleman et al., 1995). Following this mood manipulation, participants viewed three targets located at different distances and were asked to estimate the respective distance to each both verbally and by walking blindfolded. Participants in the anger condition judged the targets to be farther than those in the relaxed condition, but only when blind ² walking, F(1, 40) = 6.58, p = .01, ηp = .13. Verbal estimations were not different between the groups. A possible explanation for no difference between the two groups’ verbal estimations is that anger may have affected the participant’s walking response but not their perception of the targets. Additional research should investigate whether other negative emotions like sadness and fear also lead to relative blind walking overestimations.

espite its apparent simplicity, visual perception, neither of which had previously been perception is a complex process. What one examined in relation to distance perception. Dsees is not solely due to the light that enters the eye and the subsequent two-dimensional image Visual Perception of Distance on the retina. Perception of the world can also be People exhibit systematic bias when estimating influenced by individual’s purposes, physiological distances, either by giving a verbal estimate or state, and emotions (Proffitt, 2006). Evidence reporting a visual matching task, regardless of their already exists for sadness (Riener et al., 2011) and physiological or emotional state (Amorim, Loomis, fear (Stefanucci & Proffitt, 2009). Anger can have & Fukusima, 1998; Proffitt, 2006). More precisely,

SPRING 2013 adverse effects on people’s decision making and people tend to underestimate longer distances thought processes and therefore may similarly affect (over three meters) and overestimate shorter PSI CHI visual perception (Baron, 1988). The current study distances (less than three meters) when judging JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL examined anger and relaxation’s effect on distance distances verbally (Philbeck & Loomis, 1997). RESEARCH

Observers also systematically overestimate the in these cases? Fear is certainly an unpleasant slants of hills (Proffitt, 2006). Taking into account emotion, but it is also associated with an increase systematic underestimates of distances and overesti- in autonomic arousal (e.g., heart rate). Accord- mates of hill slants, previous research investigating ing to an influential model of emotions proposed the role of mood or physiological state has focused by Larsen, Diener, and Clark (1992), emotional on relative over or underestimations and not the states can vary by two dimensions. The first dimen- accuracy of estimations. For example, Riener et al. sion is pleasantness or valence, which is whether (2011) found that sad participants reported greater emotional states are positive or negative. Pairs hill slant estimations relative to happy participants. of emotions can be described using the valence All of the participants still overestimated the slants spectrum. For example, happiness, a positive of the hills, but the sad participants overestimated emotion, exists on one end of the valence spectrum more than the happy participants. and sadness, a negative emotion, exists on the Our visual system is influenced by the purpose other (Larsen et al., 1992). Recent studies have of our actions (Proffitt, 2006). Visual perception shown that differences in valence can correspond takes into account the opportunities and costs to different perceptions of spatial layout. For associated with action. When we see a distant example, Riener et al. (2011) examined whether object for example, our visual system assesses happiness or sadness can affect people’s perception the risks and rewards associated with the object, of the slopes of hills. Sad participants consistently such as how much energy would be required to overestimated the slopes of hills in comparison to reach it. When the energy required to reach an happy participants. object increases, the apparent distance to the object The second dimension used to categorize increases as well. This apparent increase in distance emotions is level of arousal (high arousal or low associated with an increase in energetic costs will arousal). Fear is an example of a high arousal cause people to walk further than they normally emotion. It is possible for two emotions to have would when estimating a distance (Witt, Proffitt, the same degree of valence but differ in regards & Epstein, 2005). Witt, Profitt, and Epstein (2004) to their arousal (Larsen et al., 1992). For example, found that people judged targets as being farther relaxation and excitement are both ‘positive’ away if they threw heavy balls as opposed to light emotions but relaxation is low in arousal and excite- balls. People wearing backpacks also overestimate ment is high (Ader, 2007). Anger, which was one of distances relative to those who are unencumbered the emotions of interest in the current study, lies (Proffitt, Stefanucci, Banton, & Epstein, 2003). on opposite ends of the valence and arousal emotional In addition to being influenced by the pur- dimensions, because it is a negative emotion that pose of our actions, visual perception can also be is high in arousal (Lewis, Halivand-Jones, & Bar- influenced by emotion (Proffitt, 2006). Stefanucci, rett, 2008). Fear lies on the same ends of the Proffitt, Clore, and Parekh (2008) examined fear’s respective emotional dimensions as anger, and impact on visual perception. Participants in the fear has proven to affect the perception of spatial study stood at the top of a hill and estimated its layout (Stefanucci et al., 2008; Stefanucci & Prof- slope, while either standing on a skateboard or a fitt, 2009). The fact that anger and fear lie on the stable box of equivalent dimensions. The group same ends of the valence and arousal spectrums standing on the skateboard consistently judged the suggests that anger may affect perception in a hill as being steeper relative to the group standing similar fashion to fear. on the box. Given the otherwise equivalent viewing Relaxation, which was the second emotion of conditions, this overestimation is likely due to the interest in the current study, is a positive emotion fear associated with standing on a skateboard at the that is low in arousal (Lewis et al., 2008). Relaxation top of a steep hill. Similarly, Stefanucci and Proffitt often decreases one’s heart rate, blood pressure, (2009) examined the effect of fear on judging dis- and anxiety (Kaushik, Kaushik, Mahajan, & Rajesh, tance by having participants either look down from 2006). Anger in contrast to relaxation, is an a balcony or look up at it from the ground. The emotion that can lead to poorer conflict resolution group that judged the distance from the balcony and collaborative problem solving, poorer perfor- consistently overestimated the distance compared mance on cognitive tasks, and lower self-efficacy on SPRING 2013 to the group that judged from the ground, likely various tasks (Baron, 1988). These negative effects PSI CHI due to the fear associated with falling. are likely the result of both the negative valence JOURNAL OF What aspect of fear changed perception and high arousal of the emotion. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

