Futuna Island/Vanuatu

Vanuatu‘s 40th anniversary Review of the first decade of political independence from 1980 to 1990 CONTENTS #54 | July / August 2020

Integration and segregation in the evolution of agricultural development policies in New Caledonia - 04

Vanuatu‘s 40th anniversary: Review of the first decade of Archaeological studies of shell-remains at Punangatu – 25 political independence from 1980 to 1990 – 15

04 Integration and segregation in the 25 Archaeological studies of shell-remains evolution of agricultural development at Punangatu (Futuna island/Vanuatu): policies in New Caledonia How can we identify and classify shellfish Séverine Bouard, Jean-Michel Sourisseau, to understand their historical use? Benoît Zenou Lucas Sarvanu & Matthias Kowasch

15 Vanuatu‘s 40th anniversary: 30 Introducing Austrian South Pacific Review of the first decade of political Society independence from 1980 to 1990 OSPG Gilbert David 32 Advertisement of DOM Publisher Architectural Guide: Phnom Penh

2 Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 EDITORIAL IMPRINT

Dear readers, Managing Editors: Michael Waibel (v.i.S.d.P.), today, decolonisation is still a challenge for many countries in the world. After University of Hamburg a recent putsch in Mali, in West Africa, there were demonstrations requesting Matthias Kowasch, University the full departure of France from the former French colony. In the South Pacific College of Teacher Education Styria overseas territory of New Caledonia, citizens were called to vote in a second referendum on political independence from France, narrowly choosing to reject it Editorial Board: Julia Albrecht, Otago University for the second time, but with an overwhelming number of Melanesian inhabitants Christopher Ballard, Australian voting ‘Oui’. National University Simon Batterbury, University of Vanuatu, a neighbouring country, celebrated its 40th anniversary of indepen- Melbourne dence in July 2020. One article of this issue of “Pacific Geographies” looks back Annette Breckwoldt, University of at the first decades of this young nation. Gilbert David critically discusses early Bremen development policies, which established the foundations for economic and social Alexander Cullen, University of viability in the face of constraints imposed by insularity. Melbourne Gilbert David, Institute of Research Séverine Bouard, Jean-Michel Sourisseau and Benoît Zenou, writing on “Integra- for Development, Montpellier tion and segregation in the evolution of agricultural development policies in New Heiko Faust, University of Göttingen Caledonia” deal with the two concepts of integration and segregation in agrarian Marie Gibert-Flutre, University Paris change, asking how these can provide original theoretical tools to analyse the Diderot Danielle Labbé, University of relationships between agriculture and rural societies in New Caledonia with its Montreal unique patterns of agrarian development. Martha Macintyre, University of Melbourne A research note by the Ni-Vanuatu student Lucas Sarvanu and the geographer Hermann Mückler, University of Matthias Kowasch deals with the shells of Punangatu on the island of Futuna Vienna (Vanuatu). Sarvanu identifies the different shells collected, and classifies them by George Pomeroy, Shippensburg species according to different sedimentary layers. University of Pennsylvania Catherine Sabinot, Institute of Re- Finally, we are happy to introduce the Austrian South Pacific Society (Österrei- search for Development, Nouméa chisch-Südpazifische Gesellschaft, OSPG). The Society regularly organizes scien- Marion Struck-Garbe, University tific lectures and cultural events in Vienna. of Hamburg Tessa Toumbourou, University of Elisabeth Worliczek (University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Austria), Melbourne the chairman of OSPG, will join the Editorial Board of Pacific Geographies, and Elisabeth Worliczek, University of presenters will have the opportunity in the future to submit a paper to our journal, Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna based on their OSPG lecture. Layout Print Version: We sincerely hope you enjoy your readings of this issue. Michael Waibel

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Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 3 Integration and segregation in the evolution of agricultural development policies in New Caledonia

Séverine Bouard1, Jean-Michel Sourisseau2, Benoît Zenou3

1 IAC, Institut Agronomique néo-Calédonien, Équipe Territoires, Acteurs et Usages (TERAU), Centre de recherche Nord – Thierry Mennesson, BP 6, 98825 Pouembout, Nouvelle-Calédonie, E-mail: [email protected]. 2 CIRAD, UMR ART-DEV, F-34398 Montpellier, France, ART-DEV, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, CNRS, Univ Montpellier 3, Univ Perpignan Via Domitia, Montpellier, France, E-mail: [email protected]. 3 CIRAD, socio-économist, ex UMR ART-DEV, CIRAD, currently Human Resources Director, Montpellier Méditerranée Metropolis, 50, place Zeus CS 39556, 34961 MONTPELLIER CEDEX 2, Montpellier, France, E-mail: [email protected].

DOI: 10.23791/540414

Abstract: Relationships between agriculture and rural societies raise controversies that question development models. Dichotomous views dominate the debate: small and large structures, inclusive or exclusive of agriculture, etc. This paper identifies how concepts of integration and segregation provide original theoretical tools for entering into these debates in depth. The theoretical framework was tested on the case of New Caledonia, through an analysis of rural development policies. This emblematic example of a colonial settlement is interesting. It offers public policies based on segregated models of development, but which pursue, at the same time, the global objective of overcoming the historical segregation between communities, land-use, etc. A field study enabled the authors to highlight the strategic dimension of the segmentation of development policies and territories. On a local scale, a study of Kanak development strategies showed that the boundaries between these different kinds of development territories are places where new development models and innovations can arise. Despite some limitations, the theoretical framework was particularly suited to understanding the historical and current transformations of the archipelago and offered original prospects for generalization. Mainly, the heuristic strength of the framework was not based on opposition, but on the identification of connections between integration and segregation.

Keywords: Integration, segregation, development policies, family farming, New Caledonia

[Submitted as Scientific Paper: 21 June 2020, acceptance of the revised manuscript: 02 September 2020] Source: © IAC/Chevreux.

Figure 1: Livestock on private land in Pouembout.

4 Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 The changes affecting relations between agricultures, ruralities and societies give rise to exclusions, instability, and political and social conflicts. The aims of the Mil- lennium Development Goals (United Nations 2000) bear witness to the international awareness of these challenges, and the urgent need to respond. Understanding the transformations occurring in the Souths, and the solutions proposed to enable their societies to develop, are often the subject of dichotomous visions. For instance, the oppositions between “small” and “large” farms or between family and entrepreneur- ial agricultures fuel debates on the competitiveness of production structures (Hazell et al. 2007; IAASTD 2009; Timmer 2009); the inclusive or exclusive nature of agricultural models lies at the heart of the representations portrayed by the World Bank of rural dynamics (World Bank 2007; Gibson-Graham 2010; Losch et al. 2011).

More recently, two representations of development likely to embody or cross these dualities have emerged from debates focusing on land-use planning: integration and segregation (I/S) (Hubert & Caron 2009; Hubert 2010). They are sometimes explicitly formulated, but are usually implicit and hinted at in the models proposed to describe evolutions in rural worlds, and they thereby often divide researchers. For some, development takes place through the specialization of areas and forms of production for intensification, whatever the cost of the compensations to be provided elsewhere, and through social treatment of the negative effects of that “segregation”. For others, “integration” of the multiple functions assigned to agriculture, but also of the communities and identities present in the same territory, is globally preferable. Beyond the economic advantages it procures, it maintains a social fabric and contributes to the rational management of territorial resources and preserves local specificities.

This scientific paper proposes to investigate how these concepts can be used to describe and understand observable phenomena (spatial, societal, cultural, etc.). It also examines how they constitute, through their dialogue, a logic that fashions how to conceive development. Lastly, it looks at the leads they offer for renewing the exist- ing dual approaches and visions, or even for going beyond them. To that end, after defining what we mean by integration, segregation, and the nature of their dialectic relationship, we illustrate the scope and relevance of this theoretical tool on a case study: the analysis of rural development policies in New Caledonia. Despite few limitations, the theoretical grid proves to be suited to understanding the historical and current transformations of the archipelago. The linking of the two concepts proves to be heuristic for the proposed case study and offers some interesting prospects for generalization. The strength of the analysis lies in showing the porosities and connections that exist between integration and segregation processes.

Integration and segregation as a theoretical tool: N towards a more systemic analysis of development Integration and segregation (I/S) LOYALTY ISLANDS concepts have long been used by many researchers, to both describe and understand concrete and visible phenomena in the Souths, and to reflect together upon the transformations and recompositions occur- NORTH PROVINCE ring. Many examples of these uses exist in approaches as diverse as the articulation of rural and urban (Hu- bert 2010), the analysis of economic mobilities (Léonard 2005), cohabitation between livestock farming and agriculture (Gautier et al. 2005), the . SOUTH PROVINCE economic and demographic inequalities of territories (Sencébé 2009),

Municipal main town Pestaña G. or more widely the revisiting the Municipal boundary models of agricultural development Provincial boundary 0 100 km and of its boundaries (Van der Ploeg Source: 2000; Caron & Le Cotty 2006). Figure 2: Provinces and municipalities in New Caledonia

Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 5 The integration and segregation con- Vasconcelos 2004) or fragmentation validation of three hypotheses. cepts, derived from the common lan- (Hobbs et al. 2008) for segregation. 1. Rather than opposing integration guage, offer the advantage of showing Despite this semantic blur, the inte- and segregation in a dichotomous way, complex processes, whilst their oppo- gration and segregation concepts prove they should rather be seen as facets of sition, which is highly meaningful too, useful for describing the processes at a prism making it possible to reveal and makes it possible to describe societies work and for adopting a more systemic characterize phenomena. and their environment. vision of transformations. However, if 2. The logics of integration and Two main fields can be identified: one wishes to use these two concepts segregation can appear in a process • Firstly, the geographical delineation as a theoretical tool, it seems to us that of action and reaction; each integra- of development spaces uses integration three limitations need to be overcome tion process partially produces some and segregation concepts (or stratifi- in the analysis: segregation, and vice versa, making it cation, segmentation, fragmentation), • Firstly, a temporal alternance can possible to understand complex log- either to give greater porosity to two be seen between integrationist and seg- ics better. spaces or make each of them independ- regationist logic. Likewise, the use of 3. The limits and boundaries defin- ent and autonomous. For example, in a segregation as a tool may enable inte- ing integrations and segregations are context of forestry management, defi- gration. This reversibility makes the porous; that porosity is reflected in nition of the boundary of a protected analysis more complex: what might recompositions. area is supposed to meet the challenges appear to be integration may ultimately By looking at the boundaries, it is and objectives that justify that area and prove to be segregation, the two work- possible to elucidate hybridization phe- tends to constitute a diversified but ing together and not in a dichotomous nomena. These three hypotheses were unique space. But, can one then im- manner. tested as part of an analysis of rural agine that the evolution of practices • Secondly, the terms integration and development in New Caledonia, par- and knowledge make them integrated segregation refer to different percep- ticularly Kanak. The Caledonian situ- spaces or spaces to be integrated? tions depending on whether one is tak- ation appears to be particularly illus- • Secondly, integration and segrega- ing a static approach (description) or a trative of both the explanatory nature tion qualify social phenomena. Indeed, dynamic approach (analysis of trans- of an integration/segregation dialectic the effect of formal and informal insti- formations) to the phenomena being affecting spatial, economic and social tutions, along with cultural and com- studied. While integration or segrega- aspects at the same time, but also of munity practices, is to differentiate tion can be considered as end points, the need to nuance the apparent di- between or strengthen social identifica- we prefer to see them here as means chotomy between the terms. Indeed, tion processes of individuals, but they and/or processes making it possible to the modern history of the European also guide the policy choices that go achieve other objectives (well-being, colonization of this territory is based hand in hand with the main structural poverty alleviation, etc.). on military, economic and territorial transformations of our societies. These • Thirdly, depending on the analysis conquest by segregation. The set- policy choices sometimes lead to the scale adopted by the researcher, the tlement been marked by the convict exclusion or even the ranking of peo- same phenomenon can be described prison, agricultural development (in a ple (up to Apartheid), or, conversely, as integrated or segregated. pioneer land grab model) and mining. to integration, understood as being In order to overcome these diffi- It notably led to the development of the cultural and social desegregation culties, adopt a broader vision of the several forms of segregation towards of peoples and populations. processes and enable a multidisciplinary the Kanak indigenous world: spatial, These categories derived from the discussion involving the same concepts, economic and social (Saussol 1979; common meaning, call for us to dis- the precision of the meaning one gives Merle 1995; Merle & Muckle 2019). To- tance ourselves from their normative to these terms in this study becomes a day, recognition of those segregations dimension, which often leads to inte- prerequisite for the analysis. and the complexity of their effective gration being seen as positive for de- In a broad perception of integration, impacts (positive and negative) define velopment, and segregation as negative. it refers to a logic seeking to associate, an original model of negotiated decol- In fact, from a semantic viewpoint, the either intentionally or unintentionally, onization. The political agreements of terms “integration” and “segregation” a space, a resource, a stakeholder or Matignon-Oudinot (1988) and Nouméa refer to theories and approaches that an idea, with another space, another (1998) in fact sealed the permanency of differ from one discipline to another. resource, another stakeholder, or an- a deep duality between Caledonians of Consequently, researchers sometimes other idea. European and Kanak origins, but also use others that refer to similar states/ Conversely, segregation qualifies the the need to move towards a community dynamics and avoid any connotation of dissociation, either intentionally or un- of destiny respectful of the differences the words used. For example, they pre- intentionally, of a space, a resource, a between communities. By sharing the fer to use connected terms such as in- stakeholder, or an idea from another country and its government, by opt- clusion (Zidouri 2008) or desegregation space, another resource, another stake- ing for catch-up policies in relation to (Morin 1966) for integration and exclu- holder, or another idea. the Kanaks, the agreements generated sion (Elias & Scotson 1997; Moustier Lastly, the relevance of using the new forms of segregation, which were & Anh 2010), stratification (Hubert integration-segregation pair as a the- seen as necessary to the integration of 2010), segmentation (Vieillard-Baron oretical tool for understanding rural people, sectors of activity and rural 2006; Veillard-Baron & De Almeida dynamics seems to us depend on the territories.

