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PREHISTORIC AND EARLY This page intentionally left blank PREHISTORIC AND EARLY WALES

Edited by I. LL. FOSTER AND GLYN DANIEL First published in 1965 This edition first published in 2015 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 1965 Routledge & Kegan Paul Limited All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

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Disclaimer The publisher has made every effort to trace copyright holders and would welcome correspondence from those they have been unable to trace. PREHISTORIC AND EARLY WALES

edited by I. LL. FOSTER and GLYN DANIEL

Routledge and Kegan Paul LONDON First published 1965 by Routledge

Preface page ix Abbreviations xi I Introduction glyn d a n ie l 1 II The Old Stone Age in Wales c. b . m . m c b u r n e y 17 III Neolithic Wales w . f . g r im e s 35 IV The Bronze Age H. n . sa v o r y 71 V Early Iron Age Wales A. H. A. h o g g 109 VI Roman Wales i. a . Ric h m o n d 151 VII Wales in the Fifth to Seventh Centuries a .d . : Archaeological Evidence l . a l c o c k 177 VIII The Emergence o f Wales i. l l . f o s t e r 213 Index 236

v Illustrations

FIGURES

1. Types of the hybrid Altmiihl-Aurignacian complex of Central Europe and Britain page 28 2. Selection of Creswellian tools from Cathole, Gower 32 3. Creswellian assemblage from Aveline’s Hole, Somerset 33 4. Distribution map of Neolithic settlement in Wales 38-9 5. Long cairns, mostly of Cotswold-Severn type 45 6. Long cairns, probably of ‘western’ types 48 7. Neolithic house-plans: Mount Pleasant, Nottage, Glam, (above); Clegyr Boia, Pembs. (below) 58 8. The Beater Period in Wales 76 9. Welsh Beakers from: 1. Llanmadoc (Glam.); 2. Cwmi-du (Breckn.); 5. Brymbo (Denbs.); 4. Moel Hebog (Caerns.); 5. Llanelieu (Breckn.); 6. Penderyn (Breckn.) 80 10. Welsh Food-vessels from: 1. Pentraeth (Angl.); 2. Kerry (Mont.); 3. Manorbier (Pembs.); 4. Llangwm (Denbs.); 5. Bryn- ford (Flints.) 89 11. Biconical Pygmy Cups 93 12. The Guilsfield Complex in Wales 101 13. Local Late Bronze Age axe types 103 14. Iron Age: Early Phases 118 15. Iron Age: Middle Phases 123 16. Helmet from Ogmore Down, now lost 125 17. Iron Age: Later Phases 127 18. Bosherston 134 19. Carn Goch 137 20. Craig Rhiwarth 139 21. Moel y Gaer 143 22. Pen-y-crug 146 23. Roman Wales 152-3 IV ILLUSTRATIONS 24. Imported red ware bowl with stamped animal pattern, from Dinas Powys page 183 25. Pottery assignable to the fifth to seventh centuries a.d . 1- 2. Grey wares, 3-4. Coarse wares from Dinas Powys; 5. Lidded crucible from Dinas Powys 184 26. Comparative plans of Dinas Powys and Pant-y-saer 189 27. Top row. rim and base sherds from Pant-y-saer; remainder". body and rim sherds from a late-Roman or post-Roman level at the Breiddin hill-fort 195

PLATES between pages 212 and 213 1. Cathole, Gower. General view during re-excavation in 1958. 2. Cresswellian tool types from Little Hoyle and Hoyle’s Mouth. 3. Little Hoyle, . 4. Arthur’s Stone (Reynoldston), , (photo: W. F. Grimes). 5. Longhouse (Mathri), Pembrokeshire, (FT. F. Grimes). 6. Cerrig Llwydion (Cynwyl Elfed), Carmarthenshire, (W. F. Grimes). 7. Tresewig (Llanhowel), Pembrokeshire, (W. F. Grimes). 8. Trelyffant (Nevern), Pembrokeshire, (W. F. Grimes). 9. Pentregalar (Llanfyrnach), Pembrokeshire: perforated axe-hammer of ophitic olivine gabbro, (photo: National Museum of Wales). 10. Llanharry, Glamorgan: Irish bronze flat axe, (National Museum of Wales). 11. Llanblethian, Glamorgan: Breach Farm barrow, (National Museum of Wales). 12. Llyn Fawr, Glamorgan: Cauldron No. 2, (NationalMuseum of Wales). 13. Caergwrle bowl, (National Museum of Wales). 14. Saint-y-nyll, St Brides-super-Ely: post-holes of settlement underlying barrow, (National Museum of Wales). 15. Trawsfynydd, Merioneth: tankard of wooden staves encased in thin bronze, (photo: City of Liverpool Museums). 16. Pen Dinas, Aberystwyth, Cardiganshire, (photo: Crown copyright reserved). 17. Pen-y-crug, Breconshire, (Crown copyright reserved). 18. Brecon Gaer: the fort from the west, (Crown copyright reserved). 19. Goelbren: the fort from the north, (Crown copyright reserved). 20. Segontium: the fort from the south-east, (Crown copyright reserved). vii ILLUSTRATIONS 21. Tomen-y-mur: the fort from the north-east, (Crown copyright reserved). 22. Metalwork from Dinas Powys. 23. Royal memorial stones to Voteporix. and Cadfan 24. Bone combs, animal-headed pin and ornamental plaque from Dinas Powys. 25. Silvered bronze penannular brooch from Pant-y-saer, Anglesey, (National Museum of Wales). 26. Amphorae and glass from Dinas Powys. 27. Cki-Rho sherd from Dinas Emrys, (National Museum of Wales).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS For permission to reproduce photographs, thanks are tendered to the Air Ministry, the City of Liverpool Museums, the Director, National Museum of Wales, and Dr. J. K. S. St Joseph. Preface

h is volume is based on lectures given when the British Summer School of Archaeology was held at Bangor in August 1959. Dr. F. T. TWainwright invited us to edit the material for publication in the series of ‘Studies in Ancient History and Archaeology’ of which he was general editor. He died in June 1961 but the series which he originated continues. We recall with affectionate gratitude his encouragement and assistance in the early stages of our work. We also gratefully acknowledge the constant and generous help of our colleagues throughout the preparation of the volume. I. LL. FOSTER GLYN DANIEL October, 1963. This page intentionally left blank Abbreviations

