The Australian Journal of Index of articles from the Australian Journal of Emergency Management Emergency VOLUME 20, 2005 Management AUTHOR ARTICLE TITLE NO. PAGE Army Incident Response Regiment The Incident Response Regiment 2 pp. 18–20 ‘safer sustainable communities’ Vol 21 No 1 FEBRUARY 2006 Blau, Soren One chance only: advocating the use of archaeology in search, location and recovery 1 pp. 19–24 at disaster scenes Chambers, Phillip Educator Jones and the search for ‘creds’: searching for credibility in workplace education 3 pp. 3–9 Colella, Mike; Logan, Mike; McIntosh, An introduction to radiological terrorism 2 pp. 9–17 Steven and Thomson, Stuart Coon, Dianne They should be heroes 4 pp. 6–7 Cottrell, Alison Sometimes it’s a big ask, but sometimes it’s a big outcome: community participation 3 pp. 27–32 in flood mitigation De Nardi, Monica; Wilks, Jeff and Developing an effective emergency management partnership: Surf Life Saving Australia 4 pp. 8–16 Agnew, Peter and Ambulance Services Department of Health and Ageing A health perspective in a counter terrorist environment 2 pp. 29–32 Dixon, Darryl Needs of an actual community post disaster – Hornsby Ku-Ring-Gai 3 pp. 33–38 Earl, Cameron; Parker, Elizabeth; Edwards, Volunteers in public health and emergency management at outdoor music festivals (Part 2): 1 pp. 31–37 Martin and Capra, Mike a European study Floyd, Peter Notions of customer service 4 pp. 27–30 Foster, Len Enhancing links to further benefit volunteers and their communities 4 pp. 31 Godber, Allison Urban floodplain land-use – acceptable risk? 3 pp. 22–26 Goodin, Laura and O’Neill, Peter Orange on the Scene: the SES Media Officer Program 1 pp. 46–52 Handmer, John; Abrahams, Jonathon; Towards a consistent approach to disaster loss assessment across Australia 1 pp. 10–18 Betts, Robyn and Dawson, Mark Hodkinson, Don Involvement of health care providers in chemical, biological, radiological and other hazardous 2 pp. 21–28 material incidents Keys, Chas The great Labe–Elbe river flood of 2002 1 pp. 53–54 King, David and Gurtner, Yetta After the Wave: a wake up warning for Australian coastal locations 1 pp. 4–9 Laurence, Joanne Survivor Tokelau? 3 pp. 39–40 Lidstone, John Teaching for disaster mitigation in a time of terrorism: can the lessons from natural disasters 2 pp. 33–38 be applied to the New World Order? Maher, Annette The definition and principles of volunteering: what’s all the fuss about? 4 pp. 3–5 McKinnon, Rod Australian Red Cross – making a difference 4 pp. 22–26 McLennan, Jim; Pavlou, Olga; Klein, Philip Using video during training to enhance learning of emergency incident command 3 pp. 10–14 and Omodei, Mary and control skills McLennan, Jim and Bertoldi, Mary Australian Rural Fire Services’ Recognition and Service Awards for Volunteers 4 pp.17–21 Mirco, Carol and Notaras, Len Developing internal and external emergency plans. Practical lessons from 2 pp. 39–44 Royal Darwin Hospital Paton, Douglas; Smith, Leigh and Johnson, When good intentions turn bad: promoting natural hazard preparedness 1 pp. 25–30 David Patterson, Don Chemical biological and radiological training – preparing for the unthinkable 2 pp. 4–8 Pisaniello, John and McKay, Jennifer The need for private dam safety assurance policy – demonstrative case studies 10 years later 3 pp. 15–21 Rothery, Mike Critical infrastructure protection and the role of emergency services 2 pp. 45–50 Tarrant, Mike Hurricane Katrina: first thoughts 4 pp. 32 Wilks, Jeff; Dawes, Peter and Patrol Smart 7/52: Queensland’s integrated Surf Life Saving program 1 pp. 38–45 Williamson, Brett GREY 11497 Insights into the AFP’s How floodplain risk Two decades of response role during national and management has evolved to emergencies international emergencies historical snapshot interesting websites

New Website for the Australian Emergency Management Volunteer Forum (AEMVF) http://www.aemvf.org.au

A new and professional website for the AEMVF was recently launched. It has been made possible due to funding received through the Program Working Together to Manage Emergencies, and assistance from Surf Lifesaving, one of the member organisations of the AEMVF. The website provides the Forum with the visibility it needs to better serve the volunteer emergency management sector. It contains useful information for volunteers and their organisations alike. We invite all interested volunteers to check it out regularly.

Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters http://www.cred.be/

The Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, is a World Health Organization Collaborating Centre with a special focus on public health, epidemiology, structural and socio-economic aspects. CRED promotes research, training, and information dissemination on disasters. The website includes an international disasters database providing © Cyclone Testing Station, School of Engineering, James Cook University (www.eng.jcu.edu.au/cts) information on disasters and their human and economic impact, categorised by the country and type of disaster. The Tropical Cyclone Winifred impacted northern Queensland on 1 February 1986, crossing database includes country profiles, disaster profiles and lists, the coast near Cowley Beach, south of Innisfail. Wind gusts reached up to 175km per and searching capabilities. hour, with damage and disruption extending from north of Cairns to Cardwell and inland on a narrow front to Ravenshoe.

Three people died, one through drowning, one struck by flying debris, and a third fell from a roof while trying to secure loose iron. The worst affected areas were between Cyclone Testing Station Babinda and Tully (which suffered major flooding). A 1.6m storm surge was recorded at http://www.eng.jcu.edu.au/csts/ Clump Point near Mission Beach. Since 1977 the Cyclone Testing Station has been researching, Fifty homes were destroyed and approximately 1500 houses and buildings were damaged. testing and advising industry and governments on building Agricultural crops, including sugar cane and bananas, suffered the most significant practices to minimise loss and suffering as a result of severe damage and accounted for about 70 per cent of the total economic cost. Insurance costs wind events. The website includes information about ongoing exceeded $65 million in current equivalent values. There was also serious vegetation projects, information bulletins, a newsletter, and animations damage to State forests. explaining severe wind damage.

Winifred was a severe test of community preparedness and public understanding of cyclones as well as of the total warning process. In the hierarchy of severe tropical cyclones, Winifred was of moderate intensity but relatively large in its area of impact. Contents ‘safer sustainable communities’ Vol 21 No 1 February 2006

The Australian Please note that contributions to the Australian Journal of Emergency Management are reviewed. Academic papers (denoted by R ) are peer reviewed to appropriate academic standards by Journal of Emergency independent, qualified experts. Management

Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006 ISSN: 1324 1540 FOREWORD 2

PUBLISHER The evolution of floodplain risk management and real-time flood The Australian Journal of Emergency Management is the official journal of Emergency Management management planning in New South Wales 3 Australia and is the nation’s most highly rated Chas Keys reflects on floodplain risk management endeavours and planning journal in its field. The purpose of the Journal is for flood response over the years to build capacity in the emergency management industry in Australia. It provides access to Risk and emergency management 9 information and knowledge for an active Michael Tarrant looks at the challenges of the last 20 years that have emergency management research community and practitioners of emergency management. contributed to developing current concepts and approaches to the emergency management function EDITOR-IN-CHIEF David Templeman, Director General, Emergency Management Australia. Historical article Human Responses to Natural Disasters 15 AJEM ADVISORY COMMITTEE Christine Jenkinson, Emergency Management First published in 1986, Wraith and Gordon explore the context and scientific Australia study of human responses to natural disaster Roger Jones, TEM Consultants, Mt Macedon Acute responses to emergencies: findings and observations Chas Keys, former NSW State Emergency Service of 20 years in the field 17 Graham Dwyer, Department of Justice, Victoria Rob Gordon describes how early intervention strategies need to focus on Cate Moore, Emergency Management Australia Prof Jennifer McKay, University of South reducing arousal and restoring stability Australia National Emergency Management Strategy for Remote Graeme Nicholas, Department of Transport Indigenous Communities 24 and Regional Services, Queensland David Parsons, Sydney Water Corporation Moya Newman reports on the Remote Indigenous Communities Michael Tarrant, Emergency Management Advisory Committee Australia A new policing dynamic in emergency management 26 PUBLISHER & EDITORIAL TEAM Mick Keelty provides an insight into the AFP’s national and international roles Grey Worldwide Canberra in emergency management Manager, Chris Robey Editor, Anita Cleaver American exceptionalism or universal lesson? The implications Sub-editor, Christine Belcher of Hurricane Katrina for Australia 29 Design and Typesetting by Grey Worldwide John Handmer examines the extent to which the problems of Hurricane Katrina CIRCULATION could occur elsewhere Published on the last day of August, November, February and May each year. Copies are Building community self sufficiency for fire safety 43 distributed quarterly without charge to Kellie Watson talks with researchers from the Bushfire Cooperative Research subscribers throughout Australia and overseas. Centre about new research into Community Self Sufficiency for Fire Safety COPYRIGHT Material in The Australian Journal of Battling ferocious flames: bushfires in the media 47 Emergency Management is protected under the Cohen, Hughes, and White reflect on the deeper cultural issues encountered Commonwealth Copyright Act 1968. in bushfire representation in the popular media No material may be reproduced in part or in whole without written consent from the copyright holders. The views in this journal BOOK REVIEW 53 are not necessarily the views of Emergency AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT 20th Management Australia. ANNIVERSARY ISSUE 54 SUBMISSIONS & SUBSCRIPTIONS The Australian Journal of Emergency NOTES FROM THE FIELD 56 Management welcomes submissions. Please contact us on [email protected] for a copy BOOK REVIEW 59 of our Contributors’ Guidelines. Articles for publication may be forwarded to: THE EMA PROJECTS PROGRAM REPORT 60 The Australian Journal of Emergency EM UPDATE 62 Management Main Road MT MACEDON VIC 3441 CONFERENCE DIARY 66 Tel: (02) 6295 3662 Email: [email protected] or fax 03 5421 5272 Interesting Websites inside back cover Or visit us online at www.ema.gov.au/ajem For your free subscription Index back cover contact us on the above email. The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006 FOREWORD

by the Hon Philip Ruddock MP, Attorney-General, Attorney-General’s Department

Disasters and emergencies in Australia are a part of life. issues as well as forging genuine partnerships with our They epitomise the resilience, the mateship and the regional neighbours. prevailing principle of people helping each other in their time of need for which Australians are renowned. Community vulnerability and risk management have In many respects, the way in which our community become well understood concepts, far beyond what responds in the face of adversity defines us and binds us could ever have been envisaged when the original together as a nation. Natural Disasters Organisation was established in 1974. Environmental shifts towards greater urban development, The estimated annual cost of disasters in this country, economic globalisation, increased technology and climate including the physical, economic and social impact, is at change also have contributed to the changing nature of least $3 billion. The reality is disasters, whether natural risks posed to communities. or human-caused, will continue to occur. As Australians, we need to continue to learn from these events in order Terrorist attacks such as those in the United States, Bali, to be better prepared and to make our communities safer Madrid and London have added another dimension and more secure. to emergency management. Protecting our people and places is the Australian Government’s highest priority. In recent times, we have witnessed unimaginable scenes Emergency management is critical in this approach. of devastation and human misery associated with the Through strategic partnerships and an “all hazards”, Northern Sumatran earthquake and tsunami, Hurricane multi-agency, whole-of-government approach, the Katrina and the earthquake in Pakistan. These high- Australian Government has established a national profile emergencies are poignant reminders of the impact framework based on the principles of maximum of natural disasters but we cannot forget the smaller preparedness, comprehensive prevention, effective emergencies that affect communities across the globe, response and speedy recovery. almost on a daily basis. AJEM has been instrumental in documenting and As the emergency management environment and nature tracking trends in emergency management and it remains of risks change, so, too, do the challenges that confront committed to providing access to information and us. As leaders, policy makers, decision makers, frontline knowledge for the research community and practitioners. personnel and volunteers, we must meet those challenges The effective transfer and update of innovative practice, through a collective commitment to the mitigation of backed-up where necessary with carefully targeted disaster impact, the promotion of community safety and research is critically important. EMA plays a key role an investment in community resilience. in capturing and transferring research and innovation aimed at reducing emergency-related loss of life, Integral to achieving this is our ability to communicate property damage and economic and social disruption effectively and share ideas. The Australian Journal of caused by disasters. Emergency Management (AJEM) has been facilitating robust discussion and scholarly debate for 20 years. The strength of this journal is in its objectivity, with Since 1985, its pages have featured extensive analysis, the variety of the published material effectively reflecting considered views, lessons learnt and insights to current this ethos. and future issues, as well as stimulating and advancing discussion of innovative emergency management I congratulate AJEM and EMA on twenty years of practices. Put simply, there is nothing else like it on the publication. As risks evolve, and governments and emergency management landscape. communities change, the sound body of knowledge and expertise presented will continue to help make our In these past two decades, the Australian Government’s communities safer and more secure. scope of activity, primarily through Emergency Management Australia (EMA), has extended beyond just natural disasters and now must encompass technological and human-caused disasters. This evolution began in the late 1990s to address issues such as Y2K and the return to earth of the MIR space station.

Emergency management became a whole-of-government Hon Philip Ruddock MP priority focussing on critical infrastructure, working with Attorney-General and engaging the private sector, the interdependency February 2006 2 of jurisdictions, consideration of health and wellbeing The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006 The evolution of floodplain risk management and real-time flood management planning in New South Wales

Chas Keys reflects on floodplain risk management endeavours and planning for flood response over the years

of towns in other river valleys In the history of NSW, there have Introduction were relocated from severely been six separate flood events Queensland and New South flood liable sites to locations on Wales account for the great which have killed at least 20 higher ground. Bega, Gundagai, bulk of the flood problem in people (Coates, 1996:51). Moama and Nowra were among Australia. In round terms each them. Other towns, bruised by the of the two states bears 40 per In NSW there have been experience of repeated flooding, began to eschew the lowest-lying cent of the total economic formal attempts to manage the problems wrought by flooding land near major watercourses. cost which floods generate Farmers constructed levees to keep almost since the earliest days of nationally and the great bulk floods out of croplands and some of the deaths which they the colony. The effort intensified towns, especially in the western cause. Estimates of the average after the great floods of the mid- parts of NSW, formed the habit annual dollar costs of flooding 1950s, and especially over the of pushing up earth levees when in NSW range (in 1998 dollar last three decades considerable floods were approaching. sums have been expended terms) from $128 million for But it took the events of 1954–56, on floodplain management all floods costing at least $10 when almost all the State’s major million between 1967 and 1999 initiatives around the State. rivers saw genuinely serious – not a period associated with Increased attention has also floods, to initiate a trend towards particularly frequent or severe gone into planning to improve comprehensive, co-ordinated flooding (Bureau of Transport the quality of real-time responses floodplain management initiatives in NSW. Before long a number of Economics, 2001:35) – to to floods since the early 1990s. special-purpose flood mitigation $148 million (Agriculture and authorities had been established in Resource Management Council Influencing and the valleys which were especially of Australia and New Zealand, badly affected. These councils 2000:2). Genuinely severe protecting development: (and where they did not exist floods, such as the 1955 flood floodplain risk the territorial councils of local in the Hunter Valley which cost management initiatives government) moved to contain Governor Lachlan Macquarie the effects of flooding, principally roughly $700 million in today’s began the floodplain management by building levees to protect the dollar terms, may by themselves effort during the second decade of flood prone parts of urban centres. greatly exceed the state-wide the nineteenth century, providing In several cases, ring levees were average. As far as deaths are allotments on high ground for the built to give protection to whole concerned, floods in NSW dwellings of settlers farming the towns. Dams constructed to have killed hundreds of people lower floodplains of the Nepean provide irrigation and town water and perhaps as many as 1,000 and Hawkesbury rivers. He set up supplies were planned with flood since the beginning of the ‘Macquarie towns’ which were storage ‘airspace’, contributing to intended to be (but as the 1867 the mitigation effort, and drainage European settlement. flood proved were not) above the works were undertaken to allow the levels which floods could reach. speedy removal of floodwaters from

Later in the century a number farms on floodplains. 3 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

This was the era of structural works Government incorporated its new "manageability" of flooding has aimed at controlling flooding. flood policy in a guiding manual for been achieved as a result of the Helped by grants from the higher councils (NSW Government, 1986) promotion and funding of a wide levels of government, considerable and provided substantial funding range of increasingly well-tried sums were spent by councils to so that flood problems could be methods which can exploit this very build them. By contrast little was carefully studied before land use characteristic of the flood hazard. done to use planning instruments to decisions were made or mitigation restrict development on floodplains. measures adopted. The previous Preparing for the Powers existed, but even when emphasis on levees was reduced, real-time management they were used, the monitoring too, by the encouragement given of floods and enforcement were weak (May to the voluntary purchase of flood Floodplain management initiatives et al, 1996:72). Nor were there prone properties and the raising of are undertaken outside flood concerted efforts to modify existing houses on floodplains. Floodplain time in anticipation of flooding developments to ensure their greater management was becoming more occurring in the future. When resilience when flooding occurred. flexible in approach and more floods actually occur there is a varied in method. need to manage their effects in real Severe and repeated flooding across time. Communities did this from much of NSW in the early and The manual has been re-issued twice the start in NSW. Private and police mid-1970s generated the impetus (NSW Government, 2001, 2005) boats were used to rescue people for the creation of a stronger with considerable modification in danger and to resupply those regulatory system by which the of detail and with further who were cut off by floodwaters, State Government sought to remove comprehensiveness of approach the local efforts sometimes reaching existing development from flood being introduced. Emergency quite high levels of co-ordination liable areas or to make it more management measures relating and sophistication. Between 1869 compatible with the flood risk, to preparations for flooding are and 1900 a number of towns on and to prevent future development increasingly to the fore, and councils the eastward-flowing rivers between from being undertaken there. have been required to take note the Hawkesbury River and the The instruments adopted to not only of adopted ‘design’ floods Queensland border set up volunteer ensure local councils’ compliance (typically the 1 per cent annual ‘water brigades’ for the purpose with the new policy were highly exceedence probability event) but of saving life and property during stringent, prescriptive and coercive of rarer and more devastating floods times of flood (Lewis–Hughes, (Smith, 1998:236), and there was up to the level of the Probable 1998). At least 20 brigades had considerable resistance. There Maximum Flood (PMF). been formed by the end of the was also a public outcry against nineteenth century and, while most Despite the many controversies the maps which the State had gone out of existence by the which have accompanied the Government had produced to 1950s, their crews of young men evolution of floodplain management show in statistical (annual in rowboats had saved many lives policy in NSW, including those exceedence probability) terms the when people were trapped in rising of the mid-1980s, it has been a level of flood risk in various flood floodwaters, unable to escape by signal success in the management liable areas. People felt they would their own efforts. have the effect of devaluing their of the effects of flooding. One properties. Eventually, the maps independent expert observer has The great floods of the mid-1950s were withdrawn. argued that floodplain management resulted in a special purpose, policy in NSW is "close to volunteer-based flood management The pressures mounted against the international best practice in the agency, the State Emergency policy by councils and the public field" (Smith, 1999:1), the State Services (SES), being established to forced a radical modification of having approached the problem lead communities through future it in 1984. A more flexible, more with "a degree of consistency episodes of flooding. The SES has co-operative approach emerged and vigour unmatched by the been involved in flood response in which development outcomes other states of Australia" (Smith, activities ever since, beginning with on floodplains were negotiated 1998:235). The outcome has been a organising the raising of existing according to their merits rather than considerable slowing of the increase levees to protect property when on the basis of strictly statistical in the exposure of public and floods were approaching and measures of flood frequency which private assets, a reduction in flood delivering blankets to evacuation substantially ignored the realities of relief payments and a considerable centres when people had been flood impacts. These varied greatly mitigation of the disruption and forced to leave their homes. But in different areas for land with nuisance which flooding causes. the SES was quickly involved in similar levels of risk in terms of NSW is, to a significant extent, preparing for flood responses as 4 frequency of inundation. The State a case in which the oft-stated well. This it did by working to The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

improve the quality, safety and 130 out of the then 170 local incorporated and the relevant notes numbers of floodboats which government areas in the State) had a of persuasion to action (whether to were used for rescue and resupply flood plan which noted what would protect assets or to evacuate) are purposes when floods were be done to address the warning, included. Experience had shown occurring, and by augmenting or information-providing, resupply, that it was extremely difficult to get establishing basic flood warning property-protecting, evacuation and these issues properly covered when systems in river valleys throughout other tasks which usually need to warning messages were put together the State. This latter task involved be carried out when floods occur. wholly during the busy time when recruiting volunteer gauge readers floods were approaching. Too often, and developing arrangements for As far as possible, within the limits what went to air did not adequately the collection and interpretation of of the available intelligence, all levels explain the problem to people in the flood data from the field and the of flood severity were recognised in path of coming floods or motivate broadcasting of information and this planning, including flooding the responses required to promote advice over radio stations. caused or made worse by dam property protection or evacuation to failure. Several dams in NSW were safety. Many warning messages, in Later, the SES began to develop known to be at risk of failure in fact, were simply not understood by simple plans to guide local extreme rainfall events or because of their intended audiences. flood response activities and to structural deficiencies, and planning experiment between events to find to warn and evacuate people More depth was also sought the best ways of dropping supplies below them became an important in the planning of evacuation to people who were cut off by component of the SES’s flood operations. This was stimulated floodwaters. During the 1970s, in planning generally. In like vein, the by the recognition that NSW has particular, the SES became highly SES developed arrangements to several areas in which there will, in practised in setting up tent cities guide responses to tsunami. severe floods, be large numbers of for evacuees and in managing people needing to evacuate to safety evacuation operations generally. In When each council area had a flood in short periods of time before flood times, the SES came to be the plan, attention shifted to deepening evacuation routes are lost to rising central co-ordinating agency for the their contents and ensuring that SES floodwaters. The Windsor area, many types of response activity that personnel understood how to use on the Hawkesbury River, and the had to be undertaken. their provisions. The latter objective Lismore area, on the Richmond, was sought in part by introducing a are two such cases. The recognition But in 1989, a report on the regime of periodic testing of plans that many lives will occasionally activities of the SES was severely and personnel, tabletop exercises be at risk in such situations (which critical of its efforts in the planning being used to identify the sorts of include instances of densely- field. The suggestion that the decisions which would be required populated ‘flood islands’ which management had not been given particular forecasts of flood will be fully submerged in floods sufficiently forceful in promoting severity (for example, in predictions well below PMF proportions) has flood planning brought a new provided by the Australian Bureau stimulated an approach in which approach. Increased emphasis was of Meteorology). At the same time evacuations are carefully planned placed on the development and the planning for key tasks, notably against time horizons. The intention utilisation of ‘flood intelligence’ warning and evacuation, became here is to ensure operations can be (basically, information on the more detailed and the plans spelled ‘paced’ to get everybody to safety in consequences of flooding in defined out how these tasks would be carried the time available as determined by areas at specified gauge heights), out under specified conditions (for the flood forecasts on the day. This and significant resources were example, in relation to severity). work is an example of the concern devoted to the development of the SES has about the dangers that flood plans at the local council Doorknocking operations, needed will be created by very severe level. These plans created ‘records when many people have to evacuate, floods worse than have been seen of intended proceedings’ for flood are being planned in considerable in the State’s flood prone operations, and as the bank of ‘how-to’ detail and the arrangements communities to date (see Opper, flood intelligence grew it became tested in field exercises. SES division 2004, for a full description of the more and more possible for SES (regional) controllers have recently timeline approach). controllers to visualise the kinds of been required to prepare indicative decisions and actions which would warning messages outside flood One further example of the SES’s be needed for floods of different time to guide what will be sent to flood management work should levels of severity within their areas radio stations for broadcast during be mentioned. This is the effort, of responsibility. By the mid-1990s floods. Preparing these messages in especially over the past five years, all council areas with a significant quiet time ensures that the flood to educate the members of flood riverine flood problem (more than intelligence can be appropriately prone communities about the 5 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006 Source: Department of Lands Panorama Avenue Bathurst 2795 www.lands.nsw.gov.au

The Kelso floodplain on the eastern side of the Macquarie River at the peak of the flood of August, 1986, the year before the voluntary acquisition scheme was introduced. Note particularly the density of dwellings in Hereford St, left of the centre of the photo and running away from the river.

flood threat they face and what tame the costs of flooding. It is manage the flood hazard in their they can do as individuals to difficult to be precise in economic own areas. manage its potential effects on terms about the impact of these Floodplain risk management their own properties and families. measures, but it can be said that and planning for real-time flood Commemorations of past floods dozens of communities now have responses are also being better have been useful vehicles for the levee protection, and many have integrated. Consultant studies of dissemination of ‘floodsafe’ action conducted programmes to remove flood problems, once designed guides with contents tailored to local dwellings and other buildings solely to inform councils’ decisions environments (Keys et al, 2003a). from flood liable areas or raise on floodplain management Breakfasts have also been held at them higher above the ground. strategies, are providing increasingly which business operators in flood New development has also been detailed and useful flood liable central business districts have discouraged from floodplains. The intelligence on which the SES can been given flood planning toolkits impacts of these measures have been conduct its planning. In return to help them understand how they widespread, significant and positive. the SES plays an increasing role in can better cope with floods in the advising councils about emergency future (Gissing et al, 2005). The SES’s preparations for the management considerations relating real-time flood management to potential developments on flood Appraisal task have similarly become more prone land (Keys et al, 2003b). What stands out in the history comprehensive. The planning is This is in line with the State’s flood deeper and more detailed than of floodplain risk management policy which has sought, over time, previously. Flood intelligence is and planning for real-time flood to incorporate more formally the developing steadily (and with it, management in NSW is the emergency management dimension local volunteer comprehension increasing comprehensiveness of of the flood problem. the efforts being made, especially of the problems to be dealt with over the past 15–20 years. A wide is growing), and members of Despite these significant positives, range of flood mitigation measures, floodplain communities are being there are several barriers and structural and non-structural, has engaged in educational activities challenges to be dealt with. Some 6 been employed by councils to designed to help them better relate to the relative infrequency of The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

flooding at the local level. Parts of shown great tenacity in tackling in numerous departmental NSW have had no floods for more their flood problems. One such restructurings since the mid-1990s. than a decade, and no severe ones council is Bathurst, in the NSW for much longer. The State has central west, where the 100 Other challenges relate to difficulties had three severe droughts during dwellings on the Kelso floodplain in the relationship between councils the past quarter century and, the at the time of the 1986 flood and the SES. Some councils have floods of Nyngan (1990), Coffs have been reduced to 25 since a been critical of SES flood warning Harbour (1996) and Wollongong voluntary acquisition scheme was initiatives, fearing negative short- (1998) notwithstanding, very few initiated in 1987. No doubt the term commercial effects and the flood events that could be said occurrence at Bathurst of three ‘advertising’ of flood problems to to be genuinely severe. In these floods of about 2 to 3 per cent the wider world. Some councils circumstances it is difficult for SES annual exceedence probability in a have also tended to use marginal volunteers, most of whom have a short period (1986, 1990 and 1998) planning practices in their own bent towards response activities has helped to maintain the focus. floodplain management dealings. rather than planning, to develop One of these is the practice of and maintain a focus on preparing Similar cases of maintaining the requiring evacuation plans, in the for floods. There is a risk when commitment to the reduction of the case of development applications floods are few and far between impacts of flooding can be cited in relating to flood prone land, to be that attention will drift to the other parts of the State. This has prepared on behalf of development organisation’s many other roles. not been easy given the continued proponents before consent will be threat to the federal funding forthcoming. The SES has argued The attention of councils may drift of floodplain risk management with councils and in the Land and too, compounding the oft-existing initiatives in recent times and the Environment Court against this tendency to believe that floods sense that the State government’s approach given that such plans are less of a threat than the State’s flood management group (which are likely to be written only for flood policy shows them to be, has been crucial in guiding councils’ the purpose of gaining consent, and leading to reduced vigilance efforts) has been reduced in size cannot be kept current and fit for about development on floodplains. and to a degree marginalised the purpose of preparedness for Fortunately, many councils have evacuation, and cannot be policed Source: Department of Lands Panorama Avenue Bathurst 2795 www.lands.nsw.gov.au

