© Kamla-Raj 2013 J Sociology Soc Anth, 4(1-2): 83-91 (2013) as the Gateway to Hindu Religious Expression among South African Speakers

Usha Shukla

Languages, Linguistics and Academic Literacy, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa E-mail: [email protected]

KEYWORDS Ramayana. Ramacharitmanas. . Ramabhakti. Avatara. Indenture. Maryada Purushottam. Sanatani.

ABSTRACT Hinduism was codified in scriptural works, the Vedas, Upanishads, Smritis, Shastras etc. Early in Hindu history the essence of texts became crystallised in the Ramayana, whose Protagonist Rama was seen either as God, His Incarnation or God in human form (Avatara). This benign form of the Divine, descended to maintain Dharma, was adopted through various throughout and South Asia. The nineteenth century indentured labourers, particularly the Sanatani (Smartha) Hindi speaking Hindus carried the heritage of Rama bhakti (Rama devotion) to South Africa. This article will provide an overview of the Ramayana and the Rama Ethos and endeavour to demonstrate how the Ramayana, and especially the Ramacharitmanas version, and Sri Rama constituted the religion and God of the South African Hindus, and continue to provide solace and succour through worship of Rama and His Divine Consort as well as His devoted servant Hanuman.

INTRODUCTION: Rama as the descent/manifestation/incarnation RAMAYANA AND SRI RAMA of the Supreme, Vishnu, is the object of devo- tion (bhakti) and/or admiration for character The Ramayana and its Protagonist Rama of and conduct in the ancient Hindu diaspora of the Iksvaku are inseparable from Asian countries, India, the nineteenth century the life of Hindus generally, and South African phenomenon of the Indian indenture diaspora Hindis in particular. Originating in the ur-text (, Guyana, Trinidad, South Africa, the Srimad Ramayana of in , , ) and the entire world where Hin- the life and acts of the Personality who embod- dus and other receptive-hearted peoples reside ies the 18 rare, desirable qualities postulated in today. Valmiki Ramayana (:1:1-4) have It would be profitable to enquire how and invigorated Indians and peoples of South and why a nation of people who have the Vedas, South East Asia for millennia. The original story Smritis, Puranas and Darshanas (philosophies) was made available in other authoritative and sought out from their meditations and spiritual variant or derivative texts. The Ramacharit- disciplines the Divine in human form! It is con- manas of Goswami Tulasidas (16th century) and ceivable that people would be attracted to and the Iramavataram in the by emulate a leader or preceptor with amiable and Kamban (12th century) are two such authorita- infallible qualities, especially in times of dis- tive texts in Indian languages (Richman 2001: tress and upheaval, when a more approachable 10). or accessible God is required rather than one The compelling appeal of the Ramayana with who just inhabits our minds. Ramachandra its morally uplifting and spiritually inspiring, Shukla (1958: 56) whilst introducing the Bhakti heroic story is projected by the personality of (devotional) era of , says that a the Protagonist Rama into the consciousness of figure or personality who could instil hope and all those who read, hear or see enactments of pride in a Hindu nation whose “hearts had be- His Divine Play (Lila). The Hindu institution come devoid of pride, self-esteem and hope” of Avatara (incarnation in flesh and blood or following the establishment of Muslim rule in embodiment in stone etc. -vigraha) concept- India was the need of the times. Thus in the ualises the intervention of the Supreme in hu- Bhakti period (1318-1643) greater emphasis man affairs at stages when virtue is oppressed was placed on the personalised Divine forms of and evil abounds (Bhagavad Gita 4:7-8). Krishna (Lila Purushottam - through precept) Valmiki’s Srimad Ramayana (Balakanda: XV: and Rama (Maryada Purushottam - Examplar 6-34) and Tulasidas’s Ramacharitmanas (Bala- of decorum through example) who could rescue kanda: 120d: 4-5) articulate this situation. Thus and uplift the despondent Hindus whose temples 84 USHA SHUKLA and the divine images were vandalised and re- for both Hindus and . The Vedas, re- vered personalities abused. The total benign garded as the timeless and divine (Apaurusheya) potencies of the Supreme were needed to rescue word of God, which contain traces of the Rama medieval Hindus. Thus