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Forests, food security and gender

L. Stloukal, C. Holding, S. Kaaria, F. Guarascio and N. Gunewardena ZZARRI i FAO/G. B A woman and a girl harvest coffee beans in a homegarden in Lempira Sur, and orests and on farms are a direct Guarita, Honduras. Women in developing systems are not gender-neutral. source of food, cash income and countries are frequently disadvantaged Empowering women could a range of subsistence benefits for in their access to economic opportunities in the sector create significant opportunities Fbillions of people worldwide, but there for greater food security in are major differences in the benefits developing countries. that accrue to women and men. Women • shoulder the burden of domestic and in developing countries are frequently childcare responsibilities; disadvantaged in their access to and • participate less in rural institutions, economic opportunities in the forest sector for example forest-user groups; because, compared with men, they usually: • face gender-differentiated behavioural • have lower levels of literacy, education, norms and social perceptions of wom- physical abilities and technical skills, en’s roles. less access to services such as exten- These disadvantages often result in sion and credit, greater constraints on gender disparities in, for example, access their time and mobility, and limited to and use of forest foods, woodfuel1 and Libor Stloukal, Susan Kaaria, Francesca access to markets and market-related fodder for livestock; ; Guarascio and Nandini Gunewardena information; 1 are in FAO’s Division of Gender, Equity and • face discrimination in conventional Woodfuel comprises unprocessed (firewood, Rural Employment, and Christine Holding called “fuelwood” here) and processed wood is in FAO’s Division of Forest Assessment, forest, and tree-product ownership products, such as and offcuts, Management and Conservation. regimes; used for fuel.

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and the marketing of forest and tree from these activities adds to the purchasing inputs. The review also showed that, in products. This article expands on some power of households and therefore their Africa, the extent of women’s involvement of these disparities and makes a case for food security. Men are more likely than relative to men in activities such as soil-fer- gender equity in increasing food security women to be responsible for collecting tility management, fodder production and and nutrition in poor rural communities. wild honey, birds’ eggs and insects, hunt- woodlot-growing is fairly high in terms of ing wild animals, and fishing (Shackleton the participation of female-headed house- GENDER DIMENSIONS OF THE et al., 2011; IFAD, 2008). In some places holds but low when measured by the area FOREST–FOOD SECURITY NEXUS (such as in parts of the Congo Basin and of land such households allocate to these Food from the forest the Peruvian Amazon), such activities pro- activities and the number of trees they Wan, Colfer and Powell (2011) demon- vide the primary sources of animal protein plant. In cases where women have low strated that the gender-based division of for rural people (FAO, 1992). involvement, this is due mostly to a scarcity agricultural labour and food production, of resources, especially land and labour combined with the fact that women often Agroforestry (partly because women tend to do more have fewer alternative income-earning There is evidence that agroforestry activi- household and care work than men), and to opportunities than men, means that women ties are often gender-differentiated: while differences in male and female opportunity tend to collect forest foods to supplement men are usually interested in trees (often sets. Some studies have also noted that, the nutrition of their households. Women of only one or two species) for commercial compared with men’s fields, women’s farm play a particularly important role in col- purposes, women are more inclined to plots tend to have a greater number of trees lecting and processing edible wild plants favour multipurpose trees of a number of and more species, possibly because women from forests, as well as in the preparation species for subsistence use, such as those like to have trees near the homestead as of household meals by using forest foods that provide food, fuelwood and fodder well as a diversity of species with which to cook (for example) soups, stews and rel- and help improve soil fertility. A review to maintain the health of their children ishes (Vinceti, Eyzaguirre and Johns, 2008; of 104 studies of gender and agroforestry and broaden the household food supply FAO, 2012). Women often have substantial in Africa (Kiptot and Franzel, 2011) con- (FAO, 1999). knowledge concerning the identification, firmed that women’s participation is very Tree tenure – the ownership and use collection and preparation of highly nutri- high in enterprises such as the production rights of trees – is often differentiated tious forest foods that can complement and and processing of indigenous fruit and along gender lines, and men usually have add flavour to the staples of family meals. vegetable products, apparently because overall authority over high-value tree In addition, income generated by women indigenous species require fewer labour products. However, the gendered of access to and control of trees, tree products and related resources is often highly com- Women and forest vegetables in East Usambara plex, depending on social and ecological conditions and factors such as landscape In the East Usambara Mountains in the northeast of the United Republic of Tanzania, niche, time, species, products and uses the consumption of traditional leafy vegetables is the best predictor of children’s overall (Rocheleau and Edmunds, 1997). In many micronutrient intake. The majority of leafy vegetables consumed in the area are wild- settings, women’s rights are substantial collected by women in fields, field margins, fallows and agroforests. Survey data show due to the informal (and often negotiable) that, in the wet season, 46 percent of children aged 2–5 years consume vegetables on nature of customary laws and, in some a daily basis, while in the dry season only 22 percent of children are able to do so. cases, the complementarity of women’s Proximity to the forest is a key determinant of vegetable consumption, particularly and men’s productive roles. Women’s in the dry season. Local women reported that those who were poor and lived far from rights, however, can easily become the forest had to spend a significant amount of time collecting vegetables. In addition, marginalized or may not be recognized, even though they had legal access rights, many women were hesitant about entering especially in the introduction of statutory reserved forests to collect vegetables for fear of being suspected of illegal activities or of laws and formal administrative procedures encountering others engaging in such activities (e.g. pit-sawing, mining and hunting). In at the local to central government level this setting, having areas with tree cover on the family farm and near the home supports (Quisumbing et al., 2001). year-round access to vegetables, with the potential to decrease women’s workloads and Although women often make significant improve the nutrition of their families. labour contributions to agroforestry (e.g. by planting, weeding and watering trees), Source: Powell, Hall and Johns (2012) their opportunities in the sector are often limited to low-return activities that are of