The same scene at the peak of the flood of August, 1998. There has been a marked thinning out of houses in Hereford St and to a lesser extent in other streets to the right (south) which became part of the scheme later than was the case with Hereford St. The 1998 flood created an acceleration in the rate of take-up of council offers to purchase properties. 7 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

effectively over the longer term Coates, L (1996). An Overview of Conference of the Floodplain when properties change hands Fatalities from Some Natural Hazards in Management Authorities of NSW, (see Keys et al, 2003b). The SES Australia, Proceedings of the Conference Coffs Harbour. on Natural Disaster Reduction 1996, encourages private flood plans Smith, DI (1998). Water in Australia: Surfers Paradise, 49–54. Resources and Management, (indeed it has templates for their Gissing, A, Molino, S and Edwards, Melbourne, Oxford University Press. preparation) but it opposes their G (2005). Business FloodSafe – Smith, DI (1999). Urban Floodplain linkage to a consent context in a Toolkit for Flood Preparedness, Response Management: Where From, Where which they are likely to be used to and Recovery, paper presented to the To? Paper presented to the 39th ‘paper over’ the safety issues relating Fourth Victorian Flood Management Annual Conference of the Floodplain Conference, Shepparton. to development sites rather than to Management Authorities of Keys, C, Campbell, P, Herbert, NSW, Tamworth. address the problems. M and Opper, S (2003a). Councils and the State Emergency Service: Developing These difficulties notwithstanding, the Partnership in Flood and Floodplain Author floodplain risk management Risk Management, paper presented to Chas Keys is a flood management endeavours and planning for flood the 43rd Annual Conference of the consultant. He worked for the NSW SES for response have made considerable Floodplain Management Authorities of 14 years, including seven as its Deputy Director General. progress in NSW in recent times. NSW, Forbes. The State’s flood prone communities Keys, C, Herbert, M and Opper, are undoubtedly in better stead S (2003b). Ensuring that Emergency Other AJEM articles by Management Imperatives are met in the Chas Keys to cope with flooding now than Floodplain Risk Management Process: a they used to be even though the A combat agency and its hazard: a New View from North of the Murray, paper South Wales State Emergency Service challenges of ensuring they are presented to the Third Victorian Flood perspective on the management of made safer and less prone to Management Conference, Horsham. flooding, Vol. 17 No. 2, August 2002, pp. 14–18, 50–55 Lewis–Hughes, JH (1998). Floods, economic loss remain. Making Community analysis: some considerations Flutters and Butchers in Boats: the History communities ready for the for disaster preparedness and response, of Water Brigades and Flood Rescue in flooding they will inevitably face Vol. 6 No. 2, June 1991, pp. 13–16 New South Wales Since 1870, Killara. Developing our expertise in the is a never-ending task. It is a task May, PJ, Burby, RJ, Ericksen, NJ, management of flooding: some recent that cannot be met without both initiatives, Vol. 11 No. 4, Summer 1996– Handmer, JW, Dixon, JE, Michaels, 1997, pp. 38–43 sound floodplain risk management S and Smith, DI (1996). Environmental The great Labe–Elbe river flood of 2002, practices and effective preparation Management and Governance: Vol. 20 No. 1, February 2005, pp. 53–54 for responses to floods. Intergovernmental Approaches to Hazards Planning for floods in New South Wales, and Sustainability, London: Routledge. Vol. 10 No. 4, Summer 1995–1996, pp. NSW Government (1986). Floodplain 27–32 References Development Manual. Preparing communities for flooding: some Agriculture and Resource Management recent lessons and some ways forward, Council of Australia and New Zealand NSW Government (2001). Floodplain Vol. 6 No. 3, September 1991, pp. 1–5 (2000). Floodplain Management in Management Manual: the Management The response to the ‘mother of all storms’: of Flood Liable Land. a combat agency view, Vol. 14 No. 4, Australia: Best Practice Principles Summer 1999–2000, pp. 10–15 and Guidelines, Collingwood: NSW Government (2005). Floodplain Uneasy bedfellows: emergency managers CSIRO Publishing. Development Manual: the Management and the media, Vol. 8 No. 2, Winter 1993, Bureau of Transport Economics (2001). of Flood Liable Land. pp. 12–14 Economic Costs of Natural Disasters in Opper, S (2004). The Application Australia, BTE Report 103, Canberra. of Timelines to Evacuation Planning, paper presented to the 44th Annual

8 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

Risk and emergency management

Michael Tarrant looks at the challenges of the last 20 years that have contributed to developing current concepts and approaches to the emergency management function

Introduction the interface with communities and the environment in which that interaction took place was central to The 20th anniversary of the Australian Journal of disaster management (McEntire 2004). The process of Emergency Management coincides with a significant developing this broader understanding lead to a series of step in the process of enhancing decision-making workshops and activities in the 1980s. These included and resource allocation in disaster management. hazard and community analysis, disaster consequence A series of very significant disasters in the US and assessment and economics of disaster. In 1989 the Australia through the 1960s and 70s triggered workshop New Perspectives on Uncertainty and Risk identified and mapped many of the issues that would reflection on the conceptual and organisational challenge progress in disaster management over the next underpinning of disaster management. These two decades. changes were manifested in Australia by the formation of the Natural Disasters Organisation The next major stage in the evolution of approaches to emergency management occurred with the publication (NDO now EMA) in 1974 and in the US it was of the first Australian Risk Management Standard in the formation of Federal Emergency Management 1995. This provided an holistic framework supporting Agency (FEMA) in 1979. The “all hazards the continued evolution of disaster management. comprehensive emergency management approach” Comprehensive emergency management enabled (McEntire 1997) was a major step forward from a thinking about approaches beyond response and relief. civil defence paradigm of response and relief. The The use of risk management was crucial in providing a common conceptual framework and language for new framework, which included concepts such as the emergency management sector to engage more prevention, mitigation and recovery, generated a widely in society. It was also flexible enough to cope need to allocate resources across a range of activities with changing contexts. The other important shift was and hazards. This broadened framework required the recognition that a whole-of-government approach the development of new approaches (at least for was crucial to dealing with complex problems such as disaster management) and the work on hazard disaster management. There was growing acceptance that effective emergency risk management is a core part analysis was one of the first steps. Hazard analysis of good governance. involved identifying and assessing the characteristics of hazards, communities and the environment in The most important characteristics of disasters are that which they interacted. The context for disaster they don’t happen very often, are large and complex, and require non routine activity from individuals, management over the past 20 years has been a organisations and communities. This makes them trend of ever increasing scope (see Figure 1). It has particularly prone to myths and inappropriate taken the sector from a civil defence function to assumptions. The research literature on myths goes the mainstream in community and organisational back to Quarantelli and Dynes in the 1950s. Furedi functioning. The challenge over the past 20 years has (2004) and Auf der Heide (2004) are very good recent been to develop concepts and approaches to support introductions to disaster myths. Disasters are a very complex policy problem which span all levels and the shift from the margins to the mainstream, most functional areas of government. This was clearly coupled with an ever broadening context. demonstrated by Hurricane Katrina in 2005. The acceptance of the concept that a whole-of-government In Australia this activity began with the development approach is an acknowledgement that disaster of the first hazard analysis courses and support management is a cross cutting problem. Therefore materials in 1986 at Mt Macedon, Victoria. A team, emergency management is a function made up of with a core membership of Bevis Dutton, John many players rather than the concept of an emergency Handmer, Russell Blong, George Silberbauer, Neil manager. The concept of the function transcends Britton and myself, assembled to develop the concept. organisations and communities in both public and It soon became obvious that understanding and private sectors. 9 mapping hazards was only a starting point and that The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

Figure 1. An overview of the evolution of emergency management theory and practice over the past 50 years in Australia

Two of the most important challenges for emergency of this paper but illustrate the breadth of contemporary management in Australia are the fields of risk and public debates about risk. “In regard to risk, uncertainty policy. Risk is critical because it underpins how we and powerlessness are not simply the outcome of an think about disasters and the public policy frameworks engagement with a specific risk. Such sentiments are for implementing activities within government. Similar systematically transmitted through popular culture” challenges apply to people working in the private sector. (Furedi 2004:135). The relationship between emotional Risk has rapidly accelerated as an area of interest over vulnerability and the wider global threats to human the past ten years across our society. This trend has existence is most clearly represented through the been mapped in an analysis of mass media reporting concept of being “at risk” (Ibid: 130). This thinking may (Lupton 1999). Public policy is receiving near universal provide significant insight into how risk might interest world wide as the public sector tries to cope be managed. with a rapidly changing world (Kettl 2003). One of the new themes to emerge in public policy is a focus on A key theme which is often raised is that there should community. Community, in all its diverse meanings, be increased community participation and responsibility has now been included into public policy landscape in managing risk. If there is an expectation of at all levels of government across Australia. How these significant changes in behaviour by individuals then two drivers are reconciled in the context of emergency risk assessment and/or risk management will have management is going to stimulate significant reflection to move beyond the idea that risk is something that on development and delivery of services. is independent of minds and cultures, waiting to be measured. Unless an approach is developed that moves Risk beyond technical assessments, we are doomed to be met with either apathy or occasional aggression by the The terms ‘risk’ and ‘risk management’ have now public when attempting to engage them in managing become central to the lexicon of just about every field. risk. The idea that risk can be objectively quantified is Works like Beck (1992) have made a case for the often expressed in equations such as risk = consequence centrality of the concept of ‘risk’ in society. However x probability. Slovic (1999) makes the point that while just about every aspect of the risk concept is contested danger is real there is no such thing as “real risk” or and the gap between perspectives is not closing. Lupton “objective risk”. Technical risk assessments are based (1999), Coles et al (2000), and Slovic (1999) provide on theoretical models, whose structure is subjective excellent overviews of how risk is conceptualised and and assumption laden. Subjectivity permeates low map the divergence in perspectives. Furedi (2004) raises probability high consequence risk assessments because very important questions which are beyond the scope they rely on judgements at every step of the process. 10 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

At the core of this perspective is expected utility theory. Experts spend much of their time trying to focus on It is generally assumed that people will follow the rules problems and to disaggregate issues particularly if if they have sufficient information and time to dwell there is a strong technical context. Policy makers and on the consequences of different paths (Krimsky and researchers run the risk of getting so deeply entrenched Golding 1992). It is essential to have a sound scientific in their intellectual or service delivery silo that they perspective but it is not sufficient. There is a significant have difficulty in appreciating the way people think body of research that challenges the assumption that and function. This is exacerbated in situations where people desire the most accurate and precise information there are high levels of uncertainty and complexity. One possible (Smithson 1989). The ‘objectivist’ approach unfortunate outcome of these differences is the labelling to risk is too limited a perspective on which to resolve and stereotyping of the other groups. Typically: complex policy problems such as disasters (Beck 1995, • scientists are perceived as out of touch and narrowly Coles et al 2000). If a goal of public policy is active focused. They are promoting their research agenda participation by the public in managing risk, then a and wanting more funds; richer construction of risk is needed. • the wider public is perceived as irrational consumers who don’t understand the real risk, keep changing Over the past 30 years enormous resources have their minds and don’t change their behaviour, even been invested in studying risk in the context of the when clear evidence is presented to them; and environment, in particular, hazardous industries. This work shows that the public has a broad concept • policy/decision-makers are perceived as politically of risk, qualitative and complex, that incorporates motivated and base decisions on expediency rather considerations such as uncertainty, dread, catastrophic than evidence. potential, controllability, equity, risk to future Experts and policy makers are practised at identifying, generations and so forth (Solvic 1999). These analysing, evaluating and treating risk appropriate to considerations have to be acknowledged and strategies their context. developed to integrate them into the risk management process. Effective risk communication will be predicated The public on the other hand, draw on a much broader on developing processes that respect these dimensions. range of information and cues to make decisions. The evolution of thinking about risk is demonstrated by Questions such as whose objectives are at risk? Are the Fischhoff (1995) where he outlines the developmental costs and benefits equally distributed? Who is making stages in risk communication over the past 30 years. the judgement about the risk? What is going to be While this has been largely based on issues such as done about it? Who is included in the decision making chemical contamination, it does have broad application process? Risk treatments and their acceptability are to emergency management: inextricably tied up with judgements about the risk. • “All we have to do is get the numbers right • All we have to do is tell them the numbers Community and public policy There has been a big swing in Australian public policy • All we have to do is explain what we mean by the numbers to the idea of community over the past ten years. “In Australia all states and territories have joined • All we have to do is show them that they’ve accepted the Commonwealth in embracing community as the similar risks in the past foundation for policy making and implementation” • All we have to do is show them that it is a good (Adams and Hess 2001). Community is about groups deal for them of people, who create relations based on trust and • All we have to do is treat them nice mutuality, within the idea of shared responsibility for • All we have to do is make them partners wellbeing. Spatial communities and communities of interest are the main forms of communities (Adams • All of the above” (Fischhoff 1995). and Hess 2001). One of the most helpful definitions of risk comes from One of the greatest challenges facing government today the Australian Standard on Risk Management AS/NZS4360 is how to engage citizens in the decision-making process “The chance of something happening which will have an in ways that suit both citizen and government (Bishop impact on objectives.” Risk is conceptualised as having and Davis 2001). Edwards (2000) goes on to develop both positive and negative consequences in the context this point: of objectives. This definition is powerful because it acknowledges peoples’ or an organisation's aspirations “In particular, in circumstances where there is much conflict and values as fundamental in conceptualising risk. To on an issue and/or many organised stakeholders, and in illustrate this point take three different groups; policy circumstances where there may be many alternative solutions makers, the experts/scientists, and laypeople. All have and /or high uncertainty on outcomes, a participatory different objectives and contexts which need to be framework for policy development would seem essential identified and acknowledged in the risk management for policy progress.” process (Garvin 2001). 11 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

A number of drivers have been identified behind the Case study: managing bushfire risk current interest in participatory approaches. They The discussion so far can be illustrated by examining include declining trust in public institutions, and the the issues involved in managing bushfire risk. If risk rise of social movements and public sector change is defined as failure to meet objectives then what are (Bishop and Davis 2001). Like the debates about risk, the objectives of residents in high risk areas around community involvement in policy development and the edges of cities in South Eastern Australia? This implementation is a contested issue and is largely a periurban fringe of small holdings occupies a vast area reflection of the values of the participants. “This new and has many different environments from heavy forest interest in participation does not create agreement about through to open grasslands. These areas are largely the nature of citizen involvement in policy processes” occupied by people who specifically selected that (Bishop and Davis 2001: 2). environment; that is they have made a lifestyle choice. They may be motivated to live in these areas by a whole If emergency management is to move beyond its raft of reasons; space, hobby farms, healthy and good traditional forms of service delivery to mitigation and environment for families, etc. Their commitment to this contested fields, such as controlling the use of land, choice is demonstrated by having to make significant then many of the approaches emergency management sacrifices that may include long travel times to work to has used over the years need to be transformed to avail themselves of this lifestyle. the realities of a new policy environment. The way risk is understood by policy makers, experts and the One key characteristic of the people living in this layperson presents major challenges for managing the environment compared to many traditional rural risks associated with major hazards interacting with communities is that a significant proportion of this communities and what they value. Controlling the use population has little experience of bushfire apart from of land is an excellent example. what they see in the media. For the vast majority of people first hand experience of fire is still rare. From a Uncertainty is a crucial dimension of many extreme policy and institutional perspective there is a large group risks. It is particularly important in understanding the of Australians who live in areas exposed to bushfire differences in how risk is understood by experts and the whose lifestyle is strongly values driven but who have lay public. From the perspective of any one particular virtually no first hand experience of bushfires. householder, the chance of a house being impacted by a major hazard in a given time period is very small. If In Victoria, fires with significant fatalities in the post you take a researcher or policy-maker's perspective then World War II period have occurred in 1962 (32 dead), the chance of a major hazard occurring in the area of 1969 (23 dead), and 1983 (47 dead). Major fires with interest dramatically increases. This gap between actors several fatalities occur about every ten years on average. generates a fundamental mismatch about managing the risk. In dealing with low probability high consequence So from a policy perspective it is only people who are events, it is frequency of occurrence rather than the older than 30 to 40 years of age who have any chance effects of exposure that is unclear. The implications of having clear memory of a severe fire event much less of this are pointed out by Solvic (1986) “events that experiencing one. A similar situation exists in South have not been previously experienced tend not to be Australia and Tasmania. The Eyre Peninsular fires of 2005 perceived as worth taking account of.” Compared to were remarkably like a series of fires in Victoria in the many health and environmental risks, the uncertainty early 1960s. Forty years is a long time to rely on memory associated with disasters centres on frequency or return and experience. From a risk management perspective we period. “When will a destructive earthquake affect my have growing potential and declining experience. house?” compared to a health issue “Will barbequed meat give me cancer?” In areas such as health and the Managing bushfire risk in the urban-rural interface also environment uncertainty relates to the consequences of a involves a large number of other policy problems and risk rather than its occurrence. issues. Some are directly related to bushfire risk and others just add to the complexity of the process. These In many cases there is little doubt that an area is include pest and weed management, water quality potentially exposed to a high intensity bushfire or is and septic tanks, size of sub divisions and maintaining located on a flood plain. The question is when will it lifestyle, habitat maintenance, visual amenity, and be impacted? Because any one location may be very flood plain management (floodplains can be very rarely affected thus allowing for great variation in the attractive places to live). There are significant debates assessment of risk. about what constitutes a good environment and these are tied to people’s objectives and why they made the

12 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

choice to move into that location. The acceptability is a very old institution which, interestingly, is facing of risk treatments is also enmeshed in many of these some significant difficulties in dealing with scientific other issues and problems. The broad spectrum of uncertainty and complexity in an adversarial context lifestyle choices and values, coupled with people’s (Slovic 1999). In the case of managing risk what understanding of risk, makes an extremely complex processes might society or communities use to make policy environment. decisions about uncertain and complex issues? For example what is an appropriate use of land? What is an Any one individual is exposed to an enormous range of appropriate management regime for that land? Given messages about risk, be it; health, food, the environment, both these questions are highly contested, how then do safety, retirement and education to name a few. They we, at a body politic level, make decisions about these are also exposed to many conflicting and contradictory complex and highly uncertain situations that are robust messages. On one hand people get messages that and sustainable? bushland and trees are attractive and good for the environment. On the other they get messages about the Conclusion dangers of lots of trees and scrubs around a house, “how If the trend to manage risk through greater participation could people live in such a dangerous environment?” and the acceptance of individual responsibilities is to So an individual thinking about how they are going to be successful, then many gaps in our understanding allocate their time and resources to manage their risks are will have to be addressed. More public education and faced with an often bewildering barrage of information awareness is of limited value until we have a better which is processed and transferred into action around appreciation of the way people think about risk and their values and objectives. People are continually their-decision making processes. Program C in the bombarded about risk via marketing from retailers, Bushfire CRC is addressing a number of these challenges lobby groups or government agencies seeking to alter (see www.bushfirecrc.com). awareness or behaviour. Researchers and policy makers need to develop Disasters are a social phenomena which span most institutions and structures for engagement that reflect functional areas of government as well as increasingly individual needs and how people make decisions if involving all levels from Commonwealth to local risk reduction is to be sustainable. This will require the government. There has been a growing realisation of the integration of multidisciplinary perspectives across three challenges that cross cutting issues pose to Australian broad areas to ensure that: public policy. The tension between the vertical processes of government represented in the function based • social, economic and scientific inputs are credible; departments and the government’s horizontal problem • risk management is socially, economically and is growing (Kettl 2000). Edwards (2002) suggests that scientifically robust; and there is a growing recognition in Australia and countries • procedures, processes and outcomes have wide such as the UK, Canada and New Zealand, that a societal legitimacy. problem exists with a silo mentality. This is particularly the case with complex problems such as disasters where At present there is a serious imbalance in the allocation the management of the risk spans many functions and of research resources across elements of these areas. levels of government. One of the challenges will be to develop strategies to fill the gaps. Until we redress that imbalance and bring How then might decisions in complex fields with high together these perspectives then we will fall well short levels of uncertainty be made? What institutions exist of effectively managing major risks in Australia. The past in other sectors which may be an appropriate analogue 20 years has seen significant advances in thinking and for the uncertainty and complexity of managing bushfire practice in emergency management. A new generation risk? The legal system has used the juries over many of senior managers have moved into the field, new years. Here a group of randomly selected individuals frameworks have been established, new stakeholders are called on to listen and reflect on evidence and make engaged, and the depth of understanding in the field has a judgement often under high levels of uncertainty. It increased. The private sector is becoming increasingly is not suggested that juries in the legal sense be used engaged in managing non routine risk. However because but rather that groups or panels of laypeople may of the challenges posed by the emergency management be able to contribute to resolving difficult questions; field it is important to remember that “good public particularly when it comes to the appropriate use of policy and management is hard work, puzzling, complex land. The inappropriate use of land can provide very and frequently frustrating, fads often become a simpler significant gains to developers, but the potential losses alternative to this reality” (Adams and Hess 2001). are transferred to future generations. The jury system

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References Lupton,D. (1999). Risk. Routledge London. Adams, D. & Hess, M. (2001), Australian Journal of Public McEntire, D.A. (1997). Reconsidering the Phases of Disasters: Administration 60(2) June 2001 International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters Vol 15, Auf der Heide, E. (2004), Common Misconceptions about No3, pp239–264 Disasters: Panic the Disaster Syndrome and Looting. Lincoln: SEMP McEntire, D.A. (2003). Searching for a holistic paradigm Beck. U, (1992). Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity. and policy guide: a proposal for the future of emergency Sage London management. International Journal of Emergency management Vol 1, No3, pp298–308 Beck. U (1995). Ecological Politics in the Age of Risk Cambridge: Polity Press Slovic, P. (1999). Trust, Emotion, Sex, Politics and Science: Surveying the Risk Assessment Battlefield Risk Analysis Bishop, P. and Davis, G. (2001). Mapping Public Participation in Vol. 19 No 4. Policy Choices. APSA Conference Brisbane Smithson, M. (1991). Managing in the Age of Ignorance New Coles, E. Smith, D. & Tombs, S. Eds (2000) Conceptualising Perspectives on Uncertainty and Risk Canberra CRES/NDO. Issues of risk management within the ‘Risk Society’ Risk Management and Society, Kluwer Dordrecht Thompson, P .B. and Dean, W. R. (1996). Competing Conceptions of Risk, Risk Health, Safety Environment 7 361–384. Dutton,B & Handmer, J Eds New Perspectives on Uncertainty and Risk Canberra CRES/NDO. Edwards, M. (2002). Public Sector Governance–Future Issues Author for Australia. Australian Journal of Public Administration 61(2) Michael Tarrant is Assistant Director Education and Training June p57. at Emergency Management Australia. He entered the disaster Garvin, T. (2001). Analytical Paradigms: The Epistemological management field in 1986 at the then Australian Counter Disaster Distances between Scientists, Policy Makers, and the Public College. His areas of interest are broadly based around disaster management including decision-making under uncertainty, public Risk Analysis Vol. 21 No 3 policy and risk management. Fischhof, B. (1995). Risk Communication Unplugged: Twenty Years of Process. Risk Analysis Vol. 15 No 2. Other AJEM articles by Michael Furedi, F. (2004). Heroes of the Hour New Scientist May 2004 p19. Tarrant Computer manipulated census data and disaster management, Furedi, F. (2004) Therapy Culture: Cultivating Vulnerability in an Vol. 3 No. 4, December 1988, pp. 4–5 Uncertain Age. Routledge London. Hurricane Katrina: first thoughts, Vol. 20 No. 4, November 2005, Kettl, D.F. (2000). The Transformation of Governance: pp. 32 Globalisation, Devolution and the Role of Government. Risk communication in the context of emergency management: planning ‘with’ rather than ‘for’ communities, Vol. 12 No. 4, National Academy of Public Administration June Albuquerque Summer 1997–1 998, pp. 20–2 1 Kettl (2003). The Future of Public Administration Report of the Special NASPAA/American Political Science Association R Task Force. Krimsky, S and D. Golding (1992). (eds) Social Theories of Risk. Westport Preager.

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Please send, or e-mail your published materials to: Linda Hansen, Library Manager EMA Library Mt Macedon Rd Mt Macedon VIC 3441 Email: [email protected] 14 Historical article Human Responses to Natural Disasters First published in 1986, Wraith and Gordon explore the context and scientific study of human responses to natural disaster

To celebrate the 20th anniversary edition of The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, this is a reprint from an early issue of the Journal. From June 1986 through to September 1988, Ruth Wraith and Rob Gordon wrote a series of nine articles on human responses to natural disasters. These articles focused on the myths of human response, short-term, medium and long-term responses to disaster, workers’ and community responses, and the principals for support and recovery for human services. The first of these articles featured in Vol. 1 No. 2, June 1986, and is reproduced in its entirety below.

In a natural disaster situation 2. People identifying and meeting back on such events and see how the predominant experience is emergency needs: these may both their personality and the course confusion. It occurs because be for material requirements of their life has been influenced by disastrous events, by their very such as food, shelter, medical them. It is characteristic that the treatment; or emotional nature, disrupt the expected effects are often only seen clearly needs like sympathy, support, much later in life. familiar pattern of life. The physical reassurance, help with planning environment is usually drastically and decision making, or the need The kind of influence such events altered; sometimes it is almost for information. have is not so much a matter of unrecognizable. Death, injury what happens, but of how people or the threat of them, introduce All these interactions have one thing feel about it and what sense they new and powerful experiences of in common; they are geared towards make of it. Even very painful danger. Evacuation and the influx responding to immediate, obvious experiences can be enriching, of combatant and relief workers, things and require a direct response provided the person receives the replace ordered and familiar to the situation. understanding, support and help he community life with a disorientated, But it is not obvious that behind needs in coming to terms with it, emotional mass of people. these immediate needs for direct and feeling he has gained something action, there are other aspects In this, as in any situation of from it. of the experience that do not confusion, people fall back on what claim attention, but become more Understanding the human response is familiar, to orient themselves. obvious later when the intensity means relating the disaster This means they may not and excitement subside. As experience (whatever that may immediately recognise what is new recovery proceeds, the real human be), to the deeper responses which and unique to the disaster. They response becomes evident and lack make a life experience of it and tend to focus on definite, tangible of understanding or recognition only show its effects in the future. problems. The overwhelming of personal needs in the initial This involves all workers having physical needs are quite rightly stages of the recovery may become some understanding how in their the first to be addressed. Many important problems. particular role they can help people physical requirements have to to integrate the experience, so that be met in a matter of hours. Human responses, here, refers to the it will become as growth-promoting When concentrating on providing overall impact of the disaster on the as possible. Tragedy cannot be necessary services, it is difficult personality, life and experience of denied when it occurs in life, to understand of the many new people caught up in it. The disaster but the task is to undertake the personal and community responses represents a major life experience for recovery process so that the effects that take place. all those involved, including those of the tragedy are not repeated and who come into the situation as part multiplied as time passes. It is then People’s contact with each other of the recovery process. Major life necessary to add a dimension of falls into one of two categories: experiences are those which have a recovery of human experience as 1. People trying to direct or powerful formative or shaping effect part of the other aspects of material, organize each other: relief on the person’s future development. economic and social recovery. workers function within an We normally think of them in terms organizational structure and the of loss of loved ones, marriage, To place human recovery in its victims are either organizing their birth of children, migration or other context, the following graph own families, or being organized changes in living situations, and (Fig. 1.) portrays the impact of the by the disaster executives; major illness. Everybody can look disaster and the consequent physical 15 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

Figure 1. Contrasting physical and human needs following disaster

and human needs. As can be seen, disruption of community life, of some sort. Stress then becomes the physical needs are met relatively etc. Besides dreams, fears and distress. Support for people before quickly, with a minimal ongoing flashbacks, attention is being paid they reach this stage is the most requirement after some months. to some of the longer term effects effective help personal services can The human needs, (including such as physical and psychosomatic offer to both workers and victims. both individual and community illness, depression, loss of responses), are at a peak on impact identity, feelings of alienation and However, stress is a very genuine then rapidly drop during the short disorientation and others. concept. It tends to focus on the post-disaster activity phase, when individual as a whole, and does not personal/emotional issues are put Vietnam veterans and their families always indicate the actual factors aside. They rapidly reach a new are beginning to show the type responsible for the stress. It is peak in the disillusionment phase of problems which can develop important, therefore, to combine which follows and then take a a decade or more after disaster stress research with a more detailed fluctuating course. The provision of experiences, and the study of understanding of the particular human services contrasts with the families of the Nazi Holocaust, is processes following the disaster in physical needs and usually lags well providing an understanding of the the individual or family, in relation behind the actual need. way extreme disaster experiences to their pre-disaster history. can also affect children, and even There have always been reports grandchildren. Increasing research is being done, of human reactions to disasters. to gain a better understanding of Following the first and second The current focus is on stress, in the effects of disasters. A body of World Wars, attention was given particular, post-traumatic stress. reliable knowledge is accumulating to the psychological disturbances This refers to the stress arising after from many different sources, to of combat, known as ‘shell a person has been exposed serve as a basis for anticipating the shock’ and later ‘combat fatigue’. to a traumatic experience (in other effects on people, families and social Gradually, attention was paid to the words an experience too massive or systems; in recovering from them experiences of people involved in painful for him to deal with). and avoiding the possible longer other types of disasters. Many of term repercussions. However, the these studies, up until the 1960s, Stress in itself is an indicator that understanding of these effects is at were concerned to understand the person is facing circumstances an early stage and the knowledge of how people reacted to the which he is not well adapted to how to avoid or assist them, is even dramatic lifethreatening, traumatic meet, hence he is forced to function less well developed. Unfortunately, experiences of the disaster impact. in a manner which overloads his it is only by accumulating more In the last 20 years, however, capacities. While most people can experiences of human suffering in attention is being increasingly cope with this for a time, eventually disasters, that this knowledge can directed at understanding other everyone finds some part of their be gained. effects such as dislocation, loss of system no longer operates properly 16 familiar surroundings and objects, and they develop stress symptoms The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