Rama, who was ac- story (Shukla 2002: 7), are described in terms claimed as the advent of the Supreme in human of the Ramayana of Tulasidas; no greater form, was invoked through the Ramacharit- acknowledgement of Rama or the work embody- manas and works of other savants and seers in ing His acts can be possible within the context the Bhakti period. This re-energised Hindu so- of Hindu theology. This Hindu Theology is ciety and reminded them of past glories, much predicated on the Rigvedic dictum “The Truth like Hanuman needs reminders of his prowess. is One: wise men call it by different names Even before the beginning of the Bhakti (Rgveda 1: 164: 46) and the Gita’s promise of movement in North India, South India provided protection/redemption (Bhagavadgita 4: 7-8). the template for Bhakti. The Tamil poet saint Thus the Divine is both transcendent and im- Kamban wrote the Iramavataram fashioned on manent in Hinduism, with a strong “salvific the Valmiki Ramayana which is avidly studied transcendent entity”to guide devotees (words by all. Richman (2001: 18) describes the wide from Joris Gielen 2008: 184). appeal of the Ramayana of Kamban thus, refer- In the modern period, the indenture diaspora ring to Hindus as well as Muslims: of Fiji became a battle ground for human free- Both in the twelfth century and in today’s dom and dignity. The Ramacharitmanas was , poets and commentators of differ- officially acknowledged as a scripture for the ing religious persuasions eloquently share po- purposes of administering the oath in court etic motifs and common understandings of ulti- (Kelly in Richman 2001: 337-338). Kelly (1991: mate concerns. 211) further cites the propagator of Sanatan When Bhakti arrived in the North, it was Dharm Ram Chandra Sharma in Fiji, who said: nurtured by Ramanand whose tradition inspired The great Tulsi Ramayana (Ramacharitmanas) Goswami Tulasidas, profound scholar and ex- delivers the medicine of immortality to the ponent of Ramakatha (story of Rama) based on foreign dwelling men and women ……The Sanskrit sources (Valmiki Ramayana, is the Fifth Veda in the colonies, Ramayana). Tulasidas applied his heart, mind teaching Hindi and doing good for the people…. and literary skills to craft his rendition of the In Trinidad it is believed that the Ramayana Rama story, the Ramacharitmanas, which has is to Trinidad what the Vedas are to India become the Ramayana of the Hindis. Like (Shukla 2011: 181). The debates and discourse Kamban’s Iramavataram in Tamil Nadu, Tulasi- on Ramayana in Fiji occurred much later than das’s Ramacharitmanas became a catalyst for the commencement of indentured settlement in transformation and religious tolerance in the Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad, South Africa and North. At a time when Mughal rule was firmly Suriname. In these latter colonies there was a established and Islam enjoyed the status of the paucity of leadership at that time, particularly state religion, Emperor ’s courtier Abdur from India, since the Arya Samaj, Prarthana Rahim Khankhana or “Rahim”, Sufi, philan- Samaj, Bharathendu and the modern period of thropist and student of Hindu culture, admirer Hindi as well as the Indian National Congress and friend of Tulasidas, described the Rama- (“not yet a vehicle for politicised religion” – charitmanas in words and sentiments which McDermott 2008: 145), all came into being and raised the Ramacharitmanas and its protagonist action when the majority of the indentured In- Sri Rama to the universal pathway to God: dians had already arrived or settled in the colo- Ramacharitmanas Bimal Santana Jivana nies. The girmitiyas (labourers under agree- Prana ment) were left to the mercies of the colonists. Hinduan Ko Bedasama Jamanahi Pragata What is constant in all the colonies is the Kurana indomitable will of the people insofar as the The Ramacharitamanas is the very life-blood maintenance of their religion and culture was of the holy sages. It is akin to the Vedas for the concerned. The Ramayana had flowed from In- Hindus, and is like the Quran to the Muslims dia in three streams - cultural to South and South (Shukla 2002: 35). East Asia, literary to the West and spiritual to Rahim unequivocally asserts the authentic- the Hindu diaspora throughout the world, be- ity and purity of the sacred Ramacharitmanas ginning with the period of indenture. RAMAYANA AS THE GATEWAY TO HINDU RELIGIOUS EXPRESSION 85