6 Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 The agricultural and rural policies of New Caledonia in the integration and segregation prism Historical context Following penal, agricultural and mining settlement under State control (1853 – 1946) and the switch to Overseas Ter- ritory status (1946 – 1965), the 1970s and 1980s were marked by pro-independence claims, with a toughening of the conflict verging on civil war, called the “events”. Seeing the stalemates of armed strug- gle, the two parties (loyalists and sepa- ratists) agreed to a negotiated solution, Customary Lands ADRAF's Stock which took the form of an institutional Private Land innovation establishing a sui generis sta- French State . tus. Through the Matignon Agreements New Caledonia (1988), the French prime minister at the Province ADRAF Municipality time, Michel Rocard, undertook to create No Data what could be called a “federal state” with Source: its own congress which coordinated the Figure 3: Land distribution in December 2019. actions of the three provinces. By way of the electoral boundaries, two of them, At the end of the emancipation process tions intended to achieve development mainly inhabited by Kanaks (North and enshrined by the agreement, the role of objectives whose principles are indi- Loyalty Islands), found themselves with the French State was confined to meet- cated in the following article, by taking pro-independence elected authorities, ing its financial and military obligations. provincial specificities into account whereas the third concentrated around The Nouméa Agreement can therefore […]: 1.Facilitate access to all initial and Nouméa (South), remained anti-inde- be seen as an attempt at economic and further training and adapt that training pendence. social integration in response to the seg- to the particularities of the territory, The competencies of the French State regation that was operated in the past, such as they arise, notably, from the were limited to sovereign competencies, notably seen through the placing of the diversity of cultures […]; 2. Promote a to which were added labour law, and sec- Kanak people in reservations and the rebalancing of the territory in relation ondary and higher education. The Terri- convict prison for the first colonialists to the agglomeration of the principal tory (New Caledonia), had the authority who participated, despite themselves, in town, and improve infrastructures to to draw up its budget, for taxation and this settlement process. provide access to remote populations for work of territorial interest. Finan- “The time has come to recognize […]; 3. Improve living conditions for cially, the French State was committed to the shadows of the colonial period, the populations throughout the terri- providing major financial means to the even if it was not devoid of light. […] tory […]; 4. Promote the Melanesian new local authorities and proposed that Some clans lost their name when they cultural heritage and that of the other the financial product from nickel min- lost their land. […] population move- local cultures […].” (Matignon Agree- ing should complete its public transfers. ments damaged its fabric (Kanak so- ments, 1988, Article VIII). The North and Loyalty Islands provinces cial organization), ignorance or power It is thus that it seemed necessary to ter- benefited from substantial financial re- strategies all too often led to the nega- ritorially segregate policies and resources sources via an allocation formula that tion of the legitimate authorities. […] in order to implement an integration pol- was favourable to them in the drawing To this denial of the fundamental el- icy over the long term. What we could up of development contracts between ements of Kanak society, were added call “positive segregation” was marked the French State and the four authorities. restrictions on public freedoms and by various emblematic measures, among In the North Province, the purpose of a lack of political rights.” (Nouméa them which ones: the four development projects that fol- Agreement, preamble) - the implementation, already mentioned, lowed on from each other after 1990 was In this search for an integrationist vision, of an allocation formula that budgetarily to promote conditions for development two principles are noteworthy. favoured the pro-independence provinces and rebalancing, through an infrastruc- “Rebalancing” seeks to work on land use (North and Loyalty Islands), tural catching-up process. planning by developing infrastructures - the affirmation of the territorial sov- The provisions of the Matignon-Oud- more uniformly throughout the territory ereignty of each province, which imple- inot Agreements, which were initially due (particularly in the North) and to achieve mented different and adapted develop- to run 10 years, were ultimately renewed socio economic objectives (distribution ment policies, in 1998 for a further 15 years by the of wealth and power). - and the freezing of the electorate, Nouméa Agreement. The latter further “Development contracts have been so that only those who participated in strengthened the powers of each province concluded between the State and the the vote on the Nouméa Agreement in and established a collegiate government. provinces for the joint funding of ac- 1998 will be able to vote for sovereignty

Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 7 Source: © IAC/Chevreux.

Figure 4: Agriculture on private land in Pouembout. in 2014, thereby avoiding any immi- Forrest & Kowasch 2016). 1965 and 1984, lost some of its impor- gration strategy for election-minded But the placing in perspective and tance and clout in GDP (falling from purposes. in opposition of these integrationist 10% in 1960 to 2% in 1984), and durably The Nouméa Agreement is also and segregationist visions in the case became a sector of low strategic impor- marked by the idea of a “common of New Caledonia reminds us that they tance to the benefit of nickel mining, destiny”, which invites the entire pop- only correspond to a representation of which took off considerably over the ulation to construct common develop- an otherwise more complex reality, in same period. In this situation, European ment. By acknowledging the harm done which limits and boundaries remain mo- cattle farming on large farms occupied by colonial settlement – notably to the bile and permeable. over 90% of the UAA (Useful Agricul- Kanak people – this integration marked The explanation of Caledonian agri- tural Area ), leaving the Kanaks with a a break for New Caledonia, which was cultural policy shows that this integra- food production agriculture that was, to acquire identifying symbols and dis- tionist vision, which makes sense polit- at best “improved”. Policies were thus play its unity. ically and which accompanies, without mainly geared towards the development “Identifying symbols of the country, ever replacing it, the growing strength of a more intensive cattle farming agri- name, flag, anthem, currency, banknote of the sustainable development concept culture (notably European) with the will illustrations, must be sought together to (Sourisseau et al. 2010a), does not escape to “publicly control the supply chains and express the Kanak identity and future from the weight of history and the per- prices at the end of the period” (Pillon sharing between all” (Nouméa Agree- sistence of segregations. Consequently, 1990; Sourisseau et al. 2010b:55), and ment, art. 1.5). the Caledonian case illustrates the will timidly assisted Kanak livestock farm- The two principles of rebalancing – made necessary by path dependen- ing. At the same time, as early as the and common destiny particularly ena- cies – to go beyond this integration/ 1970s, growing urbanization enabled bled the recognition of categories of segregation duality by proposing other the development of intensive market the population that had previously been development paths. gardening structures, located around marginalized, leading to the introduc- Nouméa and controlled by farmers of tion of differentiated public policies. By Agricultural policies: towards positive segregation European origin, who had recently ar- transferring numerous competencies to for eventual (long-term) integration? rived in general. Lastly, the “commer- local authorities, the Nouméa Agree- Before 1988, only Caledonians of Eu- cial” sectors, which potentially faced ment thus responded to the demand ropean origin were offered an agricultural competition from imports, benefited for autonomy for the Kanak people, policy that met their expectations and from protection via adaptable customs whilst strengthening cooperation be- needs. Indeed agriculture, which was procedures mastered by the producers tween the political parties in setting up marked by an assisted economy (Freyss involved. Between 1970 and 1990, the a collegiate government (Kohler 1991; 1995) and strong urbanization between duality of agricultural policies asserted

8 Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 itself by trying to respond to the increas- Agreements. For instance, since 1988, of this UAA was pastureland, the support ingly loud and vociferous claims of the 132,856 ha have been returned to the of extensive livestock farming directly Kanak people, notably regarding land customary lands (ADRAF 2019), in the resulting from the logics of agricultural redistribution. But in the end, only eco- name of links with the land (Mapou colonisation, with a high concentration nomic measures were proposed, while 1999; Le Meur 2012). Lastly, since 1978, on the west coast of Grande Terre, and the claims were mainly political. land distribution between private and the South Province. Thus, the agricultural (and more widely, customary lands has been completely The general census of agriculture of economic) integration that was extolled rebalanced. Today, on Grande Terre, 2012 shows that 62% of farms are lo- and displayed from the 1970s onwards, the two statutes amount to 292,470 and cated on customary land - and therefore was more a synonym of insertion, invit- 313,910 ha respectively (ADRAF 2019), essentially Kanak – but concerned for ing the Kanaks to reproduce European as opposed to 402,500 and 168,000 ha in barely 18% the UAA. Another study on practices and to subscribe to the French 1978. This is a considerable reform, but agriculture on customary land shows that arsenal of agricultural modernization it does not challenge spatial partitioning the GSA and official statistics underes- aid. From the end of the 1980s, the in- into land areas of very different status. timates Kanak family farming and pro- sertion gradually led to the development In particular, customary lands escape the duction, in particular because it concerns of Kanak family farming supported by market, since they are inalienable, unas- very small areas per family, technical local policies that redefined places and sailable, unseizable and non-transferable, itineraries are low input consumers and roles of agriculture. Productivity and and thereby entail specific development have self-consumption and donation as economic viability criteria were not the challenges and methodologies. their primary functions, with only 12% only objectives targeted by the politicians; The types of agriculture practiced on of agricultural products actually being the concepts of on-farm consumption, these two types of land, private and cus- sold (Guyard et al. 2013). This wide sur- identity and maintenance of social func- tomary, are different in many aspects. De- vey conducted in 2011 of 1,786 Kanak tions of Kanak agricultural production spite the rebalancing in terms of surface households representing 12.5% of the had a say in the matter. area, the 2012 general census of agricul- population residing in Kanak villages (also After once symbolizing the domina- ture shows that these agricultural terri- named “tribes”) showed that almost all tion of the Kanak world by the colo- tories are home to distinct models. The tribal families have at least one field, but nial power, land tenure policy became Total Used Agricultural Area occupied that the quantities produced vary consid- emblematic of this change in direc- 13% of the total surface area of New erably (25% of the families in tribes pro- tion following the Matignon-Oudinot Caledonia, i.e. 182 026 ha, of which 96% duce 60% of the agricultural volumes). Source: IAC/Coulon. Source:

Figure 5: Small scale Kanak family farming on customary land.

Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 9 Source: IAC/Chevreux.Source:

Figure 6: Yam plot and small-scale Kanak family farming on customary land.

Above all, this study confirmed the for an OGAF programme is issued by objectives different from agricultural ac- economic importance of farming and one or more municipalities. The project tivity, whilst enabling recognition of the hunting/fishing activities for tribal pop- is based on a programme of specific diversity of situations and the particu- ulations: agriculture generated a gross actions, for a duration of three to five larity of Kanak farms. These changes output of € 65 million . The amount years and makes it possible to provide strengthen the dual nature of agricul- of time devoted to these activities, the aid of an incentive nature (premiums, tural policies. On the one hand, there volumes produced and exchanged, and contracts, subsidies, etc.). The opera- are measures seeking to strengthen in- their contribution to incomes, food and tion is monitored by local committees vestment aid and price protection for social capital leave no doubt: agricul- and the instrument, which brings to- European type agriculture and, on the ture, hunting and fishing continue to gether several donors but also local other hand, local, participatory devel- occupy a central place in the economy stakeholders, is based on a participa- opment operations that succeed to var- (in its broader meaning) of the tribes tory type project approach (is not so ying degrees in promoting Kanak family in all parts of the territory, including of far of the Leader and Leader + pro- farming. This assumed duality does not those in close proximity to urban centres grammes funded by the European Un- do away with inequalities and is charac- and development hubs (Bouard et al. ion). Since 1993, six OGAFs have been terized by a low budget devoted to local 2018; Bouard et al. forthcoming). Even implemented in eastern New Caledonia, development (barely 10%) in order to though it has historically been margin- where most of the customary lands support “small” Kanak farmers. The alized, confined to unfavourable land, re-attributed under the land tenure re- rigidities and path dependencies arising Kanak family farming continues to play form are concentrated (see figure 7). On from settlement are revealed by these a key role in household food security, average, project funding amounts to € dynamics and the choice of a common non-commercial exchanges, the local 1,613,530. The provinces are the main destiny made it even more difficult to economy and the maintenance of cus- donors and their share of the funding overcome these differentiations. As of tomary, family and social ties. increases over time then, rational and not exclusive dualism In fact, local development policies More specifically in the North, the appeared as a credible solution. primarily targeted these customary development code explicitly recognizes Social recompositions in the rural lands, particularly lands recently at- three categories of aid: aid to enterprise, world: moving beyond integration/ tributed in the form of local private aid to insertion projects (rebalancing) segregation duality law groups (GDPL) , which were in- and aid to traditional projects. This dis- Rather than using them to qualify de- termediate zones in which customary tinction thus strengthens segregation velopment statuses, which are norma- law prevailed, but where development between the different forms of produc- tively judged positive or negative, the policies were more open. The request tion, forcibly segmenting functions and integration and segregation concepts

10 Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 N

LOYALTY ISLANDS

NORTH PROVINCE

OGAF and OCDL Cereal storage organization Abattoir and meat storage Agricultural multi-service center Collective irrigation networks SOUTH PROVINCE Research Education

0 50 km Source: Bouard 2013. Source:

Figure 7: Collective or public agricultural infrastructures. seem useful for analysing social and a State and local administration. The Two types of partnership relations, two spatial recomposition processes. employers, in a “segregationist” reflex, management methods were established, The overlapping development mod- considered that it was for the Kanaks depending on whether the company els already described, and the economic to take on board their enterprise princi- was dealing with its external customers strategies and agricultural practices un- ples, arguing that custom and its social in the search for and performance of derlying them, illustrate the merits of implications were hardly compatible contracts, or with its allies and families using this theoretical tool dynamically with efficient capitalism. for the mobilization of the work force and urge us to look more specifically However, following the provincializa- (which could amount to being arbitrary), at the flows that cross boundaries and tion and opening up of economic pol- then for the use and redistribution of upturn the opposition between integra- icies to the Kanaks, the latter progres- income from the activity. tion and segregation. sively, but very rapidly, adapted to the The second example, along the same opportunities offered by a favourable lines, concerned SMSP which decided The ascendancy of Kanak economic climate. They modified some to contract out mineral ore loading enterprise capitalism of their behaviours while maintaining a at one of its sites to two companies, The recent internal dynamics of the close link with their community tradi- Watemi and Mitewa (Sourisseau et al. Kanak world bear witness to the rapid tions. To illustrate this point, we present 2006). Rather than basing itself on the changes and on going hybridization two examples from the mining world, conventional job market and drawing between the separate representations though they participated in and had a up individual contracts, SMSP dealt of development derived from coloni- very direct impact on rural dynamics. rather with a collective based on the alization. Up to a few years ago, and The first involves a haulage company service rendered. This arrangement despite some rare experiments arising developed and managed by a clan as made it possible to always have an from militant actions in the 1970s, the part of the metallurgy works in the available work force to meet its needs world of enterprise automatically ex- North (Poithily 2010; Sourisseau et al. and enabled the clans involved to cap- cluded the Kanaks from responsibili- 2017). In order to ensure the profita- ture the earnings from loading, while ties. The economic elite, concerned for bility of their activity, its managers ran maintaining a collective work distri- their prerogatives, maintained an enter- the company in line with western codes bution logic. Regularity and diligence, prise model inherited from a trading and techniques. Be that as it may, the which are difficult to obtain on an in- post mind-set, functioning on a strong managers and employees maintained dividual basis, were thus managed on a connection with politics and on high a redistributive logic with the families group scale. Therefore, the clans were prices enabled by public transfers, no- of their community once dealings with able to organize themselves so that tably through the strong presence of the other partners had been ensured. the subcontracting work was ensured,

Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 11 whilst keeping the activities they tradi- the other members of her clan set up western market logic. From the Kanak tionally undertook in their community. on the perimeter started to produce, the viewpoint, they adopt this stance – lead- Changes in the functions of agricul- couple preferred to withdraw from the ing them notably to intentionally detach tural activity and the participation of cooperative to leave room for the new themselves from the western lifestyle to Kanak households in local development producers. preserve their customs and traditions, programs Access to customary land (reserve whilst integrating certain principles that Kanak agriculture, which is funda- and also GDPL) can become a problem govern the market economy – with a mentally geared towards family and clan when the agricultural activity is more view to gaining recognition and taking consumption and towards maintaining market-oriented and involves a larger advantage of it (Bouard & Sourisseau interpersonal and customary relations area. But in this case, the Kanak house- 2010). The purpose of this double stance between the families and the clans, barely hold negotiated the coexistence of dif- is notably to obtain greater negotiating expresses its market functions. How- ferent types of projects with a more power and to have greater autonomy in ever, this apparent inertia, faced with the or less commercial and professional the choices proposed to them. These progression of salaried activities, masks vocation within the same land area, the recompositions, or their absence, re- some contradictory dynamics that lie GDPL of the clan. By facilitating access flect the boundaries that are increasingly at the core of tensions that are internal to micro-projects for the other members economically and socially mobile and and external to Kanak society, between of their clan or of their tribe, who did porous. They challenge the dichoto- aspirations and insertion (market and not practise professional or commercial mous base that we have highlighted in social) and community retrenchment. agriculture, the household legitimized the implementation of public policies. The trajectories and strategies of two maintaining its own agricultural prac- farmers illustrate some facets of these tices and the land area it used for them. Conclusion – Integration/ forms of hybridization. These two farm- Segregation: towards a key ers were members of a GDPL and had Case B: enabling a fresh read on been able to recover a certain number of The farmer of household B first development policies land rights enabling them to develop a worked as a welder for companies in Even though the integration and seg- professional and commercial agriculture. Nouméa. After the events in the 1980’s, regation theoretical tool is interesting for They were both invited to become mem- he decided to set up as a farmer, on the understanding the role of public action bers of a local discussion committee lands of his clan. He began by multi- in the transformations of Caledonian opened by an OGAF in their municipal- plying yam seeds, then he branched off rural life, the reality goes beyond the ity; they did not make the same choice. into very common yam production for integrationist and segregationist rep- consumption in the 1990s. He enlarged resentations we afford it. The case of Case A: his areas but, after five years, his fam- New Caledonia and the illustrations pro- Household A practised “professional” ily made him leave the family reserve. posed lead us beyond the usual dichoto- and commercial agriculture. It had been He had to hire plots, first of all several mous model presented earlier, call for a specialized in yam and paddy taro pro- kilometres from his farm, then nearby. broader redefinition of the integration duction since 1994, and also had a small For the last 10 years, being unable to and segregation concepts, and validate mowing company, with which the farmer farm the customary land of his clan, our three hypotheses. fulfilled the needs of the municipality even on the GDPL, he has farmed some But before returning to our hypothe- for roadside maintenance. By investing customary lands located at the entrance ses, it is worth pointing out that colonial in a commercial agricultural activity, the to the valley where he lives. Since this New Caledonia illustrates, no doubt in household gradually withdrew from the dispute arose in the 1990s, the relations the extreme, other frequent situations of social activities undertaken by its clan with his clan and the rest of the tribe “negative” segregation within the colo- and its tribe, along with the customary have relaxed. nial space or in situations where dem- ceremonies. As highlighted by his wife: As in the case of household A, the ocratic functioning is extremely weak. “We reached a decision […], you have farmer became a member of one of the Granted, a closer look at interpersonal to manage between social obligations local committees opened by the territorial relations is enough to nuance the totally and work.” So, the family is represented development programme, but he left the segregated nature of the society prior to on customary occasions by a brother committee after the third meeting. He the political agreements (Trépied 2011). or the wife. disagreed with the objectives and the But above all, such instituted forms of Following the implementation of an approach of the project. His trajectory segregation, considered as an integral OGAF programme, the household be- shows that he was first spatially excluded part of a development model, imply un- came involved in one of the local discus- by his clan and his participation in the bearable human and social costs, which sion committees opened by the project. local committee was also marked by a end up making them inoperable. As for all the other social activities, it was process of exclusion. Although often The “post-political agreements” New the wife who attended the meetings. She cited by many as an example of success Caledonia then bears an image of in- had access to the information needed to in Kanak agriculture, farmer B was alone tegration, mediatized in a “positive” draw up micro-projects funded by the in promoting the specialized, professional version, it too being archetypal. In par- territorial development programme. She and commercial agricultural model. ticular, the common destiny sets an ideo- then passed on this information within These examples show how stakehold- logical course towards the integration of her clan to favour their installation on ers tend in this way to reconcile Kanak values and identities. However, the reality new plots of land. Once the plots for social practices with the demands of is different and reveals the persistence

12 Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 of segregations, rooted in a determinism ginalized or forgotten. But in post-co- Le cas de la Nouvelle-Calédonie. Natures, of colonial power struggles. The break lonial contexts, such as South Africa, Sciences, Sociétés, vol. 22(4): 305-316. DOI from this reality is that these segrega- Australia, Brazil – in line with our third 10.1051/nss/2014044. For this publi- tions also have a compensatory and, ulti- hypothesis – the question of bounda- cation, the article was translated into mately, an integrating dimension. There ries that is raised in the proactive ac- English, and then substantially modified, is indeed segregation in that spaces. companiment of development, is very shortened and updated. Stakeholders and policies are clearly and frequent. Development challenges focus intentionally differentiated and are de- on how to segregate and integrate and Endnotes fined in their opposition. There is also therefore how to define which player, 1) Budget rebalancing was written segregation because categories of stake- which resource and which space should into the referendum law of 8 No- holders are effectively assigned specific be covered by a given public policy in- vember 1988. That law stipulates public policies and spaces. But there strument. the following distribution of invest- is integration as well: some categories The Caledonian case emphasizes the ment allocations: ¾ for NP and IP, of the population, heretofore excluded difficulty of these definitions, linked ¼ for SP. Likewise, the working cap- from development policies, are now the to the porosity and plasticity of the ital of the Territory budget was di- targets for public policies. There is inte- boundaries (Caron 2011). The latter are vided into 2/5 for NP, 2/5 for IP gration because the societies are building only temporary representations likely to and 1/5 for the Territory. This dis- bridges between spaces and economic evolve with the social dynamics at work. tribution had no precedent in the players, who are breaking away from the Neither are they merely lines embody- history of State allocations to a lo- claimed duality and declared speciali- ing a separation. They may be strategic cal authority for land-use planning. zation of spaces. There is integration, zones where innovations take form. It is still in force, despite recurrent too, because the freedom given to the For instance, in New Caledonia, GD- complaints from South province. invention and adaptation of instruments PLs are areas of intersection between 2) We can consider that positive seg- multiplies the possible combinations and customary representations of retrench- regation is a division (of social or cul- representations of development and its ment and openings towards anonymiza- tural categories, of space, of territory) standards. This demonstrates the merits tion and towards commercial insertion. with the ultimate aim of achieving of perceiving integration and segrega- Likewise, the local committees of the integrationist objectives more rapidly. tion as the facets of a prism. Restricting development programmes are forums 3) According to ITSEE, mar- the interpretation of provincial public for the production of organizational and ket output fell from 4 to 1.5 bil- action to the introduction of systems institutional innovations. These exam- lion between 1965 and 1981. fostering the integration of the Kanak ples would be worth generalizing; the 4) Benefiting from the redistribu- populations in commercial agriculture integration/segregation pair, as a theo- tion of lands, some Kanaks geared would be an error. retical tool of understanding, may help their production towards the mar- In addition, whatever the observation shed light on a third agrarian frontier kets and grouped together. scale opted for, placing the agricultural (Hubert and Billaud 2008). 5) 9 million Euros, or 15% of this development policies in New Caledo- Lastly, use of the I/S pair relativizes gross output, came from the mar- nia since colonization in historical per- the reality of the major agricultural de- keting of agricultural products. spective, shows the alternance between velopment models, to the benefit of 6) Most of the land GDPLs were phases of integration and “compen- a clearer understanding of ideologies formed from the start of the 1990s satory segregation” policies, and the and practices. Whilst not providing the with a view to benefiting from land trajectories and differentiated practices means to improve public development attributions by the State land and ru- of individuals faced with the political policies, this theoretical tool can be used ral development agency (ADRAF), bifurcation mediatized as integrative, to pinpoint the complexities of the pro- under the customary law regime. validates our second hypothesis. The cesses at work and the possibility of a 7) Société Minière du Sud Paci- dissemination of an agricultural model virtuous cohabitation of orientations fique, a mining company in North resolutely geared towards commercial that are often presented as antinomic. province, through its holding, Sof- insertion is not a linear process. De- On the other hand, in a comparative per- inor, is the main shareholder. SMSP velopment trajectories result from ac- spective between New Caledonia, South is the emblematic company of a tions and reactions, subjected to market Africa and Brazil, might the I/S theoret- Kanak public capitalism that is forces, but also to the social and identity ical tool make it possible to investigate likely to offer an economic model forces of the community to which one the different ways compensatory public that is viable in independence. belongs. These combined forces can action is politicized in the rural world? 8) These companies are the outcome lead to different trajectories making it of the grouping of 3 tribes (Wasse, necessary to relativize the expected im- Hint Tenda and Mission) who founded pacts of setting in place public policy This article was previously pub- these two companies. instruments. lished in French language in the journal There are of course limitations of “Natures, Sciences, Sociétés”. Refer- References comparison segregating publics and ter- ence: Bouard, S., J.-M. Sourisseau and ADRAF (2019). Carte des statuts foncier. Retrieved from: http://www.adraf.nc [Accessed on 25th Au- ritories to more effectively assist them, B. Zenou (2014). Intégration / ségréga- gust 2020] and integrating populations, spaces and tion: une clé de lecture des recomposi- Bouard, S. (2013). La ruralité kanak à la recherche resources that had previously been mar- tions des modèles de développement? d’un modèle décolonisé, Papeete, Tahiti, Au vent des Îles.

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Corresponding Author: Séverine Bouard [[email protected]] is a geographer specialist of Melanesian rural livelihoods, development studies, governance in rural development policies. Since 2005, her research has addressed issues related to the kanak livelihoods and evolution of development policies. Her recent research activities mainly focus on building methodologies and analysis on Kanak indigenous livelihoods. Furthermore, she works on sustainable development, mining activities and natural resource management in New Caledonia.

14 Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 Vanuatu‘s 40th anniversary: Review of the first decade of political independence from 1980 to 1990

Gilbert David1

1 Institute of Research for Development (IRD), UMR Espace-DEV, Maison de la télédétection, 500 rue JF Breton - 34093 Montpellier cedex 5, France, Email: [email protected].

DOI: 10.23791/541524

Abstract: The year 2020 is a particularly important one for Vanuatu. On 30 July, this SID (Small Island developing state) celebrated the 40th anniversary of its independence. And in December 2020 is should be leaving the list of the least developed countries in the world. We could say that at 40 years old, Vanuatu has reached adulthood, but its first ten years of life were critical for its development. Vanuatu’s first two development plans set up the foundations for economic and social viability in the face of constraints imposed by insularity. Forty years after independence, many elements of these development plans are still present in national policy. The objective of this article is to look back at the first decade of independence in terms of Vanuatu’s development policies, the rationale behind them, the hopes they raised and the constraints they encountered. Receptive to the concepts of the “Pacific Way” and “Melanesian renaissance”, the first government of Vanuatu decided to build an endogenous development model. But to implement it, it chose economic planning, exogenous to the region. Despite undeniable successes, this model of endogenous development came up against constraints imposed by insularity and the international economic context.

Keywords: Vanuatu, independence, Pacific Way, SIDS (Small Island Developing State), development plans, insularity

[Submitted as Scientific Paper: 15 Juli 2020, acceptance of the revised manuscript: 29 September 2020]

Figure 1: Impression from celebration of Vanuatu‘s Independence Day in 2019 Source: Kowasch 2019.

Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 15 Introduction The year 2020 is particularly important for Melanesia. On 4 October, the second referendum for political independence of New Caledonia was held, and on 30 July, Vanuatu celebrated the 40th “anniversary” of its independence from France and Great Britain (Fig 1 shows the celebration of independence in 2019, the 39th “anniversary”). This young Oceanian State divides voters in New Caledonia, where those loyal to the French Republic see Vanuatu’s independence as unsuccessful, leading the former New Hebrides towards failed development and misery. The proof, for them, is that Vanuatu is among the 47 least developed countries (LDCs) on the planet. The supporters of Kanaky, an independent New Caledonia, answer that on 20 December 2020 Vanuatu will leave the list of LDCs1, proof of the improvement of its economic situation as an independent nation. They also re- mind us that in 2016, it was ranked 4th happiest country in the world by the NEF (New Economics Foundation), a British independent research institute, that developed the Happy Planet Index (HPI), and was ranked first in this index in 2006.2 Vanuatu’s 40th anniversary marks the maturity of a State. This middle age is Source: Vanuatu NPO and 1982 1990. characterized by the emergence of new Figure 2: The objectives of Vanuatu‘s first two development plans. requirements, for example the desire to create a national university. The first by the government of Vanuatu during Economic planning as a decades of independence were devoted the first ten years of independence. “driver” of Vanuatu viability to ensure the country’s viability. When The second is participant observation. The viability of small island states the question of higher education arose, I lived in Vanuatu for a total of five was the subject of in-depth studies in- these functions were fulfilled by the years, working on two contracts (1984- itiated by UNCTAD in the early 1980s University of the South Pacific (USP), 85 and 1989-91). Based at the Fisher- (David 2010). Viability was defined as a regional university founded in 1968 ies Department in Port Vila, I studied the combination of a static state, “the (McCall 1984; Naidu 2019). After 30 the development of Vanuatu’s fisheries meeting of the necessary and sufficient to 40 years of independence, it seems and the integration of the sector into conditions to exist and endure”, and a logical to establish its own national uni- public development policies (Cillaurren dynamic state, “the conditions to … versity. Vanuatu follows the example of et al. 2001; David 2011). I also taught achieve development both in terms of three other Small Islands Developing geography for three and a half years at sustainable use of natural resources and States (SIDS) in the South Pacific in the Port Vila branch of the USP (see in terms of improvement of the social having a national university: Fiji, the Sol- David 1989). and economic standard of living of the omon Islands and Samoa. As Vanuatu The paper is structured in two parts. population” (Doumenge 1983, 1985). rejoices and celebrate its middle age, it The first part is devoted to economic On the eve of independence in 1980, is important to look back on the goals planning. Rebalancing the national terri- the economy of the New Hebrides con- that the new country established at the tory and developing human capital were dominium had serious structural weak- outset of independence, and to see if, two early development priorities for the nesses, which were a powerful constraint and how, they have been achieved. This independent government. The second for the viability of the future State of article scrutinizes those early develop- part provides an analysis of the first two Vanuatu. Half of the cultivated land ment policies, revisits the rationale be- development plans. Emphasis is put first was committed to subsistence agricul- hind them, the hopes they raised, and on economic performance, including ture. Coconuts and copra production, the constraints they encountered. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and the main, if not the only source of cash This study is based on two vectors the trade balance, and second, on geo- income for rural households, were in de- of knowledge. The first is an analysis graphical indicators, including schooling cline. The majority of coconut trees were of public policy documents published levels and internal migration. over 50 years old (Weightman 1989).

16 Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 Source: Kowasch 2019.

Figure 3: Customary wedding ceremony in Port-Vila. In addition, consumption of imported For Lini, the viability of the young policies of each ministry. As Vanuatu food was rapidly increasing in rural ar- State of Vanuatu meant self-reliance. did not have experts in these fields, the eas, causing further deterioration in the Viability is primarily an economic con- vast majority of the NPSO staff were trade balance. Four staple foods - rice, cept but self-reliance includes economic foreign consultants, mainly from West- canned fish, flour processed into bread, and political components. In 1983, Lini ern English-speaking countries, includ- and sugar - alone accounted for 42% of decided first to officially join the non- ing Australia. Launched in 1982 for a total household expenditures and 62% aligned movement, and second to estab- period of 15 years, economic planning of expenditure on food (Marshall 1986). lish diplomatic relations with Cuba. In was designed to lead the country to eco- These structural weaknesses in Vanuatu’s 1986, while the Cold War was still going nomic self-reliance. The other two facets economy were compounded by a major on, Vanuatu was the only country in of Vanuatu’s self-centred development political crisis. Secession attempts arose Oceania not to align with the USA and model were first the priority given to the on Santo, Tanna and Lamap (South of the majority of Western nations. The development of agriculture and natural Malakula), three of the country’s main Lini government established diplomatic resource exploitation, and second, the islands (Bonnemaison 1985, 1986, 1987; relations with the Soviet Union (in July concern to make the village the reference Huffer 1993), with the result that exports 1986) and also with the United States place for economic development (Fig. fell by 30% between 1979 and 1989, and (in September 1986) (Huffer 1993). The 2). The importance given to the village GDP declined from US$ 80 million to desire for non-alignment and anti-co- is consistent with the significance given US$ 64 million. lonialism appeared very early in Lini’s to custom (Fig. 3) and customary chiefs Faced with the need to build a new reflections on the future of Vanuatu. defined by a “Melanesian Renaissance”. economic base and to strengthen na- It led him to consider economic plan- It is also in line with the model of Afri- tional unity, the new Government of ning, devoid of particular ideological can socialism developed by Julius Nyer- Vanuatu opted for an original set of directions, as a major tool to achieve ere in Tanzania, particularly his policy hopeful policies. Rejecting the liberal Vanuatu’s self-reliance. Looking back, of organizing village communities (the model, but without adhering to Marx- Vanuatu is the country in Oceania that “ujamaas”) along collectivist principles. ist economic management as used in has most favoured state-led economic This inspired Lini to design Vanuatu’s the Eastern Bloc, this policy relied on development. This was at variance with policy of self-reliance. Oceanian cultural values and aimed to many of the newly independent African Vanuatu’s broad public policy guide- distance itself from the global East-West countries, with the exception of Tanza- lines were defined during the first -de polarization. Under the government of nia and Guinea, that had followed Eu- velopment plan (1982-1986). This re- Walter Lini3, Prime Minister from 1980 ropean economic planning models or mained unchanged until 1991, the end to September 1991, a model of self-cen- were strongly influenced by their former of the second development plan and tered development was set up, referring colonial powers. the “reign” of Walter Lini. In Decem- to “Melanesian socialism”, an ideology From the early days of the Repub- ber 1991, the Union of Moderate Par- developed by the Vanuaaku Pati (VAP) lic, a National Planning Office (NPO) ties, the main opposition party since the and based on Christian principles and was created within the Prime Minister’s country gained independence, won the the values of Oceanian culture (Tabani Office to design the overall plan for parliamentary elections. In the absence 2000). self-reliance and to guide the sectoral of industry and mining, the guidelines

Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 17 Source: Gilbert David 2007.

Figure 4: Development of domestic trade and transport by sea, here between Efate and Malakula.

promoted agriculture, forestry and fish- Restructuring of the territorial The administrative decentralization eries, the first two sectors accounting administrative framework was accompanied by a programme of for 40% of development investments and regional rebalancing spatial rebalancing. In 1979, the internal in the first Plan. Efforts focused on the Under the British-French condomin- migration from rural areas to Port-Vila or development of micro-projects at the ium, four administrative districts divided Luganville was already a matter of con- village level with four objectives: (a) to the New Hebrides into parallel bands cern for public authorities. Between 1967 ensure the country’s food self-reliance; along latitudes: North, North-Central, and 1979, Vanuatu’s urban population (b) to better integrate rural areas into the South-Central and South, the latter also doubled from 7,770 to 15,780 (Vanuatu market economy; (c) to reduce the rural known as Tafea. With political independ- O.S. 1983). On the eve of independence, exodus to Port-Vila (on Efate island) and ence in 1980, eleven regions were created.4 one third of the population was concen- Luganville (on Santo island), the country’s Known as “Local Government Regions” trated on Efate and Santo islands. For two urban centres; and (d) to diversify (L.G.R.), they were administered by a Lo- the rest of the archipelago, the migra- copra-dominated exports. cal Government Council, with 10 to 30 tory balance was negative. The rural-ur- Development policy for the primary members depending on the size of the ban migration was particularly strong in sector was accompanied by a strong de- population, supported by a small admin- Paama and the Shepherds Islands. The sire to restructure the territorial administration. This council was composed of majority of migrants were young adults istrative framework, which was inherited two thirds of members elected by univer- seeking employment. In the cities, they from the New Hebrides condominium. sal suffrage every four years, with one seat were reunited with relatives or friends This administrative restructuring was sup- per 1,500 inhabitants, and one third of the who had previously settled (Bonnemai- plemented by a will to spatially rebalance members appointed by the central gov- son 1977). Family and ethnic affinities the archipelago, but not without ulterior ernment: representatives of customary played an important role in the settlement political motives. The three secessionist chiefs, women, youth and the churches. of urban neighbourhoods. Problems of islands of Santo, Tanna and Malakula It had three main tasks: (a) the prepa- employment, social housing, education, were the agricultural lungs of the New ration and implementation of regional health, water supply and pollution were Hebrides (fig. 4). For the young State of development plans; (b) the construction the corollaries of urban growth (fig. 5). Vanuatu, it was vital to promote other and maintenance of educational, health, For the new Prime Minister, Walter poles of development that could stabi- transport and cultural infrastructure such Lini, rural-urban migration was one of lize the population and avoid rural-urban as schools, health centres, roads, bridges, the main threats to Vanuatu’s future. migration. At the macroeconomic level, secondary airports, and cultural or com- Combined with the deterioration of their the primary sector development policy munity centres; (c) the control of com- standard of living, the new migrants who was intended to provide an improvement mercial activities and the levying of local had chosen to settle in Port Vila and Lu- of the trade balance, both by increasing taxes, including an annual capitation tax ganville faced acculturation problems and exports and by better supplying the local of 500 to 1,600 vatus depending on the loss of their roots. In order to absorb mi- market to improve import substitution. region (the equivalent of US$5 to US$16. gration, Lini and his team reasoned that

18 Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 Source: Gilbert David 2007.

Figure 5: Urbanisation process in coastal Pango (Efate island) in 2007. more jobs had to be created in rural areas. substitution were confronted with the school, with the ultimate goal of having a The spatial rebalancing programme was very limited size of the national market.5 quarter of them moving onto secondary a response to that need. It aimed first of With the exception of the brewery in school. The number of primary schools all to create regional development poles Port-Vila, the industries created in the would increase by 20%. These quanti- from the eleven provincial capitals new- urban centres thus remained small. The tative educational targets were linked to ly-established in the framework of ad- second priority of the spatial rebalancing qualitative goals. There was no point in ministrative decentralization, along with programme was therefore the strength- opening new classes and increasing the specialization of regional economies. ening of communication and road, sea number of students if the content of However, because of the limited di- and air transport infrastructures within the curricula, developed by the former versity of economic resources on the and between the islands (Vanuatu NPO colonial powers, was not radically over- different islands, due to the small size 1982; Vanuatu NPSO 1984). The crea- hauled. It was no longer a question of of the country, such specialization was tion of Air Vanuatu in 1981 supported bringing children the “enlightenment” difficult to implement. The development this imperative. of British or French education, but of of coconut groves, cocoa and artisanal preparing them to take charge of their fishing was on the agenda everywhere, Development of the country’s country. The aim was to train citizens and none of the peripheral regions had human capital and emer- who could use their school knowledge for specific characteristics. The four largest gence of local entrepreneurs the development of rural communities. regions of the country (Santo/Malo, During the last years of the condomin- Young people, falling between formal Malakula, Efate and Tafea) were the most ium, significant efforts had been made knowledge gained in local schools and specialized, as they had space for live- in primary and secondary education the daily demands of rural life, should be stock and logging, and water for rice throughout the country. The Lini gov- less inclined to migrate to the city (Fig. 6). cultivation. The island of Tanna also ernment has inherited higher education As a “lever of development”, edu- had a virtual monopoly on the produc- levels than the average of other States cation was proposed as a brake of ru- tion of coffee (Arabica) for export, while in Oceania at the moment of their ac- ral-urban migration, not an accelerator. Efate and Santo/Malo developed mar- cession to political independence. Nev- In this context, Lini wanted to see the ket gardening and local poultry and pig ertheless, school enrolment was poor. In emergence of local entrepreneurs capa- farming. As for industrial projects, they 1979, nearly one person out of nine in ble of taking over the plantations and were mainly focused on the exploitation the working population was illiterate and businesses abandoned by expatriates on of natural resources, particularly timber. only one third of children aged between the eve of independence. The final aim They could not be set up outside Efate 10-14 attended school regularly. Five out was to revitalize and animate economic and Luganville because of remoteness of six students dropped out of school at activities at the village level. But no spe- and the lack of local workforce training the end of primary school. For the new cific efforts were made outside schools elsewhere. Moreover, any industrial de- Prime Minister, all children aged 6 to and education. The identification and velopment plans that promoted import 11 were now required to attend primary training of potential entrepreneurs were

Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 19 tion and development programmes were the two main tools of the government to ensure the sustainability of rural areas and to delay urban growth. Fig. 6 shows three models dealing with the effects on development in Vanuatu related to three different types of education policies. These models were created a) Catastrophe scheme feared by Lini from the analysis and interpretation of various planning documents produced by the Prime Minister’s Office during the launch of the first national development plan (Vanuatu NPO 1982) and during the mid-term evaluation of this plan (Vanuatu NPSO 1984). These ‘ideal types’ illustrate the possible effects of high population growth. Despite an average increase of 3.2% between 1967 and 1979, the VAP did not actually consider population growth to be a problem. On the contrary, demographic dynamism was seen as Vanuatu’s “revenge” on its colonial history, and a prerequisite for b) Model followed by Lini government rebuilding the nation’s economic viability. The reality was somewhat different. Fig. 6a shows the catastrophic out- comes feared by Lini. In this model, budget spending on education is high, resulting in mass education. All schools and colleges built by the colonial administration remain, and new schools open. The literacy rate increases significantly despite high population growth. Quantitatively, the challenges of population growth are addressed. But the programmes taught to rural students, who made up more than 95% of Va- nuatu’s youth at independence, were not c) Alternative to the former model