AA Acta Archaeologica Agric. Hist. Rev. Agricultural History Review Ant. Journ. Antiquaries Journal Arch. Archaeologia Arch. Camb. Archaeologia Cambrensis Arch. Journ. Archaeological Journal BAAJ Journal of the British Archaeological Association BAP J. Abercromby, A study of the Bronze Age Pottery of Great Britain and Ireland, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1912) BBCS Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies CA Ifor Williams, Canu Aneirin (Cardiff, 1938) CASJ Journal of the Chester Archaeological Association CLIH Ifor Williams, Canu Llywarch Hen (second edition, Cardiff, 1953) CNST Transactions of the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society CT Ifor Williams, Canu Taliesin (Cardiff, i 960) Cy T Cymmrodor EE Ephemeris Epigraphica ECMW V. E. Nash-Williams, The Early Christian Monuments of Wales (Cardiff, 1950) HMSO Her Majesty’s Stationery Office JBAA Journal of the British Archaeological Association JRIC Journal of the Royal Institution of Cornwall JRS Journal of Roman Studies JRSAI Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland LEWP Ifor Williams, Lectures on Early Welsh Poetry(Dublin, 1944) LHEB Kenneth Jackson, Language and History in Early Britain (Edinburgh, 1958) ABBREVIATIONS MA Medieval Archaeology NCH Northumberland County History PBSR Papers of the British School at Rome PB USS Proceedings of the University of Bristol Spelaeological Society PPS Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society PRIA Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy PSAS Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland PSS see PBUSS Proc. PSEA Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia RCAM Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monu­ ments in Wales and Monmouthshire: Survey and Inven­ tory SEBC Studies in the Early British Church, ed. N. K. Chadwick (Cambridge, 1954) SEBH Studies in Early British History, ed. N. K. Chadwick (Cambridge, 1954) TCHS Transactions of the Caernarvonshire Historical Society TCWAS Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Anti­ quarian and Archaeological Society TDGNHS Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History Society TDHS Transactions of the Denbighshire Historical Society Trans. Cymmr Transactions of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion TTP Rachel Bromwich, Trioedd Tnys Prydein (Cardiff, 1961) UJA Ulster Journal of Archaeology VSBG A. W. Wade-Evans, Vitae Sanctorum Britanniae et Genealogiae (Cardiff, 1944) CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

N the lecture he gave in 1932 inaugurating the Reardon-Smith Memorial Lecture Theatre in the National Museum of Wales at Cardiff, Sir John IEdward Lloyd spoke of the role of the archaeologist and the historian sensu strido in creating the early history of Wales. His lecture was called Wales and the Past: Two Voices, and these were the two voices he was talking about—archaeology and written history. This book discusses how these two voices now speak to tell us of the early past of Wales from the first appear­ ance of man in the part of western Britain which by the sixth century a .d ., when we end, was the country of Wales. The chapters that follow this introduction, based on lectures given in Bangor in 1959, and developed from those lectures by the lecturers who gave them, attempt to provide a summary account of current knowledge about ancient Wales for the general reader as well as for the professional archaeologist and his­ torian. No such survey has been made since Sir , then Director of the National Museum of Wales, wrote his Prehistoric and Roman Wales in 1925. This book was a landmark in the development of Welsh archaeology and in the modern evaluation of ancient Wales, and to a certain extent this book, and the course of lectures on which it is based, is Wheeler brought up to date. Sir Mortimer Wheeler addressed the Summer School at Bangor, where these lectures were given, and in his introduction to the course made some of the points about the development of Welsh archaeology that are made in this introductory chapter. 1 GLYN DANIEL This is not to say that there have not been surveys of early Wales be­ tween 1925 and the present day, but they have been limited in certain ways. Professor W. F. Grimes’s Guide to the Collection Illustrating the of Wales first published in 1939, and reissued as The Prehistory of Wales in 1951, brought Wheeler up to date in so far as pre-Roman Wales was concerned, and the articles published in the Centenary Volume of the Cambrian Archaeological Association dealing with the development of Welsh archaeology between 1846 and 1946 give a valuable general survey up to sixteen years ago, but this is the first time that an extensive survey of the whole problem has been made since the publication of Prehistoric and Roman Wales. It takes the story further forward than that book, dealing in the two final chapters with post-Roman Wales. It is also, we believe, the first time that a group of specialist scholars have combined to deal with the early past of Wales on such a scale. We have said that Wheeler’s book in 1925 was a landmark in the history of Welsh archaeology. So was Sir John Lloyd’s History of Wales, the first edition of which was published in 1911. Lloyd himself noted in his preface that the task of writing a history of Wales had not been attempted since Miss Jane Williams (Ysgafell) wrote her History of Wales in 1869. Between these two events there had, however, appeared John Rhys’s Early Britain: Celtic Britain (1882; Second Edition, 1884; Third Edition, 1902), and in 1900 the book which Rhys wrote together with David Brynmor-Jones, namely The Welsh People. This latter book was itself an important land­ mark in the development of the study of early Wales. In this introduction I want to look back at other landmarks in the development of the study of Welsh antiquity, and in outline to trace the evolution of archaeology in Wales. We may conveniently divide the history of Welsh archaeology into the following phases: (l) from the beginnings of antiquarian thought to the rise of Tudor antiquarianism, (2) from the Tudor antiquaries to the end of the eighteenth century, (3) the nineteenth-century antiquaries and the begin­ nings of archaeological study, (4) the first quarter of the twentieth century, i.e. from 1900 to 1925, or from The Welsh People to Prehistoric and Roman Wales, and (5) the period 1925 to 1964, i.e. from Prehistoric and Roman Wales to the publication of the present lectures. It is not proposed to dis­ cuss here the fifth period, because it is, after all, the new work in recon­ naissance, excavation, and synthesis in early Wales during that period 2 INTRODUCTION which is the stuff of which the following chapters are written. We will, however, consider briefly each of the other periods.1