Acute responses to emergencies: findings and observations of 20 years in the field

Rob Gordon describes how early intervention strategies need to focus on reducing arousal and restoring stability

treatment. Emergencies undermine and familiarity. Initially, there is Abstract assumptions of everyday reality, a tendency to minimise, deny, Experience and research highlight including that responsibility for misinterpret or ignore danger; that people experience a range threats is allocated to specialised confirmation is sought from family, of responses to emergencies. subsystems of society and the friends and neighbours regardless These responses are built on community expects their protection of their expertise rather than from the basic human mechanisms (Kauffman 2002; Gordon 2004a). authorities (Drabek 1986). Families for survival and are not usually In an emergency, each member and groups attempt to reunite and affected confronts for themselves as intense as the stereotypes of people in groups are more likely the task of protecting self, loved to heed warnings (Fitzpatrick ‘panic’ and ‘helplessness’. ones, property, the environment and Mileti 1994). Older, isolated, Heightened arousal – generated or other people. The normal inexperienced people and members by threat – interferes with fabric of social life is rent and of minority groups are less likely recovery if that arousal persists torn for a time, exposing tissues to heed them than younger people and structures normally buried after the event. (Drabek, 1986, Fitzpatrick and beneath the routines and familiar Mileti 1994). Peer group interaction This article describes research patterns or life. The exposure to may reinforce disbelief, but people findings that emphasise threat and horror provokes massive are most likely to respond to constructive responses to change in the brain, body and clear, specific, accurate, detailed emergencies; identifies a number mind as the trauma is confronted. information from a credible source Recent developments in describing of common responses in the with clear advice, disseminated by the physical and psychological immediate aftermath of an multiple media. Vague, generalised arousal involved provide a clearer event and explores some simple or non-specific warnings are likely understanding of the effects and to be ignored (Perry et al.1981). strategies for reducing arousal appropriate forms of support (van and initiating recovery. der Kolk 1996; Bremner 2002). Often only 50 per cent of the Observable responses need to be community evacuate when advised The Ash Wednesday bushfires of translated into practical strategies (Perry et al.1981). Many wait 1983 were a watershed in Australia’s to assist in recovery, understood for immediate, tangible threat experience of emergencies. In as, “the coordinated process of before doing so. Social bonds are the aftermath, the results of supporting affected communities in preserved even at the expense of observations on the short, medium the reconstruction of the physical delaying departure and increasing and long-term responses to infrastructure and the restoration of risk. Distress is increased when emergencies were described in the emotional, social, economic and group and family members are Human responses to natural disasters physical well-being” (Emergency separated, and pets are treated (Part 3): general principals of human Management Australia 2004). as family members. People retain response to crisis situations (Vol. 1 social roles, co-operate and support No. 4, December 1986, pp. 3–4). Warning and evacuation each other during evacuation; the Warnings of emergency activate incidence of traffic accidents in even Since then, large and small arousal and initiate complex social very large-scale evacuations is only emergencies have shown the processes (Fitzpatrick and Mileti a fraction of normal (Drabek 1986). human impacts, and observations 1994), initially strengthening Warning and evacuation begin the have drawn on experiences of bonds between community emergency but also begin recovery early intervention, personal members (Wenger, 1972), but they if undertaken in a manner that support activities and clinical are ineffective without practice supports those affected. 17 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

Impact inherently stressful conditions and Yet in emergencies, most people The impact dramatically disrupts cause arousal as characteristics help each other and preserve established circumstances of life, of the emergency and recovery communal values. Less than 1 per violating tacit assumptions and environments (Pfister 1992). The cent of people injured in accidents expectations of daily existence. effects of arousal are a framework are found to have panicked (Malt The constancy and stability of to understand post emergency 1994). Incident management normal life result from unchanging reactions and since persisting policies that delay warnings, features of experience being high arousal is an important risk withhold information or minimise taken for granted. The sense of factor for developing posttraumatic risks to avoid panic are likely to reality, security, familiarity and stress conditions (McFarlane and increase casualties (Dynes et. al. predictability which underpin de Girolamo 1996) strategies to 1972; Paulsen 1981; Drabek 1986; psychological health and security, intercept arousal are an important Cornwell et. al. 2001). People make derive from such constancies. feature of recovery. better decisions if given appropriate The central motivating information and advice (Drabek The term ‘panic’ is often applied phenomenon is the unusual (often 1986). Children are no more likely to states of high arousal because unprecedented) state of physical to panic than their parents (Haas of the excited and highly focussed and emotional arousal in the et al 1976). When it does occur, behaviour. However, absence of face of threat. Arousal refers to a panic is associated with loss of panic at impact is a consistent comprehensive change in body social bonds, immediate danger finding from the earliest research chemistry, brain and psychological to self, likelihood of entrapment, in emergencies even where people functioning that focuses resources diminishing opportunity to escape, are trapped and die (Johnson et on the immediate threat and helplessness, social isolation and al. 1994; Mileti 1999; Cornwell activates instinctive patterns of dependence on oneself for survival et al. 2001; Drabek and McEntire behaviour, where possible, within (Drabek 1986). 2002, Weisaeth and Tønnesen existing social values and roles 2003). Panic loosely indicates To avoid the inaccuracies of the (Bremner 2002). This is colloquially high emotion and fear in media word panic, a category of ‘highly referred to as ‘adrenalin pumping’ reports. However it means actions aroused, emotionally motivated or ‘being on a high.’ A second that are “unreasoning, excessively behaviour’ is needed. Such a source of arousal is the loss of hasty through fear” or a state of reaction may be misguided if based familiar constancies and a changed “infectious fright, sudden alarm… on lack of experience, inaccurate and confusing environment in leading to hasty measures” (Concise information or misunderstanding. which actions must be improvised. Oxford Dictionary, 1980). Panic However, it is not panic, even if it Novelty (new or unfamiliar leads to loss of rational decision- results in failure. It is intentional situations), uncertainty (cannot making and social values in action, guided by understanding decide what should be done) and favour of impulsive personal (even if inadequate). Panic indicates conflict (cannot choose between self protection. arousal is so high that it impedes competing courses of action) are rational thought and disrupts the person’s attachment to social role structures and communal values. Highly aroused, emotionally motivated behaviour is rational and socially structured within the terms available to the person’s restricted experience and opportunities for action. Consequently, highly aroused subjects are available to influence by appropriate forms of information and advice.

At impact, the sense of threat initiates arousal, but is inherently subjective. Arousal associated with traumatic experiences results from a rapid and often unconscious process of ‘appraisal’ of the danger, determined by A wide range of emotions and heightened states of arousal may be associated with what is specifically seen and heard traumatic experiences. 18 (Lazarus 1999; Scherer at al. 2001). The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

The threatening meaning of the affected, while those in small groups achieve regulation to lower physical situation triggers instinctive brain are better off (Kaniasty and Norris and emotional energy levels mechanisms that aid survival, 1999). Only in devastating events results in incorporating elements but push the person beyond their where the environment is destroyed of high arousal into their ongoing previous normal functioning and social systems break down state and leads to posttraumatic (Bremner 2002). Consequently, (Hiroshima, Hurricane Katrina) are symptoms such as persistently people often interpret the events in people dazed, wandering aimlessly re-experiencing aspects of the different ways; one may feel death is dependent on outsiders for help emergency, continuing alert and certain in a situation, another may (Mileti 1999). The problem is more reactivity, high emotion manifesting only perceive a risk, a third may likely to be their highly energised, as irritability and anger (often be confident of survival. People in but uninformed and unco-ordinated directed at authorities and helpers), the same place at the same time activity than helplessness. sleeplessness and difficulties do not necessarily have similar thinking, problem solving and experiences, yet, in post impact Those affected have been through concentrating. Initial interventions excitement, there is a tendency to an unprecedented experience; they need to ensure no further arousal is assume everyone has been through did whatever they could to survive activated in the form of uncertainty, something similar. As different and help those around them. High threats, exposure to unnecessary patterns of response emerge, arousal narrows their perspective suffering, discomfort or conflict. based on different appraisals, onto immediate survival issues at the Immediate personal support and people are inclined to judge each expense of broader considerations. psychological first aid (Gordon, other and give advice about what They are often insensitive to their 1997; National Child Traumatic they have found helpful without own needs, since high arousal Stress Network and National Center understanding the differences. focuses energy in muscles and for PTSD, 2005) are interventions activates body and mind for that do not seek to work with the High arousal is unfamiliar, and action in the external world at the trauma but to stabilise the person people often do not clearly expense of awareness of self, body, and restore security and contact remember what they thought emotions and mind. Substances are with loved ones. in moments of greatest threat. produced in the brain that damp The experience is soon replaced down sensations of pain and energy Immediate aftermath by intense, protracted, fatiguing depletion is masked by adrenalin. As soon as the danger passes, many through less dangerous recovery Biological survival behaviour may victims become rescuers, bursting activity which puts the subjective mislead people about their state into action in a controlled, rational moment of threat out of mind, and needs. This insensitivity assists manner to provide or seek help although arousal is maintained by survival in the short term enabling (Mileti 1999). Up to 75 per cent the unusually intense demands. It people to act well outside their usual of healthy survivors engage in may then be difficult for people to capacity and persist beyond their search and rescue activities without understand the nature and origins usual endurance. waiting for official response and of their reactions especially when make their own way to medical they faced death (Gordon 2005). A woman described evacuating from a or other resources, turning first to bushfire. After loading her children and familiar providers (Drabek 1986). During the emergency, emotional precious documents into the car, she Convergence on the disaster site responses are suppressed in favour saw a generator on the garage floor and milling around is common. of intensely aroused survival- and thought “that will come too” and However, information is often oriented action. In the face of without thinking lifted it into the car. incorrect or inconsistent and fear and danger, most people act When she was safe, she was unable to they cannot contact loved ones, rationally, given their knowledge, move it and had to wait a week until sustaining the sense of isolation experience and understanding; they reunited with her husband so they (Kaniasty and Norris 1999). co-operate, behave altruistically, could both lift it out. Pre-existing and emergent social helping where possible and preserve networks are strengthened and As people emerge from danger, the community values (Drabek 1986; barriers between groups and first task is to reduce their arousal Drabek and McEntire 2002). individuals tend to disappear Those with official responsibilities in order to re-establish contact with (Leivesley 1977). usually fulfil them as soon as they their physical, mental and emotional can, often overriding personal fear state so they can identify and meet Some people exhibit shock reactions. to undertake their roles until the their needs. If this is not done, They cannot get the experience out opportunity to check on their family arousal may persist, risking them of their minds, continually seeing arises (Drabek 1986). People alone to reorganise themselves around the sights and hearing the sounds at impact are often more severely the heightened arousal. Failing to of the emergency. They appear 19 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

dazed and disoriented for a time, of threat. While familiar routines meaning than is necessary. Their and may not draw conclusions provide security, affected people arousal can be assimilated into a from obvious evidence that often do not know how to conduct system of knowledge and values danger is past or the perpetrator themselves after such an experience which stabilises it. Often they are is caught. Arousal remains locked (Murakami 2000). They may appropriately upset or distressed, onto memory images preserving mislead others about their needs but settle steadily, accept their needs them with intensity similar to the and become isolated later when and do what is helpful by using original experience. Each time the their adaptations break down. In what they have learned from memories intrude, arousal goes up natural disasters this may take other emergencies. again, maintaining the problem. the form of putting their effort Finally, the people away from the They are at risk of continuing into rebuilding instead of caring emergency hear about loved ones posttraumatic symptoms if they are for themselves and their families. involved and in danger, but do unable to master the experience. They may also avoid memories and not know their fate for some time. However, most people respond numb themselves from the pain. They experience threat through to care and support from helpers These features are associated with danger to their loved ones; the and loved ones and resolve their longer term psychological problems information they receive evokes high responses gradually over the (North and Westerhaus 2003). This arousal. This can be considered as following months. Some 10–20 behaviour often means they do ‘informational trauma‘ as distinct per cent of those intensely exposed not adequately communicate their from those who encounter the are likely to experience some experience to friends and family, emergency through their own senses form of diagnosable psychological who then misunderstand them. who suffer from ‘sensory trauma’. impairment – posttraumatic stress When the survivor of a massacre For those not present, problems are disorder, depression, anxiety states went home, he and his wife ‘did not often associated with two aspects of or substance abuse, (McFarlane and know what to say to each other’ so the experience. First, they may make Girolamo 1996; Galea et al. 2002); he ate his dinner and went out to the adjustments and decisions in high the proportion is likely to be higher kindergarten committee meeting in arousal before they know their loved (up to 45 per cent) in intense, his diary for that night. He continued one’s fate. Because this is done in traumatic events such as terrorist on ‘automatic pilot’ for several days an intense emotional state of mind, bombings (North et al. 1999). In until he attended a debriefing meeting the results are often not recognised some circumstances, it may be as arranged at his work place. afterwards, but have long term high as 100 per cent (Smith and effects since they are not reversed North 1993). Some throw themselves into recovery by the reunion. activities. They become too busy to Another group become distressed think or feel the losses. People who A woman six months pregnant received and anxious about the future. They suffered extensive loss in natural a call from her husband staying in feel overwhelmed and cannot see disasters are often too involved with Lower Manhattan informing her of how they will cope or solve their others to take stock of their own the World Trade Centre attack, and problems. Arousal has shifted from needs for some time. They compare that he was going to evacuate. She the memories related to the threat their losses with those who are pleaded with him to stay in his hotel. and converted into emotions, which harder hit and feel they have no They lost contact for many hours. She are expressed. They need help to right to feel their own pain. Their turned on the television in Australia organise themselves for immediate plight is likely to hit them later. and sat rocking on her bed watching requirements of life and benefit Anecdotal experience from a variety the collapsing towers, stroking her from personal support aimed at of bushfires in Victoria, and the pregnant stomach saying to the unborn assisting them to manage practical Canberra fires of 2003 suggest those baby “we might have to do this alone problems of re-establishing who rebuild early often do not baby, we might have to do this alone.” their lives, providing information make such a successful adjustment She felt detached from her husband and facilitating access to as those who take their time. until she communicated her experience assistance measures. to him after becoming distressed when There are those who are able he watched the third anniversary Another group of people go onto to accept the experience. They ceremonies on television. automatic pilot. They try to re- recognise the event for what it is establish normal routines as soon and accept their survival. They The second aspect of informational as possible as though the emergency usually have prior experience, trauma that may lead to problems had not happened. Arousal is training or other knowledge that is not knowing the detail of their converted into maintaining familiar means the emergency has not loved one's experiences and having routines and may assist them to damaged their assumptions about to imagine what they must have disengage from the experience life; they do not need to find more gone through to understand them. 20 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

If their loved one died, they are trained) prepared to comfort • providing advice about how to often obsessively concerned to and instil hope in the immediate ensure recovery. find out how they died and if aftermath relieves the sense of they suffered. Even if death is not isolation, reduces the impact and Representatives of the recovery involved, they can be extensively initiates recovery. However, those system need to act at all times to affected with different needs to affected and their supporters need preserve affected people’s dignity those present at the scene. The Bali to be informed at the earliest and ability to make their own bombing affected the survivors with opportunity about differences in decisions. This makes the support sensory trauma whereas the families appraisals and hence reactions system acceptable and meaningful in Australia had informational and also about the validity of the and encourages them to make trauma when they heard about it impact on those not present, who contact with it at a later stage and often did not know the fate of may be suffering from informational should they need it. Some people the loved one for days. For each trauma. Outreach by community- suffer posttraumatic responses for directly involved person there may based services provides trusted between three to ten years following be several others with informational support people who can maintain traumatic emergencies (North and trauma. They commonly push aside contact with those affected. It is an Westerhaus 2003) and many do not their difficulties in comparison effective form of assistance (North seek help until several years have with their loved one’s tangible and Westerhaus 2003). Strategies to past (North et. al. 1999). Anything sufferings, yet if their experience is reduce arousal include: that initiates a constructive relationship with a facilitating social not validated and their needs are • ensuring victims feel safe; not met, misunderstandings are infrastructure to aid recovery may • enabling them to re-attach to likely, undermining relationships mitigate these problems (Gordon meaningful others and their important for recovery. 2004b). Whatever happens to community; people in a persisting state of high Support and recovery • assisting them to stabilise and re- arousal has a symbolic significance establish awareness of needs and and can either help reduce or One of the most important factors self management; maintain their state of agitation. determining the extent of psycho- • providing comfort, care, social impact is the duration of the information and advice about the The management of community stress state. The presence of altruistic meaning of their reactions; and processes and social tensions is and concerned helpers (preferably an important area of intervention,

The presence of comforting helpers relieves the sense of isolation and initiates recovery. 21 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

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United States. Washington, D.C., Smith, E.M. & North, C. S. (1993). Joseph Henry Press. Posttraumatic stress disorder in natural Author disasters and technological accidents; Murakami, H. (2000). Underground: The Rob Gordon is a clinical psychologist who Tokyo gas attack and the Japanese psyche. in Wilson, J.P. & Raphael, B. (Eds.), has worked in disasters since the 1983 London, The Harvill Press. (1993). International Handbook of Ash Wednesday bushfires. He is been a Traumatic Stress Syndromes. New York, consultant to the Victorian Emergency National Child Traumatic Stress Plenum Press, 405–420. Management Plan and has been involved Network and National Center for PTSD, in most major Victorian emergencies since (2005). Psychological First Aid: Field Sweet, S. (1998). The effect of a then. He conducts a private practice in Box Hill, Victoria where he treats adults and Operations Guide. www.NCTSN.org. natural disaster on social cohesion: A longitudinal study. 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Other AJEM articles and community mental health by Rob Gordon (1999). Psychiatric Disorders interventions. Cambridge, among Survivors of the Oklahoma Cambridge University Press. A study of human responses to disaster, City Bombing. J. American Medical Vol. 7 No. 2, Winter 1992, pp. 14–15 Association, 282, 755–762. Van der Kolk, B. (1996). The body Human responses to natural disasters keeps the score: Approaches to the (Part 1), Vol. 1 No. 2, June 1986, pp. 3–4 North, C. S. and Westerhaus, E.T. psychobiology of posttraumatic (2003). Applications from previous Human responses to natural disasters stress disorder. in Van der Kolk, B., (Part 2): the myths of human response in disaster reseach to guide mental health McFarlane, A. and Weisaeth, L., (Eds.), disaster, Vol. 1 No. 3, September 1986, interventions after the September 11 (1996). Traumatic Stress: The effects of pp. 3–5 attacks. In Ursano, R. S., Fullerton, overwhelming experience on mind, body Human responses to natural disasters (Part 3): general principals of human C. S. and Norwood, A. E. (Eds.), and society, New York, Guilford Press, (2003). Terrorism and Disaster: response to crisis situations, Vol. 1 No. 4, 242–278. December 1986, pp. 3–4 Individual and community mental health interventions. Cambridge, Cambridge Van der Kolk, B., McFarlane, A. and Human responses to natural disasters Weisaeth, L. (Eds.), (1996). Traumatic (Part 4): short term human responses University Press, 93–106. to disaster, Vol. 2 No. 1, March 1987, Stress: The effects of overwhelming pp. 3–5 Paulsen, R.L. (1981). Human Behavior experience on mind, body and society, and Fire Emergencies: An Annoted Human responses to natural disasters New York, Guilford Press. (Part 5): medium term responses to Bibliography, Washington, US Dept disaster, Vol. 2 No. 2, June 1987, pp. 3–5 of Commerce. Weisaeth, L. and Tønnesen, A. (2003). Responses of individuals and groups to Human responses to natural disasters Perry, R.W., Lindell, M.K. & Greene, (Part 6): long term responses to disaster, consequences of technological disasters M.R. (1981). Evacuation Planning in Vol. 2 No. 3, September 1987, pp. 3–5 and radiation exposure, in Ursano, R. J., Emergency Management. Lexington, Human responses to natural disasters Fullerton, C. S. and Norwood, A. E. Lexington Books. (Part 7): Workers’ responses to disaster, (Eds.), (2003). Terrorism and Disaster: Vol. 2 No. 4, December 1987, pp. 3–5 Pfister, H. Peter. (1992). Stress Effects Individual and community mental health Human responses to natural disasters on Central and Peripheral Systems: interventions. Cambridge, Cambridge (Part 8): community responses to natural A Primer. Brisbane, Australian University Press, 209–235. disaster, Vol. 3 No. 2, June 1988, pp. 4–7 Academic Press. Human responses to natural disasters Wenger, D.E. (1972). The DRC (Part 9): principals for support and Siegel, J.M., Bourque, L.B. & Shoaf, Studies in Community Functioning, recovery for human services, Vol. 3 No. 3, K. I. (1999). Victimization after a in Proceedings of the Japan–United September 1988, pp. 4–7 natural disaster: Social disorganization States Disaster Research Seminar: The social system as site of disaster impact or community cohesion? International Organizational and Community and resource for recovery, Vol. 19 No. 4, Journal of Mass Emergencies and Responses to Disasters. Columbus, November 2004, pp. 16–22 Disasters, 17(3), 265–294. Disaster Research Center, The Ohio Scherer, Kl. R., Schorr, A. and State University. Johnstone, T., (Eds.), (2001) Appraisal Wilson, J.P. & Raphael, B. (1993). Processes in Emotion, Oxford, Oxford International Handbook of Traumatic University Press. Stress Syndromes. New York, Plenum Press

23 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

National Emergency Management Strategy for Remote Indigenous Communities

Moya Newman reports on the Remote Indigenous Communities Advisory Committee

The Remote Indigenous be successful there was a need Communities Advisory Committee for extensive consultation (RICAC) was established as a throughout Australia with working Group of the Australian Indigenous people, as well as Emergency Management Committee government and community-based (AEMC) in 2003, by Emergency service providers. The Committee Management Australia (EMA). employed Isabella Adams, an It was established to address, Indigenous Consultant from Vision at a national level, emergency Networks, assisted by Mara West, management arrangements within from Western Australia to undertake remote Indigenous communities. the consultation process. The committee is supported by EMA and made up of two The Attorney-General’s Department Doolan and Walter Eattes, Indigenous elders, welcome participants to 'country'. representatives from Western allocated $120 000 from the Australia, New South Wales, Working Together to Manage Queensland, South Australia Emergencies Program. These funds The development of the National and the Northern Territory. The supported the focus group meetings Emergency Management Strategy Committee is chaired by the held in each of the States and for Remote Indigenous Communities Director General, Queensland Territories throughout Australia was endorsed by the Augmented Department of Emergency Services. (two in WA, SA, NT, NSW and Australasian Police Ministers’ QLD). The States’ emergency Council in March 2005. This A key initiative for the RICAC in service agencies also contributed followed increased recognition 2005 was to develop the National by conducting extra meetings by government since 2000 that Emergency Management Strategy for at their own cost to ensure a the issues relating to emergency Remote Indigenous Communities. It comprehensive consultation process management in remote Indigenous was agreed that for the strategy to was undertaken. communities need to be addressed.

24 Phillip Bartlett, Gordon Hall, Tony Wally and Tim Muirhead discuss aspects of the National Emergency Management Strategy for Remote Indigenous Communities. The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

Collaborating on ideas for the national strategy.

The objectives of the strategy are to: analysed to identify the common Plumb, Northern Territory, Ken • develop the knowledge and threads arising for progression to Wyatt, NSW, Christine Johnson, skills of Indigenous people and the next phase of the strategy. Queensland and Moya Newman, organisations for emergency Western Australia. The writing team management in remote Some of the key themes relating to worked tirelessly to develop and communities; emergency management in remote write a unique strategy, reflective Indigenous communities were of the consultation process and • improve the level and highlighted and incorporated into appropriateness of services emphasising the common threads. the strategy. They were: relating to emergency The writing team agreed the management provided by • commitment and accountability; strategy needed to be written in a relevant agencies in remote • communication; way that was user-friendly and a Indigenous communities; comprehensive guide. • consultation; • build the capacity of remote • co-ordination; Indigenous communities to A meeting was held on 8 December improve sustainable • decision-making; 2005, in Brisbane to finalise and community safety; • diversity; endorse the strategy prior to forwarding it on to all relevant • increase government • education; commitment and accountability stakeholders. At the meeting the to address issues impacting on • employment; strategy was workshopped with effective emergency management • funding; a few minor adjustments to be in remote Indigenous addressed and once completed the • governance; communities; and committee will meet again to decide • provision of services; • promote effective partnership when and where the launch will between emergency management • partnerships and agreements; and take place. agencies, Indigenous • training. organisations, government The RICAC members were and other agencies to improve It has been recognised by the extremely happy with the outcome community safety outcomes for committee that all of these of the strategy which has been remote Indigenous communities. key points be considered and developed based on the outcome implemented when developing of the focus group meetings. After the consultation process the the strategy. consultants met with the RICAC in Brisbane during September The consultant compiled a Other AJEM articles 2005 to establish the outcome working draft for the writing team by Moya Newman of the national focus group who met in Melbourne during meetings throughout Australia. November to commence writing Integration of emergency risk management into West Australian indigenous The information based on the the strategy. The members of the communities, Vol. 19 No. 1, March 2004, consultation process was reported writing team were Isabella Adams, pp. 10-15 to the RICAC by the consultant and Consultant Vision Networks, Martin 25 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

A new policing dynamic in emergency management

Mick Keelty provides an insight into the AFP’s national and international roles in emergency management

An emergency incident 27 years policing agencies, fire, ambulance Since that time, AFP expertise in ago led to the formation of the and other emergency services disciplines such as international Australian Federal Police (AFP) providers. The AFP’s community policing, forensics, post-blast and an ironic twist in the history of policing arm, ACT Policing, analysis and disaster victim Australia’s emergency management. undertakes this operational role in identification have increasingly been protecting the Australian Capital sought by international authorities When a bomb exploded at Territory, and has been tested at in response to disasters – both the Commonwealth Heads of times through incidents such as the natural and man-made. These Government Regional Meeting at 2003 Canberra bushfires and the have included incidents such as Sydney’s Hilton Hotel in 1978, it ‘white powder’ incidents of 2005. the Bali bombings of both 2002 killed three people, injured scores and 2005, the J W Marriott Hotel more, and exposed weaknesses However, the mainstream AFP has bombing of 2003, the Australian in the co-ordination of Australia’s been traditionally focused on taking Embassy bombing in Jakarta in disaster response system. the fight against crime offshore, in 2004, numerous bombings in areas such as illicit drug trafficking, As part of the Australian southern Philippines and Thailand, fraud and people smuggling. Government’s response to the and significantly, the Indian Ocean incident, the AFP was founded in After the September 11 terrorist tsunami on Boxing Day 2004. the following year as the national attacks, and with the onset The AFP has provided this expertise policing agency. However, it has of the so-called international in the form of Offshore Rapid only been relatively recently that the ‘security environment’, emergency Response Teams, specially convened organisation’s capacity in disaster situations took on challenging new to respond to individual disaster consequence management has been dimensions for authorities. As a situations. These teams, often exercised beyond the local level. result, new opportunities emerged supported by State and Territory for the mainstream AFP to apply its Responsibility for responding police, enable personnel with the specialist skills and experience in to emergencies in Australia has appropriate mix of skills to be the area of emergency management traditionally been with State and marshalled and deployed soon after – both nationally and abroad, and Territory authorities, such as tragedy strikes. at operational and strategic levels. This experience overseas and the AFP’s capacity as the national policing agency are now being used to enhance emergency response strategies here at home. A key development in this regard has been the shift toward proactive initiatives, which aim to prevent emergencies as well as respond to them.