After considering previous research, valence states are important because being in a sad mood, appears to be a better predictor of biases in spatial for example, can lead to an increased risk of auto- layout due to the fact that fear and sadness, both mobile accidents. of which are ‘negative’ emotions, result in similar relative overestimations, despite falling on opposite Method ends of the arousal spectrum (Riener et al., 2011; Participants Stefanucci et al., 2008; Stefanucci & Proffitt, 2009). Forty-two students, 25 women and 17 men, It is therefore reasonable to speculate that, if anger ages 19–22 (M = 21; SD = 1.10) participated in alters distance perception, the effect may be due the study for four dollars. We did not collect infor- more to its negative valence than its high arousal. mation on participants’ ethnicity. Previous research Previous research regarding mood’s effect on (i.e., Riener et al., 2011; Stefanucci et al., 2008) distance perception has only used verbal estima- also used approximately 40 to 50 participants. The tions (Stefanucci & Proffitt, 2009). However, several participants were randomly assigned to either the studies have demonstrated that manipulations that anger or relaxed condition prior to their arrival and affect verbal distance estimations can also influence each group had 21 participants. The anger condi- blind walking estimations, which is why the current tion consisted of 12 men and nine women and study implemented both. Witt et al. (2005), told the relaxed condition included five men and 16 participants prior to walking on a treadmill that women. They were recruited from college summer they would either throw a ball at a target or blind classes at Randolph-Macon College, a small liberal walk to the target. Participants who anticipated arts college on the east coast, and the procedures walking to the target tended to overestimate the were approved by the Institutional Research Board distance when blind walking relative to those who (IRB) of the college. Approximately 100 students anticipated throwing a ball at the target when blind enrolled in summer classes were approached by walking. Although the blind walking judgments the experimenters to participate. were relatively different between the groups, they were generally near the actual distance. Therefore, Materials/Stimuli blind walking is generally a more accurate way to Anger elicitation. It was important to choose suit- estimate distance than verbal reports, even though able methods for inducing emotional states so that manipulations, such as the aforementioned one, we could attempt to disentangle the relative impact can result in relative blind walking differences of anger and relaxation. Anger has been elicited between conditions (Proffitt, 2006). The results temporarily in people in a variety of ways in an from Witt et al. (2005) suggest that blind walking is experimental setting. Berkowitz and Harmon-Jones influenced by the energetic costs related to walking. (2004) described several useful techniques, one In other words, walking on the treadmill increased of which involves placing an aggressive cue near the anticipated effort of walking to the target but the subject, such as a gun or a person linked to a not throwing something to it. previous frustrating incident. Berkowitz and LeP- We hypothesized that angry participants would age (1967) shocked participants and told them the overestimate the distances to the targets used in the shock came from another person in the adjacent experiment relative to relaxed participants. Partici- room. The participants were given the option to pants gave two types of distance judgments, verbal return the shock, and they chose to do so more estimations and blind walking. We hypothesized often if there was a gun next to the shock button. both types of judgments would result in relative Another common technique is the use of auditory overestimations for the anger group. We believed stimuli to evoke anger. High-pitched sounds have the anger group’s judgments would be greater rela- proven to be effective in eliciting anger (Stevenson tive to the relaxed group’s judgments as a result of & James, 2008). Attempting to solve impossible anger being lower in valence, and not as a result anagrams is yet another way to induce temporarily of anger being higher in arousal. We also expected anger (Matthews et al., 2006). We chose impossible the participants to systematically underestimate anagrams paired with high-pitched sounds as a the distances verbally in each condition, due to simple, safe, and convenient way to induce low SPRING 2013 previous research suggesting distances further levels of anger. than three meters will be systematically underes- Participants listened to a high-pitched pure PSI CHI JOURNAL OF timated (Philbeck & Loomis, 1997). Differences tone for 5 min through headphones at an inten- PSYCHOLOGICAL in perception as a result of differing emotional sity of 5000 Hz from Bould (2007). In addition to RESEARCH