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A woman shows how to harvest mfumbwa leaves (Gnetum africanum), a popular wild food in central Africa, without destroying the plant. Women play an important role in collecting and processing edible wild plants from forests and preparing them for household meals

Rocheleau and Edmunds (1997) reported that, among the Akamba community of eastern Kenya, tree-planting and were primarily the domains of men, while women enjoyed use and access rights to fodder, fuelwood, fruits and mulch. Gender-differentiated rights and responsibilities in agroforestry are also an important determinant of the adoption of agroforestry technologies and the use of related services, and this differential uptake of technologies may (if other things remain the same) further perpetuate exist- ing gender inequalities.

Woodfuel and household energy Limited access to woodfuel – for example due to environmental degradation or local forest regulations – can cause households to change what they eat, potentially leading to malnutrition. Similarly, boiling water insufficiently to save fuel can contribute to the consumption of contaminated water and poorly prepared food, with potentially life-threatening consequences, especially for children, pregnant women, the mal- nourished and the sick. In many agrarian settings, women and girls have the primary responsibility for collecting fuelwood for household use and may have to walk for several hours, frequently in insecure conditions, to do so. In refugee and conflict situations,

FAO. G. NAPOLITANO G. FAO. women are particularly vulnerable to gender-based violence while collecting little or no interest to men, while men tend have the right to collect and use fruits but fuelwood (WFP, 2012). to control the production and marketing are restricted from harvesting high-value Shrinking access to fuelwood near the of high-value products as well as the use timber trees. On the other hand, species home – which is becoming a pressing of the income so generated (Rocheleau such as Sesbania sesban, which produces reality in many developing countries – and and Edmunds, 1997). Tree products such good fuelwood and can help improve soil the time taken to collect it often mean that as charcoal, logs, timber, large branches fertility, is considered a women’s tree, and women have less time for other activities and poles are typically considered male therefore women have the right to plant, (Wan, Colfer and Powell, 2011). Gbetnkom domains. Thus, in the Luo and Luhya manage and use it as they please (Franzel (2007) concluded that constraints on communities in western Kenya, women and Kiptot, 2012). women’s income-earning potential caused

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A woman carries fuelwood near Mbeya, the United Republic of Tanzania. Women and girls often have the primary responsibility for collecting fuelwood for household use and may have to walk for several hours, frequently in insecure conditions, to do so FAO/A. CONTI FAO/A.

by the scarcity of fuelwood may have With regard to the cooking environment, used for animal feed; they may be browsed significant impacts on household food the combustion of (including directly by roaming livestock or collected security. The increased time spent gather- woodfuel) releases significant quantities and fed to livestock in stalls. It has been ing wood leaves less time for cash-earning of pollutants that damage the health of estimated, for example, that 75 percent of activities and for tasks to support the food those who do the cooking, the vast majority tree species in tropical Africa are used security and health of families, while of whom are women. Exposure to indoor as browse by domestic livestock such as the purchase of increasingly expensive smoke has been found to be responsible sheep, goats, cattle, camels and donkeys woodfuel leaves less money to buy food. for 39 percent of deaths due to chronic (FAO, 1991). Women (and children) Women are not always the main fuelwood pulmonary disease in women, compared play crucial roles in gathering animal collectors (Sunderland et al., 2012). For with 12 percent in men (Wan, Colfer and fodder (including from trees), feeding example, when the distances become too Powell, 2011; Rehfuess, 2006). Disease and grazing animals, cleaning animal great for fuelwood collection on foot, or and nutrition are linked: infections sheds, and composting animal waste. where there are naturally low densities of associated with wood-smoke exposure These activities contribute significantly fuelwood (e.g. in the Kalahari), men tend significantly increase women’s nutrient to domestic livestock production, which to assume the role of fuelwood collec- requirements (e.g. vitamin A), and those in turn influences milk and meat supply tion, making use of transportation such who are micronutrient-deficient are more and contributes to household income. as donkey carts and small trucks. Men likely to develop infections after exposure Tree-based fodder is also used to sustain are also the main collectors of woodfuel, to wood smoke. draught animals for ploughing and in the including charcoal, for sale (Zulu and production of manure – which increases Richardson, 2013). In Latin America, Fodder for livestock soil fertility and is used as cooking- men are overwhelmingly responsible for Many tree species found in forests, fuel (especially when woodfuel is in woodfuel collection. woodlands and parklands and on farms are short supply).