1. The Medieval Antiquaries The period of the development of Welsh as of British and northern Euro­ pean antiquarian thought in general from the earliest times to the Tudor period can justly be called the period of medieval antiquarianism, and it has been well studied by Sir Thomas Kendrick in his British Antiquity (1950). It began with Nennius, whose Historia Brittonum in the ninth century claimed Britto or Brutus, grandson of Aeneas, as the founder of British history. Brutus, this eponymous hero, was supposed to have settled in Britain in the third age of the world and to have provided the first in­ habitants since the Flood. Of course, this was invention, but invention based on the known fact that the British, that is the Ancient British, and their descendants the Welsh, knew that they had existed in Britain before the Saxons and were a dispossessed Roman province. They sought for an origin for themselves in a southerly direction, the Saxons having come from the east. By the first age of the world Nennius meant ‘from Adam to Noah’, by the second ‘from Noah to Abraham’, the third was ‘from Abraham to David’, and the fourth ‘David to Daniel’. He tells a story of a Scythian of noble birth, banished from his own country, who wandered about in the Near East and North Africa, settled in Spain, greatly increased and multi­ plied and ‘a thousand and two years after the Egyptians were lost in the Red Sea, passed into Ireland’. He identifies the Scythians with the Scotti (i.e. the early Irish) and while he makes the Britons come to Britain in the third age of the world, it is in the fourth that the Scots took possession of Ireland. It is difficult to know precisely what the sources of this medieval anti­ quarian learning were: partly, no doubt, an idea that as the Saxons came from the east, the British and the Irish ought to have come from the south, partly an idea of rehabilitating the British past with respectable eponymous ancestors, but perhaps some folk-memory of prehistoric connexions between

1 No history of Welsh archaeology has been written but in this connexion see R. E. M. Wheeler, Wales and Archaeology (Rhys Memorial Lecture for 1929, Proc. Brit. Acad, 1929) and G. E. Daniel, Who are the Welsh? (Rhys Memorial Lecture for 1 9 5 4 ; Eroc. Brit. Acad., 1954, 145). 3 GLYN DANIEL western Britain and Ireland on the one hand and the Mediterranean world on the other, and particularly the west Mediterranean world of Iberia. The complete saga of the Trojan origin of the British was set out by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his Historia Regum Britanniae of c.1135, and we have never had such an exact account of the past of Britain as is given in the twelfth century by Geoffrey. He makes Brutus, prince of Trojan blood, land in 1170 B.C. in Totnes in Devon, and his account of the Troy- novantian origin of the British was widely believed in by many for a very long time. Indeed, it was not until the seventeenth century that the Trojans were given up: Kendrick has noted that in 1874 the Oxford Almanack still had Brute heading the list of the kings of Britain.1 Two years later the Oxford regnal lists begin with William the Conqueror. This is not the place to discuss the sources of Geoffrey of Monmouth; he himself claimed to have had at his disposal a vetustissimus liber britannici sermonis which had been brought from Brittany by his friend Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford: he certainly relied also on Nennius, and as Piggott has argued, probably knew of folk-memories from a very distant past.2 But for the greater part medieval antiquarianism was invention. It was not until Tudor times that monuments themselves were studied and if not used as a key to obtaining facts about the past, fitted into the pattern of early British history as known from Classical, or assumed from Biblical, sources. 2. Welsh Antiquarianism 1500 to 1800 Field antiquarianism began in the British Isles with John Leland (1503-52) and William Camden (1551-1623) and reached a very high level in the work of John Aubrey (1626-97) whom Lytton Strachey called ‘the Father of British archaeology’.3 Humphrey Llwyd (1527-68) came midway be­ tween Leland and Camden; physician and antiquary, he has perhaps the right to the title of the earliest Welsh antiquary, if for this purpose we exclude people like Nennius, Geoffrey of Monmouth and Gerald the Welshman. Llwyd published one of the earliest known maps of Wales and, a sick man, roused himself in the year of his death at 41 to write a slender

1 T . D. Kendrick, British Antiquity (1950), i n . 2 It seems difficult otherwise to explain Geoffrey’s account of the origin of Stonehenge. See S. Piggott, Antiquity, X V (1941), 269 and 305. 3 Portraits in Miniature (1931), 20, 29. 4 INTRODUCTION little book first published in Cologne in 1572 as Commentarioli Britannicae Descriptionis Fragmentum, issued the following year in English translation as The Breuiary of Britayne. Llwyd, ‘an antiquary of great reputation’, as Kendrick has called him,1 was mainly concerned in his book with defend­ ing the British history of Geoffrey, and attacking men like Polydore Vergil, Hector Boece, and William of Newburgh, who attacked Geoffrey, but he does show an interest in monuments and gives us accounts of, for example, Caer Caradog and Offa’s Dyke. Leland was blazing the trail for other general surveys or for regional topographies and antiquarian surveys. The first of these was John Stow’s Survey of London, published in 1598, when the author was over 70, but the first ‘county’ archaeology was Richard Carew’s Survey of Cornwall (1602). Our first Welsh county survey was at this time, and its author, George Owen of Henllys, Baron of Cemais and Deputy Vice-Admiral of the coun­ ties of Pembroke and Cardigan, a man whom Camden called venerandae antiquitatis cultor eximius. The first volume of The Description of Pen- brockshire—only a fragment of the second volume has survived—was dated 18 May 1603; his so-called ‘Description of Wales’ was dated in the previous year. Of The Description of Penbrockshire, Wheeler has said ‘it is a clear three centuries ahead of its date . . . astonishingly modern and mature.’2 George Owen was a careful observer with the widest interests in every­ thing that the landscape provided whether the features be natural or human; his geological observations earned him the name of‘the patriarch of English Geologists’.3 He describes the famous megalithic burial cham­ ber at Pentre Ifan as ‘the stone called maen y gromlegh on Pentre Jevan lande’, and describes it as a ‘huge and massie stone mounted on highe and set on the toppes of iii e'e other highe stones, pitched standinge upright in the grounde’,4 and very properly describes it as one of the county’s ‘wonders’. Carew and Owen were contemporaries and friends of Camden and shared the great interest in antiquities that was growing up in the late sixteenth century. In 1929 Wheeler was prepared to say that ‘there is yet no other Welsh county record worthy to stand near his upon the shelf’.5