4 COPYRIGHT 2013 BY PSI CHI, THE INTERNATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY IN PSYCHOLOGY (VOL. 18, NO. 1/ISSN 2164-8204) Spindle and Riener | Anger’s Effect on Distance Perception listening to the high pitched sound, participants Phase 1: Those in the anger condition were in the anger condition attempted to solve a series told that the experiment concerned problem of unsolvable anagrams. There were 13 anagrams solving under distracting conditions. They were total, varying from 6 to 12 letters and only the first given the anagrams and were told previous partici- and last were solvable. pants solved at least six or seven. They listened to Relaxation elicitation. Relaxation, specifically a high-pitched sound and attempted to solve the induced via pleasant music, has been linked to anagrams for 5 min. In the relaxed condition, the the lowering of blood pressure and decreased participants listened to relaxing music for 5 min heart rate (Bernardi, Porta, & Sleight, 2006). The prior to being taken outside for phase two. sound of raindrops falling on a roof was selected Phase 2: All participants were taken outside in the current study to induce relaxation. The use of the laboratory at Randolph-Macon to a of repetitive rhythmic sounds of nature is a com- flat area of land approximately 50 feet from mon tool used in relaxation training and stress the experimental room and instructed to judge management (Fried, 1990). Walker (1972) sug- the distances of three targets using the blind walk- gested that listening to a repetitive stimulus, such as ing method. Participants in the anger condition raindrops falling on a roof, is an effective relaxation were told they would later attempt another series tool because it provides the brain with a minimal of anagrams to keep them in an angry state. The amount of stimulation. To induce relaxation, participants were first taken to a starting point, participants listened to relaxing music through with one target to their left, one in front of them, headphones for 5 min from Okano (2012), which and one to their right. All participants gave blind was the sound of raindrops falling on a roof. walking judgments for the left, nearest target first, State and trait anger. The participants’ level the middle, most distant target second, and the of state anger was measured using the Anger Onset right, middle distant target third. This order was Scale with Likert-type anchors ranging from 1 chosen because we felt that judging the targets in (completely calm) to 7 (enraged) (Mittleman et al., relative distance order would be too easy for the 1995). The alpha level in both the Mittleman et participants. After looking at a target, the partici- al. study and the current study was set at .05. Trait pants would put on a blindfold and walk whatever hostility was assessed using the MMPI Anger Scale, distance they believed the target to be. The targets which consists of 16 true or false questions (Butcher were removed by the experimenters as they were & Spielberger, 1983). The questions in the MMPI walking to avoid participants inadvertently hitting Anger Scale are concerned with self-control, tem- the targets. The participants were escorted back per, and propensity for violence. For questions to the starting point where they would repeat 1–15, each true response gives the participant the same procedure with the next target in the 1 point and for the final question afalse response sequence. After completing the three blind walk- gives the participant a point. The higher the point ing estimations, the participants were taken back total, the higher the participant’s trait hostility. to the starting point and instructed to remove the Distance perception. We chose the distances blindfold. They were then asked to give a verbal used in our study based upon the results of previous estimation for each distance in feet. The partici- research utilizing distances within the same range pants gave their verbal estimations for the three (i.e. Stefanucci et al., 2008; Witt et al., 2004; Witt et targets in the same sequence they gave their blind al., 2005). The actual distances of the targets from walking estimations. Each participant gave six the starting point of the observers were 5.79, 6.71, distance estimations in total: three blind walking and 9.14 meters. and three verbal estimations. Phase 3: Following the distance estimation Procedure phase, the participants were escorted back inside Participants entered the laboratory, signed where their mood and trait hostility were assessed the informed consent agreement and were given using the Anger Onset Scale and the MMPI Anger full instructions. The experiment consisted of three Scale. They were then debriefed, and the purpose phases. First, the mood manipulation was achieved of the experiment was revealed to them. in the experimental room, then the participants SPRING 2013 were taken outside for the distance judgment Results PSI CHI task, and finally they were taken back inside for An independent samples t test was performed to JOURNAL OF the mood assessment. determine if the manipulation was successful, as PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