State and Territory police still retain overall responsibility for control of emergency situations, and the AFP has a role in co-ordinating policing responses to promote a more uniform national approach. This is occurring particularly in areas such Offshore Rapid Response Teams enable personnel with the appropriate mix of skills to be as counter-terrorism and aviation 26 mashalled and deployed soon after tragedy strikes. security, through initiatives such as The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

the Joint Counter Terrorism Teams, The operation – codenamed from more than 30 countries. By Regional Rapid Deployment Teams Operation Alliance – became the November 2005 the Centre had and the recent announcement of largest in the AFP’s history, and is successfully identified more than AFP-appointed Airport Security now widely regarded as having set 2600 bodies. An AFP team still Commanders, who will control a new benchmark in regional law remains in Thailand today as part of security at major Australian airports. enforcement co-operation. Since that operation, with less than 1000 then, the AFP has received many bodies still to be processed. So how is this new policing dynamic more international requests for boosting emergency response assistance in the wake of disasters In addition, much of the AFP’s capability at a practical level? There – particularly terrorist bombings – in work offshore is now focused on are many illustrations of this, but South East Asia and in countries such the prevention of international some of the strongest impacts to as Spain, Saudi Arabia and Turkey. humanitarian disasters, through date have become apparent during peacekeeping and regional offshore disaster responses. In the aftermath of the London assistance. Today, we have hundreds bombings in July 2005, the AFP of members deployed to locations International also led an Australian team to such as the Solomon Islands, East Timor and Sudan. They are working The first (and arguably biggest observe the investigation and to restore law and order and demonstration) came with the Bali identify areas that could help with promote stability in these countries, nightclub bombings of October improving responses to these and which are essential to preventing 2002. After a series of terrorist other types of emergencies. the outbreak of emergencies in bombs exploded in the popular From this we learnt much about the future. Kuta nightclub district, killing how to preserve crime scenes while quickly restoring order more than 200 people (88 of Overseas experiences such as to affected areas, as well as them Australians) the Indonesian these are continually strengthening special arrangements between National Police (INP) requested policing capabilities, with the law enforcement and business to assistance from the AFP for the knowledge being applied to inform promote information exchange, emergency response. the development of strategies to intelligence and stronger security. prevent emergencies, particularly Experts in fields such as forensics, But terrorist attacks are only one terrorist attacks, here in Australia. post-blast analysis, intelligence, example where the AFP’s capacity investigations and disaster victim for responding to catastrophic National identification were quickly emergencies has been put to the test Unfortunately there has been mobilised and deployed to in recent years. growing evidence to suggest the Indonesia. At the height of the threat of terrorism in Australia is investigation more than 120 The Indian Ocean tsunami that very real. Extensive resources worth Australian police, including State struck on Boxing Day 2004 more than $6 billion are being and Territory representatives, were provided new opportunities for dedicated to improving strategies on the ground in Bali working the organisation to work beyond for prevention and response in alongside the INP. These teams the crime environment in a more this area. These are overseen by were well supported in Australia humanitarian-style capacity – an the National Counter Terrorism by personnel based at the Incident area traditionally outside the law Committee, of which the AFP is a Coordination Centre at AFP enforcement domain. Soon after the member alongside senior State and headquarters in Canberra, as well as tsunami swept over the resort island Territory policing colleagues. by teams at Major Incident Rooms of Phuket, the Thai Government in Australian capital cities, who requested AFP assistance to co- The Committee is promoting assisted with collecting and co- ordinate the international disaster unprecedented levels of emergency ordinating the flow of information. victim identification process. management co-operation around the country, with a large number While primary responsibility for During the first Bali bombings of agencies involved. These include managing the disaster lay with in 2002, Australian police used intelligence, emergency services, the INP, Australian police closely a special five-phase victim defence, protective security agencies supported their Indonesian identification process, involving and various other Commonwealth counterparts and their contribution internationally-agreed standards for government departments. Not was regarded as integral to some recovery, retrieval and reconciliation only is the Committee overseeing early breakthroughs and the ultimate procedures. These protocols were Australia’s preparedness for dealing success of the investigation. So far applied at the International DVI with all aspects of emergency 36 people have been convicted in Coordination Centre in Phuket by responses, ranging from recovery relation to the 2002 bombings. law enforcement representatives processes to formal investigations 27 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

crime in the security environment. Conclusion In the past, emergencies tended to If there has been a silver lining to be relatively contained in nature. the dark cloud of terrorism over But incidents over recent years recent years, it has been the – such as in New York and Bali – unprecedented levels of co-operation show the stakes have become much that have flowed in the aftermath higher. Advances in technology and of critical incidents around the knowledge mean the capacity now world. These experiences have exists within the general community enabled us to identify and address to commit offences that easily weaknesses in our own prevention cause mass casualties. This new and response systems, particularly proactive approach to emergency in regard to critical incident management involves capitalising command, communication, on the potential from collective division of responsibilities responses and making large and jurisdictional obstacles. investments in initiatives that work to prevent such emergencies. One of the key findings from Experts in fields such as forensics, the 9/11 Report in the wake of On this front, the use of chemical, post-blast analysis and disaster victim the attacks on the United States, biological, radiological, and nuclear identification can be deployed for was a “failure of imagination” by international emergency response. (CBRN) explosives pose a real authorities in the lead-up to the and growing threat. These non- attacks. Much has been learnt and post-disaster analysis; but it conventional forms of warfare are internationally since that time is also focused on related areas now considered within the realms of and Australia’s strategic approach such as border control, transport terrorist capability and the solution to emergency management is security, critical infrastructure to detection and defence also lies ensuring we are better placed and information management across a number of agencies. protection. These form an integral than ever before to anticipate and part of national emergency For the AFP’s part, as well as thwart potential security-related prevention strategies. providing protective services emergencies. But emergency capability at major national management remains an evolving A key initiative in this area is the scientific institutions, we are also phenomenon, encouraging us to Joint Counter Terrorism Teams. establishing a CBRN Data Centre continually search for new ways Today, there are 11 Joint Counter to help overcome current gaps and of strengthening our responses Terrorism Teams located around vulnerabilities in Australia. Based and make better use of existing Australia, consisting of federal on a combination of Australian resources in line with the agents and their State and Territory Intelligence Community and law changing environment. counterparts to ensure broad enforcement data, the CBRN Data The AFP is pleased to have coverage across all jurisdictions. Centre will provide technical become a more active partner in Their role is to investigate suspect CBRN intelligence, information this process by using its skills and terrorist activity and to arrest and advice to all Australian experience in the national and and prosecute those found to be governments. Once a domestic international arenas, to address involved in supporting terrorist capability is established, the CBRN the burgeoning array of emergency activities both within Australia Centre will contribute to wider management challenges that the and overseas. They work closely government capacity building and 21st Century presents. with our intelligence and law information sharing, and provide enforcement partners to mitigate assistance to regional countries in the risk of terrorism and play a lead developing their domestic CBRN Author role in national counter-terrorism management capability. AFP Commissioner Mick Keelty APM emergency exercises, including the has more than 30 years experience as a police officer in Australia and overseas recent Mercury 05 operation, which and was appointed to the role of AFP tested emergency management Commissioner in April 2001. He also Chairs the Board of the Australian Crime responses in the event of co- Commission, and holds a number of ordinated terrorist attacks around executive positions on national and the country. international law enforcement bodies.

The formation of these joint teams reflects the changing nature of

28 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

American exceptionalism or universal lesson? The implications of Hurricane Katrina for Australia

John Handmer examines the extent to which the problems of Hurricane Katrina could occur elsewhere

Abstract The New Orleans crisis It is too easy to be critical of emergency managers. Few events have been as well planned for as For them in a major event, the stakes are often very Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans. Yet the emergency high with lives and economies at immediate risk, management system appears to have failed in resources inadequate and political and media scrutiny most respects. Media reports on many aspects of intense, interfering and unforgiving. Information will the crisis challenge existing orthodoxy in research be inadequate, modelling ambiguous and rumours rife. Emergency management is often tested in public with and practice. A few months after Katrina, interest immediate if not real-time feedback, with a constituency has waned and press and agency apologies for dedicated to locating and punishing the blameworthy. exaggerating aspects of the extent of the crisis are Emergency workers may save thousands of lives in the emerging, although some evidence suggests that face of an extreme natural phenomenon and vulnerable aspects were even worse then reported. There is also population, but enquiries and lawsuits for the few a developing lower profile crisis as local economies unfortunate victims may drag on for years, consuming resources in a fruitless search for zero risk. shrink, threatening to halt recovery. However, the crisis in New Orleans, and the apparent This paper examines some important questions multiple failures of emergency management are concerning the extent to which the problems of astonishing. The global media focus has, naturally enough, been on the immediate post-impact phase New Orleans could occur elsewhere. To the extent with the chaos and inadequacies of the emergency that New Orleans is a special case, the implications response providing plenty of media fodder. There was a should be limited. But where similar circumstances determined search for the guilty and suggestions by both exist now or in the future, could we expect to find local and foreign media, that this was a unique event. similar problems? The paper also discusses some But was it really such a surprise? general issues to do with the processes of A month or so later media interest has waned and emergency management. there have now even been press and agency apologies for exaggerating aspects of the extent of the crisis (eg Handmer states that although aspects of the Rosenblatt and Rainey, 2005; Smith–Spark, 2005). Most New Orleans situation may be found in disasters attention has turned to the ongoing political credibility crisis for the US President and FEMA (the Federal everywhere, a similar situation seems unlikely Emergency Management Agency), and its parent agency, to occur in Australia. This statement is qualified the Department of Homeland Security – a leviathan however, by questioning what exactly took of 170,000 employees speaking unconvincingly about place, uncertainty about Australian emergency shortages of resources and expertise. No emergency management capacity for a huge event, manager, politician, or anyone else, has emerged as a and trends in Australia that may make us more public leader or hero. vulnerable in future. The crisis challenges more than the careers of those senior US emergency managers with responsibility for response. It raises questions about emergency management, disaster myths and the research supporting much contemporary practice. Through 29 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

these issues runs the broader question of to what extent New Orleans – with a contiguous urban area similar in population to Brisbane or Perth – is an exceptional event, or is it a warning of what emergency managers have to look forward to? Could it happen in Australia?

The apparent impact – no surprise “The Federal Emergency Management Agency lists a hurricane strike on New Orleans as one of the most dire threats to the nation, up there with a large earthquake in California or a terrorist attack in New York City.” (Bourne, 2004).

With days of warning Hurricane Katrina headed towards New Orleans creating a storm surge which raised the level of Lake Pontchartrain – itself attached to the Carribbean – breaching and/or overtopping levees protecting the city. The majority of those at risk After a natural phenomenon the situation for disaster evacuated in some chaos as a normally short drive took victims improves steadily, however this is not yet the case most of a day. However, over 100 000 did not evacuate. for Southern Louisiana. Many of these people did not have the means to do so, including many tourists. Others decided to stay. appears to have continued to worsen as the entities run into financial problems), apparent breakdown of law In New Orleans you walk uphill to the Mississippi and order, abandonment of many of the more vulnerable River held in place by dykes that would serve well on people, and the seeming inability of the federal the Dutch coast. The city is well below sea level with government to get to grips with the disaster. There was the Mississippi on one side and the Caribbean via Lake also the large number of children separated from parents Pontchartrain on the other. The history of settlement – over 1000 cases, and so on. It was assumed, and in there is that of extending into increasingly hazardous many cases asserted, that planning and preparations areas. On two visits to the city local people made it were thorough and would be effective. plain to me that the threat was from the sea rather than the river. On Sunday 28 August, as the hurricane approached, President Bush was among those urging people to leave, Neither the hurricane striking the city, nor the inability “We cannot stress enough the dangers this hurricane of over 100 000 people to evacuate was a surprise. poses…” (BBC 2005 (III)). He urged the State Governor The whole event down to many of the details was to order a mandatory evacuation. Michael Brown, the thoroughly well predicted and rehearsed. This is a director of FEMA was more relaxed urging residents reasonable conclusion whether we consider the popular to take “precautions immediately”. It was well known culture world of National Geographic, the emergency from the various scenarios that a car based evacuation management profession, peer reviewed science, would leave over 100 000 stranded. Yet the provisions numerous articles and analyses in mass media, or a made were the focus of much negative media attention near miss from Hurricane Ivan in 2004 (Laska, 2004). and seemed to underscore the overall failure in response It was not knowledge that was restricted to academics management. For the first time since the 1960s the US as suggested by a recent report in Nature (Reichhardt et mainstream media right across the political spectrum al 2005). In addition, the people of the city were well used race and class to critique the US system – the aware of the threat from living below sea and river level. “outrage factor” was high. The fact that a scenario paralleling the actual event was used as a FEMA training exercise seems almost satirical The stranded were eventually evacuated to points – Hurricane Pam a category 3 storm. A report in Nature scattered throughout the conterminous USA (Carroll, (Reichhardt et al 2005:175) soon after the event observes 2005) – in the view of one US disaster specialist, to that “The similarities between Katrina and the Pam reduce the chance of civil unrest or organised political simulation are eerie.” pressure from the displaced.

However, while the event was expected, the outcomes An emerging crisis in recovery – local were surprising. The predictions, scenarios and economic collapse rehearsals did predict more than the 1200 or so deaths, "About 81,000 of Louisiana’s 197,000 businesses but did not deal with the following paralysis of local and have either shut down or scaled back operations state government, collapse of essential services (which because of Hurricane Katrina” (LA Times, 2005).

30 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

Over 100 000 people failed to evacuate before Katrina. Many of these people did not have the means to self evacuate.

Typically, after the impact of a natural phenomenon The initial signs from New Orleans however are the situation for disaster victims improves steadily – at worrying. Some 80 000 worked in the local tourist least in wealthy countries. However, as of the end of industry and another 14 000 in floating casinos – these November 2005, this is not yet the case in southern are scarcely functioning at all. The city’s port is at 25 Louisiana. Another serious set of crises is emerging as per cent capacity potentially affecting a large proportion the area struggles to recover. This is the apparent partial of the 107 000 whose work is linked to port activities. collapse of local economies. The proximate cause of this The city itself has had to lay off thousands (BBC, 2005 partial collapse is Hurricane Katrina of course, but the (iii)). The Louisiana Labor Department indicated that sources of finance for the city and other areas affected by New Orleans lost 237 200 jobs in September. A local the hurricane have dried up leaving the local authorities economist argues that the current unemployment level is with little option but to lay off staff (including those in artificially low as much has been exported to other states the emergency services), in turn exacerbating the local (The Times Picayune, 2005 (i)). The power company economic downturn. The area was very poor before is bankrupt, all three local universities are effectively the disaster with massive chronic unemployment. closed and plan to downsize on re-opening, and only This has serious implications for disaster recovery and one in three of the city’s inhabitants is back in town. highlights an issue that may be fundamental to recovery from most disasters – local economic vitality. Analysis All this in a very poor area – and poor local authorities is complicated as many of the Cajuns in the bayous in the US have ongoing expenses unlike many of their supplement their cash incomes with subsistence fishing, counterparts in other rich countries. They are struggling and in New Orleans itself there is a very substantial to meet ongoing commitments to health care funds criminal economy around drug addiction and trading. for example.

Disasters have considerable economic impacts often Table 1. Employment and halting local enterprises for a period. But this is Hurricane Katrina generally made up by other economic activity especially that connected with disaster recovery and flows of aid. It Unemployment relief (The Times Picayune, 2005 (i)) may also be made up by increased activity later on. 2004 Sept 12,710; Oct 11 946

The US national economy has not been severely affected 2005 Oct 271 846 (plus another by the hurricanes although unemployment grew for the 24 519 attributed to Rita) first time in two years. The big issue for the national President Bush and others have suggested that there may picture is the potential impact on the US budget deficit be an opportunity to redevelop the south, eliminating now running at about US$333 billion well down from chronic poverty and bringing the economic dynamism last year's record. The hurricane could cost up to that the city, if not the region, had a century ago $200 billion. Analysts argue that this cannot be simply when New Orleans was America’s second port. As absorbed given the size of the current deficit (BBC, an economic powerhouse it was the largest and most 2005, (i)). prosperous city in the Confederacy (albeit partly as a 31 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

result of the slave trade). A plan to turn the entire area Halibuton) has been proposed (LAT 25/10/05:8) – “A into a tax free enterprise zone with a range of incentives chance to wipe out poverty and the remnants of racial for small and local businesses (while handing the injustice” (George W. Bush, BBC,(ii)). There are no signs contacts for infrastructure repair to the multi-national of this yet. Instead the crisis is deepening.

Table 2. Disaster myths, reality and New Orleans – preliminary observations

“MYTHS” about what “REALITY” NEW ORLEANS What seemed to happen. happens in disaster, As established by drawing on the research & experience. research literature.

Widespread looting There is no increase in We all saw “looting”, and there were numerous media reports is expected. criminal activity, and and reports by local officials, people in the streets, blogs, etc. little or no looting. Evidence of looting by officials. Some reports of looting & criminal behaviour have been withdrawn. Looting has been re-defined by some commentators to exclude much of the behaviour: so the hungry were feeding themselves, the drug addicted raiding hospitals for their needs, and so on. Criminal drug related gangs were very active.

Helplessness and People help those Over 100 000 did not have the means to evacuate, and became abandonment of in need. Differential dependent on others to keep them alive. This help was very the weak. impacts on the slow to come and seriously inadequate. Disasters strike vulnerable. Some in nursing homes and private hospitals were abandoned randomly. and died. (St Rita’s Nursing Home – pending criminal charges)

Officials experience Officials will do their job Large scale abandonment of official posts and duties. conflict between their and not abandon their 50 officers were fired for going AWOL, 228 are still under official duties and posts because of “role investigation (Perlstein, 2005). Police were also caught looting family demands. conflict”. department stores. Some will hide The situation seemed well beyond the capabilities of CEOs at from the crisis. all levels of government. First priority went to security rather than attending to those desperate for food and water, and to those dying for want of medical attention. There were no public heroes.

Large scale demand Little need for About 200 000 people were being housed through official for official temporary official emergency channels a month and a half after the disaster. About 120 000 accommodation. accommodation. needed accommodation on the day. The mass evacuation centres were overwhelmed. (There is a dispute over the actual figure with much higher numbers occasionally quoted.)

People take advantage Much behaviour There was no shortage of price gouging and people being of the vulnerable. is altruistic. evicted from private rentals creating homelessness (Hartman, 2005) adding to the burden for public authorities. The town of Gretna, across the Mississippi from New Orleans, barricaded itself and at gunpoint prevented refugees from entering the town (Khaleej Times, 2005).

Disaster plans are The process of planning Plans, including detailed planning by FEMA, failed totally. Even the solution. is key, and should the previous year’s mock ‘Hurricane Pam’ did little to prepare engender flexibility officials and residents. There was no evidence of adaptability and adaptability. other than on a small scale by agencies like the Coastguard.

Universal need for Co-ordination & No incident command centre established. Lack of leadership command and control. co-operation (always from federal and state leaders culminating in an un- many groups). Order coordinated response and initial recovery. This has been does not come blamed on recent changes in roles, responsibilities and resource from guns. allocation for disaster management operations under FEMA and Homeland security.

Outside rescue teams People next door do the There are reports of people assisting each other, but save many lives. saving as outside help the general picture is of an absence of rescue and help may take too long. by neighbours.

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The challenge to existing practice Disasters highlight existing attributes and research An orthodoxy discussed more among researchers Given the exhaustive planning for an event like than practitioners, is that disasters tend to highlight Hurricane Katrina, it is reasonable to ask whether the or sometimes exacerbate existing trends, rather than research results underpinning the planning retain their create entirely new circumstances. Given the ‘normal’ currency. An associated question concerns the validity of circumstances in New Orleans, what was seen and contemporary emergency management practice. If New the fallout does not seem so surprising. However, Orleans is an exception, then why? To the extent that an earlier New Orleans flood, that of 1927, is drawn it represents contemporary reality to what extent do its on by historians rather than disaster researchers to lessons apply in Australia? This issue is tied in with the illustrate the opposite – that a major disaster can lead to broader question of the applicability of overseas research substantial and lasting social change. The management to Australia. of the 1927 Mississippi River flood left many African Americans destitute and seemed to dramatise the It is normal for the mass media and some other groups rigidity and lack of concern for Americans of the and individuals to portray disasters in ways that Hoover presidency. It is credited with paving the way research, primarily from the US but also from Europe for the huge expansion of central government’s role in and Australia, has long shown to be misleading (eg. US disasters and more generally with Roosevelt’s ‘New Quarantelli and Dynes, 1973; Wenger et al. 1975; Deal’ (Barry, 1997). Within Louisiana it helped bring Drabek, 1986; Dynes, 1994; Morgan, 2004; Eberwine, the populist Huey Long to power – and a dynasty that 2005; Schoch–Spana, 2005; WHO 2005). Apart from ended in 1960. The Ninth Ward of the city was the first encouraging ineffective policies, the problem can be that area flooded in 1927 as was the case in 2005. these media misperceptions lead to allocation of scarce management and recovery resources, and can cause Is US disaster research applicable needless anxiety among those impacted by the disaster. to Australia? For example, the threat of epidemics from the dead is Examining overseas experience raises an obvious issue a persistent myth, leading to pressure for mass burials. which is far too often ignored – that is the question Another is the need for goods of all kinds including concerning the applicability of lessons and experience medical supplies. Unfortunately, these generally simply from elsewhere. This is quite distinct from the concerns absorb resources for sorting and checking items that are raised when the information from elsewhere would be often of no use to the affected areas – hence the emphasis embarrassing or show the inadequacy of local thinking on “needs assessment” (PAHO, 2001). Another myth and practice. It is also distinct from concerns about the concerns looting, which research has long argued does limits of generalising from case study research. not occur (Auf der Heide, 2004). Fear of looting is an important reason often given for reluctance to evacuate. If the national – let alone regional or local – contexts of the research are very different to where it is being Drawing on this literature, Table 2 sets out some applied, then research results may not be automatically myths, the research understanding of reality, and what transferable. New Orleans appears to be entirely appears to have occurred in New Orleans. The most different in almost every respect from any Australian city. striking feature of the Table is that the New Orleans A large question mark must hang over the applicability experience appears to call into question the relevance of its experience elsewhere. of long standing research results, and the assumptions they generate for practice. In summary, does it This simply highlights a problem with most research contradict decades of disaster research findings? Or is results – that is the extent to which they can be regarded it simply an exceptional event or one reported with as universal. But most research is quoted as if it was exceptional exaggeration? perfectly transferable across national boundaries, even if a ritualistic footnote suggests that caution be exercised in To this partial and preliminary list we could add a interpreting results across cultures. A similar comment firmly held belief that technology will solve many of the may be made about the uncritical transfer of results problems (Wood et al, 2005). However, reflecting on within countries to rather different contexts, for example, New Orleans it is difficult to see where technology alone the results of risk research conducted in rural towns in would have made a significant difference. New Orleans the US and Australia have been applied to metropolitan also draws attention to a gap in the disaster literature – areas without consideration of the differences. it is almost silent on dealing with major disaster in an environment of organised crime, poverty, high levels of The output from US based researchers dominates the drug addition, and weak government. published and accessible literature. Issues of scale, resource availability, institutional differences, and the multiple cultures of American society should make us cautious about transferring US research results and

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practice. Unlike Australian states, each of the 50 US example, some towns on the Queensland coast such as states is quite distinct, and the three US mainstream Cairns, Townsville, MacKay, and the rapidly expanding “cultures” of Anglo–Celtic, African American and Gold Coast canal estates, are just above sea level and are Hispanic (in addition to Indigenous groups) (each vulnerable to quite minor storm surges. The north and consisting of many sub-groups) are separated by north-west of Australia is also vulnerable but the large language, popular culture, and economic, political tidal range there reduces the probability of a surge going and health issues. inland as it would need to arrive at or near high tide.

Most of us know America through the media portrayal The dykes protecting New Orleans from the waters of California and New York even if we have visited other of Lake Pontchartrain have been found to be poorly areas for tourism or business. Most non-Americans designed, built and maintained in one of the at least know little of the distinctive societies and economies of three initial investigations. A number of the breaches the other 48 states, including Louisiana. New Orleans were the result of faults in design and construction and Louisiana have their unique history, political, – investigators say they were not as strong as expected economic and cultural experience which sets them apart and it is clear that sections failed without overtopping, from the rest of the US, let alone the rest of the world. others failed after the foundations were eroded At a minimum, we should be conscious of this, while (Washington Post, 2005). It has been claimed that the not using the differences as an excuse for dismissing poor soil conditions had been drawn to the attention of challenging implications. the responsible agency, the US Corps of Engineers (LA Times, 2005). It also appears that gaps in the levees may Could it happen here now? have been left open for railway tracks. The scale of Hurricane Katrina’s impact suggest that it Some disaster experts have asserted since the crisis could not happen in Australia. However, as it is too that the design level of 1:250 flood or so was as much easy to simply dismiss the possibility. hree fundamental as could be economically justified. Unfortunately, this elements of the New Orleans situation are examined sort of analysis ignores the fact that this is not a normal here: the physical exposure; the vulnerability of the river dyke the failure of which admits some water for a people; and the emergency response and initial time which will drain away. Instead it is a dyke keeping recovery. Trends in Australia that might increase the sea at bay, and not simply seawater but seawater the risk of a similar event are then examined. seriously contaminated by sewage and chemicals from The hazard – the delta, the city and sea level 31 “superfund” sites (contaminated sites identified “An acre [of the delta] disappears every 24 minutes. for national priority clean-up), as well as hundreds of Each loss gives a storm surge a clearer path… major additional sources of chemical and biological into [New Orleans]." "The Mississippi delta is the contamination. Failure threatens the future of the entire posterchild for… the world’s degrading deltas, city and perhaps region of nearly two million people. coastal wetlands and cities on the sea" By way of contrast (following the 1953 disaster) the (Fischetti, 2001). current Dutch sea dykes are designed for a legislated return period storm of about 10 000 years and the river Australia does not have significant deltas and does not dykes running through the same areas lying well below have either the original or the evolving exposure of New river water level are designed to over 1000 years. These Orleans as its protective delta is eroded away. It is easily probabilistic risk analyses ignore the problems with the overlooked but there are also thousands of people living standard as constructed and maintained rather than as precariously around the bayous throughout the delta. designed on paper. It is worth noting that in the past, An initial analysis by the Louisiana State University similar issues concerning the standard of construction, has found that a major shipping channel cut through operation and maintenance or major river levees, but the delta wetlands in the 1960s exacerbated the storm not sea walls, have been observed in Australia for surge. It appears that the channel may have made the example, the 1991 NSW Levee Audit. surge 20 per cent higher and much faster (BBC, 2005, (iv)). Their analysis also reported that trees provided The people some protection for the levee against surge – this is well “Poverty in New Orleans is pervasive and systemic. established and was also noted by investigators into Approximately 27%… live below the federal poverty other coastal ecosystems and the 2004 Asian tsunami line.” Systemic poverty hampers, if not cripples, (Harakunarak and Aksornkoae, 2005). The damage virtually every aspect of New Orleans… Education, from Katrina appears to have made the whole area much economic development, housing, crime – all these more vulnerable by washing away some 80 square and more are deeply influenced by the severe poverty kilometres of delta land. of the city.” (TCA, 2004).

But parts of Australian towns lie at or near sea level with Many cities around the world have significant areas little or no barrier between development and the sea, for of deprivation, some like New Orleans, may have 34 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

a near majority in that situation. The population of After a couple of weeks New Orleans had possibly New Orleans is predominantly African American more troops on the streets than Baghdad, but their distinguished by high levels of chronic unemployment, priorities did not align with those in the city for some poverty, poor health and homelessness. While the great time as they patrolled the streets in armoured cars. majority were able to evacuate the city voluntarily, over Their primary task was not rescue or assistance for the 100 000 did not. These people did not have the means stranded population. It was property protection and law to leave and in many cases did not appear to have and order. It is clear from now released FEMA email personal networks to help them. The city has the highest correspondence that there was a continuing desperate murder rate in the US (with a local entrepreneur selling shortage of food, water and medical equipment and tee-shirt images of the dead), very high levels of drug expertise which was simply nowhere near being met related crime, with consequent “no-go” areas (ONDCP, (with as little as 5 per cent of what was requested) even 2004). Those without private health insurance have very when requests were made days ahead (Melancon, 2005). limited access to medical facilities. The media focus has been, and continues to be, The per centage of disabled over the age of 65 years is on FEMA (the US Federal Emergency Management 48.1 per cent, and 22.1 per cent for those aged 21–64 Agency) whose mission is to co-ordinate response and years for the state of Louisiana. Life expectancy for provide resources as required. Some commentators African American men is about 63 years (US Census have argued that FEMA cannot act on its own volition Office, 2000). City governance is of limited effectiveness, – it must be asked to assist by the affected area’s mayor and the state has a long history of political violence or state governor. However, this was not raised as an and corruption. The city is in the US south and some issue even as the Director of FEMA lost his job. Before aspects of the crisis reflect this – something not readily the hurricane hit, George W Bush declared a state of acknowledged by all commentators – strong support for emergency for the region under Title V of the Stafford a pervasive gun culture, long established poverty in large Act. To quote from the White House statement of sections of society, and a very weak public sector in terms August 27: “The President’s action authorizes… FEMA… of essential service provision other than law and order to coordinate all disaster relief efforts… to save lives, (Frymer, 2005). In common with other US disasters many protect property and public health and safety…” of the poorest are renters who found themselves facing eviction in the immediate aftermath of the event (see also Nevertheless, local and state emergency planners and Miller and Simile, 1992). Many outside the city live in responders have largely escaped public scrutiny so small French speaking Cajun communities with a partly far. When they have been interviewed they seemed subsistence base. Adjacent towns were not all helpful. overwhelmed by the situation, and appeared to be unprepared in every way. It is easy to blame these In summary, by almost any criteria many of the people managers, but emergency management was not a of New Orleans are very vulnerable to disaster. high political priority in the state of Louisiana despite its location and opportunities for predicted and Nowhere do major Australian cities or towns sit rehearsed catastrophe. Resources made available for within cultures of governance, established poverty and the purpose appear to have been token. Nevertheless, crime like some major US cities. But many of these the performance of the police was poor and possibly features and issues exist on a smaller scale within our counter-productive with a range of looting, violence, and metropolitan cities and in remote rural areas. They also other allegations, such as preventing the entry of relief exist in cities outside Australia but within our immediate teams and supplies, made against them (and other para- neighbourhood. military forces). Some 50 resigned during the event and many others, perhaps as many as 250, failed to report The emergency response – Katrina brought the for duty (Times Picayune, 2005). Some other services water, but officials organised the chaos such as the local fire service and national Coast Guard “Katrina exposed serious problems in our response appear to have worked well. capability at all levels of government, and to the extent that the federal government didn’t fully do It appears that co-ordination between authorities its job, I take responsibility.” President Bush – and in the US there are typically many emergency (BBC, 2005 (v)). management groups involved at the state and local levels of government – was limited. The absence of the As discussed above, the event was well anticipated, American Red Cross due to lack of communication by planned and rehearsed. The attributes and authorities led to a statement answering the question: vulnerabilities of the population were, or should have “why is the Red Cross not in New Orleans?” (American been, well known. So it would be reasonable to expect Red Cross, 2005). In at least some areas there was an that the emergency response was at least adequate if absence of integrated incident command or management not exemplary. As is now well established, this was far systems. A key emergency management capability for from the reality with all levels of government failing.