1 British Antiquity, 136. 2 Wales and Archaeology, 10. 3 Edinburgh Review, 1841, 3; see also Conybeare, Outlines of Geology (1822), xl. 4 This is the first instance of the use of the word cromlech in literature. 5 Wales and Archaeology, n . Wheeler was deliberately criticizing the early volumes of the Royal Commission on Ancient Monuments in Wales and Mon­ mouthshire. Since 1929 we can put on the same shelf as Owen the Anglesey and Caernarvonshire volumes of the reformed Commission. P.E.W.-B 5 GLYN DANIEL Camden’s Britannia was first published in 1586 and it was the request of Dr. Edmund Gibson, then of Queen’s College, Oxford, to Edward Lhuyd to revise the Welsh section of the Britannia that set off Lhuyd on his archaeological travels in Wales. This was in 1692, the year after Lhuyd’s appointment as Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum. The Gibson edition of the Britannia with Lhuyd’s notes on Wales was published in 1695; of these Thomas Hearne wrote that he thought them ‘the very best part of all the additions’. The credit Lhuyd won by his contribution to the Britannia brought him an invitation from ‘some Gentlemen in Glamorganshire to undertake a Natural History of Wales’; the concept grew, and Lhuyd planned an extended antiquarian and scientific tour of five years so that he could complete a more extensive work. He sent round a prospectus entitled A design of a British Dictionary, Historical and Geo­ graphical, with an essay entitled Archaeologia and a Natural History of Wales, and obtained some support. Lhuyd pursued his work in two ways, first by questionnaire and correspondence, and secondly by travelling ex­ tensively in Wales, Scotland, Ireland, and Brittany. His questionnaire technique was borrowed from his tutor Robert Plot, who had also set out with the grandiose idea of writing a natural history of England and indeed achieved two volumes of such a survey, namely the Natural History of Oxfordshire (1677) and the Natural History of Staffordshire (1686). His queries were in the form of Parochial Queries in order to a Geographical Dictionary and Natural History of Wales, and the replies to some of his queries have been published by the Cambrian Archaeological Association.1 Only one volume of the projected great work was published, namely the Archaeologia Britannica in 1707. Its sub-title is interesting ‘giving some Account. . . . of the Languages, Histories, and Customs of the original inhabitants of Great Britain, from collections and observations in travels through Wales, Cornwal, Bas-Bretagne, Ireland and Scotland. Vol. I. Glossography’. Alas, volume I was the only one that appeared. In 1709 Lhuyd died, at the age of 49, and his notes and views were never pub­ lished. Time and chance have therefore cheated us of his second volume, which was to be the Archaeology of the Celtic countries. It might well have been one of the greatest works of antiquarian scholarship in western Europe.

1 Some of Lhuyd’s correspondence is printed in R. T. Gunther, The Life and Letters of Edward Lhuyd, 1945. See also F. Emery, ‘Edward Lhwyd and the 1695 Britannia’, Antiquity, X X X II (1958), 179. 6 INTRODUCTION Lhuyd’s archaeological judgements were very much in advance of his time and he must share with Aubrey the distinction of being the first field archaeologist in Britain. Let us only instance his observations at the great megalithic tomb of New Grange in Ireland. He was one of the first people to visit this remarkable monument and was much impressed by it and by the engraved stones. He says: ‘A gold coin of the Emperor Valentinian, being found near the top of this mount might bespeak it Roman; but that the rude carving at the entry and in the cave seems to denote it a barbarous monument. So, the coin proving it ancienter than any Invasion of the Ostmans or Danes; and the carving and rude sculpture, barbarous; it should follow, that it was some place of sacrifice or burial of the ancient Irish’. This is from a letter which he wrote to Dr. Tancred Robinson in 1699. In a letter to his friend the Reverend Henry Rowlands, Vicar of Llanidan in Anglesey, he says (the letter is dated from Sligo, 12 March 1700): ‘Near the top of this Mount they found a gold coin of the Emperor Valentinian; but notwithstanding this, the rude carving above-mentioned makes me conclude this monument was never Roman, not to mention that we want History to prove that even the Romans were at all in Ireland’. As Wheeler has said, George Owen in his field work and description might well have been three centuries in front of his time, but here Lhuyd was arguing in a twentieth-century fashion. He was a remarkable man and a brilliant example of the polymathy of the time that produced men like himself and Ray and Lister and Aubrey. His geological works—the Litho- phylacii Britannia Ichnographia and the De Stellis Marinis—are remarkable and pioneer works: he has been described by Sir John Rhys as ‘in many respects the greatest Celtic philologist the world has even seen’. At Oxford his reputation was such that he was styled in the Donation Book of the Ashmolean as vir pereruditus, and Sir Hans Sloane called him ‘the best naturalist in Europe’. Here if anywhere we see the beginnings of the great traditions of Welsh field archaeology. Here, too, we find a coherent account of early Wales with two groups of people, the C Celts and the P Celts, and the ancient colonies of Ireland consisting of ‘two distinct nations. . . Gwydhels and Scots’. Britain had been peopled first by Spaniards (the Scythians who lived and multiplied in the Iberia of Nennius), then by C Britons and finally by P Britons. All this in the first decade of the eighteenth century is what Sir John Rhf s was setting out in the late nineteenth century in his famous Iberians, Goidels and Britons division of the people of pre-Roman Britain, 7 GLYN DANIEL a division which was widely used as the framework of Welsh prehistory for decades afterwards. It is indeed the framework of Sir John Lloyd’s picture of the beginnings of Wales in his History of Wales, written, admittedly, at a time when one of the two voices of the past which he was to describe many years later was not speaking, as it does now, with clarity and authority.1 Edward Lhuyd was a friend and correspondent of Henry Rowlands all through his life, but this Anglesey cleric could not compare in his com­ parative archaeological knowledge or the objectivity of his approach with the Keeper of the Ashmolean. Rowlands, though he recorded and studied the monuments of his country, was interpreting them in terms of written sources and without criticism. The first edition of Henry Rowlands’s Mona Antiqua Restaurata was published in 1723 in Dublin, and here he writes: ‘Antiquity recordeth and the consent of nations celebrateth the sons of Japhet to have been the first planters of Europe’. Britain was peopled by these people ‘very soon after the flood’. Seven years before these words were published, and only five years after Edward Lhuyd’s death in the Ashmolean itself, there appeared the first edition of Drychy Prif Oesoedd, a book that was for several generations the only widely read history of Wales. Its author, Theophilus Evans, was incumbent of Llangamarch and Llan- faes in Brecknockshire. In this very entertaining book Theophilus Evans claimed to be writing the history of Wales in remote times. As Dr. Thomas Parry has said of Theophilus Evans, ‘there never was a more uncritical historian or a better story-teller’.2 Evans took the origin of the Welsh lan­ guage back to the Tower of Babel, and the Welsh to Gomer, the grandson of Noah—Gomeri, hence Cimbri, hence Cymry, according to his argu­ ment. The Druids themselves had not unnaturally a special hold over Welsh antiquaries, although, even in Anglesey, there never was such a devoted adherent of the Druids as William Stukeley. Among Welsh devotees of the Druids were Rowland Jones in his The Origin of Language and Nations (1764), Edward Davies in his Celtic Researches and Mythology and rites of the British Druids (1809) William Owen Pughe in the Myvyrian Archaiology of Wales (1801, 1807) and, of course, Edward Williams (Iolo Morganwg), who, among other remarkable things, revealed the Druidic mysteries to the London Welsh in 1791 and held a ‘Gorsedd of Bards’ on Primrose Hill,