assessed by the Anger Onset Scale. Participants in participants percentage error score. The percent- the anger group became angrier than those in the age error scores were calculated by dividing the relaxed group, t(40) = 2.08, p = .044; d = .455. The participant’s error (deviation from the actual average temporary level of anger, as assessed by the distance) by the actual distance. For example, the Anger Onset Scale, for the anger group was 2.29 average percentage error for the relaxed group’s (SD = 1.67), and the average for the relaxed condi- shortest verbal estimation was -.34 meaning on tion was 1.48 (SD = 0.60). Trait hostility, as assessed average the relaxed group’s verbal estimations were by the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory 34 percent under the actual short distance (Figure Anger Scale did not differ between the two groups. 3). Figures 3 and 4 reveal the average percentage Interestingly there was no correlation between trait of error for both groups: three verbal (which were hostility and temporary anger (r = .12). drastically underestimated) and three blind walk- Two 2 (mood) x 3 (distances) repeated ing judgments (which were far more accurate). measures ANOVAs, one for the verbal and one for the blind walking judgments, were per- Discussion formed. For the verbal judgments, there was no The purpose of this study was to examine the effects significant main effect for mood F(1, 40) = .005, of anger and relaxation on relative distance per- 2 p = .94, η p < .001, nor was there a significant ception. To our knowledge, this is the first study to interaction between mood and distance F(2, 40) document anger’s impact on distance perception. 2 = .33, p = .71, η p = .01. There was a significant The results partially supported our hypothesis that main effect for distance F(2, 40) = 95.89, p < .001, anger would lead to relative overestimations of 2 η p = .71. A Bonferroni post-hoc test revealed distance judgments when compared to relaxation. significant differences between the shortest and Participants in the anger condition collectively middle distance estimations (p = .003), the middle judged the three distances as being farther than and furthest distance estimations (p < .001), and those in the relaxed condition but only when blind the shortest and furthest distance estimations walking, and not verbally as we also hypothesized. (p < .001) which indicates that both groups’ estima- Because there was no interaction between distance tions increased with each distance regardless of and mood, there were no differences between the the emotional state they were experiencing. Both groups severely underestimated all three distances FIGURE 1 verbally (Figure 1). Average Verbal Estimates For the blind walking judgments, there

was also no significant interaction between mood 10 2 and distance F(2, 40) = .35, p = .71, η p = .01. However, there were significant main effects for both distance F(2, 40) = 117.5, p < .001, 8 2 η p = .75 and mood F (1, 40) = 6.58, 2 p = .01, η p = .13. Post-hoc analysis for distance revealed significant differences between the 6 shortest and furthest distance estimations (p < .001) and between the middle and furthest 4 distance estimations (p < .001), but not between rbal Estimates (m) Ve the shortest and middle distance estimations (p = .08). The main effect for mood indicates that 2 the anger group’s estimations were collectively greater than the relaxed group’s estimations 0 (p = .05), but the lack of interaction between the Verbal Short Verbal Medium Verbal Long two variables indicates that the two groups’ esti- (5.79 m) (6.71 m) (9.14 m) mations were not significantly different for any Actual Distance Relaxation particular distance. Figure 2 shows that the angry Anger SPRING 2013 participants’ three blind walking estimates were greater compared to the relaxed group. Average verbal estimations by group for each distance. The black horizontal lines represent the PSI CHI We also calculated the accuracy of both actual distances. The numbers on the vertical axis indicate the participants average verbal JOURNAL OF estimations in meters. PSYCHOLOGICAL group’s respective judgments by calculating each RESEARCH