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Farmer Patricia Oduor and extension worker Gabriel Malowa chat in an agroforest in Siaya District, Kenya. Women and men often have highly specialized knowledge of forest flora and fauna, but it is not always acknowledged or used in modern systems FAO/C. DOWSETT FAO/C.

Forests and climate-change total amount of genetic diversity con- harvesting and hunting patterns, seasonal adaptation served and used, often working to counter availability, uses for various purposes, and Women may be more vulnerable than men decreases in biodiversity caused in part conservation practices. to the effects of climate change because by the favouring by men of cash-oriented Much of the existing literature, typically they are more likely to be poor and depen- monocultures (World Bank, FAO and based on case studies, paints a stylized dent on natural ecosystems threatened by IFAD, 2008). It follows that forest policies picture in which women derive their climate change (IPCC, 2007; Lambrou and programmes that aim to be socially knowledge from their specialized roles and Nelson, 2010). They are also effective responsive should take into account the in the collection and processing of forest actors and change agents for climate- gendered dimensions of resource use, products for direct household use and change mitigation and adaptation (Peach needs, access, knowledge and strategies limited sale in local markets, while men Brown, 2011). Women often have a strong for coping with climate change. tend to specialize in the harvesting of body of knowledge and expertise that can timber products and wild meat for cash be used in strategies for disaster reduc- GENDER DIFFERENCES IN income and marketing. However, the extent tion and climate-change mitigation and FOREST-RELATED KNOWLEDGE to which such findings can be general- adaptation. Moreover, women’s respon- Men’s forest-related knowledge is often ized is unclear. Data from 36 long-term sibility in households and communities regarded as knowledge that “counts”, studies of forest-proximate communities as stewards of forest foods and other and the knowledge held by women is in 25 countries in Africa, Asia and forest-related and tree-related resources not always properly recognized in forest Latin America, representing more than means they are well-placed to develop management plans and forest use. Both 8 000 households, confirm that women livelihood strategies adapted to changing women and men often have highly special- and men tend to collect different forest environmental conditions. As natural- ized knowledge of forest flora and fauna products (Sunderland, 2011). Contrary to resource managers, women influence the in terms of species diversity, location, conventional wisdom, however, the data