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A lot of NGO aid groups are very active but largely invisible to the foreign media, in particular faith based groups such as the Mennonites and Islamic Relief.

In Australia, theSstates play the lead role in emergency management with variable support from local government. The federal government has at best a supporting operational role except in federal territories. The emphasis – perhaps unintended – is towards a high standard of planning and management across each State and Territory characterised today by increasing interagency co-operation, communication and some innovative leadership, which has demonstrated an ability to adapt – and it appears that it was leadership above all else that may have been lacking for Hurricane Katrina. The reorientation towards counter-terrorism has not been as fundamental as in the US in that the core interest of most state emergency services remains natural and technological disasters.

The above suggests that Australian emergency managers would out-perform their US colleagues if faced with a New Orleans' type situation. The problem with this positive assessment is that we have not faced a very After a couple of weeks, New Orleans had possibly more troops large complex event for a long time, and so it is difficult on the streets than Baghdad. to be certain about our performance. FEMA has more resources at its disposal than any Australian agency and evolving complex disasters is an ability to adapt to had planned for the event. What does this say about a surprises, and to be flexible in the face of changing reliance on centralised resources and planning? circumstances and demands. There was little evidence of this (Wachtendorf and Kendra, 2005). Could the future bring this chaos in Australia? In fact, it is quite possible that the response was even Based on examination of the physical hazard and worse than portrayed by the media, rather than better as exposure, vulnerability of the people and emergency represented by some media apologies and researchers. management competence, it seems that Australia could An analysis of Michael Brown’s (then Director of FEMA) not experience a New Orleans type and scale of disaster. emails suggests this. An example of one of many emails The likelihood of it happening in a major city in our he received: region, such as Port Moresby – where Australia would “Sir, I know you know the situation is past critical… be expected to assist and perhaps help lead the response Hotels are kicking people out, thousands gathering – is not considered here. on the streets with no food or water. Hundreds still But, elements of the New Orleans experience could being rescued from their homes. The dying patients and do occur in microcosm. Of more concern may be at the DMAT tent being medivac…Estimates are the possibility that identifiable trends are increasing many will die within hours… We are out of food and our risk of a larger scale disaster with some running out of water at the dome…[where there were New Orleans attributes. 20,000+ people]… DMAT staff working in deplorable conditions… Phone connectivity impossible.” Exposure – investment and global (Marty Bahamonde, quoted in Melancon, 2005) environmental change Australians like Americans are increasingly attracted Michael Brown’s full response: to hazardous places. Bernard Salt paints a picture of “Thanks for the update. Anything specific I need Australians streaming northwards and coastwards – to to do or tweak?” the cyclone prone areas (Salt, 2005). Despite the recent devastation, the US hurricane coast is increasing in There are worse examples. population by about 1300 a day. The Queensland towns mentioned above are being joined by many others as The city’s medical facilities fared badly, especially as their development expands as close as possible to the sea. emergency power failed (Dalton, 2005), and patients at some nursing homes were abandoned and died resulting

36 in legal action against the managers. The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

Two aspects of predicted global environmental change: and the current building of recovery capacity, would sea level rise and an increase in the number of cyclones take us in the New Orleans direction. associated with higher sea surface temperatures, will bring more storm surges and make smaller surges more Australian emergency management organisations have dangerous. Recent work on hurricanes in the Caribbean been heading in the direction of a co-ordinating and shows that the absolute number of hurricanes has not facilitating role in major events, and continuous efforts increased, but the number of severe hurricanes has on a flexible multi-hazard approach. But the rise in increased significantly and it is these damaging events importance of counter-terrorism has the potential to that are of concern. reduce or reverse this. People, property and vulnerability Another view The vulnerability of many of those stranded in New Direct comparison with New Orleans may be overly Orleans can be characterised in terms of exclusion comforting as we can reassure ourselves that similar from many of the economic, health, social and political situations simply do not exist in Australia. A more benefits of mainstream America (Cutter 2005), as well realistic test may be to consider some of the generic or as pervasive criminal activity, exacerbated by ineffective systemic issues. How would our major cities cope with emergency management and city governance. There a comprehensive collapse of most infrastructure across appears to also be a high level of disabilities. a significant part of their territory – with an absence of food, water, fuel, communications, transport, electricity, Apart from the widening wealth gap (Salvation Army, and medical facilities? We could add to this the need 2005), Australian society does not appear to be heading for evacuation and immediate accommodation for over that way. But major changes which reduce the legal 100 000 people. They might manage reasonably well entitlements of many Australians, for example through for a short period, but the New Orleans experience reduced job security, a privatised health system, or with medical facilities for example makes for very sober other changes which reduced political representation, reading, as back-up power failed long before the crisis could shift this assessment. Other trends of a more was anywhere near being resolved (Dalton, 2005). The demographic and lifestyle nature may be making us situation could be complicated by large gangs who take more vulnerable – primarily that we are increasingly an advantage of the situation for their own purposes. How aging coastal-dwelling population. can the possibility of decision paralysis be taken into Emergency management account in planning? The tendency to rely on a single supremo – one person in “control” during a major evolving multi-faceted Conclusions crisis – invites weakness or failure. Similarly, structures, Hurricane Katrina presents a very complex situation organisational culture and planning that discourages made more difficult to examine because of the intense adaptability, appreciation of the reality on site however media coverage and highly political nature of the event. unpleasant, and multi-organisational (public, private Something similar is most unlikely to occur in Australia and civil) co-ordination, may constrain capabilities as we lack the type of exposure, we do not have such however well resourced. To the extent that Australian a large concentrated area of poverty and associated emergency management follows these paths in the vulnerability, and our emergency services are organised future, we risk New Orleans type problems in complex quite differently. However, at a small scale aspects of drawn out events. More robust arrangements can keep the US experience may occur and trends in Australian accountability and disperse the responsibility so that society may exacerbate this. As well, cities within bottlenecks can be avoided, and encourage the flexibility our immediate neighbourhood where we would be needed to cope with very large complex problems. expected to assist, contain elements of the New Orleans syndrome. The generic emergency management issues Politicians allocate the resources to emergency raised by New Orleans present more of a challenge: management against many competing demands – as I • very large scale evacuations; was reminded recently by a Canberra politician. In quiet periods it is of course tempting to reallocate funding • the total collapse of infrastructure and unavailability – setting the scene for inadequacy when performance of accommodation, food and water; actually counts – during a major non-routine crisis. • an inability to make effective decisions in a Redundancy as in spare capacity is not something major crisis; and managerialism has been happy with. However, extra • dealing with large-scale organised criminal behaviour, capacity can be found through arrangements with and avoiding shrinkage of the local economy. other public and private groups provided some prior arrangements or planning for this exists. Any trends Plans and planning – including the use of scenarios and which weaken response and consequent management exercises – need re-examining for their assumptions and weaknesses which include ignoring local realities.

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There has been much discussion about the Acknowledgements circumstances when mass evacuation of large cities is I would especially like to thank Wei Choong of the viable – apart from moving people where would the Centre for Risk and Community Safety for her assistance hundreds of thousands go? Following in the slipstream with this paper. Insights on the New Orleans situation of Katrina, Hurricane Rita shows some of the difficulties. came from numerous sources. Here I acknowledge Thousands were trapped for many hours in massive some of those with whom I discussed the disaster and traffic jams as people headed out of Houston. Then whose views and experiences helped me greatly: Steve the evacuation orders were cancelled (Blenford, 2005). Molino, Marnie Hillman, Mike Tarrant, Terry Canon, Evacuation has its own risks too – 23 people died when Ken Mitchell, Tricia Wachtendorf, and Anthony Oliver– their bus burst into flames, “at least 35 other people – Smith. I would also like to thank the Australian officials many of them elderly or ill – died during the evacuation who wish to remain anonymous, and journal referees for of Houston” (in the face of Rita) (USA Today, 2005). their helpful suggestions. The event is a challenge for the continued relevance of long standing research results, and the assumptions they A note on sources generate for practice. This comment applies to both the This paper is being prepared as the disaster continues management of the event itself and the initial recovery to unfold. The New Orleans and Louisiana situation process, which appears to now be seriously hampered after Hurricane Katrina is immensely complex and by local economic downturns. Detailed study of the political, and any conclusions are therefore tentative. I event is needed to clarify what areas of practice need have drawn on media reports – primarily the US media, rethinking, and the extent to which US research and BBC World Service website (and its links to global practice continues to apply to contemporary Australia. media), and Australian media – some discussions on hazard related internet bulletin boards, discussions Was New Orleans an exception? Or does it suggest that with colleagues who have been involved in rapid we need to rethink the currency of long established response research on the impact of Hurricane Katrina, research and policy? The answer here is closely initial draft results of surveys of the evacuees, papers associated with the answer to the related question: by US colleagues posted on various websites, various did what we saw actually happen or are we suffering press releases and commentaries, and observations from some collective media induced hallucination? from local contacts who have been involved with the Disentangling the myths, mis-reporting, various sorts emergency response and evacuee management. With of self-interest and agendas, the micro experiences of a few exceptions, I have not checked original sources individuals, and the sheer heterogeneity and complexity quoted in media – apart from those reporting high levels of the event, is necessary before we can provide of violence. Numerous blogs have also provided a range definitive answers. of additional perspectives. Long before the hurricane I visited the city and surrounding Mississippi delta region on two occasions.

The stranded were eventually evacuated to points scattered throughout the USA. 38 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

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USA Today (2005), ‘Hospitals rework their disaster plans’, by Appleby, J., accessed 21 October 2005, from Author RMIT University where he leads the Centre for Risk and Community Safety. He is also an Adjunct Professor at the Australian National Wachtendorf, T. and Kendra, J. M. (2005), ‘Improvising University and holds a research position at the Flood Hazard Disaster in the City of Jazz: Organisational response to Research Centre, London. Hurricane Katrina’ in SSRC, Understanding Katrina: Perspectives from the Social Sciences, accessed 29 September, 2005 from Other AJEM articles by Washington Post staff journalist, (2005), ‘Investigators link John Handmer levee failures to design flaws’, Washington Post, accessed on Are emergency services becoming private?, Vol. 15 No. 3, Spring 24 October, 2005 from British authorities liable for flood warning failure, Vol. 4 No. 1, March 1989, pp. 4–6 Wenger, D.E., Dykes, J.D., Sebok, T.D., and Neff, JF, Can we have too much warning time?: a study of Rockhampton, (1975), ‘It’s a Matter of Myths: An Empirical Investigation of Australia, Vol. 7 No. 2, Winter 1992, pp. 8–10 Individual Insight into Disaster Response’, Mass Emergencies The chimera of precision : inherent uncertainties in disaster loss vol 1, pp. 33–46. assessment, Vol. 18 No. 2, May 2003, pp. 88–97 Wenger, D., (1985), ‘Mass Media and Disasters’, Preliminary Economic and financial recovery from disaster, Vol. 19 No. 4, November 2004, pp. 44–50 Paper 98, Disaster Research Center, University of Delaware accessed (30 August 2005) from Flood warning reviews in North America and Europe: statements White House, (2005) ‘Statement on Federal Emergency and silence, Vol. 17 No. 3, November 2002, pp. 17–24 Assistance for Louisiana’, Office of the Press Secretary accessed The legal rights and responsibilities of rescuers, Vol. 6 No. 4, on 27 August 2005 from < http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/ Summer 1991-1992, pp. 14–16 releases/2005/08/20050827-1.html> Non-destructive measures in Australian urban floodplain management : barriers and recommendations, Vol. 11 No. 2, Winter WHO, (Undated) Myths and realities in disaster situations 1996, pp. 51–56 accessed on (14 October 2005) from < http://www.who.int/ Review of British Counter-Disaster arrangements, Vol. 6 No. 2, June hac/techguidance/ems/myths/en/> 1991, pp. 5–6 Wood, H. et al., (2005), ‘Grand Challenges for Disaster Towards a consistent approach to disaster loss assessment across Reduction’, Natural Hazards Observer vol. 30, no.2 pp 1–3. Australia, Vol. 20 No. 1, February 2005, pp. 10–18 US Census Bureau (2000), ‘Profile of Selected Social We are all vulnerable, Vol. 18 No. 3, August 2003, pp. 55–60 Characteristics: 2000 Louisiana’, accessed on (date) from The world conference on natural disaster reduction: Yokohama, Japan, 23-27 May 1994, Vol. 9 No. 3, Spring 1994, pp. 33–35. Reprinted Vol. 10 No. 2, Winter 1995, pp. 6-8

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40 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006 The 5 day exercise used realistic weather and damage information to develop joint response ‘Washing Away’ ‘It’s only ‘Washing Away’ ‘It’s a matter of time before south Louisiana takes a direct hit from a major hurricane. …Devastating damage expected… hurricane Katrina… most powerful hurricane with unprecedented strength… rivalling the intensity ’. Hurricane Katrina and hits land in Florida as a Category 1. – Drowning New Orleans. By Mark Fischetti narrowly misses New Orleans – and leaves minimal damage. of hurricane Camille of 1969 – Director of FEMA briefed by NHC on potential levee breach. Warnings of storm surges overwhelming the levees are reported. – Mayor Nagin orders Mandatory Evacuation. Those unable to evacuate start filing into the New Orleans Superdome. – Governors of Louisiana and Mississippi request for additional security forces from the Federal government. NOT A SURPRISE (a selection from numerous articles in popular and specialist media.) – Scientific American A major hurricane could swamp New Orleans under 20 killing feet thousands. of Human water, activities along the Mississippi River have dramatically increased the risk, and now only massive reengineering of south-eastern Louisiana can save the city (http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=00060286-CB58-1315-8B5883414B7F0000&pageNumber=1&catID=2) – The Picayune Times New Orleans published a 5 part special – Governor Kathleen Babineaux Blanco declares state of emergency in Louisiana. Threat elevated by to Homeland Yellow security. – Force Joint Katrina Task – issued requests for assistance from the states of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana. – Upgrade to Category 4. – White House declares impending disaster area and orders Dept of Homeland Security and FEMA to prepare, under the Stafford Act V. Title – mandatory Various and voluntary evacuations are ordered; – All highways leading out of New Orleans report bumper to bumper traffic. Hotels 150 miles inland are all booked up. – Mayor Nagin of New Orleans called for Evacuation. Voluntary Argues that legal liability for business closures hinders call for mandatory evacuation. – Now a Category 5 hurricane at 175 mph – potentially catastrophic – NHC NOAA urgent advisory issued: ‘ – Billions have been spent to protect us, but we grow more vulnerable every day.’ Hypothetical Hurricane Pam scenario – brought FEMA’s sustained winds of 120 mph, up to 20 inches of rain in parts of southeast Louisiana and storm surge that topped levees in the New Orleans area. More than one million residents evacuated. plans for a catastrophic hurricane in Louisiana. NEAR MISS – Hurricane Ivan HURRICANE KATRINA – National Hurricane Center (NHC) issued statement about tropical depression over the Bahamas. – Storm is upgraded to Oct 2001 23–27 Feb 2006 27 Aug 28 Aug 26 Aug June 2004 4–24 Sept 2004 23 Aug 25 Aug Appendix A: Timeline 41 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

secures the city. work on recovery and relief. local police. But the state rejected the proposal. – Katrina makes landfall at 0610 as a Category 4 hurricane. (Plaquemines Parish) – 0502 – Electricity fails at the Superdome, switch to back up power so no a/c and minimum lighting. – 0800 – Levee broke on the industrial canal near the St Bernard–Orleans Parish line. Water is pouring through the 17th Street canal and the city begins filling with Pumping stations cease water. operation on the lower 9th Ward. – 0900 – Eye of hurricane passes over NO and Lower 9th St is submerged eight–nine feet in water. – FEMA – Brown, dispatches 1000 employees to the region five hours after the hurricane hit and allows two days arrival time. They are requested to portray a positive image of disaster operations to government officials, community organisations and the general public. (The Guardian 9/9/05 http://www.guardian.co.uk/katrina/ story/0,16441,1566278,00.html) – Red Cross announces that it is launching the largest mobilisation of resources in FEMA its encourages history. public donations. ‘ Can’t get in… ’ FEMA (Brown) advises to rely upon local – services and Red Cross. Refuses volunteer firefighters into the area until National Guard enters and – Eighty per cent of the city is submerged – there is no no no working running electricity, sewage water, systems. – Superdome population houses 20,000 evacuees. Governor Blanco says the Superdome must be evacuated. – New Orleans police ordered to cease SAR and turn to controlling widespread looting and enforce a curfew. – Telecommunications cut – and Telecommunications conditions in Superdome reported to be deteriorating. – Bush: Zero tolerance on looting, price gouging and insurance fraud declared. – FEMA promises still have not arrived. – Halliburton awarded navy contract for storm clean up repair – rooves, restore remove power, debris at the naval locations. – FEMA halts rescues by California swift water rescue due to security concerns. – Increase in national guard deployment to 30,000. Houston Astrodome refuses to take any more evacuees – Criticism of lack of command and control as violent unrest reported by media looting – and anarchy, chaos. Gov Blanco issues public health emergency order temporarily suspending – state medical licensing regulations, allow licensing of out-of-state medical professionals to Bush administration asks Louisiana to request a federal takeover – of relief efforts – this will give the federal government control over National Louisiana’s Guard and Mayor Nagin is at breaking point and speaks frankly – on radio – mentions how ‘pissed he is’ and about the junkie situation looting the area. – Red Cross prevented from entering the city (http://www.redcross.org/faq/0,1096,0_682_4524,00.html) – Bush blames State and Local officials (Whitehouse statement) – Cuba and other Latin American countries as well as France offer aid. – US appeals for international aid – blankets, water trucks and food. (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americans/4211404.stm) – Bush announces a formal investigation into how the disaster was handled. Jefferson Parish – Police Two Officers and FEMA contractors arrested for looting. – Michael Brown – FEMA removed – US public pledges $578 million (more than 911 and the Asian tsunami) – Michael Brown formally resigns from FEMA. – R. David Paulison becomes new acting director of FEMA. 30 Aug 29 Aug 31 Aug 1 Sept 2 Sept 3 Sept 4 Sept 6 Sept 7 Sept 9 Sept 12 Sept 42 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

Building community self sufficiency for fire safety

Kellie Watson talks with researchers from the Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre about new research into Community Self Sufficiency for Fire Safety

These questions are the focus of The projects, according to Kevin Introduction a collaborative research effort of O’Loughlin (Bushfire CRC Fire is very much a part of social scientists, psychologists, CEO), are focusing on the key the Australian landscape. The social geographers, economists and research questions of fire and land events in Canberra in 2003 criminologists from seven research management agencies. organisations and six fire agencies highlighted for Australians that across Australia. To ensure that the research is bushfires are a very real threat focused on the needs of end user for some urban, rural and urban- The Bushfire CRC agencies, O’Loughlin says that researchers work closely with staff interface communities across The Bushfire CRC was established from fire and land management Australia and New Zealand. in July 2003 to undertake research agencies, “ensuring a strong end How these communities prepare that will assist fire agencies to user engagement in the research.” for bushfires and the role of reduce bushfire risk to communities communities and individuals in in an economically and With the Community Self Sufficiency environmentally sustainable way. reducing bushfire risk is a focus for Fire Safety program Research The research is a multidisciplinary Leader Professor John Handmer of the Bushfire Cooperative approach to bushfire research—29 works directly with John Gledhill, Research Centre’s (CRC) research projects are structured Chief Officer of the Tasmania Fire Community Self Sufficiency for into four research program areas Service. “The relationship is a core Fire Safety program, which is focusing on the physical, ecological, part of the Bushfire CRC research looking beyond the smoke and community and health aspects process” adds O’Loughlin. of bushfires. flames, to the communities Bushfire CRC who have experienced fire or With funding support from its Research Projects are at risk. key partners and the Federal government-funded Cooperative Evaluating the stay or go Research Centre Program, the Bushfire early approach The Community Self Sufficiency CRC is a collaborative research A major focus of Bushfire for Fire Safety program, lead by program between universities, fire, CRC’s research is evaluating the Professor John Handmer from land management and emergency implementation and community RMIT University, is addressing services agencies and research understanding of the stay or go key questions around building organisations. The Bushfire CRC early approach. The Australian Fire community self sufficiency and also provides financial and research Authorities Council (AFAC) has a resilience in the face of bushfire risk. support for research higher degree national community safety policy known as the Stay and defend or The program is seeking answers to students. PhD and Masters students go early policy. If it is likely that a the following types of questions: are linked into the research projects bushfire will threaten a property, How do communities and and participate in all workshops and residents are encouraged to make a individuals prepare for bushfires? events—building a new generation decision to leave early or stay and What is the economic cost of of bushfire researchers trained in the defend the property. bushfire to communities? How do social sciences. fire agencies evaluate community Preliminary research into education programs? What makes Meeting the research community understanding and and motivates bushfire arsonists? needs of fire and land implementation of the stay or go Why and how do community management agencies early approach in north eastern members decide to stay or go early The Community Self Sufficiency Victoria has revealed that there is and what is the role of media in for Fire Safety program is divided a high level of misunderstanding communicating bushfire risk? into six distinct research projects. about what it means to stay or go 43 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

Bushfire CRC researchers, students and end users, part of the Community Self Sufficiency for Fire Safety research team.

early. John Handmer and the RMIT The next stage of the stay or go Recent research into the research team have conducted a early research will focus on what effectiveness of the Street FireWise series of focus groups throughout influences householder decision education programs of the New the region. “The research has found making in relation to staying and South Wales Rural Fire Service that the evidence supports the defending or leaving, and why (NSW RFS) in the Blue Mountains policy, but there are issues with its people change their minds and involved close collaboration implementation” says Handmer. leave at times of highest risk, in the between researchers and NSW RFS staff. The project outcomes “Leaving early and staying and face of an approaching fire front. defending mean different things to indicate that the effectiveness is The outcomes from the research different people. Responsibility strongly based upon the degree of will aid fire agencies in developing towards neighbours, whether people community which exists in an area. are renting or own the house, community education programs and fitness levels all appear to around the implementation of the The research has also started to be factors influencing people’s Stay and defend or go early policy. develop a map of the key elements decision-making.” of the community safety programs Evaluating community where “quick wins” can be made. Recent research by Bushfire education programs Also the methodology is now at a CRC researcher Alan Rhodes has One of the major tools used by fire stage where it can be trialled with identified that the understanding agencies in delivering community fire and land management agencies of the stay or go policy is not safety outcomes, is community in conjunction with the research as straightforward as may be education. However, how do team to build further case-studies. believed. “What emerged from agencies evaluate the effectiveness a recent telephone survey was a Understanding communities of community education programs significant part of the community For fire and land management to ensure that they are delivering (approximately 60 per cent of agencies to deal directly with the right messages and information respondents) who when choosing communities, an understanding whether to stay or go early, said to target communities? The of the communities in which that they would wait and see evaluation research project is lead they work is an essential part of what happens and leave if they by Professor Gerry Elsworth from the communication process. The felt threatened” says Rhodes. The RMIT and is developing a series of research based at James Cook results, according to Rhodes, reflect evaluation tools which can be used University in Townsville and a dilemma that the stay or go early by fire agencies to evaluate program conducted in conjunction with staff 44 approach poses to communities. effectiveness. from Queensland Fire and Rescue The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

Service has undertaken a series plays an important role developing A successful output of the project of surveys in Mt Tambourine and acceptance of bushfire risk issues has been the production of the Thuringowa in Queensland as well in the community.” Professor Bushfire Arson Bulletin, providing as remote Indigenous communities Paton states that the media are an research updates in the field of in Cape York. Dr Alison Cottrell important source of information bushfire arson, to practitioners in from James Cook University is for community decision-making, fire and land management agencies. focusing on the relationships forming individual intentions The project is providing a greater between policy, planning and to prepare for bushfires, and understanding of why people light service delivery in communities in translating these intentions into bushfires which will aid agencies in high bushfire risk areas. protective actions. the development of bushfire arson Recent research from Luke Media construction of bushfire prevention programs. Balcombe, a Bushfire CRC masters risk in shaping community views Economics – understanding student at James Cook University, and the relationships of emergency has highlighted the difference the true cost of bushfires in service agencies with the media is Australia between communities and fire also under examination by a team of agencies. Balcombe’s surveys of The economics of bushfire and researchers at La Trobe University. communities in Mt Tambourine, bushfire mitigation is the focus The project will soon establish a high-risk urban-bushland of the economics project which two PhD projects which will focus interface, has identified that is examining the value of aerial on the implications of new media there are disparate views between fire fighting and the economics of forms, such as websites, palm held expectations of communities prescribed burning jointly with technologies and mobile phones by agencies and of agencies by the Bushfire CRC’s Fire Suppression in communicating during bushfire communities. Program lead by Jim Gould from emergencies. A partner project at CSIRO/ENSIS. Both projects have The outcomes of the entire project Melbourne University involves the produced draft models and applied will provide agencies with further use of the Internet by fire agencies the model to recent fire events. information about the communities as a risk communication tool. that they service, providing The aim of this work is to invaluable knowledge about the The outcomes from the three produce better models to support pressure, values, differences and projects will provide a model for management decisions, answering needs of communities in regards to fire and land management agencies questions such as what is the managing bushfire risk. for communicating risk and relative cost savings by utilising enhancing preparedness amongst at- more or less aircraft on a fire, and Another outcome, according to risk communities. what is a cost effective amount of Balcombe, is the interaction that prescribed burning to carry out, he has had as a student, “it has Bushfire arson when all values have been taken provided me with opportunity to Understating more about into account? By determining values interact with academics and fire deliberately lit bushfires and such as physical assets (for example agencies staff and gain invaluable identifying underlying patterns is houses and infrastructure) but also experience in the process.” the focus of Bushfire CRC research some of the environmental and underway at the Australian Institute social assets (such as biodiversity, Community preparedness and of Criminology. According to the water quality and quantity, risk communication Project Leader, Matthew Willis, “a significant cultural sites, and Understanding the factors that large proportion of bushfires in disruption to people’s lives) the impact on individual and community Australia are deliberately lit and we project will document the total cost preparedness is essential for effective are learning a lot about where and of bushfires in Australia. risk communication. The program’s when arsonists strike.” The project fourth research area focuses on the is analysing bushfire data from fire Highfire—learning to relationship between preparing for services and land managers across live with fire in the bushfires and communicating risk the country, as well as examining via community engagement, the Australian high country police investigation records. media and the Internet. Continuing the Bushfire CRC’s Willis states that the project has interdisciplinary approach to According to the project’s co-leader discovered that known bushfire research, the CRC’s newest project, Professor Douglas Paton from the arsonists can adopt a pattern of HighFire, funded by the Federal University of Tasmania, “community fire setting activity centring on government, will study the dynamics influence how people their home or workplace and that human factors in relation to fire in make decisions regarding their knowing these patterns can provide Australia’s high country areas. While relationship with bushfires. It thus valuable tools for investigators. the larger HighFire project will focus 45 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

on the various influences on fuels in Bushfire CRC researchers are O’Loughlin believes that ultimately the high country as well as ecology, increasingly making connections what will make a difference water and greenhouse issues, internationally, such as similar is the use of research findings this part of the project will look research programs in California, by fire and land management at the resilience of communities a high risk interface area with a agencies. According to O’Loughlin impacted on by fire and research number of similarities to Australia. “the relationship developed by the experience and values of local The international collaboration researchers and fire and land communities. is recognition of the value of the management agencies throughout Bushfire CRC’s research program the research process, will act as a Handmer believes that “through and adds to the Bushfire CRC’s goal solid foundation for the translation documenting the experience of High of being a world leader in bushfire of research outcomes into programs Country communities the project research according to O’Loughlin. on the ground and for the true will provide useful insights for “International collaboration can fostering of community self practitioners and provide advice on only occur when the research in the sufficiency for fire safety.” strengthening local resilience to fire.” CRC is world class. The research in this program which incorporates Project results seven of the top research and international organisations in social science collaboration in Australia is clearly meeting The Bushfire CRC has a seven year this challenge” adds Dr Richard research agenda, however, there are Thornton, Research Director of the currently a number of publications Bushfire CRC. that have been produced through Handmer stresses the importance the program. A recent special of the research outcomes focused edition of the international journal on the needs of fire and land Environmental Hazards featured management agencies “will mean Bushfire CRC research. Other practical tools for the delivery of publications such as presentations, community safety programs to fact sheets and research posters communicate risk and improve are available on the Bushfire CRC resilience and self sufficiency in website (www.bushfirecrc.com). bushfire prone areas.”