1 On the development of Rhys’s views see G. E. Daniel, Who are the Welsh?, I4^_5I- 2 A History of Welsh Literature (1955), 290. 8 INTRODUCTION and another one in the grounds of the Ivy Bush Hotel at Carmarthen in 1819 during an Eisteddfod.1 If you didn’t like the tower of Babel or the Druids you could choose the Phoenicians who were being canvassed by men like John Twyne, Aylett Sammes, and Samuel Bochart. Indeed, John Twyne, writing in the late six­ teenth century, explained much of what survives in Welsh life as Phoeni­ cian—the word ‘caer’ for example, coracles and moustaches, the dark blood of the Silures and the cytiau'r gwyddelod. The great Welsh scholar and linguist and administrator, Sir William Jones—harmonious, Persian, Arabic Jones, as he was called—left a draft for an epic poem to be called Britain Discovered, and in it the Phoenicians land at Tartessus, are unkindly received by the Iberian natives and move on to Britain, following a vision of Albione in the groves of Tyre. All this was a long way from Edward Lhuyd’s careful inquiry into the real way of dating New Grange; it was the romantic period of antiquarianism in which one took one’s choice of Trojans, Phoeni­ cians, the sons of Noah, Egyptians, Iberians, Scythians, the lost tribes of Israel, the Druids.2 It was antiquarian guess-work and fantasy which was replaced slowly and surely in the nineteenth century. But the replacement process was a slow one; Woodward’s History of Wales (1853) makes the early inhabitants of Wales migrate directly there from the land of the Tigris and Euphrates. George Borrow found the original home of the Cymro in southern Hindustan, the extreme south point of which, Cape Comorin, he alleged ‘derived from him its name’. And the folk-names of our megalithic tombs, the cromlechau of Wales, faithfully reflect the ideas of the eighteenth-century antiquaries about the past of Wales: names like Carreg Samson, Beddyr Afanc, Twlcy Filiast, Coetan Arthur, Barclodiady Gavires, and Cerrigy Gof show that the only key to the past available for the general public as for scholars was, at best, in the realms of classical or Biblical writers, and, at worst, in the realms of fantasy. 3. The Nineteenth Century This difficulty was not a problem restricted to those studying the past of Wales; the same problem existed in England, France, and the north

1 See Elijah Waring’s Recollections and Anecdotes of Edward Williams (1850), and G. J. Williams’s Iolo Morganwg (1956). 8 On this see S. Piggott, ‘Prehistory and the Romantic Movement’, Antiquity, X I (1937), 31- 9 GLYN DANIEL European countries. Although we know now that there are two voices of the past, the archaeological voice did not begin to speak clearly until the middle of the nineteenth century. Our knowledge of early Wales from archaeology is little more than a hundred years old. The development of archaeology in the nineteenth century depended on the revolution in geological thought which produced the change from creationist and diluvialist beliefs to fluvialistic beliefs based on the doc­ trines of uniformitarianism propounded by Lyell in his Principles of Geology (1830-33). Lyell had been a pupil of William Buckland in Oxford and both Buckland and Conybeare were strong believers in the Biblical flood as an explanation for all geological phenomena. In 1823 Buckland wrote his Reliquiae Diluvianae; or observations on the Organic Remains con­ tained in caves, fissures, and diluvial gravels and in other Geological Deposits attesting the action of an Universal Deluge. This was the very year in which Buckland excavated in the Goat’s Hole Cave, Paviland, in the Gower peninsula—one of the very first Welsh excavations—and found what has been for long known as the ‘Red Lady of Paviland’, although it is now said to be the skeleton of a young man. Buckland had found a genuine Upper Palaeolithic burial, but he could not bring himself to believe in the evi­ dence of his eyes—as he could not believe the evidence at Burrington in the Mendips and Kent’s Cavern at Torquay—and explained away this Upper Palaeolithic burial as that of a Roman camp follower. Conybeare, who was Dean of Llandaff, was equally violent in his creationist beliefs. But from the time of Lyell’s Principles onwards the old Creationist- Diluvialists were defeated and the new geology was triumphant. It was the applications of this new geology to the evidence from Kent’s Cavern, Tor­ quay, the Windmill Hill Cave, Brixham, and the Somme gravels being ex­ plored by Boucher de Perthes that proved the antiquity of man, and gave rise to the famous papers of 1859 which, even more than the publication of Darwin’s Origin of Species later that year, showed that the study of man’s past and the evaluation of man’s place in nature had entered a new phase. The geological revolution was one of the two causes of the new archae­ ology of the nineteenth century: the second was the setting out in Den­ mark, Sweden, and Germany of the idea that the past of man was divided into technological ages of Stone, Bronze, and Iron—an idea still mainly and correctly attributed to Christian Thomsen of the Danish Museum in 10 INTRODUCTION Copenhagen. This whole concept was fundamental to the development of archaeology, and it does not matter if we are nowadays abandoning the subdivisions of the Three Age System. The system and its subdivisions were the core of archaeological method from the early nineteenth century to the present, and it is inevitable that this present book should be or­ ganized according to these divisions, just as was Prehistoric and Roman Wales. But the books that will be written on this subject in twenty, no, in ten years’ time, will probably not use these subdivisions, and wisely so. Archaeological chronology and geochronology and most of all the astonish­ ing technique of Carbon 14 dating are now providing an objective time- scale into which archaeological events can be fitted. Indeed, the develop­ ment of archaeology in Wales as elsewhere, from the point of view of dating and interpretation, falls into three phases: (l) the antiquaries who did what they could by invention and the reading of classical and Biblical writers, and (2) the archaeologists who, from the early nineteenth century through until 1945, were trying to put away the Druids and the Iberians and replace them with archaeological facts—facts which referred to Neo­ lithic peoples and Late Bronze Age invaders and Iron Age B folk, and (3) the modern archaeologists who, with dated contexts in front of them, have no further use for subdivisions of the Three Age System, just as the pro­ ponents of the Three Age System had no further use for Iberians and Druids, and can now write historically about prehistory. The Three Age System was slow to be adopted in Wales, as it was in the British Isles in general. Indeed, it is many many years after the opening of the Copenhagen Museum and the visit of J. J. A. Worsaae to the British Isles before the words Stone Age and Palaeolithic creep into the pages of Archaeologia Cambrensis. Indeed, the phrase ‘the Age of Stone’ first creeps into those pages, which so splendidly reflect the nineteenth-century development of Welsh archaeology, only in the republication of the famous article on the construction of megalithic monuments, by His Majesty King Frederick VII of Denmark, first read in Copenhagen on 21 March, 1853, and reprinted in Wales in 1857. But it was a long time after 1857 before ages of Stone and Bronze and Iron were part of the normal writing in Archaeologia Cambrensis. For long the talk was of Celts and Druids and Cromlech-Builders. It could hardly be said that the lessons of the new Danish prehistory as of the new Geology were properly learned in Wales before the last quarter of the nineteenth century—the twenty-five years 11 GLYN DANIEL that produced Boyd Dawkins’s Early Man in Britain (1880) and his Cave Hunting (1874).1 Archaeologia Cambrensis, and the Cambrian Archaeological Association which grew out of it, was founded in 1846; the journal was at first edited by the Reverend John Williams (ab Ithel) and that remarkable man the Reverend Harry Longueville Jones, Fellow of Magdalene College, Cam­ bridge, and author of Galignani’s original Paris Guide. It started with a tremendous flourish; the editors were conscious of the ‘arduous under­ taking’ on which they had embarked and wrote in the first volume: ‘We hope that we have struck a cord in the hearts of the Welsh antiquaries that will resound not harshly in the ears of the Welsh public’.2 The history of Welsh archaeology from the time of the foundation of the Cambrian Archaeological Association until the advent of the National Museum of Wales, the Ancient Monuments Inspectorate for Wales of the Ministry of Works, the Royal Commission on Ancient Monuments in Wales and Mon­ mouthshire, and the Department of Archaeology in the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire at Cardiff is to a very large extent the history of that Association, and we can see it reflected clearly in its journal. The beginnings in 1846 were very little different from the antiquarian thought of the eighteenth century. In the introductory essay ‘On the Study and Preservation of National Antiquities’ we are told that the monuments of the British Isles ‘may be divided into the following classes, according to periods . . . (1) Celtic, Cymmric, Gaelic, Erse, etc., (2) Roman, (3) Saxon, Danish, Scandinavian, etc., (4) Medieval, (5) Modern.’3 This was little advance on what had gone before. This was also the period when there were still good county accounts and good travel books. The first quarter of the nineteenth century saw in Wales works like Fenton’s Historical Tour through Pembrokeshire (1811), Pennant’s Tours in Wales