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show that both women and men collect importantly, are often able to decide how The gender roles in forestry value non-timber forest products (NTFPs, the income is used. Nevertheless, women’s chains are generally poorly understood which can include woodfuel) primarily participation in tree domestication has and not well supported by policy-makers for subsistence and that men’s sale share been hindered by limited access to and and service providers, especially those is generally higher than women’s, except control over land and trees, insufficient who focus on hi-tech operations or pay in Africa where the share is roughly equal information on the requirements and less attention to local markets. Gender- (Sunderland, 2011). This finding indicates advantages of tree domestication, and sensitive value-chain analyses can identify that while gender differences in forest- substantial periods of production inactivity less-visible gender-sensitive components at relevant knowledge exist (particularly due to their childbearing and childrear- various stages of value chains. These might about processing and marketing), they ing roles and their heavy workloads in include processing at home; informal may not be as clear as previously thought, the household (Degrande et al., 2007; trading in neighbourhood markets; and and a range of factors – such as marital Degrande, 2009). the collection, by men, of certain non- status, age, wealth and formal education – wood forest products such as gums and in addition to gender may co-determine GENDER DIFFERENCES IN honey if it requires physically taxing work how people use forests. FORESTRY VALUE CHAINS or is carried out in remote areas. Thus, Nevertheless, women’s knowledge tends As they are for most primary products analysing value chains from a gender to be linked more directly to household originating in developing countries, NTFP perspective can be useful in identifying food and nutrition needs as well as to value chains are highly gender-specific. practical opportunities for improving the health and culture, compared with men’s In many settings, women deal primarily livelihoods of the rural poor. knowledge (Daniggelis, 2003). A study with products of relatively low economic in Amazonia (Shanley and Gaia, 2001) value, engage in less lucrative informal GENDER BALANCE IN FOREST- found that, compared with men, women activities, and do not have the same USER GROUPS were able to identify a broader range of access to technology, credit, training and Strengthening gender equality in rural plant species (i.e. trees, vegetables, vines, decision-making as men. Unsurprisingly, societies is generally recognized as a bushes and herbs) and usable plant parts interactions between women and men and necessary prerequisite for increasing agri- (i.e. fruits, barks, leaves, seeds and roots). the division of labour between them at each cultural productivity, reducing poverty and Such knowledge is particularly important stage of a value chain depend heavily on hunger, and promoting economic growth. in natural disasters and food crises, when the environment in which they live, their The forest sector provides a broad range the collection and sale of forest products by livelihood preferences, and the available of opportunities to empower rural women. women often become critical for household technology. In general, women tend to Here, we discuss increasing the participa- survival. In many places, women’s famil- prefer flexible working conditions that do tion of women in forest-user groups. iarity with tree products such as fruits and not clash with their day-to-day household Women are generally under-represented nuts, medicinal materials and woodfuel responsibilities (CIFOR, 2012). in forest-user groups such as village forest plays a crucial role in coping with food Engagement in forestry value chains is committees and community forest asso- shortages. Moreover, the nutritive value often crucial for rural women’s livelihoods ciations (Coleman and Mwangi, 2012). In of wild foods is often substantial and and the well-being of their households. In many settings, rules allowing only one can be used as a substitute for purchased Ethiopia, for example, sorting and cleaning person per household to participate in such food items. gums and resins is the primary source groups tend to exclude women, and women Traditionally, women have been the of income for 96 percent of the women often become involved in decision-making primary domesticators of forest-based involved in the activity; in Burkino Faso, only after forest and tree resources have food and medicinal plants that are now women engaged in sorting gum arabic become degraded. As a result, community found in homegardens worldwide (Kumar reported that it was their most important forest groups sometimes enforce rules and Nair, 2004; Eyzaguirre and Linares, source of income for 3–4 months per year and regulations that do not fully reflect 2004). In humid western and southern (Shackleton et al., 2011). Many researchers women’s strategic interests and needs. Africa, rural women play a particularly have also noted that increases in women’s Female-dominated groups tend to important role in the cultivation of indig- incomes have greater impacts on food, have more property rights to trees and enous fruit trees (e.g. Irvingia gabonensis, health and education expenditure and bushes and to collect more woodfuel and Dacroydes edulis and Sclerocarya birrea) therefore on overall household well-being less timber than do male-dominated or (Campbell, 1987). While men may be the than increases in the incomes of men (e.g. gender-balanced groups (Sun, Mwangi and nominal owners of trees, women are often Blumberg, 1988; Hoddinott and Haddad, Meinzen-Dick, 2011). Gender-balanced responsible for the marketing of fruits and, 1991; Kabeer, 2003). groups, on the other hand, perform

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consistently better in all forestry functions compiled by Agarwal (2001, 2010), Sun, education levels of the women on those (e.g. the protection of plantings, forest Mwangi and Meinzen-Dick (2011) and councils significantly affected women’s regeneration, biodiversity conservation, Coleman and Mwangi (2012) suggests attendance at meetings and the likelihood watershed protection and the alloca- that when women constitute one-quarter they would speak up on critical issues. tion of forest-use permits). Pandolfelli, to one-third of the membership of local There is evidence that women’s par- Meinzen-Dick and Dohrn (2008) found forest management institutions, the ticipation in the decision-making of forest that gender-balanced groups capitalize on dynamic changes in favour not only of institutions such as forest-user groups the complementary roles of women and the consideration of women’s use of and reduces the level of gender-based conflict. men, mobilize people for collective action, access to forest resources but also towards This is because participation leads to new and enable better access to information more effective community forest manage- rules of access that take women’s needs and services from external agents. The ment decision-making and management into account, and therefore their activities greater involvement of women in forest as a whole. are less likely be criminalized or viewed governance may thus help ensure that The active and effective participation of as infringements. forest policies and planning are more women in forest institutions is governed sensitive to the food-security needs by a number of factors in addition to the of communities. proportion in which they are represented. Sun, Mwangi and Meinzen-Dick (2011) Agarwal (2010) and Coleman and Mwangi A woman cuts wood on a circular saw in a wood market in Ulaanbaatar, found that the relationship between the (2012) found that, in Honduras, India, Mongolia. The gender roles in forestry gender composition of groups and col- Nepal and Uganda, the gender composi- value chains are generally poorly lective outcomes is not linear. Evidence tion of forest councils and the age and understood and not well supported by policy-makers and service providers FAO/S. GALLAGHER

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