46 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

Battling ferocious flames: bushfires in the media

Cohen, Hughes, and White reflect on the deeper cultural issues encountered in bushfire representation in the popular media

Abstract Disasters and disaster management occupy the minds What are the deeper cultural issues encountered and time of emergency planners, politicians and diverse government agencies, but they are also prominent in the when bushfires are represented in the media? minds of academics, writers, filmmakers, journalists, This paper reflects on the relationship between news-editors and the public at large. Disaster-response, media constructions of bushfires and fire related therefore, is not just about improved management issues. The recently published Council of Australian practices, better planning, new technologies and Governments (COAG) National Inquiry on Bushfire innovative mitigation programs. Rather, it must take Mitigation and Management recommended that account of particular images, cultural perceptions and understandings of our natural and built environments ‘Living with Fire’, should become the basis for a and their potential destruction. national school education program. But what will happen if this goal conflicts with the dominant Bushfires are integral to the ecology of the Australian representations of bushfires in the media? This environment, and so, some argue, should not be perceived as ‘disasters’ (Campbell, 2003). This argument question is relevant in light of current attempts by appears in much of the criticism of the media depictions researchers and emergency organisations to generate of such events. For example, a fire that started on 1 a new public discourse about bushfires in Australia. April, 2005, in the Wilsons Promontory National Park on the south-eastern tip of Victoria, had scorched around "The discourse around fire is saturated with 6200 hectares by 12 April. The fire had been deliberately superlatives, with words such as ‘exceptional’, lit ten days earlier as part of a planned fuel reduction burn. Yet, once the fire had ‘escaped’ it was presented ‘unprecedented’, ‘extraordinary’ and so on. Such and interpreted in the popular media as a disaster. The hyperbole may (I remain unconvinced) give some official responses from Parks Victoria suggested that immediate comfort to those who have just suffered “unseasonal extreme weather conditions contributed trauma and major losses. But in the long run, it significantly to the spread of the fire”; but that this fire only serves to reinforce ignorance and losses in the would nevertheless have ecological benefits. In other inevitable future event" (Campbell, 2003:246). words Parks Victoria rejected the media framing of the fire as a disaster and shifted the emphasis from ‘blame’ to the environmental benefits and the ecology of fire.1

Introduction Clearly there are other examples where collaboration with the media before, during and even post incidents In televised news programs, newspaper articles, talk- work well. This is partly thanks to the emergency back radio, government campaigns, documentary services organisations’ implementation of different media and fiction films destruction and catastrophes are management practices such as providing safety training everywhere. Disaster images are beamed around the for media personnel, facilitating media representatives’ world delivered in neat packages to sophisticated home- direct access to emergency headquarters and escorting entertainment systems and computer screens. Fear journalists on location (Country Fire Authority of becomes a commodity, a product that sells well along Victoria, 2002). A memorandum of understanding with other consumer items. Commercial television uses recently signed between ABC Victoria and various its reporting of events such as wars and disasters as a Victorian emergency services organisations is another way of capturing audiences by providing ‘panic pleasure’ such example. This document is the end product of the (Marshall, 1994). many years that local ABC radio has been collaborating

1 A report by the Emergency Services Commissioner, Bruce Esplin, indicates that the DSE did not follow its own policies for prescribed burns when they started the fire. His full report is available on the DSE website at www.dse.vic.gov.au 47 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

it is about challenging current cultural constructions and media (mis)representations of bushfires.

“The typical media portrayal of bushfires as ‘disasters’ reinforces the desire to wage war against fire, and failure seems only to spur on heroic attempts to achieve a total victory” (Bowman, 2004:11).

Campbell himself, when explaining the poor public understanding of the difference between hazards and risk and its overall lack of respect for fire, argues that “The pervasive formulaic media images and clichés compound such ignorance” (2003:246).

The idea of ‘Living with Fire’ is further elaborated in the COAG Report (Ellis et al. 2005). If you teach Australians to live with fire and see it as a part of the natural environment they are not only more likely to know how to prepare for it, but will also be more able to survive the inevitable fire when it strikes, and may also better understand fire management and mitigation practices (Ellis et al. 2005: xii).

The COAG inquiry A true representation, or a media construction? Established after the severe 2002–03 fire seasons, the COAG inquiry aimed to examine the accumulated successfully with various emergency services knowledge and experiences concerning bushfire fighting organisations. This collaboration has encompassed and management practices in Australia. One of the reporting warnings and other relevant information main issues for the inquiry was to propose methods of during incidents, and the running of educational media managing bushfire fighting resources and knowledge campaigns such as the Fire Awareness Day, whereby local on a national basis, while evaluating the effectiveness of ABC radio stations across Victoria help educate listeners current management practices (Ellis et al. 2005:243). about fire prevention and how to protect their homes. As a way of achieving its goal the inquiry proposed a revised risk-management framework. The report defined Using the recently published report of the Council of this as the 5Rs framework: Australian Governments (COAG) National Inquiry on • “Research, information and analysis; Bushfire Mitigation and Management (Ellis et al. 2005), along with interviews with journalists and emergency • Risk modification; services personnel, the aim of this paper is to reflect • Readiness; on the deeper cultural issues encountered in bushfire • Response; and representation and media involvement in this process. Such a reflection is relevant in light of the recent call, • Recovery” (Ellis et al. 2005: xiii). and ongoing attempts by researchers and emergency Each of the 5Rs calls for particular actions to be taken. organisations, to introduce the idea of ‘Living with Fire’ Together they are designed to provide an holistic or whilst simultaneously generating a new public discourse comprehensive model for bushfire mitigation and fire about bushfires in Australia. management in Australia.

Learning to live with fire The first recommendation in the COAG inquiry report Andrew Campbell’s paper Learning to live with fire is a is for school-based bushfire educational programs (Ellis call for a new understanding of bushfires in Australia. et al. 2005:xii). There is no doubt that a well-organised Fire should not be perceived as a “terrifying aberration, and national education program may be a good strategy an ineluctable, unpredictable Act of God”, instead to adopt. Yet, the main question not asked by the we should start to see it as "an inherently Australian COAG inquiry is where do people actually learn about phenomenon that goes with the territory" (Campbell bushfires? Where does most of our knowledge about 2003:244). bushfires come from? How have our current knowledge, imagery and popular beliefs about bushfires evolved? The call for a new understanding of bushfires is not just How could a school-based curriculum compete with the about further knowledge and scientific research. Rather dominant mass-media based discourse about bushfire?

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Moreover, what are the other means, in addition to not interested in that anymore” (Chris Carson, personal school-based programs, that may be used for integrating communication, 24.02.2005). new knowledge or creating a new public discourse about bushfires? At the same time it seems that such self-reflections are rare. It is almost taken for granted by emergency Media myths and agencies and researchers alike that it is media coverage disaster mythologies and the televised descriptions of bushfires that reproduce mythologies and the misleading views of bushfires The media have repeatedly been accused, by emergency and their role within the Australian environment. The services and some researchers, of generating fears and contribution of emergency organisations to this problem ‘myths’ about bushfires and other natural disasters is not normally acknowledged. (Goltz, 1984; Blong, 1985; Quarantelli, 1989; Marshall, 1994; Country Fire Authority of Victoria 2000). Apart from the issue of better ‘working relations’ ‘Exploding houses’, ‘fire storms’, ‘fire balls’, ‘panic between emergency services organisations, scientific evacuations’ are some of the classic media myths that knowledge and media representations of bushfires, what emergency services have been working hard (and some is missing from the current debate about the media may argue unsuccessfully) to dispel. is further data about how individuals and different social groups gain their understanding of such events. Clearly, the media may not be the only source of such How does a particular media report or a specific media ignorance. It is possible to argue, for example, that treatment of a particular incident shape individual or ‘disaster mythology’ in relation to bushfires is already collective perceptions and understandings of bushfires? built into the popular images of fire fighting itself. Chris As Quarantelli indicates, in the US there is a lack of data Carson from the CFA in Victoria, who manages the concerning who listens or watches what, with whom, organisation’s wildfire education program and who has where and for what purposes during an emergency recently developed a new information-flow approach event or a disaster (1989:15). designed to provide information to the public during the onset of disasters, locates the problem with the current Interestingly, the COAG report acknowledges that discourse on bushfires within the culture of emergency despite the importance of educational programs, services agencies. innovative use of web-based technologies and traditional community outreach programs, for many Australians “We, as an emergency service, have built our own problem it is still the mass media that are the main source of here. For example, one of the chief problems we have in information about bushfires. However, this important educating people is a very strong attachment to all the reference to the media is presented as problematic in disaster mythology. ‘I can’t survive it’, ‘the fire moves faster the sense that the media, “quite naturally, tend to focus than a speeding locomotive’, ‘houses explode’. These are more on the dramatic than the evidentiary. This can all myths. Unfortunately, the language we’ve used to sell result in misconceptions that are both persistent and our stories to the media has been the language of disasters dangerous” (Ellis et al. 2005:170). in the past. So that’s how the media chose to communicate our stories on a number of occasions. Ok it’s dramatic. It The debate, therefore, is not just about semantics. The sells air space. Fine, but we own that, we pumped out our main issue for emergency services organisations and own heroism, as an organisation, for a long time and I’m disaster prevention and mitigation programs is achieving a desirable behavioural change. Public health, education

The bushfire – an inheritently Australian phenomenon that goes with the territory. 49 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

The persuasive formulaic media images and clichés compound poor public understanding of hazards and risks.

and risk-communication campaigns are measured “Once you’ve got people understanding bushfires to be a ‘fire against the effectiveness of different means of reaching storm’ why would you believe you could defend yourself? the public and generating a particular behavioural Why would you believe you could protect your house? If change (Rohrmann, 2003:116). These are extremely you think houses explode, why would you bother starting to important issues. Yet, it is interesting to note that those prepare yourself? You’ll take your risk on the road” (Chris who accuse the media of generating misconceptions, or Carson, personal communication, 24.02.2005). broadcasting misleading information about bushfires, assume that there is a clear linkage between the televised Media management imagery and the behaviour of the public. It is in the context of communicating risk to the public that the Country Fire Authority and the Department The media, in the most generic sense of the term, of Sustainability and Environment in Victoria have have important effects on the social, political and established information units that are activated under cultural aspects of our everyday social life. Academic certain conditions. The Information Unit’s objective is to literature and various Media Effects theories relating deliver accurate and timely messages to the communities to the broader cultural influence of the media, or in threatened by a particular fire and to encourage the more empirical case studies in relation to disasters residents to respond appropriately to the specific and warning systems, indicate the complexity of the threats they are facing (Carson, 2004). This approach relations between media text, and its production and challenges the traditional media liaison practices used interpretation by a diverse audience (Carter, 1979). An by emergency services organisations by arguing that influential work in this context is that of Denis McQuail, “Communication with the media is not an objective, but who provides a comprehensive study of diverse mass a tool for achieving the objective of reaching those at media, including new media, and their different effects risk” (Carson, 2004:70). and meanings for the audience (McQuail, 2005). Such theories demonstrate that media effects, intended and Such an operational approach makes a lot of sense. It also unintended, are quite diverse and hard to pin down in supports decentralising the information about an incident relation to specific social behaviours. by giving the local Incident Controller the authority to decide which information should be released to the public. Yet, within the current discourse media images and This may prove quite an effective way for providing media coverage of bushfires (and other disasters) are the public with the right information at the right time presented as both the symptom and the disorder. As a (Godin and O’Neill, 2005). However, at the same time symptom, media images are perceived as an example this operational approach to the media lacks a broader of common mythologies about bushfires that may often understanding of the way media constructions of such resonate with the public misconception. At the same events may generate public debate and understanding, time the view of the media as a disorder, is exemplified and influence policy makers and the emergency services by the claim that the evocative language used in the organisations themselves (Olson et al, 2005). media may steer individuals to act, or fail to act, in ways that may put their life and property in danger and may Media constructions therefore lead to injuries and death. The public and media discourse about bushfires is never a mere reflection of what is ‘out there’. Rather

50 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

the media are social actors actively constructing reality resistance, we weren’t able to burn off the way we wanted to (Quarantelli 2002). when it would have been safe to do this.… And that really started a huge community debate about how we managed “Individuals seldom acquire that knowledge [about disasters] bushfires, and in this case the criticism was not of the from personal experience. The Mass Communication (MC) bushfire people but of the people in the community who said system constructs that reality for most people, including that we don’t like fire cause we don’t like smoke, we don’t emergency managers, disaster planners and crisis decision- think it is a good idea. Because of that debate, the laws in makers. For example, are disasters the ‘result’ or the ‘fault’ NSW were changed and the bushfire people got much more of what? The sequence in disaster research has gone from power to do hazard reduction burning and that sort of thing” characterizing them as Acts of God, to Acts of Nature, to (Asa Wahlquist, personal communication, 16.03.05). Acts of Human Beings. In MC stories, all these tend to be used, with the particular frame structuring how the story is Media and disasters presented, and what will provide the agenda for the attention The role of the media in reporting about bushfires of readers/viewers” (Quarantelli, 2002:3). before, during and after incidents is an extremely As Quarantelli further reminds us, ‘popular culture’ is complex issue. Bushfires, especially the more dramatic another important site where images and understandings and devastating ones, are presented as major media about disasters are constantly produced (2002). events. The media depiction of such events, some may argue, is somewhat different from actual bushfires, or The current discourse about bushfires is fuelled by the from bushfires as actual events. Yet it is often hard to media’s tendency to focus on the most dramatic aspect make such a distinction as even people who are close to of the incident. For this reason, some may argue, the the event itself, including the emergency services, may public may get the wrong perception of such events use or be influenced by the media reports. It is not very and may not fully understand their effects. Yet, it is not useful, therefore, to look at media constructions alone or often clear how the public responds to, or interprets alternatively to study the actual event while disregarding these media images. It is important to remember that or ignoring media participation, construction and for a typical viewer (and one may argue for journalists involvement in it. reporting such incidents) dramatic coverage and the imagery of an ongoing incident is only one set of The challenge, which the COAG report, despite its images among a never-ending flow of similar images of many achievements, fails to acknowledge, is that the disasters, locally and internationally, real and fictional. media plays a significant role in generating debate but also understandings about ‘Living with Fire’. It is not Clearly, the media are not ignored. Most emergency enough to talk about media myths or misconceptions, services organisations and government offices run media nor is it likely to be possible to create a media departments and regularly use trained public relations environment where there is a focus on the presentation personnel who monitor and actively manage their of ‘clear and accurate reports’, which meet the needs relationship with the media. In this sense, government of emergency organisations. This is not simply an issue offices are very careful about their public image as of better operational information-flow, nor is it about projected in the media – but this can be counter- public relations and better media management practices. productive for the emergency services. Openness Rather, what is needed is a better understanding of how to the media, rather than further or more effective media institutions operate in relation to, and during, ‘management’ of the media, may be a better approach actual disasters. for future collaboration with the media. Conclusion Asa Wahlquist, a rural writer with The Australian, recalls The first stage of our research project involving how during 1994, when she worked for The Sydney interviews with information and media managers from Morning Herald, an article she wrote lead to a public within emergency services organisations and media debate about hazard burning. This public debate, she industry professionals is beginning to uncover how argues, eventually lead to some legislative changes that these two groups operate and understand each other. enabled fire agencies to conduct more fuel reduction There is an indication that many of these individuals burning, and gave them much more power over understand the importance of developing good working planning and building control issues. relationships with each other. There is still, however, “In 1994 we had lot of bushfires around Sydney and what a debate about how much access should be given to had happened was that a lot of people moved to areas journalists and media representatives, and how the near to bushland and they had really objected to hazard dissemination of information may aid or harm disaster reduction burning. I had this interview with Phil Koperberg management efforts and public safety. [Commissioner New South Wales Rural Fire Service] and An important reference to the media in the COAG he basically said that one reason we have all these terrible report is the call for each State and Territory to problems with bushfires is that because of community 51 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

formalise non-exclusive agreements with the Australian Country Fire Authority of Victoria (2000) CFA Media Forum, Broadcasting Commission as the official emergency Macedon, Vic. Emergency Management Australia. broadcaster (Ellis et al., 2005:136). At the same time Ellis, S., Kanowski, P., Whelan, R. , (2005) National Inquiry the report has little to say about how the media may be on Bushfire Mitigation and Management, Council of Australian Governments (COAG). integrated into planning and preparation processes, or Godin, L. and O’Neill, P., (2005) Orange at the scene: the SES how they could be actively involved in achieving the media officer program. The Australian Journal of Emergency desired goal of teaching Australians about ‘Living with Management, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 46–52. Fire’. From this perspective, we argue, the COAG report Goltz, J. D. (1984) Are the news media responsible for the has a precarious blind spot. There is a need to rethink disaster myths? A content analysis of emergency response the media’s relationship with the emergency services and imagery. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, to address it in a more dynamic and creative way than Vol.2, No. 3, pp. 345–368. is currently the case. Also, there is a need to consider Marshall, P. D., (1994) Panic TV – Australian bushfires and COAG’s call for a national educational strategy based on the media future. Meanjin Vol. 53, No. 3, pp. 537–543. ‘Living with Fire’ when it conflicts with the dominant McQuail, D., (2005) McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory, representations of bushfires in the media. 5th Ed, Sage Publication. Quarantelli, E., (1989) The Social Sciences Study of Disasters The imperatives of the news media, which are aligned and Mass Media. T. Walters, L. M. Walters and L. Wilkins. to the creation and retention of audiences, need to be Hillsdale, N.J., L. Erlbaum (eds), Bad Tidings: Communication and Catastrophe, pp. 1–19. understood and taken into account. At the same time Quarantelli, E., (2002) The role of the mass communication there is a need to better understand how individuals and system in natural and technological disasters and possible communities use the media to satisfy their requirements extrapolation to terrorism situation, Natural Disasters for information about bushfire preparedness prior to and Roundtable: National Academy of Sciences on Countering during ongoing incidents. Terrorism: Lessons Learned From Natural and Technological Disasters, Washington, Disaster Research Center (DRC) References – Preliminary Paper. Rohrmann, B., (2003) Bushfire preparedness of residents: Blong, R. J., (1985), Public Views on Disaster Response insights from socio-psychological research. G. Cary, D. and the News Media – Some Australian Examples. Report of Lindenmayer & C. Dovers (eds), Australia Burning: fire ecology, proceedings of a research workshop on human behaviour in disaster policy and management issues, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. in Australia, Mt. Macedon, Australian Counter Disaster College. Olson, S., Richard; Gawronski, T. Vincent., (2005) The 2003 Southern California Wildfires: Constructing Their Cause(s). Bowman, D., (2003) Bushfires: a Darwinian perspective. Quick Response Research Report 173. Colorado: National Science G. Cary, D. Lindenmayer & S. Dovers (eds), Australia Foundation or the Natural Hazards Research and Applications Burning: fire ecology, policy and management issues. CSIRO Information Center. Publishing, Melbourne. Burkhart, F. N., (1991) Journalists as bureaucrats: perceptions of ‘social responsibility’ media roles in local emergency planning. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Authors Disasters 9(1): 75–87. Dr. Erez Cohen is a social anthropologist and a postdoctoral fellow in the department of media studies at La Trobe University. Campbell, A., (2003) Learning to live with fire. G. Cary, D. He is currently conducting Bushfire CRC funded research on the Lindenmayer & S. Dovers (eds), Australia Burning: fire ecology, relationship between emergency organisations and the media in policy and management issues. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. Australia. Dr. Peter Hughes lectures in Media Studies at La Trobe University. Carson C., (2004) The Information Unit: effective information His research and teaching focuses on documentary and new media. flow to the community at risk during the onset of wildfire He is co-author, with Ina Bertrand of Media research methods: in Victoria. AFAC Conference – Are we prepared for future institutions, texts, audiences. Basingstoke, New York: Palgrave challenges? Perth, Western Australia. (2005). Assoc. Prof. Peter B. White is conducting research on the social Carter, T. M. (1979) Community warning systems: the implications of new media and telecommunications policy. He is relationship among the broadcast media, emergency service the Director of the La Trobe University Online Media Program which agencies and the National Weather Service. Disasters and conducts research into the uses of new media. Peter directs the the Mass Media: Proceedings of the Committee on Disasters and Media Studies Program’s television industry training program in Vietnam. the Mass Media Workshop. National Academy of Sciences, Committee on Disasters and the Mass Media, Washington, D.C, pp. 214–228. R

52 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

AJEM BOOK REVIEW

by Peter Arnold, Director Emergency Management Liaison, Emergency Management Australia

Perry, Ronald W. & Quarantelli Zealand governmental concepts. E.L. (Eds) 2005 What is a Dombrowsky’s critique I found Disaster? New Answers to a little circuitous, with a strong Old Questions. emphasis on sociology and scientific method, but he stimulated four very Xlibris Corporation interesting responses, which clarified (International Research the papers in a number of areas. Committee on Disasters). The second debate sees Allen ISBN: 1-4134-7985-5 Barton, Arjen Boin, Philip Buckle What is a disaster? Prior to and Denis Smith present their starting the review, I consulted the papers, with Robert Stallings as Macquarie Dictionary which defined discussant. Buckle and Smith explore a disaster as “any unfortunate practical definitions, while Barton event, especially a sudden or and Boin offer analytical definitions great misfortune.” In emergency and examine the critical issue of management terms, this is not classification. Stallings discusses the terribly useful. The question is disasters as process. The book is practical versus analytical approaches clearly not a simple one. definitely in the latter category. before raising points with each paper Most of the authors are sociologists and emphasising the importance of What is a Disaster? New Answers or researchers in the disasters field. the question. The responses cover to Old Questions does not in fact This is not a criticism as the editors the issues raised. attempt to give a definitive answer, are clear in their aim of exchanging at least not in the form of an agreed information and the work is In his review paper, Perry agrees definition of disaster. The intent of successful in meeting that aim. that “A social science definition the book is as much an exchange of can also reasonably differ from a ideas as an examination of meaning. The authors and discussants were mandated or policy definition.”1 deliberately chosen from a wide Perry also argues that classification Structurally, What is a Disaster? New range of academics from many systems provide a means of defining Answers to Old Questions is a book different social science contexts disaster more precisely. The final of three “d”s: disaster, definitions and national backgrounds. It is paper by Quarantelli differs from the and debate. The book is different interesting that a considerable rest of the book in that it broadens to many academic studies, in that degree of consensus is exhibited in the discussion and puts the case the first two parts each constitute the overall perception of a disaster, that improvements in disaster what may best be described as a debate. In each part, four authors while it may also be argued that research requires going well beyond present and explain their definition the differences indicate that further theoretical issues. He covers some of disaster. A “discussant” then research and debate is required. theoretical issues, but focuses on methodological and research aspects. presents a critique of each paper In the first debate David Alexander, and the authors respond to the Susan Cutter, Rohit Jigyasu and What to make of this book? I critique. A number of interesting Neil Britton offer their papers to actually think the title is slightly points were raised in the response, Wolf Dombrowsky as discussant, misleading – 440 odd pages about so the debate approach did work. then reply to his critique. Barton attempting to agree on a definition Finally, the third part reviews the offers a social science perspective would be turgid prose indeed. debates and examines potential for on disaster; Cutter is less concerned The book is more a debate about future work in disaster research. with theoretical issues than with the theory of disasters from a Several authors make the point implications for social action, social science perspective and in that the literature is broadly while Jigyasu deals with disaster that respect it is both interesting divided into studies that focus in a perceptive context. Britton and serves a very useful purpose. on the practical characteristics of concentrates on blending the Practitioners and policy makers disasters, and those that focus on academic with the practical and alike would gain substantially by 53 the theoretical underpinnings of he cites Australian and New entering the debate.

1 Ronald Perry, “Disasters, Definitions and Theory Construction”, in What is a Disaster? New Answers to Old Questions p319. The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

Australian Journal of E mergency Management February 2006 – 20 th anniversary issue

To cast a look across the contents be welcomed, and will help the credible source of information pages of the 79 issues of this Digest to evolve into a useful covering the full spectrum of publication over the past 20 years, periodical for all who are involved emergency management. anyone would be forgiven for in the humanitarian field of disaster imagining that Australia is not just management.” These sentiments By 1995 the title had changed to The Australian Journal of Emergency very active but is the hub of global still hold true and continue to have Management and a special emergency management action. Such relevance 20 years on. issue focused on ways that the is the depth and breadth of subject International Decade for Natural matter and topics that have been In September 1988 a sub-title was Disaster Reduction had an impact brought forward for discussion. Alas added − The Australian Newsletter on Australia and the Pacific. By we are down-under to most of the of Disaster Management − and the 1997 AJEM, as it had come to be world and only a small player on a journal doubled in size. Due to known, had undergone a change in huge stage. continued support from EMA and the industry, the journal appearance with a full colour back The Australian Journal of Emergency had developed into a substantial and front cover, which by 1999 had Management was first published black and white publication by developed to full colour throughout. as a six page newsletter in March 1994, the year of the first special International as well as Australian 1986, with the name of The issue, Environmental Health and disasters have always received Macedon Digest, to fill an identified Disasters. Also in that year a survey attention in AJEM which has “information void within the of subscribers was undertaken published information on such counter-disaster community.” It was with the findings indicating the incidents as the Port Arthur recognised that a need existed for a journal was considered a valuable shootings, ice storms in Canada, publication to provide summaries of source of information that reached a floods in Katherine, Northern activities, research and meetings to significant proportion of emergency Territory, the tsunami disaster in “operatives, planners, trainers and management personnel. A survey Papua New Guinea, the Thredbo researchers in the counter disaster/ of readership conducted in 2004 landslide, and the Auckland civil defence field.” According to indicated that the journal continued electricity supply disruption. More this first issue, “the success of the to maintain its high reputation as a recent coverage includes the Indian Digest will depend to a large extent comprehensive, multi-disciplinary Ocean tsunami, bombings in Bali, on reader reaction; contributions publication, regarded by its and Hurricane Katrina, which and comments on content will readership as a reliable and appears in this issue.