South Africa received its batches of Hindi ments of indentured labourers to South Africa. indentured labourers from 1860. These labourers The Hindis who embarked at Calcutta made a were the descendants of people whom Tulasidas transoceanic “journey to South Africa under and other poet saints had inspired and filled with oppressive conditions”; the Belvedere’s list devotion. Amitav Ghosh, evaluating the contri- shows 29 dead at sea, one was “not shipped” bution of poet saints such as Chaitanya, Mirabai, and 10 died before commencing work (Henning Tulasidas, Tukaram and Kshetrayya during the 1993: 38). Bhakti period observes that “it is a simple fact The indentured labourers/girmitiyas brought that Hinduism as a living practice would not be with them their religio-cultural knowledge and what it is if it were not for the devotional prac- values acquired through the oral tradition were tices initiated under Mughal rule (Doniger 2010: predominant amongst these. The Ramayana/ 551). Rama Ethos were found across the linguistic The indentured labourers came to South Af- groups who had embarked at Calcutta and Ma- rica with few possessions; their spiritual and dras. The Hindis had the influence of the Rama- cultural wealth is what sustained them during charitmanas of Goswami Tulasidas, the Telugus the vicissitudes of indenture or “girmit”. were conversant with Ramayana through the Bhaskara and Ranganatha Ramayana and the THE GIRMITIYAS AND THEIR Tamils had the Kamban Ramayana. The figure HEREDITARY RAMA DEVOTION and divine potency of Sri Rama were assimi- lated into the religio-cultural and daily life of The conditions under which Indians travelled all Hindus who had access to Ramakatha to the “indenture diaspora” of the 19th century through regional language variants/adaptations as labourers on cane and cotton fields, mines and the prolific oral tradition including music, and railways differed from the “emigration” and dance and drama. Ramanuja had laid down the “migration” of the mid-twentieth century based system of worship of the image of Vishnu, called on “personal choice and voluntary movements Lord Venkatesvara or Balaji in the 11th century. of people from one country to another” (Singh Just as Rama was incarnate Divinity to the 2009: 2). The girmitiyas left their motherland Hindis, Ramanuja attributed the same qualities by a process which may be seen as “construc- to Lord Venkatesvara; and used the “sloka” tive” transportation or Kalapani (Kalapani = (Valmiki, Balakanda 23.2), transportation, imprisonment) resulting from Supraja Rama Purva Sandhya lack of employment opportunities or the “push” Pravartate factor created by British policy in India. Hence, Uttishtha Narashardula Kartavyam Daiva- this movement can be classified under Singh’s mahanikam alternate category of involuntary migration. The a matin or rising song (Prabhati) sung to conditions of the 1860s world persisted until Rama in Valmiki Ramayana. This establishes 1960s vis-à-vis communication and travel, the identity of Sri Rama and Lord Venkatesvara which created a hiatus between people separated at Tirupati, as the Supreme; one by migration. However, rapid developments in in human form and one in statue (vigraha) form. communications technology in the latter part of In the 20th-21st centuries Sai Baba was also awak- the 20th century have not only helped to keep ened with the above Sloka with names modi- the Indians of the 21st century diaspora in con- fied. The foregoing demonstrates the inescap- tact with one another; but the television and elec- able fact that through the millennia and centu- tronic media have brought religion, Ramayana ries Sri Rama has been the friend and protector and Rama into the homes and lives of Hindus as well as loving God of the Hindus. in the remotest parts of the diaspora. The 19th In the of India the Rama story was century girmitiyas had only what they carried heard, read, sung and narrated in various con- with them as companion and solace. texts with varying emphases. Usha Nilsson The first Hindis disembarked from the Belve- (Richman 2001: 137) discusses power and domi- dere in Durban on 26 November 1860 from nation in Awadhi and Bhojpuri women’s songs Calcutta. Henning (1993: 38) states that of the using Sita as the subject. Nilsson’s interesting 312 “active” or live passengers, 40 were Mus- essay demonstrates how the Ramayana provides lim. Hindus remained the majority of most ship- material as well spiritual sustenance to people 86 USHA SHUKLA of all sections of society. The Rama Ethos and would be protected by their ancient tradition the Ramacharitmanas fostered unity and equal- and unadulterated Hindu philosophy (Henning ity through the grace of Sri Rama, and accom- 1993: 157). The definitive view on this issue is panied the girmitiyas into far-off lands. provided in Shukla (2009: 30): The Hindis travelled on their transoceanic Since the Hindi labourers reached the colo- journey into the unknown with thoughts of Sri nies and until the present, Tulasi’s Ramayana Rama and His arduous journey into exile. The has become their inspiration and part of their identification of the girmitiyas in their travails consciousness. The Ramacharitmanas incar- with Sri Rama, Sita and in their nated as Protector of Dharma and the Hindi lan- journey through the forests creates hope and guage. solace; in that their vicissitudes too, like Rama’s, The image of Sri Rama and His unrelenting will end, and also that even Sri Rama, “Lord of struggle against adversity and evil whilst up- the Three Worlds” (Tihun Loka Ke Malik) had holding righteousness (Dharma) never deserted undergone hardship. The Marga Geet (Song of the girmitiya Hindus: indeed it led them to the Road) collected by Vidya Niwas Mishra deeper reverence, greater enthusiasm for propa- (1999: 74) represents hundreds of similar out- gation and construction of institutions for the pourings of the suffering but God-loving heart. praise and worship of the Supreme, Vishnu, the A sample: Protector aspect of the Supreme, manifested on Age Age Ram Chalet Hai, Pachhe Lachuman earth as Rama and Krishna. Bhai Tekra Pachhe Matu Janki, Madhuban Letha TRADITIONAL PATTERNS OF Tikai HINDU WORSHIP Rama walks in front, followed by Lakshmana Mother Janaki brings up the rear. They halt The Hindi girmitiyas practised diverse forms in the forest of ritualistic worship, emanating from folk tra- (Transliterated and translated by Shukla in ditions, Saivism, Vaisnavism, Saktism or the Shukla 2011: 142). teachings of the Saints and Sages of the Bhakti The extremely precarious life of exile and period. Their discourse, however, centred on indenture can find no better expression. Bha- issues connected to the , Srimad vanidayal Sanyasi (1947: 3) also paints a dis- Bhagavat Purana, or more commonly the turbing picture of life in indenture for people Ramayana which was easily accessible through who had no support from any of the colonists: the Ramacharitmanas, written in melodious, they took recourse in suicide in the face of op- easy to chant Awadhi verses. pression, injustice and degradation. As far as Some of these practices may be mentioned education was concerned, most of the children here. Research carried out by Shukla (2002) who did receive education before the establish- outlines the observances which mark every as- ment of the Natal Education Department in 1894 pect of Hindu life. It would be appropriate to attended school for one or two years at schools view some practices within the Smartha Sanatan run by the Anglican, Methodist and Catholic Dharma as represented by the Vedas, Upani- Churches, and some by the Indian Immigration shads, Puranas and Epics which constitute the School Board (1878). Although there were some evolvement of Hindu thinking. The invocation improvements after 1894, the state remained commencing a popular Hindi text dedicated to hostile towards educating Indians who were seen the Divine Mother (Durga) in Her aspect as Lib- as temporary groups in South Africa or Natal erator from bondage, viz. Bandi Paath runs (Henning 1993: 165). thus: The Hindus practised a range of rituals which Sada Bhavani Dahini, Sanmukha Rahe were perceived as backward or morally de- Ganesa praved. J. S. Done, an Indian Christian, opposed Panch Deo Mil Raksha Karahin, Brahma the proselytisation of Hindus as being counter- Vishnu Mahesa productive, asserting that the Hindus did not The Divine Mother is always to the right, need religious instruction or education on ac- (meaning auspicious or favourable) with Sri ceptance of evangelisation. Done expressed the Ganesha in front: together with Brahma, Vishnu belief that the conservative (Hindu) people and Siva (Five Devas) will protect the devotee. RAMAYANA AS THE GATEWAY TO HINDU RELIGIOUS EXPRESSION 87