6 COPYRIGHT 2013 BY PSI CHI, THE INTERNATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY IN PSYCHOLOGY (VOL. 18, NO. 1/ISSN 2164-8204) Spindle and Riener | Anger’s Effect on Distance Perception groups’ blind walking estimations for any particular than verbal estimates (Figures 3 & 4) which is con- distance. sistent with previous research (Witt et al., 2005). These results support findings from previous The relative difference in blind walking estimates research that has shown that other negative emo- between the two groups also supports research tions, specifically sadness and fear, lead to relative suggesting blind walking estimates can be relatively overestimations in distance and hill slant judgments different between conditions following a manipula- (Riener et al., 2011; Stefanucci et al., 2008). The tion just as verbal estimates can be (Proffitt, 2006) fact that sadness and fear lie on opposite ends Why did anger appear to affect blind walking, of the arousal spectrum and both lead to rela- but not verbal judgments? If anger affects the per- tive overestimations suggests the valence of the ception of spatial layout in the same way as other emotion, and not the level of arousal, is the reason negative emotions, then the anger group’s verbal for biases in estimations. However, our findings judgments would have been greater relative to the that suggest anger may lead to overestimations relaxed group’s which was not the case. It is pos- relative to relaxation only offer a tentative step in sible that anger affected the participants’ walking this direction, given that we did not manipulate response, and not necessarily their perception of valence and arousal separately, and given that the the targets. Being in an angry or negative valence verbal estimates did not differ between the groups. state, likely increases the energetic costs related The present study supported previous research to walking. Conversely, a relaxed positive valence in several other ways. In both conditions, partici- state characterized by a decrease in blood pressure pants underestimated the distances verbally which and heart rate likely decreases the energetic costs is consistent with previous research which has related to walking. This increase in energetic costs shown that people often underestimate distances associated with walking could cause one to believe when giving a verbal estimate or when performing more energy is required to reach an object when in a visual matching task regardless of their physiologi- an angry state relative to being in a relaxed state. cal or emotional state (Amorim et al., 1998; Profitt, Several factors limited this study. First, given 2006). The present study also demonstrated that that the study was conducted at a small liberal arts blind walking is generally a more accurate measure college, many participants knew the experimenter. This familiarity may have diminished the effect of FIGURE 2 the anger manipulation, unintentionally relaxing Average Blind Walking (BW) Estimates participants who knew the experimenter. This complication may have led participants to experi-

10 ence the high arousal aspect of anger, but not the negative valence. It is possible that the participants in the anger group might have reported higher 8 levels of anger if they also experienced the negative valence of anger. In a similar vein, knowing the experimenters could have also deterred partici- 6 pants from reporting high levels of trait hostility. Though there were shortcomings to the cur- 4 rent study, our results suggest possible directions for future research. Previous research regarding BW Estimates (m) mood’s effect on perception has relied on verbal 2 reports only (Stefanucci et al., 2008; Stefanucci & Proffitt, 2009). We implemented blind walking 0 estimations in the present study because previous BW Short BW Medium BW Long research has shown manipulations other than (5.79 m) (6.71 m) (9.14 m) mood can similarly affect verbal and blind walk- Actual Distance Relaxation ing reports (Philbeck & Loomis, 1997; Witt et al., Anger 2005). The present study suggests that anger can result in further blind walking estimations relative SPRING 2013 Average blind walking estimates by group for each distance. The numbers on the vertical to relaxation, so it is possible that other negative axis indicate the average distance walked in meters and the black horizontal lines represent emotions like sadness and fear may lead to similar PSI CHI the actual distances. JOURNAL OF relative blind walking overestimations. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