54 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

Australian Journal of E mergency Management February 2006 – 20 th anniversary issue

A change in editor and editorial August, in conjunction with the thanks to every one of them for their advisory team in 2002 resulted Department of Agriculture, Fisheries professionalism and their genuine in a new look and direction for and Forestry, an issue dedicated concern that this country has a AJEM. Over the last three years the to the role of government and robust, forthright and independent journal’s profile has been enhanced industry in agricultural emergencies forum for expression of views on through its inclusion on the was published. This was followed ways to ensure future generations Commonwealth Department of in November 2004 with a special can enjoy living in ‘safer sustainable Education, Science and Training edition featuring articles from the communities’. Register of Refereed Journals. AJEM New Zealand Recovery Symposium, is indexed by the National Library conducted in July of that year. Special While AJEM has come a long way in of Australia’s Australian Public issues dedicated to contemporary the past 20 years, its commitment Affairs Information Service (APAIS) themes continue to have a role in the to providing access to information and has recently been accepted for emergency management industry. A and knowledge for the research selective indexing by the Attorney- recent example was the May 2005 community and practitioners of General’s Information Service issue on counter-terrorism and emergency management remains (AGIS). Access to AJEM articles is emergency management. unchanged. EMA is excited by this made available through the Royal milestone and proud to continue Mebourne Institute of Technology We have seen some highly esteemed such a significant publication into Informit service. emergency sector participants both the future. as content contributors and as In 2004 there were two special members of the editorial advisory issues of AJEM developed through committee. Rather than name any, partnership arrangements. In EMA wishes to record sincere

55 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

NOTES FROM THE FIELD

Macedon Ranges February 1983 by Margery Webster, Director Education & Training Emergency Management Australia

highway and beginning its path of following media reports of the These notes are from Margery destruction through the Macedon situation worsening, the Shire Webster’s experience as a Ranges. The fire eventually ran out switchboard was overwhelmed Community Development of fuel after reaching the ‘firebreak’ with telephone calls from all over Officer and local resident in the caused by a fire which had occurred the world including ships at sea, aftermath of the Ash Wednesday just two weeks earlier. enquiring about the safety of fires in the Macedon Ranges. relatives and friends. As the Shire Welfare Officer, I was asked to At the time the fire impacted The environment Early in the 20th century, Mount operate the switchboard, there was she was working in aged Macedon was a retreat for affluent little information for me to pass on care services with the Shire of Melbournians escaping the summer as all roads to the south were closed Newham and Woodend. In the heat. Many of the beautiful homes and telecommunications to the area aftermath of the fire she was and gardens were built to house had broken down. funded by the State Government the ambassadors to Australia from Next morning I learned of the tragic various countries. In those days to work with fire affected loss of life and property, and the Macedon, located on the lower residents of Woodend and those chaos that ensued as people tried slopes of the ranges, accommodated who had evacuated to Woodend to flee their burning homes. Some many of the staff who provided managed to escape to Melbourne from the Macedon area. The services to the residents of Mount via the Calder Highway while it government funding ceased Macedon. The popularity of the was still passable, however as the after nine months. Recognising Macedon Ranges declined in fire came closer, others travelled the middle years of the century; the community recovery was still north over the top of the mountain. however this situation was reversed far from complete the Anglican Smoke restricted visibility, resulting in the 1970s, as the opening of the in some people veering off the road. and Uniting churches employed Tullamarine International Airport Many evacuees were directed to two community workers to led to employment opportunities, the designated evacuation centre continue working with fire and improvement of the road in the Kyneton Shire Hall, others affected people across the network. This development enabled went to relatives and friends to the easier access to this attractive Macedon Ranges for a further north and south of the ranges. In garden community, surrounded by 12 months. Margery was one of Macedon, the pub was packed with bushland. Pressure for sub-division people (and pets) unable to escape those workers. together with a building boom the fire. As the fire passed through, during the 1970s and ‘80s led to fire fighters trained the hoses on the February 16 1983 will long be a rapid increase in population, pub to save those inside. With such remembered as Ash Wednesday. with people transferring from the a large number of homes destroyed It was on this day that devastating Melbourne suburbs. fires, reported to be the worst since the pub became the community Black Friday 1939, burned across February 16 1983 refuge for many days. The table eastern Australia. mats in this pub still tell the story As I crossed the road to the bank of February 16. With typical Aussie One of the worst affected areas in from my workplace at the then humour locals spoke of the work of Victoria was the Macedon Ranges, Shire of Newham and Woodend the devil—three churches burned where approximately 500 homes in the early afternoon of February and two pubs left standing. were destroyed and seven lives lost. 16, the temperature was well over A tree brushing against a power 40 degrees Celsius and there was Recovery services a strong north wind. I remember line in East Trentham started the The State and local governments likening the experience to the fire which travelled through the immediately co-operated to opening of an oven door. In the Wombat Forest, initially avoiding establish an area co-ordinating early evening fire engines rolled into Woodend and Macedon. However, committee and a recovery co- Woodend from small communities a wind change resulted in the fire ordination centre at the Shire in the north, from as far away as turning back on itself, jumping the Offices in Gisborne. Early actions Swan Hill. Later in the evening, 56 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

included the sourcing of caravans Centre was some 30 kilometres them. A Community Development to enable people to stay in the area. away in Sunbury. Unaccustomed Officer initiated street meetings, The football oval became packed to welfare services, residents were identifying a community leader from with caravans. Gradually, people not responsive to external welfare each area, and developed a weekly took their caravans and returned and psychiatric services suddenly newsletter to share information with to be on their blackened blocks appearing in their communities. other residents. to begin the enormous task of re- establishing their homes, family As the community gained strength Just prior to the first winter of and community life with some they became frustrated with living in caravans I was introduced perceived inequities and a lack of sense of normality. Disaster relief to a community theatre producer action from government. Feelings payments enabled this to happen. who had worked with a number of “them [the authorities] and Although the burnt environment of UK communities that had been us” emerged leading to the first was a constant reminder, they felt impacted by social and economic comforted to be amongst people of many public meetings. At the first public meeting two women change. He convinced me of the who had shared a similar experience. were elected to co-ordinate an value of working with a community A psychiatric team was located in action group staffed by community to interpret their experience and the area, in a purpose built caravan volunteers who would work out express it through community clearly marked as the “psychiatric of a caravan supplied by a service theatre. I felt this approach could service”. This was underutilised for club. The role of the group was to be a cathartic experience for the two main reasons; firstly people ensure the correct information and affected community but needed to did not want to publicly identify resources were shared. The action speak with community members to themselves as “psychiatric patients”; group became a “watch dog” for get their reaction. The reaction was and secondly it was introduced the community and the voice of the positive and following a community too early. At that time people were community when difficulties arose more concerned with rebuilding meeting, funds for the project were with service providers, government their homes than focusing on their secured. Throughout that long officials and professionals. All of the emotional wellbeing. winter, the community theatre action group meetings were held in group met in the portable building. Following some early difficulties the pub, a place of solidarity which Children were encouraged to for people accessing resources and had protected so many people on recount and act out their experience the night of the fires. services, a ‘one stop shop’ was at an after school program. This established at Drusilla, the Mount The needs of the community in reduced the time spent in the Macedon property owned by the the early days after the fires was caravans and relieved the pressure Marist Brothers. Apart from the pub of a practical nature—clothing on parents. The community theatre where people had sheltered on the and household goods, assistance project culminated in a parade to night of the fire, this was the only with clearing blocks, locating and the top of Mount Macedon, where community meeting place until a positioning caravans, restoration the children slayed a “fire eating large portable building was located of income, gum boots and tools dragon”. A documentary film, at the local sporting reserve. to commence re-establishment Phoenix Rising, was made of the The State Electricity Company first of gardens, and advice from local project and shown on the ABC. denied all responsibility for the fire authorities regarding planning and Following this event many parents but finally agreed to compensate building regulations. reported their children were more residents. Insurance assessors were Following criticism of external settled and sleeping better. subsequently located in the area service providers, local residents As people began to rebuild their to assist clients with their claims. were employed as “frontline” lives, connections were made with Visiting Rural Finance Officers workers providing information and other fire affected communities. assisted farmers to re-establish support to meet these needs. They In 1984 the cricketing fraternities their farms by organising grants for built trusting relationships with the of Macedon and the fire affected replacement fencing. community, which enabled them to facilitate psychosocial support coastal community of Aireys Inlet Community if required. A number of skilled decided to play for “The Ashes” development professionals were available to (ashes were collected from both Apart from aged services and support the “frontline” workers and areas). Each year around February churches there were no established to accept referrals. These workers 16 these two communities still social welfare services in the recognised the importance of the come together to play for “The affected communities in 1983. action group to community recovery Ashes”, rotating the location The nearest Community Health and began to work closely with between the two communities. 57 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

Resilience Another elderly woman had moved community leaders and members The role women played in to the Macedon Ranges with her being supported by relevant professionals. supporting both their community retired husband shortly before the and their families throughout this fires. She subsequently discovered • recovery services need to be time left me with great respect for her husband was suffering from co-ordinated and located in the their care and resilience. dementia. She did not have family affected area/community in a support. Her husband’s dementia ‘one stop shop’. At the family level, it was most worsened with the disaster • community recovery is akin to often the women who expressed experience, but she protected his grief and loss, it is a long-term the pain, encouraging the rest of dignity in the most extenuating process with ups and downs the family to seek professional help. circumstances. She explained that and takes longer than many Organising the rebuilding and other he was a very proud man, not people expect. re-establishment issues were often accustomed to seeking outside help. • people can generally make good left to the women, especially if the Mutually agreed strategies were decisions about their recovery male of the household was rendered used to support this woman in ways if they are given appropriate ineffective due to unexpressed grief. useful to her. information and resources. This situation sometimes caused • introducing well meaning friction between partners. Many parents spoke of their and often mandated external children “knowing what to do” services requires good sensitive I remember hearing an older because of what they had learnt management. member of the community recount at school. They described how • the early stages of disaster her story of the night of the fire. children urged them to wear stout recovery provide golden Unable to leave, she sat alone shoes and dress in natural fibres opportunities for change, throughout the night as the fire rather than synthetics as they particularly for introducing raged around her house. She could planned their escape. Some of these mitigation strategies. This is hear her young next door neighbour parents spoke of feelings of guilt as often unrecognised as people entreating her children to sing. their children were better informed yearn to replace what they When the young woman stopped than themselves of the actions they had before. singing the children once again should take in such a crisis. • planned press coverage over an became afraid and started crying, extended period can support the mother would encourage them Lessons learnt recovery. Affected people are to continue singing. This went on Many lessons were learnt from often comforted to know they are not forgotten. throughout the night. The following the Ash Wednesday experience, morning, the elderly woman contributing to the growing body Lessons learnt from emergencies discovered that the woman had of knowledge about the recovery such as Ash Wednesday have tried to escape with her children process. While there are broad contributed to a range of national in the car, however a large burning community development principles resources to support community tree fell across the driveway, and guidelines to assist community recovery including: blocking her exit. The mother led recovery workers and professionals, • Recovery Manual; her children into the dam, grabbing each community and its experience the car rugs to cover them and is different. There is no blueprint. • Guidelines for Psychological commenced the singing routine. However, supporting existing services Service Practice; This story is reminiscent of wartime in the community will lead to a more • Guidelines for Disaster England when women sang to their sustainable community recovery. Management Practice; and children in the air raid shelters in • Community and Personal an attempt to drown out the fearful Lessons learnt from the Macedon Support Services. sound of bombing. Many war fires include: experiences were recalled at this • effective recovery is best achieved These can be found at time, such was the intensity of this when the process is managed www.ema.gov.au. recent event on survivors' lives. by the community itself with

58 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

AJEM BOOK REVIEW

by Roger Jones, TEM Consultants Pty. Ltd. and member of the AJEM Advisory Committee

Bell, Travis ed. (2005) Queensland quarter is devoted to studies of the State Emergency Service: 30th three major functions currently Anniversary Book, Counter Disaster performed by the NSWSES—flood and Rescue Services, Department of management, storm damage Emergency Services, Queensland response and operations in support of other services. Each study offers Keys, Chas (2005) In times of crisis: brief accounts of a number of the story of the New South Wales critical incidents and operational State Emergency Service, Focus responses. In this sense, the first Publishing, New South Wales half of the book presents an ISBN 1 920683 58 5 historical perspective and critiques the past and current practice of the Given the emphasis that has been Service. put on the role of volunteers in Australian emergency services The last half of the book represents since the United Nations declared both “celebration” and “a search Bell gives brief accounts of a variety International Year of Volunteers for the essence of the SES”. Keys of incidents, operations and rescues in 2001, and in particular the presents a variety of unit stories and in which the Service has been November 2005 edition of AJEM recounts outstanding individual involved, and outlines how the showcasing the work of volunteers, performances, an upbeat picture Service’s roles and functions have it is gratifying to see the origins of today’s SES (with appropriate evolved over time. and current activities of two long- credit being given to Hori Howard, standing volunteer emergency Keys’ account of the New South its Director General in the critical services being documented. The two Wales State Emergency Service 1989-2001 years). Keys provides books tell similar stories however (NSWSES) covers somewhat an analysis of what it takes to be an in very different styles and perhaps similar ground but, where the effective member of the organisation targeted at quite different audiences. Queensland publication is patently and demonstrates the need for continuing government and Commemorating the 30th anniversary a “commemoration”, its NSW community support. The book is of the Queensland State Emergency counterpart purports to be, as its well indexed, and illustrations and Service (QSES), Bell’s soft-cover dust-jacket indicates, “at once a photographs complement the text. “snapshot” (the term used by history, a celebration, a critique and a search for the essence of the former director Ken Cullum in his Keys’ book includes 44 pages of SES”. Where Bell’s target audience brief introduction) is clearly aimed appendix listing the volunteers is primarily the QSES volunteer, at the volunteer members of that who died on duty, those who have Keys’ hard-cover book is more likely organisation. It broadly traces its been award recipients, group and to find an Australia-wide audience origins from the State Civil Defence unit citations, and staff and unit in public administration and Organisation in the Cold War era to memberships as of 2005. the Service’s formal establishment emergency management specialists following the enactment of the State as well as students of the volunteer Both publications tell of Counter Disaster Organisation Act emergency services. organisations which had their origin (SCDO) in 1975. The text details in the civil defence concerns of The first quarter of the book its recent history and its current role the 1960s but which are now part offers a detailed and analytical and activities. of a multi-agency, comprehensive history of the development of and integrated approach to broader the NSW organisation, and deals The book is interspersed with community safety issues. The State- frankly with the many issues and recollections of many former and based stories they tell are valuable problems in leadership, policy and present officers and members. Bell and informative in themselves, practice which have hindered the includes a chronology of State but together they point to an organisation at various times (issues Directors and ministers responsible evolution in disaster and emergency and problems which it shared with and lists all of the recipients of the management which ranks as a Emergency Service Medal dating many of its other State and Territory uniquely Australian achievement. 59 back to 1999. counterparts). Most of the second The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006 EMA Research & Innovation Program The EMA Research and Innovation Program aims to facilitate the capture and transfer of innovative practice and disaster research outcomes across the sector.

For more information please contact Sue Collins 02 6256 4614 or Mike Tarrant 03 5421 5219, or email [email protected]

The Emergo Train System—will it work in Australia?

How can a hospital or health service and has since been adopted in many in real time. The system is not test its procedures for major incidents, countries. An educational tool for dependent on any specific doctrine involving multiple casualties, without training and testing preparedness or way of working, but can be used closing the front doors of hospital for major accidents and disasters, in any organisation and with any emergency departments during a the system uses the principle of methodology or procedures. testing exercise? ‘learning by doing’ (Lennquist, 2003). It involves magnetic The authors undertook an Emergo This real dilemma for hospital symbols representing patients, Train Senior Instructor course in managers has led to a pilot study to staff and resources; movable Sweden in October 2004, and visited test the effectiveness of the European markers indicating priority and the Centre for Disaster Management Emergo Train of training and treatment; and a large patient bank at Coventry University, which has testing hospital staff and procedures with various injuries. A protocol extensive experience in using the following a mass casualty event in has been developed to identify System within British hospitals. Australian conditions. The study time taken for various clinical The Emergo Train purchased was was sponsored jointly by Emergency interventions and likely outcomes. amended to reflect Australian Management Australia (EMA), under Its major focus is on real time conditions and systems before its Research and Innovation Projects management of an incident. Program, and the Department of testing commenced. After a Health, Western Australia. Magnetic boards are used to familiarisation exercise at Sir illustrate the geographic area, Charles Gairdner Hospital in Perth, The Emergo Train was initially resources for transportation, the two further exercises were held in developed 17 years ago by the hospitals and departments involved, Western Australia in March and Centre for Research and Education and the scene in large-scale April 2005. The first was held at in Disaster Medicine (KMC) at the magnification. Patient symbols are the 130-bed Bunbury Regional University of Linkoping, Sweden, placed, or delivered to the scene Hospital involving a two-bus

60 A "patient" arrives to the operating theatre and "staff" are being allocated to perform the surgery. The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

for whole-of-hospital as occurred in these exercises, as well as other scenarios such as chemical, biological and radiological, bombs and blasts, and burns incidents.

A “show and tell” demonstration and workshop was held in June 2005 at the EMA Institute involving the authors, EMA and representatives from Townsville Hospital (who also have been using Emergo Train), to discuss possible national implementation strategies. Following Ambulance and hospital staff working in the casualty clearing post. the demonstration, which was viewed by representatives from the crash. The second was centred at Ninety-seven per cent of the Victorian Department of Human Royal Perth Hospital (an 855-bed participants indicated they either Services, an exercise was successfully tertiary hospital) and involved strongly agreed (55 per cent) held at The Alfred Hospital, or agreed (42 per cent) that the a rail bridge collapse with 116 Melbourne. At the completion of this Emergo Train was an effective way casualties. The exercises, which exercise, the authors, with assistance to conduct a testing and training included pre-hospital and hospital from a recently qualified senior exercise. One hundred per cent management with ambulance and instructor from South Australia hospital staff participation, tested a of respondents indicated they would recommend a colleague to Ambulance Service, were asked range of incident scene and hospital participate in a similar exercise and to hold eight further exercises in management aspects, including: that the exercise should be repeated Victoria to assist hospitals in their preparation for the Commonwealth • triage and evacuation at the site; in one to two years time, with many suggesting the exercise should be Games in March 2006. • triage, clinical and resource held even twice a year. In February/March 2006 the management, plus transportation Swedish owners of Emergo Train triage, at a casualty clearing post; One emergency department director stated he had been will be holding a Senior Instructor’s • ambulance resource involved in many different types of course at the EMA Institute as part management; exercises, but felt this “…was the of a national implementation of the best one yet.” A trauma surgeon system within Australia. • triage, clinical and resource suggested that more of this type of management at an emergency exercise was needed for the whole References department, theatre and of hospital approach. Comments Lennquist S. The Emergo Train intensive care unit; and made during the evaluations and System for Training and Testing debriefs provided suggestions Disaster Preparedness: 15 Years of • overall hospital management on how to further improve the Experience. International Journal of of the incident, including conduct of the exercises. Disaster Medicine 2003; May: 13–22. bed management. While such exercises can be All participants responded to the resource intensive, through Authors evaluation questionnaire, stating participation by players and exercise they strongly agreed (61 per cent) control staff, the benefit to testing David Carbonell RN, BSc (Hlth or agreed (39 per cent) that the procedures and to training of staff Sc), Grad Dip N (OH&SM) is exercise was personally beneficial (without the expense of a field Executive Officer to Trauma for them. Eighty-seven per cent exercise) can be highly valuable. Services Study, Royal Perth Hospital, Western Australia. stated they felt more confident in Following the success of the their response to a disaster situation pilot study, an exercise program Paul Mark MB BS, Dip RACOG, and the same number also indicated is now being developed with a FACEM, Dip DHM, MRACMA, that aspects of their health service number of hospitals throughout AFCHSE is the Executive plan could be improved. The Western Australia. Additionally, Director Medical Services, remaining 13 per cent indicated ways are being examined into how Freemantle Hospital, there were possible improvements the Emergo Train can be used at Western Australia. 61 to their plans. departmental level, rather than The Australian Journal of EmergencyEM Management, Vol. 21 UpdateNo. 1, February 2006 Emergency Management Australia provides national leadership in the development of measures to reduce risk to communities and manage the consequences of disasters. EM Update provides current information on activities and issues in the emergency management environment across EMA and State and Territory jurisdictions.

AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY EMERGENCY SERVICES AUTHORITY

ACT residents better prepared weather hit. This was followed by a RED warning for emergencies meaning immediate impact and later on a GREEN warning to initiate recovery,” he said. ACT residents are better prepared for emergencies following the distribution of a new all hazards “We’ve issued a BLUE warning on a number of publication. Emergencies and the National Capital occasions since then as well for other forecast – A residents guide was delivered to every household storms and when issuing total fire bans for the ACT. across the Territory throughout November. The “The resident’s guide is a key tool to educating guide is the brainchild of the ACT Emergency Canberrans about the warning system and actions Services Authority (ESA) and follows the production they should take. We were able to road test the draft of a bushfire specific booklet 12 months earlier. contents with community representatives before “Emergencies and the National Capital – A residents signoff, which provided highly valuable feedback guide is the next natural progression for the ESA and which we incorporated in the final version,” he said. the people of the ACT,” ESA Commissioner Peter The ESA has moved to ensure ACT residents Dunn said. “When we looked at the advice provided with special needs can access the guide. “We have for various specific emergencies we found a large produced the guide in large font and Braille formats part of it was the same no matter what the situation. as well as an audio CD version,” Commissioner So we came up with the concept of a guide with a Dunn said. generic all hazards approach,” he said. Contents of the guide include: In particular there is a three page home emergency plan which households can fill out. This includes • ACT All Hazards Warning System; checklists for home prevention and preparedness • ACT Evacuation Strategy; activities, and a home emergency kit. The guide • Your Home Emergency Plan; contains advice on what to do if disaster strikes and where to access information updates highlighting • Bushfires; the Memorandum of Understanding the ESA has • Storms and Floods; with local media outlets. • Home Fire Safety; The new ACT All Hazards Warning System is also • Calling an Ambulance; detailed in the 16-page publication. “The All • If Disaster Strikes; and Hazards Warning System was introduced in the ACT • Emergency Information. in October 2005 as a way to alert residents to the threat of or the occurrence of major emergencies,” Copies of the Emergencies and the National Capital Commissioner Dunn said. “The ESA used the – A residents guide can be downloaded in normal or system for the first time when the ACT was struck large print formats from the ESA website by damaging storms in November. We issued a www.esa.act.gov.au. Hard copies can be obtained by BLUE warning for a possible threat and a YELLOW contacting Community Education Officer Alice Tan warning for likely impact prior to and as the bad Phone: 02 6207 8696.

62 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT Working Together to Manage Emergencies The system can be tailored for use by a variety of The Australian Government policy initiative, Working industries including emergency management planning, Together to Manage Emergencies, announced in hospital and health, Chemical Biological Radiological September 2004, recognises the need to develop self- (CBR), ambulance, police and fire personnel. It is reliance at both the community and local government used extensively throughout the European and United levels. It builds national preparedness for disasters Kingdom health care systems. of all types by providing practical support and recognition. The initiative comprises two funding The system does not require sophisticated equipment. programs: It is based on the use of magnetic symbols on • the Local Grants Scheme (LGS), to assist local whiteboards to represent patients, staff and resources. councils to fund and develop emergency risk initiatives, security upgrades around critical Movable markers indicate priorities and treatment infrastructure and provide training for staff; and regimens. The use of a “delay board” ensures that • the National Emergency Volunteer Support Fund predetermined, accurately validated times are (NEVSF), offering funding to emergency adhered to and that, with careful monitoring from management volunteer organisations to boost the instructors, the age-old exercise cliché of events recruitment, retention, skills and training. happening “notionally” (or in impossibly short time On 8 December 2005, the Attorney-General, intervals) are precluded. The Hon Philip Ruddock MP, announced the funding Emergo Train is being used initially, and very of more than 400 projects, valued at $14 million through the LGS and NEVSF in financial year 2005/06. successfully, to simulate hospital mass casualty situations. Performance indicators are provided for Projects funded through the LGS include assessment each patient in the system. If stated measures are not of risks to critical infrastructure, emergency risk performed within defined timeframes there is a risk of management planning, community safety publications, the patients suffering an ‘unfavourable’ outcome. and disaster exercises. Projects funded through the NEVSF include public education programs, volunteer EMA is co-ordinating a national effort towards recruitment campaigns, establishment and upgrade of embracing this exciting system and two courses were sheds and facilities, and volunteer training. conducted at EMA Mt. Macedon, in February. In announcing the successful projects, Mr Ruddock For further information contact Colin Fiford commended all applicants for their commitment to improving community safety and wished the Phone: 03 5421 5290; email: [email protected] recipients of funding every success with their projects. Risk Based Land Use Planning Course Applications for funding in 2006/07 closes on 3 March 2006. EMA is conducting three courses in 2006 to assist participants in practically applying the risk A complete list of successful projects under both programs management framework to land use planning activities. is available on the EMA website at www.ema.gov.au/ The first course is programmed for the week starting communitydevelopment 29 May at EMA Mt. Macedon. Emergo Train There have been a number of significant developments Emergo Train is a major incident simulation system, developed in Sweden for the health service. The with this course, which focuses on the practical simple system is a variation of a functional exercise application of risk based land use principles. The and provides a unique opportunity for those involved course now attracts Planning Institute of Australia in planning or managing major incidents to develop Continuing Professional Development points and by their management and decision-making skills in a May it will be a nationally accredited and recognised relatively comfortable environment. The pressures and short course. emotions generated by working with ‘real’ resources in a real-time situation are simulated using radio For more information about this course and other courses and other communication methods as in an actual that EMA offer please refer to www.ema.gov.au emergency situation. It allows meaningful exercises to be conducted without disruption to normal services. 63 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT continued

EMA Library EMA is in the final stages of establishing its ALIES (Australasian Libraries in the Emergency implementation team, and has facilitated the creation Sector) has long played an important role for EMA as of and Australian Emergency Management Committee a key information network. ALIES has also recently Tsunami Working Group (ATWG). The ATWG met undertaken work in information management in the for the first time in Perth between 30 November and wider Australian emergency management context. The 2 December 2005, and will be the focal point for annual workshop for ALIES members will be held at engagement between the Australian Government, EMA Mt. Macedon, April 9-13 2006. Representatives State, Territory and local governments in the process of from 35 emergency management related agencies from delivering ATWS-related community outcomes. all States, Territories, the Australian Government and For further information contact Mark Sullivan New Zealand will meet to discuss, plan and implement Phone: 02 6256 4693; email: [email protected] strategies for information sharing across the sector and internationally. The theme this year is “Disasters, Safer Communities Awards 2005 terrorism, corruption, crime...a librarian’s role in Each year Emergency Management Australia hosts the national Safer Communities Awards to recognise uncertain times”. projects judged innovative and which demonstrate best EMA Library staff continue to provide a high level practice in emergency management. of support to the emergency management sector by supporting EMA course participants, providing an The 2005 Awards attracted 63 entries at State and online information service, welcoming researchers Territory level with 32 category winners going on to and ensuring the library collection reflects client the national finals. They were judged by a national information requirements. Visit our web pages at panel and awards presented by the Attorney-General www.ema.gov.au/library. Hon Philip Ruddock MP, in Parliament House, Canberra on 2 December 2005. For further information contact Linda Hansen Phone: 03 5421 5246; email: [email protected] A booklet describing all the award winners and commended entries can be found on the EMA website Australian Tsunami Warning System at www.ema.gov.au. Following the Indian Ocean tsunami on 26 December 2004, the Australian Government agreed to fund A new category for projects of national significance the development of an Australian Tsunami Warning was created for the 2005 Awards. Geoscience Australia System (ATWS). Implementation of the ATWS is being received this award with a combination of three managed jointly by EMA, the Bureau of Meteorology entries. The projects were: and Geoscience Australia. It will be one of the first 1. Collaborative 100K Mapping Pilot for Emergency Indian Ocean regional warning systems, and will join a Management, developed by GA in response to network of planned national systems which collectively concerns of emergency managers on the lack of form the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System. It updated and suitable topographic information for will also integrate with the existing Pacific Tsunami use in emergency planning and response; Warning System to facilitate warnings to the South- West Pacific Region. 2. Cities Project Perth, a natural hazard risk assessment study by GA and collaborators across three levels of EMA has responsibility within the ATWS program government; and for the implementation of community awareness and preparedness, and education and training programs 3. Scenario Modelling for the Assessment of National in partnership with Australian States, Territories, local Catastrophic Disaster Capability, developed by GA governments and industry. These critical elements of to the benefit of many other emergency management the ATWS will be developed and implemented by related agencies across Australia. EMA over the next four years. At the same time, Geoscience Australia (GA) and the Bureau of For further information contact Simon Costello Meteorology will be enhancing Australia’s seismic and Phone: 02 6249 9665; email [email protected] sea-level monitoring capability.