1 On the acceptance of the Three Age Systems in Britain see J. Wilkins, Antiquity, XXXV (1961), 214, and T. D. Kendrick, Antiquity, X X V III (1954), 132. 2 Arch. Camb., I (1846), 3. 3 ibid., 14. 12 INTRODUCTION (second edition, 1810), and Samuel Meyrick’s The History and Antiquities of the County of Cardigan (1808), all three in their way splendid. But county surveys, travels and old-time antiquarianism were not enough. It took a long time to change nineteenth-century Welsh anti­ quarianism into modern archaeology—in fact, it was not done until the generation that spanned John Ward, Cyril Fox, and Mortimer Wheeler. One of the pioneers in a real archaeological way of looking at the past of Wales was E. L. Barnwell, and in 1883 at the Fishguard meeting of the Cambrian Archaeological Association he thought he detected a slipping back to the bad old days of Druids and Iberians and speculation and fan­ tasy, and when there was some wild discussion about the nature and date of megalithic monuments he got a resolution passed which said, in clear bold terms ‘the question alluded to had been determined forty or fifty years ago in the opinion of all the antiquaries of Europe.’ This was not quite true, but it was progress. The sad thing was that the new way of looking at the remote past of Wales, through archaeology, took such a long time to be appreciated. A hundred years ago, if we look at what was thought of the past of Wales through the eyes of its historians, archaeology did not really exist as a source. B. B. Woodward in his History of Wales (1853) is quoting with approval the dictum that ‘The genealogy and antiquities of nations can be learned only from the sure testimony of their languages’, whereas Jane Williams in her History of Wales (1869) is entirely eighteenth-century antiquarian in her approach and gives us a formula for a Druidic temple ‘a central space, occupied by a cromlech, and paled in by unwrought stones set apart and erect at regular distances in concentric circles’. An interesting phrase occurs in Archaeologia for 1803: ‘the contents of the archaeology of Wales are derived from . . . old manuscripts’. This was the attitude that Dr. Johnson reflected when he said: ‘All that is really known of the ancient state of Britain is contained in a few pages. We can know no more than what old writers have told us.’ As Casson has com­ mented, ‘History to Johnson was recorded history. He could not see farther back than the written word. For to him the written word had the value of Holy Writ.’1 One has the feeling that despite exceptional people like Barn­ well and Boyd-Dawkins most people concerned with the past of Wales still believed at the end of the nineteenth century that the contents of Welsh archaeology were derived from old manuscripts and that these had the 1 S. Casson, The Discovery of Man (1940), 166. 13 GLYN DANIEL value of Holy Writ. Rhys paid little more than lip-service to prehistoric archaeology; John Edward Lloyd himself was the first person to heed the two voices, although it must be admitted that the voice of Welsh archae­ ology was faint until the present century.

4. Twentieth-Century Beginnings The modern period in Welsh as in western European archaeology as a whole began at the turn of the century with the appreciation and ex­ tension of the methods and aims developed at the end of the nineteenth century by men like Petrie and Pitt-Rivers. But the lesson of these and a few other great pioneers was not easily or readily learned. One man in Wales was in the van of archaeological practice—this was John Ward, who was Keeper of Archaeology in the National Museum of Wales, and the reports of whose fine excavations still make stimulating and thoughtful and clear reading after the passage of half a century. The 1914-18 war stopped archaeological work in Wales and took its toll of potential archaeologists. In his autobiography, Still Digging, Sir Mortimer Wheeler recounts how in 1913 he was digging at Wroxeter on the borders of Wales under the direction of Bushe-Fox, together with five other young and keen university students of archaeology, and how in 1919 he found he was the only mem­ ber of that group left alive. The losses in actual and potential archaeologists were even greater in countries like France; it is no exaggeration to say that in field and museum archaeology a new start had to be made in the years following the end of the 1914-18 war. The seven years between 1918 and 1925 are among the most formative and crucial in the development of our study of the early past of Europe from surviving material remains. In Britain they are the years that saw the early work of Wheeler, Childe, Fox, and Kendrick, and it was to the great good fortune of Wales that two of these men, who achieved what is virtually a revolution in British archae­ ology after the First World War, worked in Wales. Sir Cyril Fox had begun his field work in the Cambridge area, and his Archaeology of the Cambridge Region (1923) is a landmark in the development of regional archaeology. This is the work that led eventually to his The Personality of Britain on the one hand and to his Offal’s Dyke (1955) and Life and Death in the Bronze Age (1959) on the other. After the war Wheeler started digging on his own in Colchester; when he moved to Wales he brought with him what he had 14 INTRODUCTION learnt before the war with Bushe-Fox at Wroxeter and what he himself had evolved in Colchester by a conscious study of the methods of Pitt-Rivers. It is interesting to reflect that Wheeler was only in Cardiff for six years, four as Keeper of Archaeology (successor to John Ward) and then two as Director of the National Museum of Wales. His excavations at Segontium, at Y Gaer, at Brecon, and at Caerleon and Lydney revolutionized Welsh field archaeology, as his Prehistoric and Roman Wales produced the first real archaeology of the country. Here at last was the modem period in the development of early Welsh studies. With the publication of Prehistoric and Roman Wales the archae­ ological voice of the Welsh past was speaking clearly and authoritatively at last. Gone at long last were the fantasies and guess-work of the anti­ quarians; gone, too, the formal lip-service paid by historians and philolo­ gists to the material remains of the past. Here we began to see the new past of Wales. Wheeler’s book stopped with the Romans in Wales. This present book goes on into the Dark Ages of Early Medieval Wales, and here both the material and written sources combine so that at last archaeology and history are speaking together, as they should at all times except where, in the prehistoric past, no records other than artifacts survive.