The current study partially supported previous unable to determine if arousal or valence played a research regarding negative emotions leading to more important role in the participants’ estimates, relative overestimations in the perception of spatial because we only used a scale to measure anger. layout. Future research should examine whether References other negative emotions, such as boredom and Ader, R. (2007). Psychoneuroimmunology. Burlington, MA: Elsevier anxiety, alter distance perception. In addition, Academic Press. future research should implement a third baseline Amorim, M. A., Loomis, J. M., & Fukusima, S. S. (1998). Reproduction of object shape is more accurate without the continued availability of condition between anger and relaxation. A third visual information. Perception, 27, 69–96. condition in which no mood manipulation is Baron, R. A. (1988). Negative effects of destructive criticism: Impact performed could help determine which emotion on conflict, self-efficacy, and task performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 199–207. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.73.2.199 has the greater effect on perception. Furthermore, Berkowitz, L., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2004). More thoughts about future research should implement a measure to anger determinants. Emotion, 4, 151–155. doi: 10.1037/1528- 3542.4.2.151 determine the participants’ arousal level specifically Berkowitz, L., & LePage, A. (1967). Weapons as aggression-eliciting in addition to a measure to report anger. We were stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 202–207. doi: 10.1037/h0025008 Bernardi, L., Porta, C., & Sleight, P. (2006). Cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, FIGURE 3 and respiratory changes induced by differing types of music in Percentage Error Verbal musicians and non-musicians: The importance of silence. Heart, 92, 445–452. doi: 10.1136/hrt.2005.064600 Bould, R. (2007, May 23). Very high-pitched sound [Video file]. Retrieved 0.4 from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BX7Ar3Z-oTo Butcher, J. N., & Spielberger, C. D. (1983). Advances in personality assessment, volume 2. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum 0.2 Relaxation Associates. r Anger Fried, R. (1990). Integrating music in breathing training and ro relaxation: Background, rationale, and relevant elements. Applied 0.0 Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 15, 161–169. doi: 10.1007/ BF00999147

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rcentage Er doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00008.x Pe Proffitt, D. J., Stefanucci, J. K., Banton, T., & Epstein, W. (2003). The role -0.2 of effort in perceiving distance. Psychological Science, 14, 106–112. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.t01-1-01427 -0.4 Riener, C. R., Stefanucci, J. K., Proffitt, D. R., & Clore, G. (2011). An effect ShortMedium Long of mood on the perception of geographical slant. Cognition and Emotion, 25, 174–182. doi: 10.1080/02699931003738026 SPRING 2013 Distance Judged Stefanucci, J. K., & Proffitt, D. R. (2009). The roles of altitude and fear in PSI CHI the perception of heights. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 35, 424–438. doi: 10.1037/a0013894 JOURNAL OF Average percentage error scores for each blind walking estimation by group. PSYCHOLOGICAL Stefanucci, J. K., Proffitt, D. R., Clore, G. & Parekh, N. (2008). Skating down RESEARCH

a steeper slope: Fear influences the perception of geographical slant. Author Note. Tory R. Spindle, Department of Perception, 37, 321–323. doi: 10.1068/p5796 Psychology, Randolph-Macon College; Cedar R. Riener, Stevenson, R. A., & James, T. W. (2008). Affective auditory stimuli: Department of Psychology, Randolph-Macon College. Characterization of the international affective digitized sounds Tory R. Spindle is now at Department of Psychology, Virginia by discrete emotional categories. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 315–321. doi: 10.3758/BRM.40.1.315 Commonwealth University. Walker, P. M. (1972). Sleep onset as a function of auditory stimulation rates, This research was supported by Randolph-Macon’s Shapiro response requirements, and novelty of the environment. (Unpublished Undergraduate Research Fellowship (SURF) program. I doctoral dissertation). University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. would like to acknowledge and thank the programs director Witt, J. K., Profitt, D. R., & Epstein, W. (2004). Perceiving distance: A role of (Dr. Kelly Lambert) for selecting me for the program. effort and intent. Perception, 33, 577–590. doi: 10.1068/p5090 Correspondence concerning this article should be Witt, J. K., Profitt, D. R., & Epstein, W. (2005). Tool use affects perceived distance but only when you intend to use it. Journal of Experimental addressed to Tory R. Spindle, Department of Psychology, Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 31, 880–888. Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23220. doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.31.5.880 E-mail: [email protected]

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