64 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

PLANNING & COORDINATION

In early 2005 Planning & Coordination (P&C) followed by Rita. The Australian Government offered Group was formed to manage an increase in offshore assistance to the US, and P&C provided support to the emergency responses and highly specialised domestic three-person team which went to the area, and made events. The group design is deliberately flexible and preparations for the possibility of sending a larger interlinked to provide a strong framework to support a contingent. The NEMCC was activated for a fifth time trained surge staffing capacity to manage the workload in October for the Bali terrorist attack bombing— in the event of a large scale emergency. where 22 people lost their lives, four of whom were The P&C Group responsibilities encompass Australian. The P&C Group assisted in such tasks as management of international engagement activities repatriation of the deceased. In the same month, more including offshore capacity building projects, training than 73 000 people died when an earthquake hit and development, and contingency and emergency Pakistan. All of these events had P&C either activated planning. The National Emergency Management or on high alert, testing arrangements and protocols Coordination Centre (NEMCC) monitors current to the limit. To ensure these arrangements covered and emerging risks, using a whole-of-government, every contingency, two major training exercises were multi-agency and all-hazards approach, engaging in run through the year: Exercise Mercury, a multi- information management and dissemination, with a 24 jurisdictional exercise on counter terrorism; and hour duty officer system and the ability to set up the Exercise Eleusis, testing Avian Influenza preparedness. operations centre on demand. While the operational side of P&C Group was running Under this new framework, P&C Group had a busy at high speed, the International Engagement arm had 2005. Following the Indian Ocean tsunami, an an equally busy and productive year, with offshore earthquake on Nias Island in Indonesia killed up capacity building projects in full swing. The year’s end to 2000 people, and an Australian Navy Sea Hawk saw a formalised Solomon Islands project, and a signed helicopter crash claimed nine Navy personnel. In July record of understanding for an Indonesian project P&C closely monitored the London terrorist bombing, targeting emergency services development. and in August, the NEMCC was activated for a third time when peat fires in Sumatra ran out of control. The For further information contact Matt Smith Phone: Australian contingent, led by an NEMCC staff member, 02 6256 4627; email: [email protected] had only just returned from Sumatra when the US To contact the NEMCC, please phone 02 6256 4644 and Caribbean were devastated by Hurricane Katrina,

Addendum

In the August 2005 issue of the Tasmania for bringing to their The authors believe that the Australian Journal of Emergency attention that Tasmania recently Tasmanian policy provides a Management an article on page 15 implemented policy on private model approach to private dam by John Pisaniello and Jennifer dam safety which effectively safety assurance that warrants McKay entitled The need for deals with all the issues raised further discussion. A follow-up private dam safety assurance policy as barriers to achieving private paper will soon be published – demonstrative case studies 10 dam safety programs in other in this journal to be authored years later contained an omission. states. The current policy being collaboratively by John Pisaniello, The paper in its review of how implemented in Tasmania Jennifer McKay, Max Giblin and dam safety is managed in Australia under the Water Management Alistair Brooks, which will present is in fact referring accurately to (Safety of Dams) Regulations 2003 mainland Australia only. further empirical evidence of encompasses all dams, large and the extent of the problem on The authors and the Journal small, private and public, low and mainland Australia, and showcase wish to thank both Max Giblin greater hazard, and is based on the the Tasmanian policy as a possible and Alistair Brooks from the various guidelines published by solution. Department of Primary Industries, the Australian National Committee Water and Environment in on Large Dams. 65 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006 CONFERENCE DIARY Conference details are sourced from the EMA website. For more information about these and future conferences, visit www.ema.gov.au 2006 INTERNATIONAL 2–7 April 30 March – 2 April Location Vienna, Austria Title European Geosciences Union General Location Omaha, Nebraska Assembly 2006 Title 2006 Annual Meeting of the Midwest Details This conference will bring together Sociological Society geoscientists from Europe and all over the Details This annual conference will include a world to present work and discuss ideas in session on “Innovations in Disaster Theory, all disciplines of the earth, planetary, and Research, and Practice.” space sciences. Enquiries Peter Adler or Patti Adler, University of Enquiries Copernicus Meeting Office, Max-Planck- Colorado, 327 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309 Strasse 13, 37191 Katlenburg-Lindau, email: [email protected] Germany web: http://www.themss.org/meetings.html tel: +49-5556-1440 31 March – 4 April email: [email protected] web: http://meetings.copernicus.org/ Location Denver, Colorado egu2006/ Title ASPA 2006 The Sky’s the Limit: Idealism and 7–9 April Innovation in Public Service Location Phoenix, Arizona Details This annual conference of the ASPA features professional development workshops, Title 7th Biennial Fire Service Women’s education sessions, and panel discussions Leadership Training Seminar for practitioners and academics. Training Details This event is hosted by the Phoenix Fire sessions will address issues such as ethics, Department and supported by a local human resources, women’s issues in committee of urban and wildland fire public administration, leadership, and personnel. The seminar will include performance measurement, while panel workshops and training sessions aimed discussions cover topics, such as homeland at making participants better fire service security, transportation, privatization, and leaders. internationalism and global government. Enquiries Women in the Fire Service, Inc. (WFSI), PO Enquiries Patricia Yearwood, 1301 Pennsylvania Box 5446, Madison, WI 53705 Avenue NW, Suite 840, Washington, DC tel: (608) 233-4768 20004 email: [email protected] tel: (02) 585-4309 web: http://www.wfsi.org/ email: [email protected] web: http://www.aspanet.org/scriptcontent/ 10–14 April index_aspaconference.cfm Location Orlando, Florida 2–6 April Title 2006 National Hurricane Conference Location Seattle, Washington Details The primary goal of the conference is to improve hurricane preparedness, response, Title Symposium on the Application of recovery, and mitigation in order to save Geophysics to Engineering and lives and property in the United States Environmental Problems 19th Annual and the tropical islands of the Caribbean Meeting and the Pacific. The conference serves as a Details The theme of this year’s conference national forum for federal, state, and local is “Geophysical Applications for officials to exchange ideas and recommend Environmental and Engineering Hazards new policies to improve emergency – Advances and Constraints.” The program management. consists of keynote lectures, technical Enquiries National Hurricane Conference, 2952\ sessions, exhibits, and special events that Wellington Circle, Tallahassee, FL 32309 will provide participants the opportunity to tel: (850) 906-9224 learn about recent developments in near email: [email protected] surface geophysics. Special sessions include web: http://www.hurricanemeeting.com/ Geophysics in Land Use and Management, Geophysical Monitoring of Landslide Hazards, and Seismic Landstreamers. Enquires: web: http://www.eegs.org/sageep/

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18–22 April 2–4 May Location San Francisco, California Location Grand Rapids, Michigan Title 100th Anniversary Earthquake Conference Title 2006 Great Lakes Homeland Security Commemorating the 1906 San Francisco Training Conference and Expo Earthquake Details This conference will bring together Details The 100th anniversary of San Francisco’s 1906 over 1,500 public officials, education Earthquake provides a valuable opportunity representatives, and emergency responders to learn from the past, assess the present, from various disciplines looking for the tools and prepare for the future. : Earthquake needed to detect, prevent, and protect their Engineering Research Institute (EERI) AND communities from terrorist attacks. Seismological Society of America (SSA) are Enquiries Colleen Mohr joining with Disaster Resistant California to tel: (517) 336-6464 focus on how communities can manage their email: [email protected] risk through science, public policy, emergency web: http://www.michigan.gov/ response, and business continuity. msp/0,1607,7-123-1593_3507-118227--,00. Enquiries web: http://www.1906eqconf.org/ html 20–21 April 8–10 May Location Miami, Florida Location Houston, Texas Title 17th Global Warming International Title GIS and Water Resources IV Conference and Expo Details This conference focuses on innovation and Details A sampling of the session topics at application of geographic information this conference include the following: systems (GIS) to water resources. Companies, Sustainable Environment and Health for the government agencies, and nonprofit 21st Century, Remote Sensing and Global organizations involved in all facets of Surveillance, Water Resources Management, water resources are encouraged to attend. Extreme Events and Impacts Assessment, A special category has been added to the and Global Warming and the Oceans. call for papers addressing topics related to Enquiries email: [email protected] the effects of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, web: http://globalwarming.net/ including the role of GIS in dealing with the after-effects of such catastrophes and in 23–27 April planning for future severe weather events. Location Honolulu, Hawaii Abstracts can be submitted for this category until January 16, 2006. Title RIMS 2006: Expanding the Power of Risk Management Enquiries Patricia A. Reid, American Water Resources Association (AWRA), PO Box 1626, Details This conference will provide an opportunity Middleburg, VA 20118 for risk managers and insurance tel: (540) 687-8390 professionals to expand their knowledge email: [email protected] and network with industry experts. The web: http://www.awra.org/meetings/ conference will focus on enterprise risk Houston2006/index.html management as well as address strategic, business, financial, and operational risk. 9–12 May Enquiries Risk Insurance and Management Society, Inc. Location May Ottawa, Ontario (RIMS), 1065 Avenue of the Americas, 13th Title Climate Change Technology Conference Floor, New York, NY 10018 tel: (212) 286-9292 web: http://www.RIMS.org/2006honolulu Details The theme of this conference is 25–27 April “Engineering Challenges and Solutions in the 21st Century.” The purpose of the Location Pasadena, California conference is to stimulate awareness and Title 9th Wildland Fire Safety Summit action for solutions that mitigate or adapt to climate change. In addition to potential Details Participants in this summit will include technical solutions, the conference will firefighters, prescribed burners, land address associated social and environmental managers, fire chiefs, agency administrators, consequences. fire researchers, public officials, and others. Presentations will be on the topics of liability Enquiries Engineering Institute of Canada (EIC) and legal implications; fire weather; making Climate Change Conference, 1895 William firefighters safer; safety in the wildland- Hodgins Lane, Carp, Ontario, Canada, K0A urban interface; policy, practices, and 1L0 procedures; case studies and lessons learned; tel: (613) 839-1108 and international wildland fire safety. email: [email protected] web: http://www.ccc2006.ca/eng/ Enquiries Dick Mangan tel: (406) 543-0013 email: [email protected]

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14–17 May 21–24 May Location St. Pete Beach, Florida Location Baton Rouge, Louisiana Title The Coastal Society’s 20th Biennial Title American Institute of Hydrology Annual Conference Meeting and International Conference: Details The theme of the 2006 conference will be Challenges in Coastal Hydrology and Water “Charting a New Course: Shaping Solutions Quality for the Coast.” Conference attendees will Details This conference will provide an include scientists, policy makers, coastal international forum for the dissemination managers, and the public, and it will and exchange of information in coastal be organized into tracks on innovative hydrology, hydraulics, and water solutions for the following: Land Use quality. The conference will stimulate Challenges, Governing Ocean Use Conflicts, interdisciplinary research, education, Effective Integration of Science, Changing management, and policy making Behaviors: Professionals and the Public, and from physical, biogeochemical, and Mitigating Coastal Natural Hazards. socioeconomic perspectives related to Enquiries Judy Tucker, PO Box 25408, Alexandria, VA complex environmental systems in coastal 22313-5408 regions. tel: (703) 933-1599 Enquiries American Institute of Hydrology, 300 Village email: [email protected] Green Circle, Suite 201, Smyrna, GA 30080 web: http://www.thecoastalsociety.org/ tel: (770) 384-1634 conference/tcs20/ email: [email protected] 14–17 May web: http://www.aihydro.org/conference. htm Location Newark, New Jersey 21–24 May Title ISCRAM 06: Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management Conference Location Long Beach, California Details The theme of this conference is information Title 5th University of California at Los Angeles systems as the integration medium for the (UCLA) Conference on Public Health and “lifecycle of emergency preparedness and Disasters response” (planning, training, mitigation, Details This conference is designed for public detection, alerting, response, recovery, health professionals as well as individuals and assessment). The deadline for paper and organizations from both the public submission is January 12, 2006. and private sectors involved in emergency Enquiries Murray Turoff (New Jersey Institute of public health preparedness and response. Technology) or Bartel Van de Walle (Tilburg The diverse topics will be relevant to public University) health and medical practitioners, emergency e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] medical services professionals, researchers, web: http://www.iscram.org/ and managers involved in the wide range of emergency public health issues resulting 17–19 May from natural and human-induced disasters. Location Florence, Italy Enquiries UCLA Center for Public Health and Disasters, Title 3rd i-Rec International Conference on 1145 Gayley Avenue, Suite 304, Los Angeles, Postdisaster Reconstruction: Meeting CA 90024 Stakeholder Interests tel: (310) 794-0864 email: [email protected] Details This conference will focus on the web: http://www.cphd.ucla.edu/ development of effective and sustainable conferenceframe.htm postdisaster reconstruction strategies and will be a forum for sharing research 22–24 May work and experience from the field on Location Boston, Massachusetts practical issues in affected areas. The i-Rec conferences bring together professionals Title Risk Communication Challenge: Proven and practitioners from various fields such as Strategies for Effective Risk Communication housing, reconstruction, civil engineering, DETAILS international development, humanitarian Enquiries Harvard School of Public Health, Center for aid, architecture, urban planning, and Continuing Professional Education, CCPE environmental studies. – Department A, 677 Huntington Avenue, Enquiries Cassidy Johnson Boston, MA 02115 email: [email protected] tel: (617) 384-8692 web: http://www.grif.umontreal.ca/pages/ email: [email protected] irechomepage.html web: http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/ccpe/ programs/RCC.shtml

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23–25 May 31 May–3 June Location Honolulu, Hawaii Location Arlington, Virginia Title Third Tsunami Symposium Title National Conference on Animals in Details The Tsunami Society publishes “The Science Disaster 2006: Learning from Katrina - A of Tsunami Hazards” journal and conducts Commitment to the Future a Tsunami Symposium every three years. Details The fourth biennial National Conference Abstracts of papers for presentation must on Animals in Disaster will be dedicated be submitted by February 1, 2006. to the lessons of Hurricanes Katrina and Enquiries Barbara Keating Rita. Participants will work to secure the tel: (808) 956-8143 improvements made in the disaster planning email: [email protected] and response process and to re-create and web: http://www.sthjournal.org/ reinvigorate approaches currently in process that will help in future preparedness and 23–25 May response efforts. Leaders from government, Location Las Vegas, Nevada nonprofit and voluntary organizations, and the business community will all participate. Title CPM 2006 West Conference and Exhibition DETAILS Enquiries Humane Society of the United States, 2100 L Street NW, Washington, DC 20037 Enquiries CPM 2006 West, WPC Expositions, 20 tel: (02) 452-1100 Commerce Street, Suite 2013, Flemington, web: http://www.hsus.org/NCAD06 NJ 08822 tel: (908) 788 0343 4–7 June email: [email protected] Location New Orleans, Louisiana web: http://www.contingencyplanning.com/ events/west/ Title 2006 National Main Street Conference 23–26 May Details This conference focuses on commercial district revitalization and showcases Location Seoul, South Korea projects and strategies used by small and Title TIEMS 13th Annual Conference 2006 rural towns, suburban-ring communities, large and mid-sized cities, and urban Details This year’s conference will include sessions neighborhood business districts to revitalize on emergency management training and their commercial districts. A major education, priorities for humanitarian aid, conference theme will be opportunities natural hazards, business continuity, and related to crisis management and disaster many others. recovery for historic sites and commercial Enquiries Young-Jai Lee or TIEMS, PO Box 1462, 8021 districts. The 2006 conference will also Zuerich, Switzerland; offer an opportunity to demonstrate how email: [email protected] preservation-based revitalization can be web: http://www.tiems.org/index.php used to rebuild the Gulf Coast region after 23–26 May the devastation of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. Location Stavanger, Norway Enquiries National Trust for Historic Preservation, 1785 Title IAIA ‘06: Power, Poverty, and Sustainability Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 2006 - The Role of Impact Assessment 20036 Details Participants in this event will discuss tel: (202) 588-6219 how the various instruments of impact email: [email protected] assessment - environmental impact web: http://conference.mainstreet.org/ assessment, strategic environmental 4–8 June assessment, sustainability assessment, health impact assessment, and social impact Location Orlando, Florida assessment can contribute in assisting Title NFPA World Safety Conference & Expo developers, decision-makers, development Details This meeting is directed at fire and life cooperation providers, and the public to safety professionals and offers professional integrate environmental, social, and other development opportunities, educational concerns in a variety of fields. tracks focused on timely issues, and an Enquiries IAIA, 1330 23rd Street South, Suite C Fargo, exposition featuring industry suppliers. For ND USA 58103 more information, contact ROC Exhibitions, tel: (701) 297-7908 1963 University Lane, Lisle, IL 60532 email: [email protected] tel: (630) 271-8210 web: http://www.iaia.org email: [email protected] web: http://www.nfpa.org/categoryListWSCE. asp?categoryID=1059

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5–7 June 18-21 June Location Rhodes, Greece Location Lillehammer, Norway Title Coastal Environment 2006: Sixth Title Geohazards: Technical, Economical, and International Conference on Environmental Social Risk Evaluation Problems in Coastal Regions Including Oil Details The objective of this conference is to and Chemical Spill Studies provide a roundtable for engineers, Details Coastal Environment 2006 will address geoscientists, social scientists, public problems related to the monitoring, authorities, and insurance companies to analysis, and modeling of coastal regions discuss the human, environmental, and including sea, land, and air phenomena. economic consequences of geohazards. The conference will gather researchers, Enquiries Engineering Conferences International, 6 engineers, and professionals involved in the Metro Tech Center, Brooklyn, NY 11201 field of coastal environmental quality. tel: (718) 260-3743 Enquiries Charlotte Bartlett, Coastal Environment email: [email protected] 2006, Wessex Institute of Technology web: http://www.engconfintl.org/6ag.html Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst, Southampton, SO40 18-21 June 7AA UK tel: +44 (0) 238 029 3223 Location Toronto, Canada email: [email protected] Title 16th World Conference on Disaster web: http://www.wessex.ac.uk/ Management - Emergency Management conferences/2006/coast06/ and Business Continuity Working Together 7–9 June Details This premier event will feature over 80 Location Rhodes, Greece Educational Sessions on pandemic planning, lessons learned from Hurricane Katrina, Title Debris Flow 2006: First International COOP, standards, risk management, data Conference on Monitoring, Simulation, forensics, crisis communications, ICS/IMS, Prevention, and Remediation of Dense and interoperability, public alerting systems, Debris Flows public/private partnerships, plus much more. Details This meeting will study the fundamental Enquiries web: http://www.wcdm.org mechanical principles as well as rheological properties and phenomenological aspects of debris flows. Particular attention will 2006 AUSTRALIA be given to modeling techniques and case studies. The conference will also address the 6–9 June problem of debris flow disaster mitigation using structural and nonstructural measures. Location Brisbane, Australia Enquiries Katie Banham, Debris Flow 2006, Wessex Institute of Technology, Ashurst Lodge, Title Australasian Bushfire Conference 2006 Ashurst, Southampton, SO40 7AA, UK tel: 44 (0) 238 029 3223 Details This conference will provide a forum to email: [email protected] share new ideas on the complex issues web: http://www.wessex.ac.uk/ of bushfire management, encourage conferences/2006/debris06/ communication between agencies and groups involved in bushfire management, Enquiries ASFPM, 2809 Fish Hatchery Road, Madison, build upon the lessons learned in previous WI 53713 bushfire campaigns, and facilitate a tel: (608) 274-0123 new understanding of the role of fire email: [email protected] in the landscape. Topics will cover fire web: http://www.floods.org/ management in wildland-urban interface, Conferences,%20Calendar/albuquerque.asp development controls, bushfires in a 14-16 June changing climate, fuels management, Location Delft, The Netherlands community involvement and participation in fire management, fire ecology, remote Title Ethical Aspects of Risk Conference sensing, mapping, and maintaining Details This conference will bring together moral the balance between protection and philosophers, sociologists, psychologists, and conservation. engineers to reflect on the ethical issues concerning “acceptable risk.” Cost-benefit Enquiries ICMS Pty Ltd, 88 Merivale Street, South analysis, the role of emotions, and the role Bank, Queensland 4101, Australia of the public will all be discussed. tel: +61 7 3844 1138 email: [email protected] Enquiries Department of Philosophy, Faculty of web: http://www.bushfire2006.com/ Technology, Policy, and Management, Jaffalaan 5, 2628 BX Delft, The Netherlands tel: 0031-(0)15-2783887 email: [email protected] web: http://www.ethicsrisk.tbm.tudelft.nl/

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AJEM now indexed by AGIS

The Australian Journal of AGIS Plus Text is a full text Emergency Management is online database which provides now selectively indexed by the access to articles from over 100 Commonwealth Attorney–General’s legal journals. Selected articles Information Service (AGIS), from AJEM are now included available through Informit in this service. (http://www.informit.com.au/). Subject coverage includes AGIS, produced by the Lionel all aspects of law including Murphy Library of the Attorney– administrative law, banking, General’s Department, is a companies and securities, comprehensive indexing and constitutional law, copyright abstracting service. Over 120 law law, criminal law, emergency journals from the Australian, New management law, environmental Zealand and Asian Pacific regions law, family law, human rights, are comprehensively indexed. international law, legal aid, and trade practices. Informit is a source of online Australasian scholarly research published by RMIT Publishing. The Informit range of online products includes a comprehensive set of indexes to government and scholarly publications including the Informit Plus Text databases.

71 The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, February 2006

LETTER TO THE EDITOR

Dear Mr Templeman, Australian Rural Fire Services first aid etc. After the incident I I wish to commend you and your Recognition and Service would arrange for a letter of thanks staff for producing an excellent Awards for Volunteers signed by the Commissioner of thought-provoking magazine. First of all I agree with the views Police to be sent to the helper. expressed by Jim and Mary. This This drew some interesting results. I found the November, 2005 edition issue goes across all agencies. I Despite generations of hating people to be one of your best. With your fought for years to get the present in uniform they found it difficult to permission I would like to comment five and 10 year medals presented hate a person who had shown them on some of the articles. to volunteer Bush Fire Fighters in respect and appreciation. Western Australia. I have seen cases The major side effects were a They should be heroes where people have said they only decrease in crime, and far less Like Dianne I hate the word “hero”. plan, due to personal problems, aggression shown to me. As a person who has been involved to do one more year service to in Emergency Management for get a medal. Once they get it with I have also found that giving people 40 years, I totally agree with her. associated acknowledgement of affected by a disaster a job to do, Over the years I have on occasions peers and community, they have followed by a letter of thanks is expressed my annoyance at Police, given many more years of service. an effective tool in assisting them SES and Fire Fighters who see recover from the incident. themselves as heroes yet not However, besides the medals there acknowledging the hard work of are other ways acknowledgement The bottom line is a simple “thank Support Personnel. Even among the can be given to volunteers. For you” goes a long way when dealing emergency response agencies there example after a major incident with all volunteers. and/or on annual bases a barbeque is a tendency to only acknowledge Developing an effective or some other type of public the person who “does the deed”, emergency management reception. Letters of thanks for for example to save the house from partnerships services for even short periods of burning, finding the missing person I am extremely glad to see agencies service are important and have on etc. What about the other often are becoming more accepting of this occasions seen such people return large number of people involved concept. It is only common sense. It to emergency services. in the incident? Speaking from still annoys me to know that some experience for each time I have Letters of thanks to members of agencies still have officers who will been classified as being a “hero” I the public are also good public not seek help from or want to work would have worked just as hard relations and a recruiting tool. with other organisations. if not harder hundreds of times As a young District Police Officer in Efficiency and in turn the supporting the rest of the team. the 1960s in a high crime rate area community are the losers I learned the value of giving letters What about those who spend a in such cases. of thanks to those who helped large per centage of their lives doing during emergencies. preventative work such as property Yours faithfully inspection, preparing emergency When arriving at an emergency I Ray Sousa plans or training, or being on was guaranteed there would be a Ranger and Emergency Services standby etc? Then there are people “crim” there ready to give me a hard Coordinator who no matter what time, day or time. My response would be to give night, you can call upon to assist. them a job to do such as crowd 5 January 2006 These are the real heroes of society. control, traffic control, helping with

72 historical snapshot interesting websites

New Website for the Australian Emergency Management Volunteer Forum (AEMVF) http://www.aemvf.org.au

A new and professional website for the AEMVF was recently launched. It has been made possible due to funding received through the Program Working Together to Manage Emergencies, and assistance from Surf Lifesaving, one of the member organisations of the AEMVF. The website provides the Forum with the visibility it needs to better serve the volunteer emergency management sector. It contains useful information for volunteers and their organisations alike. We invite all interested volunteers to check it out regularly.

Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters http://www.cred.be/

The Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, is a World Health Organization Collaborating Centre with a special focus on public health, epidemiology, structural and socio-economic aspects. CRED promotes research, training, and information dissemination on disasters. The website includes an international disasters database providing © Cyclone Testing Station, School of Engineering, James Cook University (www.eng.jcu.edu.au/cts) information on disasters and their human and economic impact, categorised by the country and type of disaster. The Tropical Cyclone Winifred impacted northern Queensland on 1 February 1986, crossing database includes country profiles, disaster profiles and lists, the coast near Cowley Beach, south of Innisfail. Wind gusts reached up to 175km per and searching capabilities. hour, with damage and disruption extending from north of Cairns to Cardwell and inland on a narrow front to Ravenshoe.

Three people died, one through drowning, one struck by flying debris, and a third fell from a roof while trying to secure loose iron. The worst affected areas were between Cyclone Testing Station Babinda and Tully (which suffered major flooding). A 1.6m storm surge was recorded at http://www.eng.jcu.edu.au/csts/ Clump Point near Mission Beach. Since 1977 the Cyclone Testing Station has been researching, Fifty homes were destroyed and approximately 1500 houses and buildings were damaged. testing and advising industry and governments on building Agricultural crops, including sugar cane and bananas, suffered the most significant practices to minimise loss and suffering as a result of severe damage and accounted for about 70 per cent of the total economic cost. Insurance costs wind events. The website includes information about ongoing exceeded $65 million in current equivalent values. There was also serious vegetation projects, information bulletins, a newsletter, and animations damage to State forests. explaining severe wind damage.

Winifred was a severe test of community preparedness and public understanding of cyclones as well as of the total warning process. In the hierarchy of severe tropical cyclones, Winifred was of moderate intensity but relatively large in its area of impact. The Australian Journal of Index of articles from the Australian Journal of Emergency Management Emergency VOLUME 20, 2005 Management AUTHOR ARTICLE TITLE NO. PAGE Army Incident Response Regiment The Incident Response Regiment 2 pp. 18–20 ‘safer sustainable communities’ Vol 21 No 1 FEBRUARY 2006 Blau, Soren One chance only: advocating the use of archaeology in search, location and recovery 1 pp. 19–24 at disaster scenes Chambers, Phillip Educator Jones and the search for ‘creds’: searching for credibility in workplace education 3 pp. 3–9 Colella, Mike; Logan, Mike; McIntosh, An introduction to radiological terrorism 2 pp. 9–17 Steven and Thomson, Stuart Coon, Dianne They should be heroes 4 pp. 6–7 Cottrell, Alison Sometimes it’s a big ask, but sometimes it’s a big outcome: community participation 3 pp. 27–32 in flood mitigation De Nardi, Monica; Wilks, Jeff and Developing an effective emergency management partnership: Surf Life Saving Australia 4 pp. 8–16 Agnew, Peter and Ambulance Services Department of Health and Ageing A health perspective in a counter terrorist environment 2 pp. 29–32 Dixon, Darryl Needs of an actual community post disaster – Hornsby Ku-Ring-Gai 3 pp. 33–38 Earl, Cameron; Parker, Elizabeth; Edwards, Volunteers in public health and emergency management at outdoor music festivals (Part 2): 1 pp. 31–37 Martin and Capra, Mike a European study Floyd, Peter Notions of customer service 4 pp. 27–30 Foster, Len Enhancing links to further benefit volunteers and their communities 4 pp. 31 Godber, Allison Urban floodplain land-use – acceptable risk? 3 pp. 22–26 Goodin, Laura and O’Neill, Peter Orange on the Scene: the SES Media Officer Program 1 pp. 46–52 Handmer, John; Abrahams, Jonathon; Towards a consistent approach to disaster loss assessment across Australia 1 pp. 10–18 Betts, Robyn and Dawson, Mark Hodkinson, Don Involvement of health care providers in chemical, biological, radiological and other hazardous 2 pp. 21–28 material incidents Keys, Chas The great Labe–Elbe river flood of 2002 1 pp. 53–54 King, David and Gurtner, Yetta After the Wave: a wake up warning for Australian coastal locations 1 pp. 4–9 Laurence, Joanne Survivor Tokelau? 3 pp. 39–40 Lidstone, John Teaching for disaster mitigation in a time of terrorism: can the lessons from natural disasters 2 pp. 33–38 be applied to the New World Order? Maher, Annette The definition and principles of volunteering: what’s all the fuss about? 4 pp. 3–5 McKinnon, Rod Australian Red Cross – making a difference 4 pp. 22–26 McLennan, Jim; Pavlou, Olga; Klein, Philip Using video during training to enhance learning of emergency incident command 3 pp. 10–14 and Omodei, Mary and control skills McLennan, Jim and Bertoldi, Mary Australian Rural Fire Services’ Recognition and Service Awards for Volunteers 4 pp.17–21 Mirco, Carol and Notaras, Len Developing internal and external emergency plans. Practical lessons from 2 pp. 39–44 Royal Darwin Hospital Paton, Douglas; Smith, Leigh and Johnson, When good intentions turn bad: promoting natural hazard preparedness 1 pp. 25–30 David Patterson, Don Chemical biological and radiological training – preparing for the unthinkable 2 pp. 4–8 Pisaniello, John and McKay, Jennifer The need for private dam safety assurance policy – demonstrative case studies 10 years later 3 pp. 15–21 Rothery, Mike Critical infrastructure protection and the role of emergency services 2 pp. 45–50 Tarrant, Mike Hurricane Katrina: first thoughts 4 pp. 32 Wilks, Jeff; Dawes, Peter and Patrol Smart 7/52: Queensland’s integrated Surf Life Saving program 1 pp. 38–45 Williamson, Brett GREY 11497 Insights into the AFP’s How floodplain risk Two decades of response role during national and management has evolved to emergencies international emergencies