Source: Own Desgin. adapted to the needs of village econo- Figure 6: The relationship between education and development, the ideological models of the VAP mies and island self-reliance. Educational programmes are colonial, based on the left to agricultural extension officers and lum, techniques, and built in values that it curriculum of the French and British fisheries departments. This ambiguity brings with it, can be overdone and lead regimes. These did not lead to increase reflects the contradictions of the Prime to the phenomenon of “educated un- agricultural production expected by the Minister’s approach to education, which employed”. The “educated” soon push development plan. Feeling useless in are indicative to his ideological perspec- the less educated out of work, and the their village, young graduates perceived tive on urban-rural and population-de- desperate circle of unemployment and urban migration as their best solution. velopment relationships. crime begins. Once this cycle starts, there As a result of increased migration, urban On the one hand, education was seen is virtually no means of reversing it. Few population growth quickly outstripped as a priority for a country where half people, after tasting the pleasures and job opportunities. The imbalance be- the population was under 16 years old freedoms of city life wish to return to tween the number of applicants and and where the intention was to build the village (Vanuatu NPSO 1984:72). jobs opportunities led to impoverish- economic independence. On the other Lini perceived the urban environment ment and more petty crime. In rural hand, the government highlighted the as hostile, foreign to customs and to areas, migration to the city leads to the ambiguous effects of education in terms traditional ways of life, and shaped by departure of motivated young people, of rural-urban migration, unemployment the values of the former colonial powers. which has a negative impact on devel- and crime as evidenced by this excerpt There were potential dangers for newly opment projects. Ultimately, this model from the mid-term review of Vanuatu’s arrived migrants from rural areas. Chris- leads to serious threats to the economic first National Development Plan: “As tian references and pan-Pacific national- and social viability of the country and many countries have discovered, too ism combined to equate rural Oceania the failure of the concept of Melanesian rapid, an expansion of a formal educa- with heaven on earth, and hell with the renaissance. tional system, with the foreign curricu- “city of the whites”. Therefore, educa- Fig. 6b shows the model followed by

20 Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 the Lini government. The State plays a minimizing the adverse social impacts of 11,938 million vatus (at 1983 prices, central role and has a quantitative and modernization and structural transfor- equivalent to US$100-120 million). Only qualitative input on education. First, mation. One option is to go slow and the industrial sector enjoyed steady content knowledge corresponds to the with caution rather than rushing ahead growth and its share in GDP increased needs of village economy and society. along an uncertain path which has failed from 7.5 to 15%. In contrast, the respec- Second, the number of teachers is suf- more often than not elsewhere. In any tive shares of services and the primary ficient to cover teaching needs. Third, case, the speed with which development sector in GDP showed a slightly negative those teachers are properly trained to efforts are pushed forward should always trend (66-62% and 26-23%). The decline adapt their instruction to the village take into consideration the availability in the share of services in GDP occurred context. This educational input results in of local manpower. If such manpower only in 1989 and 1990 and is explained by better labour productivity and more ef- is not available, efforts may proceed on the decline of administration expenses, fective implementation of development two fronts; one option is to train the which fell by 15% between 1987-1988 programmes. In the end, this model leads manpower, while the other is to phase and 1989-1990 – the first results of an to reduced rural-urban migration and out or delay the project until sufficient “austerity cure” enacted by the country’s good viability of the urban areas, whose manpower is available” (Vanuatu NPSO donors. After ten years of self-govern- population remains limited. 1984:71). ance, the Government of Vanuatu had Fig. 6c shows a model where the State to comply with the rules of “good gov- is almost absent, due to insufficient Analysis of the first two ernance” established at an international budgetary capacity. The State is unable development plans: level and embarked on a structural ad- to maintain the dense network of pri- political convictions in the justment programme, described below mary and secondary schools inherited face of island realities (Vanuatu BNP 1992). from the condominium. The very limited At the beginning of Vanuatu’s first de- This situation was an induced effect of State involvement in education is partly velopment plan, economic self-reliance Lini’s willingness to open up the country compensated by the participation of was defined according to macro-eco- to international donors. At first glance, customary systems and churches in the nomic criteria: “The stage of economic this seems to be paradoxical and counter education of young villagers. This type self-reliance will have been reached when to the principles of Melanesian social- of training is not compatible with the Vanuatu is able to meet import require- ism. But it was consistent with Vanu- development of innovative agricultural ments from foreign exchange earnings atu’s political non-alignment, which is practices. In the end, labour produc- and fiscal requirements from domes- reflected in the diversification of bilat- tivity stagnates, and purchasing power tic revenues” (Vanuatu NPO 1982:3). eral donors and the country’s integration falls in village communities, generating The chronic deficit in the State budget, into international bodies (Huffer 1993). dissatisfaction. There is a high risk of low savings in relation to development It is also consistent with Lini’s desire to widening of social-economic disparities needs, and a trade balance unbalanced secure the budgets that could finance de- between urban and rural areas, promot- in favour of imports were identified as velopment operations in Vanuatu. This ing rural-urban migration. Young peo- the three main macro-economic con- strategy was proven to be very effective. ple a) no longer recognize themselves straints needed to be removed to achieve Over the periods 1980-84 and 1985-89, in the customary village organization economic self-reliance. Despite the fact international aid amounted to US$612 and subsistence farming, where the cash that these objectives were made ob- and US$425 per capita respectively. In economy remains underdeveloped and solete by ideological content of Lini’s the period 1990-94, it was only US$350 b) are attracted by a certain level of em- discourse and thinking, a first analysis per capita (World Bank 2005). ployment and rising wages of urban ar- of the development plans has to refer While donors provided significant eas. In the short or medium term, such to the macro-economic principles, to funding to the Vanuatu economy, mak- growing inequalities in employment and education measures and to the field of ing this small island State one of the income between rural and urban areas eco-demography. world’s most aided countries per cap- may lead to more migration, followed ita (Antheaume and Lawrence 1985; by rapid urban growth. This leads to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Antheaume and Bonnemaison 1988), the same problems as detailed in Fig. 6a. and trade balance aid had also a counterpart: Vanuatu’s The following excerpt from the mid- Although the GDP is a poor indica- obligation to comply with donor rec- term review of Vanuatu’s first National tor of economic activities in a country ommendations, particularly in terms of Development is an interesting illustration like Vanuatu, where the food sector still structural adjustment. This dependency, of the questions raised by the Govern- dominates many islands, its temporal or even subjugation, of Vanuatu to cer- ment of Vanuatu. “Few, if any, countries variation is a valuable indicator of gov- tain international donors clearly did run have succeeded in achieving growth in ernment development efforts. A better counter to the principles of Melanesian incomes without also suffering growth integration of rural areas into the cash renaissance and Melanesian socialism, in in unemployment and crime, as well as economy should have resulted in an particular the principle of island self-re- a general breakdown of traditional insti- overall increase in GDP and in agricul- liance. It was a very heavy cost, but VAP tutional structures and values. Vanuatu tural growth relative to other economic and Lini hoped that the benefits to be may be fortunate, in some ways, in that sectors in GDP formation, since the derived from this aid would be much development has only started of late, development of village agriculture was greater and would constitute an essen- leaving traditional institutions largely in- one of Lini’s priorities. tial contribution to the national policy tact. By examining other countries expe- From 1983 to 1990, Vanuatu’s GDP implemented by the first development riences, Vanuatu can take steps towards grew by 18.5% from 10,078 million to plan. Jarayaman and Ward (2006) rec-

Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 21 ognize that exports have had a positive at an average cost per child enrolled exclusive responsibility of public author- effect on social-economic growth. And of US$232 per year in primary schools ities, just like health, even if it meant al- international aid may have helped to sup- and US$950 in secondary schools.6 It lowing school buildings to deteriorate: port exports, although available data do was almost impossible to spend more broken bulbs and windows, for example, not allow this hypothesis to be verified. money on education. Greater expend- were not replaced. A generalized deteri- Hughes and Sodhi (2006) are more se- iture on education became even more oration could be avoided thanks to the vere and note that international aid did difficult following political unrest in intervention of the European Union. not benefit Vanuatu. 1988.7 Considerable spending was then The 4th European Development Fund The endogenous development policy needed on law enforcement. Therefore, provided a subvention to renovate the put in place by the successive Lini gov- the budget allocated to education was worst primary schools and to ensure the ernments should have led to a spectac- reduced to 20% of total expenditure maintenance of others. ular expansion of the primary sector (Vanuatu NPSO 1990). The ongoing cultural gap between economy. However, this did not happen. To compensate for these financial re- schooling and the rural world, feared by The erosion of the sector after 1985 strictions and to cope with school pop- Lini, illustrates the slow pace of “mod- reflects the vulnerability of agriculture ulation growth, the government raised ernization”. It also seems that combining due to fluctuations in copra prices on the number of students per class, and the “way blong skul” (the way of school the international market, and to the risk unified the English and French school and religion) and the “way blong cus- of hurricanes. Such vulnerability already systems. This cut costs. In 1987, 956 tom” (the way of custom) was an utopian prevailed before independence, and the primary school teachers taught 22,367 project, seeking to rely on the former government’s policy of diversifying com- students, i.e. one teacher for 23.4 stu- without altering the latter. Once they mercial agriculture hardly changed this. dents. In 1994, the ratio was one teacher had returned to their villages, most of The agricultural sector as a whole still per 29 students, the number of teachers the students who had completed “clas- mirrors trends among the three main ex- having been reduced by 8% and student sical” secondary education could not or port crops (copra, cocoa, coffee). Food numbers increased by 15%. Between did not want to use their school knowl- crops remained the main alternative to 1982-1991, those measures do not seem edge. Many of them, refusing agricultural copra production (Fig. 7). Their share to have affected school performance un- work, after a period of a few months to in the value added of agriculture in- duly. The quantitative targets set by the several years of idleness, decided to try creased from 1983 to 1990, from 36% government were met, relatively cheaply. “their luck” in the city. This was also a at the beginning of the period (1983- The number of primary schools (244 in strategy chosen by many technical ed- 1985) to 48% in 1988-1989, a period of 1984) did not increase much (to 260 in ucation graduates faced with the low very low copra production following the 1990) while youth illiteracy rate fell con- purchasing power of their rural fellow devastating passage of cyclone Uma in siderably. By 1992, over 95% of 6-year- citizens. The prospect of being paid in 1987 (David and Lille 1992). Except for olds were enrolled in school (Vanuatu food seemed to be neither stimulating nor 1989, 1990 and 1991, during which GDP NPSO 1984; Vanuatu BNP 1992). These economically viable for young entrepre- growth exceeded 4%, the population undeniable quantitative successes should neurs selling spare parts and tools they always grew at a faster rate, leading to not mask two key negative elements. had bought in Port-Vila or Luganville. a deterioration in GDP per capita. This First, the limited budget for the school Poor adaptation of schooling and undermined the government’s goal of system against population growth. Sec- strong demographic growth have only economic independence, including the ond, the continuing cultural gap between encouraged migration to the country’s policy of import substitution. From schooling and the rural world. two urban centres. The failure of the Lini 1982-1983 to 1990-1991, import sub- To reduce the financial budget for government’s policies are evident. The stitution doubled in value, while export education, the government of Vanuatu urban population actually grew by almost coverage fell from 25 to 20%, with ex- decided to entrust the maintenance of 74% between 1979 and 19899 and, with ports growing by only 16% over the schools to local governments as part of the exception of Santo-Malo, Efate and same period (Vanuatu SO 1983; Vanu- its policy of administrative decentral- Epi, all areas of Vanuatu had negative atu NPSO 1986; Vanuatu BNP 1992). ization. The idea was interesting, but net migration (Vanuatu SO 1991). Paama the transfer of competences was done and the Shepherd Islands had the highest Level of schooling and net without granting the local governments outmigration. Over ten years, they lost migration between rural and adequate financial resources. Most of 23.8% and 10.5% of their population re- urban areas regional income came from capitation spectively. These migrants, mostly young Education is a sector where demo- taxes (per-person or household taxation), adults looking for work, accounted for graphic growth was neglected in the first but its novelty hampered tax collection. 32% of the new urban dwellers in Port- national plan of 1981 and 1982. The By the end of the 1980s, a large num- Vila and Luganville, with Tafea natives mid-term review of Vanuatu’s first Na- ber of Local Government Regions were making up a quarter.10 Apparently, the tional Development Plan drew the gov- unable to maintain their school systems. development programmes implemented ernment’s attention to the dramatic in- The Minister of Education then urged by the government have thus proved un- crease in student numbers. From 50,250 the village communities to take over. able to stop the rural exodus. There has students in 1984, this population rose to Many of them refused, deeming gov- been at most a slight decline in the rate 59,410 students in 1989 and 70,760 ten ernmental actions to be inadequate in of urban population growth from 7.9% years later (Vanuatu NPSO 1984). In relation to the amount of tax they re- per annum between 1967-1979 to 7.5% 1984, education already accounted for ceived and the total cost of schooling.8 between 1979-1989 (Vanuatu OS 1983; a quarter of government expenditure, They considered that education was the Vanuatu SO 1991).

22 Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 Source: Kowasch 2019.

Figure 7: Selling of yams at the food market in Port-Vila.

Conclusion Endnotes became the New Hebrides National Since the first decade of political inde- 1) The list of LDCs is reviewed Party NHNH at the end of the same pendence, Vanuatu’s situation has involved every three years by the 24 members year. In 1977, NHNH was renamed the emergence of major risks, includ- of the Committee for Development Vanuaa’ku Pati (VAP). In 1979, VAP ing climate change, in public policy. In Policy. This committee is a subsidi- won the pre-independence elections 2015, one year before being ranked fourth ary body of the United Nations Eco- and Lini became the last chief minister among the world’s happiest countries, Va- nomic and Social Council. Its mem- of the New Hebrides Condominium. nuatu was ranked the world’s most dan- bers are nominated by the United On 30 july 1980, the country gained gerous country according to the risk index Nations Secretary-General for a pe- independence and was named Vanuatu. developed by the United Nations (BEH/ riod of three years. Four Pacific island Lini became its first Prime Minister and UNU-HES, 2015). Profound changes states are on the list of LDCs: Kiri- remained in the post until 1991 (Prem- are currently underway in Vanuatu. The bati, Solomon, Tuvalu and Vanuatu. das and Steeves 1995; Morgan 2006). future of this nation of about 308,000 All share low-income and are highly 4) Six of these regions consisted of inhabitants (at the end of 2020) is uncer- vulnerable to economic and environ- a single island: Malakula, Pentecost, tain in a world of serious climatic change mental shocks (Guillaumont 2010). Ambrym, Epi, Paama, Efate. Two and pandemics. In a subsequent issue of 2) In 2006, the HPI was calculated other regions (Ambae-Maewo and Pacific Geographies, I will return to the using three parameters: the ecological Paama-Lopevi) were formed from example of Vanuatu and show the con- footprint, life expectancy, and the de- the combination of two islands of straints that insularity and global changes gree of well-being of the population. neighbouring areas. There were more are placing on this SIDS. At the 40th anni- In 2016, a fourth parameter was added: complex constructions combining a versary of Vanuatu’s independence, I hope income inequality. It is this last crite- main island and secondary islands in that this review on the country’s first ten rion that allowed Vanuatu to return to the same region. There were three of years of independence will provide food the list of countries of happiness, as them: Santo-Malo (including Santo, for thought to the younger generations income inequality is very low compared Malo and Aore), Efate (including Efate, striving for the future of their country. to New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea Emao, and the Nguna-Pele associa- or other Pacific Island countries. The tion), Taféa (including Tanna, Erro- Acknowledgement HPI is an alternative indicator to GDP mango, Aniwa, Futuna and Anatom). I am deeply thankful to Simon Bat- and the Human Development Index The latter was the only one that cor- terbury (University of Melbourne) for HDI developed by the United Nations. responded to a former district of the translation and proof reading of this pa- 3) Walter Lini (1942-1999) was an Angli- Condominium. A last region grouped per, which has been submitted in French can priest born on Pentecost Island. He together all the islands of a single ar- language. can be considered as the Father of Va- chipelago into a single entity, as was Thanks also to the two reviewers and nuatu Independence (Tabani 2000). On the case of the Shepherds region, or to all people in Vanuatu who contributed 17 August 1971, he formed the New associated two neighbouring archipel- to this research work. Hebridean Cultural Association which agos such as the Banks-Torrès region.

Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 23 5) In his study on viability crite- Antheaume, B. and Lawrence, R. (1985). A l’aide ou Jayaraman, T.K., Ward, B.D. (2006). Economic growth ria for island states, Doumenge trop d’aide ? Evolutions des économies vivrières dans le in a vulnerable island nation : an empirical study of the (1983, 1985) considers that a mini- Pacifique insulaire. Economies Rurales (99-100): 367- Aid-Growth Nexus in Vanuatu. Asia-Pacific Dévelop- 387. ment Journal, 13 (2) : 93-123. mum population of one million in- BEH/UNU-HES (2015). World Risk Index 2015. Lini, W. (1983). Statement to the 38th Session of the habitants is required to develop via- Berlin, Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft/United Nations United Nations General Assembly. New York: United ble industries targeting the domestic University – Institute for Environment and Human Nations Organization. market in response to imports. Security. Marshall, D. (1986). Report on the agriculture census 6) By way of comparison, in 1985 Bonnemaison, J. (1977). Système de migration et crois- 1983/1984, Part 1: the results. Port-Vila: National these average costs were US$223 and sance urbaine à Port-Vila et Luganville. Paris : Orstom, Planning and Statistics Office, Government of Vanuatu. US$612 in Papua New Guinea, US$67 Coll. Travaux et documents, n°60, 97 p. McCall, G. (1984). The university of the south and US$361 in the Solomon Islands, Bonnemaison, J. (1985). Un certain refus de l’Etat, Pacific: context, purpose and prospect. Vestes/AUR, 27 and US$40 and US$90 in Indone- autopsie d’une tentative de sécession en Mélanésie. Inter- (2): 55-64. sia; the share of education in govern- national Policial Science Review 6(2): 230-247. Morgan, M. G. (2006). ‘The Origins and Effects of ment expenses in these three coun- Bonnemaison, J. (1986). L’arbre et la pirogue. Les fon- Party Fragmentation in Vanuatu’. In R. Rich with L. dements d’une identité : territoire, histoire et société dans Hambly & M. G. Morgan (Eds.), Political Parties in tries is much lower than in Vanuatu: l’archipel de Vanuatu (Mélanésie). Paris: Orstom, Coll. the Pacific Islands. Canberra, Pandanus Books, pp.117- 16% in Papua New Guinea, 17% in Travaux et Documents n° 201, vol. 1. 142. Solomon Islands and 9% in Indo- Bonnemaison, J. (1987). Tanna, les hommes lieu. Les Naidu, V. (2019). A Commentary on the 50-Year nesia (Vanuatu NPSO 1990:408). fondements d’une identité, territoire, histoire et société History of the University of the South Pacific. In Firth, 7) In May 1988, during a demonstra- dans l’archipel de Vanuatu (Mélanésie). Paris: Orstom, S. and Naidu, V. (eds.) Understanding Oceania: Cel- tion in Port-Vila, the police were over- Coll. Travaux et Documents n° 201, vol. 2. ebrating the University of the South Pacific and its Cillaurren, E., David, G. and Grandperrin, R. (2001). collaboration with The Australian National University. whelmed and the Prime Minister Lini Canberra, ANU Press, chap. 2: 11-34. had to leave the city in a hurry for a Coastal fisheries atlas of Vanuatu, a 10-year development assessment. Paris, IRD, 256 p. (+ CD) Premdas R R., Steeves J S. (1995). Politics in Vanuatu: few hours. However, better trained David. G. (1989). Introduction à la géographie hu- the 1991 Elections. Journal de la Société des océanistes, and much better equipped, the forces maine. Suva, The University of the South Pacific, 100-101 (1-2): 221-234. of law and order were in complete Extension Services : Vol. 1 - La naissance de l’homme, Tabani, Marc. 2000. «Walter Lini, la coutume de Va- control in December of the same 190 p., Vol. 2 - L’homme sur la terre, 245 p., Vol. 3 et 4 nuatu et le Socialisme Mélanésien». Journal de la Société year when the President of the Re- - Lectures complémentaires, 368 p. des Océanistes 111(2): 173–195. public, G.A. Sokomanu, attempted David, G. (2010). Viabilité et vulnérabilités nouvelles Vanuatu BNP (1992). Troisième plan national de to deprive Lini of power in a coup. des petits Etats insulaires : du réchauffement climatique développement de Vanuatu : 1992-1996. Port-Vila: 8) For example, school fees increased au protocole de Kyoto. In Hommage à F. Doumenge, République de Vanuatu, Bureau National du Plan, Bu- une géopolitique du Pacifique et de ses îles, au cœur reau du Premier Ministre. significantly and kindergarten enrol- d’une passion. Conflits Actuels, Revue d’Etudes poli- Vanuatu NPO (1982). First National Development ment, which was also subject to fees, tiques, n°23-24, pp. 59-81. Plan. Port-Vila: Republic of Vanuatu, National Plan- became compulsory before the tran- David, G. (2011). Le Vanuatu côté océan : La révo- ning Office. sition to primary school. In conse- lution bleue et les premières années de l’indépendance. Vanuatu SO (1983). Vanuatu’s foreign trade 1983- quence, many rural families could no Journal de la Société des Océanistes, n°133(2), pp.353- 1984. Port-Vila: Republic of Vanuatu, National longer afford the financial burden 366. Planning and Statistics Office, 282 p. of sending 4 to 5 children to school. David, G. & Lille, D. (1992). Télédétection satelli- Vanuatu NPSO (1984). The mid-term review of Va- This situation also led Maxime Car- taire et risques cycloniques en milieu insulaire tropical. nuatu’s first National Development Plan. Port-Vila: In “Pix îles” 90“, Télédétection et milieux insulaires lot Korman, the new Prime Minister, Republic of Vanuatu, National Planning and Statistics du Pacifique : approches intégrées. Nouméa, Territoire Office. after the departure of the VAP from de Nouvelle-Calédonie/Orstom/Ifremer/Territoire de the government in 1991, to decide Polynésie Française, pp. 159-173 + 5 p. illustr : 621- Vanuatu NPSO (1986). Vanuatu’s foreign trade 625 (I) 1983-1984. Port-Vila: Republic of Vanuatu, National to make education free of charge in Planning and Statistics Office, 180 p. Doumenge, F. (1983). Aspects de la viabilité des petits early 1992. But a few weeks later, for Vanuatu NPSO (1990). Second National Development budgetary reasons, he had to go back pays insulaires, Etude descriptive. CNUCED, Paris, 38 p. Plan. Port-Vila: Republic of Vanuatu, National Plan- in part on this generous measure. ning and Statistics Office, vol. 1. 9) The development of Port- Doumenge, F. (1985). The viability of small inter- tropical islands. In States, Microstates and islands. In Vanuatu OS (1983). Rapport sur le recensement de la Vila was more spectacular Dommen, E. et Hein, P. (eds.) Islands. London, Croom population de 1979. Vol. 1: tables de base. Port-Vila, (+93.5%) than of Luganville Helm, pp. 70-118. République du Vanuatu, Office de la statistique. (+34.5%) (Vanuatu SO 1991). Guillaumont, P. (2010). Assessing the economic vul- Vanuatu SO (1991). Vanuatu National Population 10) In 1989, 12% of the inhabit- nerability of Small Islands States and least developped Census May 1989, main report. Port-Vila, Republic of ants of Port Vila were from Paama, countries. The Journal of Development Studies, vol.46, Vanuatu, Statistics Office. 17% from the Shepherds and 15.5% issue 5 : 828-854. Weightman, B. (1989). Agriculture in Vanuatu, an historical review. Portsmouth: British friends of Vanua- from Tafea (Vanuatu BNP 1992). Huffer, E. (1993). Grands hommes et petites îles : la politique extérieure de Fiji, Tonga et Vanuatu. Paris: tu publish. Orstom, coll. « Etudes et thèses », 306 p. World Bank (2005). World Development Indicators References Hughes, H. and G. Sodhi (2006). Annals of aid: Va- 2005, Washington D.C, World Bank. Antheaume, B. and Bonnemaison, J. (1988). Atlas des nuatu and the United States Millennium Challenge îles et des Etats du Pacifique sud. Montpellier: Publisud/ Corporation, Canberra Centre for Independent Studies GIP Reclus, 126 p. Issue Analysis n° 66.

Corresponding Author: Gilbert David [[email protected]] is a marine and island geographer and currently Director of Research at the Institute for Development (IRD) in Montpellier (France). He has extensive working experience on vulnerability and viability of island countries and territories, including the Caribbean (Haiti, Martinique), Melanesia (New-Caledonia, Vanuatu) and the Western Indian Ocean (Comoros, Madagascar, Reunion).

24 Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 Archaeological studies of shell-remains at Punangatu (Futuna island/Vanuatu) – How can we identify and classify shellfish to understand their historical use?

Lucas Sarvanu1 & Matthias Kowasch2

1 Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, 12 Place du Panthéon, 75231 Paris, France, E-mail: [email protected] 2 University College of Teacher Education Styria, Hasnerplatz 12, 8010 Graz, Austria, E-mail: [email protected]

DOI: 10.23791/542529

Abstract: This article, based on the master’s thesis of the first author, aims to identify and classify by species different shellfish collected in a Vanuatu archaeological site. We want to analyse how these shells have been modified and utilized to produce furniture and artefacts. The results show that the Punangatu shell assemblage is dominated by Gastropods, in particular by the families of Turbnidae and Trochidae, which were easy and accessible to exploit. The two families are still consumed today. But the share of shellfish and the importance of fishing during the island’s initial settlement and over time remains unclear. It would be necessary in the future to study other sites of the island to better understand the societal role of marine resources.

Keywords: Futuna island, Vanuatu, shellfish, Gastropods, archaeological surveys

[Submitted as Research Note: 18 June 2020, acceptance of the revised manuscript: 28 October 2020]

