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The Sand Creek Massacre Asa M INDIANA UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH HUMANITIES The Sand Creek Massacre Asa M. Kerr, Department of History, Indiana University Bloomington ABSTRACT he 1864 massacre of Cheyenne and Arapaho Native Americans by a Colorado territorial militia regiment is investigated through a Tgenocidal lens, both as a component of the larger destruction of Native American cultures and peoples by U.S. forces and in its own specific economic and ideological context. Using the work of many other scholars in the field of genocide studies and the established definition of genocide provided by the UN Convention on Genocide, this essay initially defines how the gradual dwindling of Native American populations from the onset of European colonization through the next three centuries can be viewed as genocide. Following this groundwork, the question of culpability for the massacre is brought forth and three main categories of suspects are identified: local government and military leaders, the White settler population of Colorado, and the U.S. federal government. All three potential areas of culpability are shown to possess varying degrees of responsibility in effecting the massacre. Upon conclusion of the investigation, there is a brief discussion of possible means of reconciliation accompanied by an examination of the nature of current reconciliation efforts. KEYWORDS: Sand Creek Massacre, Native American genocide, Native American studies, culpability BACKGROUND The tenor of the relationship between Euro-American the fact that most violence perpetrated against Native inhabitants of North America and the continent’s Americans occurred in frontier settlements, often with indigenous populations is most clearly indicated in the the approval of state or territorial governments, far estimated 98% decrease of Native American inhabitants, removed from federal influence. from roughly 15 million in 1500 to a meager 250,000 in Such is the case of the 1864 Sand Creek Massacre, 1890 (Waller, 2007, p. 21). This monumental destruction in which roughly 150 Cheyenne and Arapaho non- of indigenous North American populations has in recent combatants were killed by the 3rd Colorado Volunteer years invited the study of many scholars in the field of Cavalry Regiment, a federally-sanctioned creation Holocaust and genocide studies, who in various ways, of the territorial government of Colorado (Waller, attempt to ascertain the extent to which the population 2007, p. 36). Investigating the decimation of Indian decline can be attributed to genocidal action. On populations as genocide necessitates an examination of the other hand, arguably because of the key role the Euro-American violence against specific Indian tribes destruction of American Indian civilization played in isolated instances because of the vast contextual in the formation of the United States, many scholars differences between, for instance, the massacre of have attempted to portray this mass death as a result Pequot at Fort Mystic in 1637 and the Sand Creek of disease and military conflict, admittedly peppered Massacre some two centuries later. Similarly, following with atrocities, using the U.S. federal government’s lack Elazar Barkan (2003), this examination will offer a of a stated intent regarding Indian extermination as a “nondeterministic approach that explores the issue of factor excluding the tragedy from genocide status. This genocide within a context and not against a universal postulation is for the most part historically accurate yardstick” because of the vast historical, cultural, and and corresponds to the opening clause of Article II technological differences between Sand Creek and the of the UN Convention on Genocide, which lists “the genocides of the 20th and 21st centuries (Barkan, 2003, p. intent to destroy” as a necessary factor for genocide 119). Primarily examining the specific ideological and (United Nations, 1951, p. 280). However, as Alfred Cave economic context, at both state and federal levels, of (2010) points out, the UN definition of genocide “does the events at Sand Creek will allow the motives for this not require the sanction of the state” (Cave, 2010, p. massacre to be further elucidated, thereby providing a 276). Even this point is somewhat arbitrary in light of nuanced understanding of each governmental sphere’s PAGE 6| IUJUR Vol. I, 2015 INDIANA UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH HUMANITIES culpability in the event. In addition, Stannard’s emphasis especially effective in laying out an extensive historical on the importance of racism as foundational for genocide context that briefly recounts U.S. federal Indian policy against Native Americans and Tinker’s formulations and more significantly shows the development of concerning cultural genocide and the importance