15 This page intentionally left blank References

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(1922), ‘The Romano-British Site at Rhostryfan, Arch Comb, LXXVII (1922), 335-45. VII Wales in the Fifth to Seventh Centuries A. D.: Archaeological Evidence b o o n , G. c. (1958), ‘A Note on the Byzantine M Coins said to have been found at Caerwent’, BBCS, XVII (1958), 316-19. b o v i n i , G. (1952), I Monumenti Antichi di Ravenna, Milan (1952). b r e t t , g . , m a c a u l a y , w. j . , and s t e v e n s o n , R . b . k . ( i947) , The Great Palace o f the Byzantine Emperors; First Report, Oxford, 1947. b u ’l o c k , j . d . (1956), ‘Early Christian Memorial Formulae’, Arch. Camb., CV (1956), 133-41. _ c r a w f o r d e s s a y s . Aspects o f Archaeology in Britain and Beyond: Essays Presented to 0 . G. S. Crawford, ed. by W. F. Grimes, London (1951). 2 0 8 c r a w , j. h . (1930), ‘Excavations at Dunadd and at other sites on the Poltalloch Estates, Argyll’, PSAS, LXIV (1929-30), 111-46. d a r k a g e B r i t a i n . Dark-Age Britain, Studies presented to E. T. Leeds, ed. by D. B. Harden, London (1956). d e l a t t r e , r . R . (1899), Muse'e Lavigerie de St. Louis de Carthage, Paris (1899). e a r l y c u l t u r e s . The Early Cultures o f North-West Europe, ed. Cyril Fox and Bruce Dickins, Cambridge (1950). e c m w . See Nash-Williams, V. E. (1950). f o x , a . (1939), ‘The Siting of Some Inscribed Stones of the Dark Ages in Glamorgan and Breconshire’ Arch. Camb., XCIV (1939), 30-41. f o x , a . (1946), ‘Early Christian Period. I. Settlement Sites and Other Remains’, Hundred Tears, 105-22. f o x , c. (1940), ‘The Re-erection of Maen Madoc, Ystradfellte, Brecon shire’, Arch. Camb., XCV (1940), 210-16. f r e n d , w. h . c. (1955), ‘Religion in Roman Britain in the Fourth Century a . d . ’, JBAA, Third Series, X VIII (1955), 1-18. G a r d n e r , w. (1921), ‘The Ancient Hill Fort on Moel Fenlli, Denbigh shire’, Arch. Camb., LXXVI (1921), 237-52. G r i f f i t h s , w. e . (1959), ‘The Excavation of an Enclosed Hut-group at Cae’r-Mynydd in Caernarvonshire’, Ant. Journ., XXXIX (1959), 33-60. h a s e l o f f , g . (1958), ‘Fragments of a Hanging-Bowl from Bekesbourne, Kent, and Some Ornamental Problems,’ MA, II (1958), 72-103. h a w k e s , c. f . c . (1951), ‘Bronze-workers, Cauldrons and Bucket-animals in Iron Age and Roman Britain’, Crawford Essays (1951), 172-99. h e m p , w . j . , and g r e s h a m , c . a . (1944), ‘Hut-circles in North-west Wales’, Antiquity, X VIII (1944) 183-96. h e n c k e n , h . o ’n . (1942), ‘Ballinderry Crannog No. 2’, PRIA, XLVII (Sec. C) (1942), 1-76. h e n c k e n , h . o ’n . (1950), ‘Lagore Crannog: an Irish Royal Residence o f the 7th to 10th Centuries a . d . ’ PRIA, L III (Sec. C) (1950), 1-247. h e n r y , f . (1940), Irish Art in the Early Christian Period, London, 1940 (2nd edn. 1947). h e n r y , f . (1956), ‘Irish Enamels of the Dark Ages and their Relation to the Cloisonne Techniques’, Dark Age Britain, 71-88. h e s p e r i a . Hesperia; Journal o f the American School o f Classical Studies at Athens, Princeton, N.J. h u g h e s , h . h . (1925), ‘An Ancient Burial Ground at Bangor’, Arch. Camb., LXXX (1925), 432-6. W A L ES IN T H E F I F R IE S : B IB L IO G R A P H Y 2 0 9 h u n d r e d y e a r s . A Hundred Years o f Welsh Archaeology (Cambrian Archaeo logical Association Centenary Volume, 1846-1946), ed. V. E. Nash- Williams, Gloucester (1946). j a g k s o n , k . h . (1950), ‘Notes on the Ogam Inscriptions of Southern Britain’, Early Cultures, 199-213. j a c k s o n , k . h . (1953), Language and History in Early Britain, Edinburgh, (*953) j o n e s , g . r . j. (1961a), ‘The Tribal System in Wales; a Reassessment in the Light of Settlement Studies’, Welsh History Review, I (1960-61), 111-32. j o n e s , g . r . j. 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10. Llanharry, Glamorgan: Irish bronze flat axe, {National Museum o f Wales).