Introduction Futuna is a high island which geo- VANUATU graphically lies in the southern Vanuatu archipelago (Fig. 1). It is more precisely located to the east of the island of Tanna, and is part of the province of Tafea. The work carried out by North American archaeologists Richard and Mary Elizabeth Shutler in the 1950s and 1960s on Futuna highlighted the prehistoric occupation of the island and allowed for the discovery of several burials in rock shelters (Shutler et al. 2002). New work has been taken up on Futuna within the framework of two complementary projects: “Poly- nesian enclaves in Vanuatu: Funerary archeology and definition of Polynesian migrations”, led by Valentin (CNRS) and funded by the Archaeological Sources: Maps of the Kowasch World 2019; 2020. Cartography: Kowasch 2020. Excavations Commission, Minister des Figure 1: Localisation map of Futuna island in the archipelago of Vanuatu. Affaires Etrangères (MEAE), 2017- 2020; and “3000 years of settlement and cal test pit (Unit A) in a rock shelter in hooks, pearls, and bracelets). interaction in southern Vanuatu” (DP Punangatu on the island of Futuna. The Human groups settled for the first 160103578), co-led by Flexner (Uni- objectives are to identify the different time during the Lapita expansion versity of Sydney), Bedford (Austral- shellfish collected, and to classify them around 3000 BP in Vanuatu (Kinas- ian National University) and Valentin by species according to the different lay- ton et al. 2014; Kirch 1997). Occupa- (CNRS), and funded by the Austral- ers in order to understand the methods tions dating from this period have been ian Research Council (ARC). The first of their use over time. The aim is also discovered in the north and center results document outdoor occupations to identify shells that have been mod- of the archipelago (Bedford 2006). by the sea (Flexner et al. 2018). ified to produce artefacts or archaeo- This ancient occupation, according The first author’s research involves logical furniture, for example shell adze, to research, seems less developed in studying the shells of an archaeologi- ornaments and shell ornaments (such as the south of the archipelago, although Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 25 there is evidence of Lapita sites in Ane- “tests”, that is, shells, can be guided by study methods used in this research. The ityum and Erromango (Bedford et al. physical factors such as the swell when second part of this malacological study 2016)(Fig. 1). Fishing and the collection they are deposited after their death (Hen- details the results obtained. The third part of marine resources played a key role derson et al. 2002). This type of natural discusses the issues raised. from the start of settlement (Bellwood deposit will not have the same composi- 1985; Sand and Bedford 2007). Fish and tion as anthropogenic deposits, and can Methods shellfish make up a large share of food contain imported species. Site description resources (Bouffandeau et al. 2018; Among these natural factors of depo- As part of the Masters of Archaeology Claassen 1991). At that time, shells were sition can be cited those accumulated or project, the study concerns a substantial also used to make ornaments (Langley et al. 2019) and artefacts (Szabo 2010). brought by animals, such as for example collection of 15 kilograms of shellfish These marine resources still play an certain birds, which cause shell breakings from the coastal site of Punangatu (see important role in the economies and typical of tests (Claassen 1998). Depend- Fig. 2). It was obtained during archaeo- daily life of Vanuatu islanders. However, ing on the avifauna in question, the shells logical excavations carried out in 2018 recent archaeological research has high- can be broken into very small fragments in which Frédérique Valentin (CNRS) lighted cultural transformations (Bed- and the sizes of the individuals are then, and the paper’s first author participated. ford and Spriggs 2014). In central and as for those of marine accumulation, northern Vanuatu, the share of fishing disparate (Cocaign 1989; Vigié-Chevalier Excavation description and shellfish collecting has evolved over 1998). The action of the wind is not neg- Punangatu is a rock shelter located in time. From 2,500 years BP, the food of ligible either in the formation of certain the northwest of Futuna Island in Herald populations seems based on terrestrial accumulations of shells (Claassen 1998). Bay. The rock shelter is located about 200 products rather than marine resources The factors presented above are not meters from the sea and stretches along (Valentin et al. 2010; Valentin et al. necessarily all observed for each natural the coast with a length of 100 meters. 2014; Kinaston et al. 2014). Compara- deposit. In fact, it is the association of A 4 square meter excavation was under- ble studies do not exist for the south of several of them that makes the difference taken at the site made up of four differ- the archipelago. vis-à-vis an anthropogenic repository. ent units A, B, C and D. The excavation Malacological research also makes it The presence of small shells in anthro- uncovered 8 stratigraphic layers (layer 1, possible to define the different catego- pogenic accumulations can correspond layer 2 (composed of three passes), layer ries of shellfish species found in cer- to a specialized use as bait of the mala- 3, layer 4, layer 6, layer 7, layer 8) and an tain sites and the choices involved in the cofauna (Chenorkian 1983), or to animals archaeological structure (hearth feature exploitation of these marine resources. fixed on the shells collected (Gruet and = oven). The collection of shellfish was assumed Prigent 1986). A 2m × 2m test pit was dug about ten to correspond to an optimal pattern of The work presented here was under- centimeters from the rock shelter wall. foraging in different areas for the first oc- taken as part of a Masters of Archaeol- The excavation was generally aligned from cupants of Punangatu (Bedford 2006). It ogy of the first author and focuses on North to South and divided into four is a first step to distinguish anthropogenic the analysis and identification of a sig- units: A, B, C, and D. The excavation deposits and natural deposits. nificant number of shells from the site does not only allow to make inferences Anthropogenic shell mounds are de- of Punangatu, on the island of Futuna about human occupations but to get a fined as sites where prehistoric or con- in the south of Vanuatu. The occupa- globally better understanding of the site. temporary humans live, where they prac- tion of the site started at around 2000 The rock shelter is quite large and could tice the daily activities necessary for the BP and covers a long period which lasts have been chosen to house a significant survival of the group, where they dispose until today. The objective was to obtain number of people. The four units were of their waste and where, sometimes, they data on each stratigraphic layer in order excavated to a depth of 200 cm. How- bury their dead. They can also be found to be able to analyze the exploitation of ever, the excavation in unit C descends in rock shelters, as in the case of Punang- the marine resources implemented by to a depth of 340 cm from the datum. atu, around areas of habitat or outside in the occupants of the site over time. The The unit B test pit was only excavated another place. In these anthropic shell reflection revolves around several ques- to a depth of 150 cm because there was mounds, one can find all kinds of shells tions, centered particularly on the site of a large rock in the center of the excava- which can be modified or not, and which Punangatu but also relevant to the other tion. The rock covered more than half are linked to a domestic activity. Other archaeological sites of the island: of the test pit and appears to have been terms can designate anthropogenic shell rolled along the slope. Adornments, pearl mounds in different countries such as • Are there any changes in the oysters, modified shells, hooks, and a ce- “shell deposits”, “kitchen middens”, composition of the shell ramic sherd were discovered at a depth of “midden”, and “mounds” (Céci 1984:63; assembly at Futuna? 180-190 cm, corresponding to the layer Figuti 1992:24). Another important point • Is there a real change in the 7. Two hooks were discovered in unit to emphasize is that shell deposits are not size of shells overexploitation A at a depth of 70-80 cm (layer 2) and only prehistoric, but can also be recent. over time in Futuna? unit B at 90-100 cm (layer 3) below the There are also natural shell deposits. • How was the site occupied datum. The one in unit A is probably the These mostly consist of either shells ac- by its first occupants? top part of the hook to which the string cumulated on the beach at the high-water is attached and the one in unit B seems mark, or dead shells in natural schools. The first part of the paper sets out the to be the part of the base that forms the Several criteria differentiate them from material studied, in particular its history sharp edge forming the hook. Archaeo- those of anthropogenic origin. Shellfish and excavation, as well as the different logical tools made from Conus sp were

26 Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 also discovered in units A and C. However, the archaeological material mainly comprises shells that were exploited by the former occupants of the site, made up of several different species. We have studied the shells coming from unit A as part of this research.

Stratigraphy Layer 1 corresponds to the upper layer. It is between the surface and 60 cm. It is a layer of brown color mixed with sand. We were able to notice the presence of shells as well as charcoal but no animal bones. This layer was impacted by the passage of Cyclone Pam in 2015, hence SarvanuSource: 2018. the presence of sand washed in by the Figure 2: Archaeological site on Futuna island. action of the waves. Layer 2 corresponds to the second Layer 8 was the deepest deposit exca- for the identification and classification stratigraphic layer with a depth of 60-90 vated, at a depth of 180-210 cm. It has a of shell species. First of all, the general cm. It is composed of dark brown soil texture of black soil mixed with gravel in form of the shells makes it possible to mixed with sand in the eastern part of the southern part. We found shell frag- associate a shell with a class: the test pit. It contains a structure cov- ments (Turbo sp), human bones, quartz, ering the entire excavation. We could see a small ceramic sherd and charcoal. It is • Turbine or conical shell: a strong presence of shells, charcoals, limited by a large stone which is the ex- class of Gastropods some modified shells as well as bones. tension of the wall of a cave towards the • Shell composed of two valves: We found a hook in this layer made from southwest part. class of Bivalves a Turbo marmoratus in the western part of the hole. We took a soil sample there. Dating For these identifications, we drew on Layer 3 corresponds to the third layer Concerning the dating, charcoal sam- the nomenclature proposed in the thesis of the excavation. It is between 90-100 ples were taken, in particular in the fol- of Dupont 2003: “The malacofauna of cm. The color of the ground is dark black lowing stratigraphic layers: layer 4 (100- mesolithic and neolithic sites of the At- with some charcoals, shells, bones and 110 cm) of unit A; and layer 11 (230-240 lantic facade of France”. some corals discovered at the bottom cm) and layer 12 of unit C (300-310) cm. This method of study also makes it of the level. We discovered a structure For the dating, we have only focused possible to associate the different mal- (hearth feature) there. on those two layers (11 and 12). Layers acological species by their genus, their Layer 4 is the fourth layer of the test 11 and 12 were not studied because of scientific name, as well as their family. pit located 100-110 cm deep. It includes the low quantity of shells. The charcoal This method is used for all stratigraphic a structure (hearth feature) containing samples were sent to the University of layers, i.e. layer 1, layer 2, layer 3, layer a large quantity of shells, bones, corals Waikato (New Zealand) for dating in the 4, layer 6, layer 8 and the hearth feature and the presence of large stones at the Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory (RDL). structure of the unit A test pit. It also bottom. According to the results obtained, layer facilitates the sorting of shells in order Layer 5 corresponds to the fifth layer 12 of unit C dates from 2279 ± 18 BP to classify them into two major classes: of the excavation of unit A with a depth (Calibrated date), (Wk49080 R_Date), and Bivalves and Gastropods. of 110-120 cm. This layer contains a de- layer 11 of unit C dates from 386 ± 20 Different vernacular names are used posit of sand with charcoals, animal bones BP (Calibrated date), (Wk4978 R_Date). for the same species in different regions and stones on the surface. We found fish These two stratigraphic layers (layer 11 of the world. Likewise, scientific desig- bones as well as crustacean (crab) remains. (230-240 cm) and layer 12 (300-310 cm)) nations are sometimes revised by system- Layer 6 is found at a depth of 120- of unit C correspond to a certain period aticians in general. For example, a shell, 140 cm. The color of the ground is of occupation of the site between 3000 formerly called Turbo setosus, has been black brown and it contains shells as and 2300 BP +. The first occupation of renamed Turbo argyrostomus. The igno- well as bones of animals covered with the site is therefore directly post-Lapita. rance of some of the synonyms can lead large stones forming a structure (hearth Layer 4 (100-110 cm) of unit A corre- to confusion of malacofaunal specters. feature). We also found fish bones and sponds to a much more recent period of Certain differences between the malaco- charcoal. occupation occurring before European fauna spectra of two sites can be diverted Layer 7 is found at a depth of 150-180 contact. These results demonstrate that or changed by the use of variable names cm. The soil has a texture of sand mixed the occupation of the Punangatu site is according to the authors and according to with gravel containing human bones, fish very old and also show an evolution of the work to which they refer to identify bones and shell fragments. There is also occupation by these former occupants. or determine the species (Dupont 2003). the presence of a human tooth, quartz, The characteristics of the species cor- shell pearls, modified shells and a poten- Identification respond to current data on their biol- tial ceramic shard. Several steps and criteria are necessary ogy and ecology. On the species pres-

Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 27 entation sheets, the dimensions are also the count of the MNI is associated with an opening (peristome) and apex; FMC mentioned, because they present an im- the presence of the “opening” and the = complete medium fragment where we portant characteristic of the specific de- “peristome” of the shell. This approach only have the presence of an opening termination. The measurements carried is also applied for Bivalves depending on but no apex; and PF = small fragments. out correspond to those obtained on the the location and presence of the “hinge” These criteria help to determine if the archaeological samples. and that of the “palleal sinus”. It allows fragmentation is due to an anthropic ac- to relate a total mass of shells to an av- tivity (if they were fractured by a striker Quantification erage mass of an individual. This mass or not), or natural, in particular trampling In the context of this research, the value is used to get an estimate of flesh and disturbances linked to natural disas- quantification method makes it possible and what is consumed (Dupont 2003). ters for example. to count the different species found in The taphonomic study also permits each layer. Depending on the informa- Taphonomic Study to study anthropogenic modifications. tion sought and the excavation techniques “Taphonomy is the study of all the pro- For this, a study centered on the shapes used, the study of shells or malacology cesses that modify or transform an artifact of the perforations is carried out, exam- can be quantified according to several var- after it has been abandoned” (Larousse ining whether they are circular or rec- iables. Three of them were applied to the Dictionary 2011). Taphonomic processes tangular. Then comes examination of archaeological material studied: weighing, are distinguished by their physical impact the aspect of the edges – whether they the Number of Remains (NR) and the on the shells and are often easily recog- are serrated, smooth or dense. Finally, Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI). nizable. Their order of discussion will be it is also important to measure the size The weight of the remains provides concretion, perforation, fragmentation, (in millimeters) and the location of the a quantitative approach to each species abrasion or abduction and erosion. The perforations. These methods generally present in the survey. The weighing also cultural process of consumption by the allow us to determine if the perforation allows to have a total mass and a pro- former occupants of the site will com- is due to an anthropic activity (human portion in percentage of the quantity of plete the picture (Claassen 1993). activity) or a natural deposit. each species, in particular the Bivalves and Many aquatic animals look for a hard the Gastropods present in each strati- surface (or substrate) to support their First results graphic layer. skeleton, and shells are often chosen. Concerning the study of this malaco- After the weight, we used the per- Coastal archaeologists are well aware of logical collection, we were able to note centage calculation for each layer. This the attachment of oysters to each other, a significant number of malacological method calculates the total percentage as well as barnacle concretions. The ac- species in the assembly. of each malacological species by multi- tivities of these creatures erode the per- The composition of the assembly of plying the total weight of each species istome or opening, erode and hollow the unit A test pit makes it possible to by 100 and dividing by the total weight the surface of the shell. Heavy encrus- determine the main malacological species of the layer. tations occur on exposed dead shells and found and exploited by the ancient human This method makes it possible to as- at the water-sediment interface in calm groups of Futuna. The families of Gas- sess the proportion of each species and or low-energy aquatic habitats. The shell tropods are much more represented than to make comparisons between the layers. ornaments increase the available surface. the families of Bivalves. By studying the The calculation of the percentage also The mineralogy of shells also influences assemblage in its entirety, we could note permits to highlight the rate of consump- the levels of concretions (Claassen 1993). a strong domination or concentration of tion and a comparison of each malaco- The modification or fracturing of the gastropods, more particularly the turbos logical species of the survey as a whole. shell of the species may have started well with three different species (Turbo setosus, The Number of Remains corresponds before their burial in the sediment. The Turbo margaritaceus, Turbo argyrostomus) and to the count of all shell fragments and shells can be affected by anthropogenic the trochus with in particular three differ- whole shells, the largest dimension of or natural stigmas of their environment, ent species (Troca niloticus, Troca malaticus, which is greater than or equal to a cer- by their disposal by humans or by their Trochus verrucosus) in each layer. tain size, whether the test is whole or not. discovery during the excavation of ar- This strong domination of gastropods The minimum size taken as a reference chaeological sites or even after. could result from the fact that prehistoric is necessarily dependent on the sampling The action of lithophages or parasitic populations were oriented more towards technique. In addition, the NR is very marine organisms (fungi, cyanobacteria, the collection of gastropods than bivalves. sensitive to the degree of fragmentation ...) should not be overlooked. Abductions Collecting or picking up gastropods is of archaeological material (Chaix and by these marine parasites mainly appear also easier and faster because these mal- Méniel 1996: 56). Theoretically, a mesh on the columellar edges of the opening acological resources are often found on of 5 millimeters is necessary for count- and on the last turn or spire, because they the coral reef, in particular turbos and ing the smallest species of shellfish; this are the fragile parts of the shell. trochus for example. is what was used during the excavation To assess the fragmentation rate in the To summarize, we were able to note an of the Punangatu site. two selected stratigraphic layers (Layer 2 important representation of the Gastro- The MNI makes it possible to limit the and Layer 4) and the burnt feature struc- pods, more particularly of the families distortion of fragmentation of shellfish ture, the study relied on a classification of Turbinidae and Ttrochidae. On the other in the counting (Chaix and Méniel 1996: of three different categories of shell frag- hand, certain species less represented in 56). In this malacological study, certain ments. For this, we used three different the assemblage (the cowries Cypraea sp criteria were used to differentiate the MNI criteria, namely: FPC = almost complete and Tridacnidae) could perhaps indicate from the NR. For Turbine Gastropods, fragment where there is the presence of the result of cultural exchange because