of Cheyenne, Arapaho, and White relations in the Colorado consequences over intentionality will be especially Territory. While the volume of Sand Creek scholarship helpful in locating the impetus for the events at Sand is minimal, its quality has laid a solid foundation Creek (Barkan, 2003, p. 124). This focus on consequences upon which more knowledge can be expounded, over intentionality is, however, incomplete in that it ideally bringing collective remembrance and genuine satisfies itself merely with the condemnation of events reconciliation to the forefront of contemporary U.S. without determining those who are primarily guilty for politics and culture. their occurrence. In order to pinpoint the cause of these Relations between the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes events, a methodology of examining the interaction of and White settlers had traditionally been peaceful. In frontier and federal narratives surrounding Sand Creek fact, it was not until 1856 that an instance of violence will aid in identifying the intent of these two separate occurred, and this even was considerably minor (Cutler, forces. 1997, p. 5). However, this peace would not survive the Much like genocide studies itself, scholarship on discovery of gold at Pikes Peak and the South Platte Sand Creek is a relatively new field, and as a result there in 1858, beckoning floods of hopeful Whites to the is minimal research on the subject. In many respects, area traditionally controlled by the Cheyenne and the lack of scholarship on Sand Creek, or the three Arapaho (Cutler, 1997, p. 5). White pioneers came centuries of genocide inflicted upon Native Americans in numbers rivaling the California gold rush of 1849 of which it is a part, can be attributed to what Stan Hoig and once they arrived, they built towns and stayed (1961) termed the “enormous prejudices” of the Anglo- (Cutler, 1997, p. 5). The 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie, American population (Hoig, 1961, p. vii). Even at the which defined the Cheyenne and Arapaho domain ceremonial opening of the Sand Creek Massacre National as the vast expanse between the Arkansas and Platte Historic Site in 2007, Ari Kelman (2013) observed Rivers, would be utterly disregarded by the gold-crazed in the vague and apologetic language of speeches pioneers (Cutler, 1997, p. 4). As isolated fringe groups there delivered the fact that “collective remembrance from both cultures inflicted atrocity after atrocity on both shapes and is bound by contemporary politics” each other, feelings of mutual hatred gradually took (Kelman, 2013, p. 29). Yet, even Bruce Cutler in 1930 hold, albeit more thoroughly amongst the encroaching believed the massacre constituted genocide, evincing Whites. Coloradans’ fear and hatred of the surrounding the polarizing effect Sand Creek has had on Americans Cheyenne and Arapaho undeniably culminated in the since November 1864 (Cutler, 1997, p. viii). Sand Creek Massacre, in which an assembly of regional The general scholarly consensus has been to chiefs and their civilian followers who had gathered emphasize the local origin of perpetrators. While near Denver in order to declare their peaceful intent Kelman’s (2013) recent A Misplaced Massacre does to the Coloradan government were slain in a surprise include a discussion of federal culpability, it is attack carried out by the hastily assembled 3rd Colorado peripheral to the work and receives little attention. With Volunteer Cavalry Regiment. this in mind, Kelman’s (2013) text does provide a solid historiographical framework with which to investigate RESPONSIBILITY OF COLORADAN the degree of federal culpability, though its greatest contribution is undeniably its examination of the few TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT and insincere contemporary attempts at reconciliation At the forefront of those who can be considered guilty and remembrance. In addition, Hoig’s (1961) work is for the atrocities of Sand Creek are the Governor IUJUR Vol. I, 2015| PAGE 7 INDIANA UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH HUMANITIES of Colorado, John Evans, and commander of the Creek. On June 27, 1864, Evans issued a proclamation attack, Lieutenant Colonel John Chivington. These to all tribes within his jurisdiction, calling those who two local officials arise as those immediately guilty in wished to be considered friendly to gather at the nearest part because they both hoped to lead Colorado into military post so negotiations could begin (Wade, 1959, statehood, ideally as its first senators (Cutler, 1997 pp. p. 24). It was this proclamation that motivated Cheyenne 134-35). Their political ambitions would be well-served and Arapaho chiefs Black Kettle, White Antelope, and by a highly publicized defeat of Indians in battle and Left Hand to take council with
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