11. Llanblethian, Glamorgan: Breach Farm barrow, {National Museum o f Wales).

12. Llyn Fawr, Glamorgan: Cauldron No. 2, {NationalMuseum o f Wales).

13. Caergwrle bowl, {National Museum o f Wales).

14. Saint-y-nyll, St Brides-super-Ely: post-holes of settlement underlying barrow, {National Museum o f Wales).

15. Trawsfynydd, Merioneth: tankard of wooden staves encased in thin bronze, {photo: Cit) o f Liverpool Museums).

16. Pen Dinas, Aberystwyth, Cardiganshire, {photo: Crown copyright reserved).

17. Pen-y-crug, Breconshire, {Crown copyright reserved).

18. Brecon Gaer: the fort from the west, {Crown copyright reserved). 19. Coelbren: the fort from the north, {Crown copyright reserved).

20. Segontium: the fort from the south-east, {Crown copyright reserved).

21. Tomen-y-mur: the fort from the north-east, {Crown copyright reserved).

22. Metalwork from Dinas Powys.

23. Royal memorial stones to Voteporix and Cadfan.

24. Bone combs, animal-headed pin and ornamental plaque from Dinas Powys.

25 . Silvered bronze penannular brooch from Pant-y-saer, Anglesey, {National Museum o f Wales).

26 . Amphorae and glass from Dinas Powys.

27 . Chi-Rho sherd from Dinas Emrys, {National Museum o f Wales). i . C a t h o l e , G o w e r . G e n e r a l v i e w d u r i n g r e e x c a v a t i o n i n 1 9 5 8 . U n d i s t u r b e d C r e s s w e l l i a n w a s s t r a t i f i e d u n c o n f o r m a b l y b e n e a t h L a t e B r o n z e A g e d e p o s i t s i n t h e t h r e e c e n t r e t r e n c h e s j u s t o u t s i d e t h e e n t r a n c e t o t h e c a v e . T i e r e d s i e v e s — t o p r i g h t — w e r e u s e d f o r r e c o v e r y o f v e r y s m a l l a r t i f a c t s a n d m i c r o f a u n a . Cressw ellian tool types from L ittle o y le ’s M o u th (1-4 ; 8 -11 1-4, B acked-blad es; 5, scrap la d e; 7, bone bodkin (possibly in 1 x *11 x m l . i u l i l l m l c . I V m h r u k e s h i r e . I ' l l ' 1 1 i . i i n i ; i v i u | ) l i l i w . i s e m p t i e d d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , b u t r e e x c a v a t i o n i n 1 9 5 8 a n d 1 9 5 9 r e v e a l e d u n t o u c h e d C r e s s w e l l i a n d e p o s i t s i n a b l o c k e d s h e l t e r ( t o p r i g h t ) t o g e t h e r w i t h f a u n a l a n d c l i m a t i c e v i d e n c e .

4 . A rth u r’s Stone (R eynoldston), G lam organ . T h e underside o f the capstone, p ro b ab ly an erratic boulder, is level w ith the surrounding surface. T h e uprights un derpinn ing it are set in the p it now full o f sm all stones.

5 . Longhouse (M ath ri), Pem hich form erly encum bered this m onum ent has recently been rem lly exposing it for the first tim e w ith in em ory. 6. Cerrig Llw ydion (C ynw yl Elfed), Carmarthenshire. T h e cham ber is incorporated in the field-wall, w ith small stones packed between the surviving uprights. 7. Tresewig (Llanhcw el), Pembrokeshire. 8. Trelyffant (Nevern), Pembrokeshire. T e upper face o f the capstone carries a number o ber to left.

Pentregalar (Llanfyrnach), Pembrokeshire: perforated axe-hammer of ophitic olivine gabbro. 10. Llanharry, G lam organ: Irish bronze flat axe. i i . Llanblethian, G barrow. L ly n Faw r, G lam o rg a n : C au ld ro n No.

14. Saint-y-n yll, St Brides-super-Ely, G lam o rgan : post-holes o f settlem ent underlying barrow . 15. T raw sfyn yd d , M erio n eth : tan kard o f w ooden staves encased in thin b ro n ze; h eigh t 5 f ins. P en D inas, A b erystw yth , Cardiganshire. i 6 . i ~ j . P e n y c r u g , B r e c o n s h i r e .

18. Brecon G a e r: the fort from the west. T h e site is a prom ontory, w ith a steep fall-aw ay except on the east (at the top o f the p icture). i g . C o e l b r e n : t h e f o r t f r o m t h e n o r t h . T h e f a r m o f L l w y n p i c a i s i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d . A t y p i c a l u p l a n d s i t e i n g r o u n d d i f f i c u l t t o d r a i n . 2 0 . S e g o n t i u m : t h e f o r t f r o m t h e s o u t h e a s t . T h e m o d e r n r o a d c u t s t h e f o r t o b l i q u e l y , w i t h m o s t o f t h e p r a e t e n t u r a t o t h e l e f t o f t h e r o a d i n t h e o l d v i c a r a g e g a r d e n . 2 i . T o m e n y m u r : t h e f o r t f r o m t h e n o r t h e a s t . T h e r e d u c e d f o r t i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e t w o l o n g f i e l d s b e y o n d t h e f a r m . T h e m o t t e o r t o m e n c r o s s i t s n o r t h w e s t g a t e . T h e n o r t h w e s t r a m p a r t o f t h e l a r g e r f o r t i s s e e n i n t h e t w o f i e l d s t o r i g h t o f t h e t o m e n , a s a l o w m o u n d . 2 2 . M e t a l w o r k f r o m D i n a s P o w y s , i n c l u d i n g c h i p c a r v e d d i s k , s t r a p e n d a n d b u c k e t m o u n t s o f T e u t o n i c a f f i n i t i e s . B o t t o m r i g h t : f r a g m e n t o f l e a d d i e f o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g z o o m o r p h i c p e n a n n u l a r b r o o c h e s . S c a l e : a b o u t 3 : 2 . R o y a l m em orial stones to V o tep o rix (C astelldw yran, Carm s.) and C a d fan (L lan ga d w ala d r, A nglesey). 232 4 B o n e c o m b s , a n i m a l h e a d e d p i n a n d o r n a m e n t a l p l a q u e f r o m D i n a s P o w y s . S c a l e : r a t h e r o v e r n a t u r a l s i z e . 2 5 S i l v e r e d b r o n z e p e n a n n u l a r b r o o c h f r o m P a n t y s a e r , A n g l e s e y . S c a l e : n e a r l y 3 : 2 . L ______. . — ...... J I N C H L J I N C H 2 6 . A m p h o r a e a n d g l a s s f r o m D i n a s P o w y s . 1 3 2 ; 4 I 8 1 i I ? Chi-Rho sherd from D inas Em rys. S ca le : abou t 3 2 7