28 Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 the shells were economically valued (such oriented towards subsistence activity, Gruet, Y. and D. Prigent (1986). Les buttes de Saint- as for ceremonial events) in Futuna and focused on the exploitation of marine Michel-en- l’Herm (Vendée): caractères de la population d’huîtres (Ostrea edulis Linné) et de sa faune associée. its surrounding islands. resources. The type of occupation of Haliotis, 15: 3-16. this site is temporary, possibly even a Dupont, C. (2003). La malacofaune de sites méso- Conclusion camp, which favored the exploitation lithiques et néolithiques de la façade atlantique de la In order to describe the evolution of of these marine resources. France: contribution à l’économie et à l’identité cultur- the various activities related to the ex- elle des groupes concernés. Université Paris 1 Sorbonne, ploitation of marine malacofauna at the Acknowledgements thèse doctorale de Préhistoire, Ethnologie et Anthro- pologie. Punangatu site, several methods have The authors are deeply thankful to Figuti, L. (1992). Poissons, coquillages et préhistoire. been applied to the archaeological mate- Emilie Dotte (University of Western Les Dossiers d’Archéologie 169: 24-27. rial. The implementation of these meth- Australia) and Kerryn Baker (Australian Flexner, J.L., S. Bedford, F. Valentin, R. Shing, T. ods of study, such as the taphonomy of National University) for comments and Kuautonga & W. Zinger (2018). Preliminary Results shells, contributes to understand the col- proof reading. of the South Vanuatu Archaeological Survey: Cultur- lection of significant quantities of shells al Landscapes, Excavation, and Radiocarbon Dating. References Asian Perspectives 57(2), 244-266. doi:10.1353/ on the archaeological sites of the island. asi.2018.0016. The species give us information on their Bedford, S. (2006). Pieces of the Vanuatu Puzzle: Ar- cheology of the North, South and Centre, Canberra, Henderson, W.G., L.C. Anderson & C.R. McGim- position on the coral reef. This allows Terra Australis 23, The Australian National Univer- sey (2002). Distinguishing natural and archaeological to identify the places exploited by hu- sity, Pandanus Press. Online: http://epress.anu.edu.au/ deposits: stratigraphy, taxonomy, and Taphonomy of mans in the collection of seashells, and ta23_html Holocene Shell-rich accumulations from the Louisiana Chenier plain. PALAIOS, 17(2): 192–205. whether these marine resources are ac- Bedford, S. and C. Sand (2007). Lapita and Western Pacific Settlement: Progress, Prospects and Persistant Kinaston, R., H. Buckley, F. Valentin, S. Bedford, cessible on dry feet or not. The study of M. Spriggs M, et al. (2014). Lapita Diet in Re- shell mounds therefore tells us whether Problems, In S. Bedford, C. Sand and S.P. Connaught- on (eds.), Oceanic Explorations: Lapita and Western mote Oceania: New Stable Isotope Evidence from the the shells have been collected washed up Pacific Settlement, Terra Australis, Pandanus Books, 3000-Year- Old Teouma Site, Efate Island, Vanua- (dead) on the beach or before. ANU Press, Canberra, Vol. 26: 1-15. tu. PLoS ONE 9(3): e90376. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0090376 The Punangatu shell assemblage is Bedford, S. and M. Spriggs (2014). The Archaeology dominated by Gastropods, and more of Vanuatu: 3000 Years of History across Islands of Ash Kirch, P.V. (1997) The Lapita Peoples: Ancestors of the Oceanic World. Oxford: Blackwell. particularly by the families of Turbni- and Coral. In: Cochrane, E. and T. Hunt (eds.), The Osford Handbook of Prehistoric Oceania, Oxford: Ox- Langley, M.C., S. Bedford, M. Spriggs & I. Phil- dae and Trochidae. This malacological ford University Press, pp. 1-17. lip (2020). Manufacture and Use of Lapita Conus dominance suggests that the former oc- Bedford, S., M. Spriggs and R. Shing (2016). By all Multi-Segment Broad Rings: Evidence from the cupants of the site favored the exploita- means let us complete the exercise: the 50-year search Teouma site, Central Vanuatu, The Journal of Is- tion or collection of Gastropods rather for Lapita on Aneityum, southern Vanuatu and im- land and Coastal Archaeology, 15:3, 364-383, DOI: 10.1080/15564894.2019.1570989 than Bivalves. This dominant composi- plications for other “graps” in the Lapita distribution, Archaeology in Oceania, 51(2): 122-130. Szabo, K.A. (2010). Shell Artefacts and Shell-Working tion may be because these two species Bellwood, P. (1985). Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian within the Lapita Cultural Complex. Journal of Pacific are easier to collect or because the oth- Archipelago. Orlando: Academic Press. Archaeology, 1 (2), 115-127. ers are absent. In all the layers of test Bouffandeau, L., P. Béarez, S. Bedford, F. Valentin, Shutler, M.E., E. Shutler Jr. and S. Bedford (2002). pit A, we find the strong dominance of M. Spriggs and E. Nolet (2018). Fishing at Ara- Further detail on the archaeological explorations in Turbinidae and Trochidae compared to pus-Mangaasi, Efate, Vanuatu (2800–2200 BP): New the Southern New Hebrides. In S. Bedford, C. Sand and D. Burley (eds.), Fifty years in the field – Essays other malacological species. These alone methodological approaches and results, Journal of Ar- chaeological Science: Reports (18): 356-369. in honour and celebration of Richard Shutler Jr’s represent 90% of the assemblage. The archaeological career. New Zealand Archaeological Céci, L. (1984). Shell midden deposits as coastal re- Association. two families are still consumed today in sources. World Archaeology, 16(1): 62-73. Vanuatu. The exploitation of marine re- Valentin, F., H.R. Buckley, E. Herrscher, R.L. Ki- Chaix, L. and P. Méniel (1996). Éléments d’archéozo- sources in Punangatu is mainly intended naston, S. Bedford, et al. (2010) Lapita subsistence ologie, Éditions Errance, Paris. strategies and food consumption patterns in the com- for subsistence activity. Chenorkian, R. (1983). Contribution d’une étude de la munity of Teouma (Efate, Vanuatu). Journal of The share of shellfish in food and the paléoécologie des lagunes de Basse Côte-d’Ivoire. In : 1er Archaeological Science 37: 1820–1829. importance of fishing compared to other Symposium « Archéologie africaine et sciences de la na- Valentin, F., E. Herrscher, S. Bedford, M. Spriggs & land-based subsistence activities, during ture appliquées à l’archéologie », Édition Paris ACCT H. Buckley (2014). Evidence for Social and Cultural CNRS CRIAA DL, Bordeaux, pp. 315–338. the island’s initial settlement and over Change in Central Vanuatu Between 3000 and 2000 Claassen, C. (1991). Normative thinking and shells BP: Comparing Funerary and Dietary Patterns of the time, remains unclear. However, this is a bearing sites, Archaeology Method Theory 3: 249-198. First and Later Generations at Teouma, Efate, The major question that would contribute to Claassen, C. (1993). Problems and choices in shell Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 9:3, 381- define whether the exploitation of marine seasonality studies and their impact on results. Archaeo- 399, DOI: 10.1080/15564894.2014.921958 resources was a priority for these first oc- zoologia V(2): 55-76. Vigié-Chevalier, B. (1998). Du déchet alimentaire à cupants of the island. For this, it is nec- Claassen, C. (1998; 2009). Shells. Cambridge Manu- l’objet coquillier : le statut des coquillages en milieu essary to study other sites of the island als in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University archéologique. In Camps, G. (ed.), L’Homme préhis- Press. torique et la Mer, Actes du 120e Congrès national des to better answer this question. Sociétés historiques et scientifiques, Aix-en-Provence, Cocaign, J.Y. (1989). Diversité des dépôts coquilliers, Nevertheless, the geographical loca- 23-26 October 1995, Paris, CTHS: 351–354. l’exemple de la côte nord-est de la Bretagne. AMARAI, tion of the site has shown that the for- 2: 47-59. mer occupants of the site were rather

Corresponding Author: Lucas Sarvanu [[email protected]] is a master student from Port Vila (Vanuatu). After a bachelor degree in geography/history at University of New Caledonia, he started a master programme at Panthéon-Sorbonne University in Paris (France). He specializes on shellfish analyses on Futuna island (Vanuatu).

Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 29 Introduction of the Austrian South Pacific Society (OSPG)

The Austrian South-Pacific Society mics in Vienna who have contributed the last few years were for example two (OSPG, Österreichisch-Südpazifische to knowledge of Oceania. Nowadays, photo exhibitions “OFA A’TU - love Gesellschaft) and Pacific Geographies scholars active in this field of research and other gestures” (2016) and “En- Journal are collaborating in a new for- are members of the OSPG. Alongside counters in the Solomon Islands (2010), mat, with the aim of increasing the Pa- academic work, the OSPG considers symposia like “Human Rights in the cific-related information flow to pro- itself as a forum for information and Pacific” (2012) and “200 Years James spective members and readers. Starting debate on topics relevant to Oceania - Cook Collection in Vienna” (2006), film with this issue, the OSPG will regularly not only for academia, but also open to screenings that are always followed by contribute to Pacific Geographies with individuals who are generally interested a thorough analysis and discussion “Te topics relevant for Oceania research, in the region and its people. kuhane o te tupuna” (2019), “Imulal: a current developments, and debates or We share not only our passion for the land, its roots and dreams” (2016) and input from selected OSPG programme Pacific, but also information on the di- “In the wake of the Bounty” (2007) as activities. We are looking forward to a versity of Pacific cultures and lifestyles. well as our regular lecture series. fruitful dialogue and exchange with the Knowledge is collected, published and The lecture series draws from a variety readers of Pacific Geographies. made available to a wider public (in par- of backgrounds. In 2019 for example, The OSPG is a scientific non-profit- ticular through the two publication for- our lecturers filled us in on: the nickel association that aims at offering a plat- mats “NOVARA” and “Pazifik Dossier”). mining activities and the process of de- form to anyone interested in Oceania, In addition, great emphasis is laid on colonisation in New Caledonia; climate shedding light on current developments the cultivation of cultural and social change and agriculture in Papua New and events, new scientific approaches contacts between Austria and Oceania Guinea; oral traditions from Hawai’i and historical occurrences. Our mem- through collaborations. and Aotearoa and their use and misuse bers come from a wide variety of back- Our activities include a regular lec- in contemporary society; and kitsch, cli- grounds, which makes the exchange par- ture series organized by the OSPG with ché and daily live in the Pacific Islands. ticularly diversified. speakers from Austria and abroad, pre- 2020 has been a challenging year so far, Currently chaired by Elisabeth Wor- senting their research on Oceania. We since we had to cancel our lectures and liczek, the OSPG was founded in 1996 invite internationally renowned scholars we hope that in autumn, we will again be by Hermann Mückler, Ingfrid Schütz- as well as young aspiring researchers to able to invite scholars to Vienna. So far, Müller (†) and Raimund Pawlik who present their work and to share and di- we are pleased to announce that we will are / were all members of the Faculty scuss it with our members. The format be hosting a young scholar session at the of Social Sciences in Vienna; ever since, of the lecture series is interdisciplinary Vienna Anthropology Days (VANDA) the association has had its headquarters and multimodal. However, our portfo- Conference (28 Sept – 1 Oct, 2020) on at the Department of Social and Cultu- lio goes beyond mere lectures; a full list “More than a cliché and the dream of ral Anthropology at the University of of our activities is listed in the table 1. the South Seas? Young research in and Vienna. Most of our board members We hope to welcome you at one of about the South Pacific”. We are looking are University of Vienna alumni. our upcoming events, and we are always forward to a fruitful exchange with the Academic work from an anthropo- happy about new members joining. You participating young scholars from across logical perspective is a key concern for don’t need to be based in Vienna in order Europe. Currently we are planning to the OSPG. For over 100 years, there has to become a member of OSPG. make the session’s content available to been a considerable number of acade- Some exemplary activities held over a broader audience.

Table 1: Overview of OSPG-activities

Regular scientific lectures from lecturers coming from the Pacific Islands, Austria and abroad The publication series NOVARA and the Pazifik-Dossier Presentation of scientific works from young scholars Photo exhibitions Presentations of movies including panel discussions Art exhibitions Organization of international conferences and symposia Guided visits through exhibitions and museums Book launches Invitations to artists and scholars from the Pacific Islands Lectures, workshops and seminars Pacific-focused city walks in Vienna Networking with scientific initiatives / associations / institutions with focus on the Pacific Islands in Europe and internationally Parties Events in cooperation with other organizations and associations

30 Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 ÖSTERREICHISCH-SÜDPAZIFISCHE GESELLSCHAFT (OSPG) Institut für Sozial- und Kulturanthropologie Universität Wien Universitätsstraße 7/ NIG/ 4. Stock, A-1010 Wien e-mail: [email protected] homepage: https://www.univie.ac.at/ospg/english/

Fig. 1: OSPG members at a joint meeting with the German Pazifik Netzwerk

Fig. 2: Kava session at the joint meeting of OSPG Fig. 3: The popular lecture series attracts a wide range of people and Pazifik Netzwerk in Passau 2019 Source: OSPG 2: Fig. fig. 1, 2018; 3: OSPG fig. 4: OSPG 2019; fig. 2016; 5: OSPG 2020.

Fig. 4: Festivities to celebrate 20 years of OSPG Fig. 5: Visiting the hidden treasures of Oceania in the storage of the Institute for Social and Cultural Anthropology at the University of Vienna

Pacific Geographies #54 • July/August 2020 31 ADVERTISEMENT NEW PUBLICATION 2020

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