The Divine Mother (Bhavani) is looked upon of Sri Rama. This was due to the predominant as a loving, protective mother by the majority spirit of devotion of the Bhakti era particularly of Hindus who may not have heard of philo- in the Mughal period when there were all kinds sophical terminology such as Prakriti, Energy of pressures on India’s Hindus. Quanta etc. Ganesha’s role is the first to be wor- Valmiki was a sage or who had attained shipped. In a bid to determine who amongst the higher knowledge through meditation and aus- gods should be invoked and worshipped first terity. In the very first line of his Ramayana on any auspicious occasion, the condition was (Balakanda 1.1), Valmiki describes himself as laid down by Brahma that whosoever could Munipungava or ascetic. Tulasidas had received traverse the universe and return first would win. the appropriate training in Sanskrit, religion, Ganesha, diffident because of his tiny vehicle, philosophy and other sciences under Shesha the mouse, wrote “RAMA” on the ground and Sanatana in Varanasi for 15 years, in order to circled it thereby circumambulating Sri Rama equip himself as an exponent of the scriptures, who was the universe as well as its Lord, on the the Ramayana in particular (Shukla 2002: 28). advice of (Soni 2011: 467). Tulasidas, Tulasidas commenced his career as a Kathakar in his Ramacharitmanas (Balakanda 18.4) states (exponent of the story of Rama) on the basis of that Ganesha, knowing the glory of Rama, be- Sanskrit versions of Ramayana. It was during came the first to be worshipped by merely cir- this period that he felt the need to tell Rama’s cumambulating His name written on the ground, story in the people’s language. The originators hence the favoured place of Ganesha- people of both authoritative texts thus have superior always say, “Sri Ganeshaya Namah” before pray- qualifications. ing. Thus Bhavani and Ganesha together in- Valmiki depicts the background of the de- troduce the salutation. This invocation casts scent of Vishnu as a human incarnation named light on the belief system of the Hindis and the Rama, at the behest of the gods (Balakanda XV: place of Sri Rama therein. 6 and XV 19-21). The purpose was the elimina- Vishnu as the Preserver has the most ardu- tion of . tells Ravana later ous task to keep creation functioning according (Aranyakanda 37:13) that Ravana should de- to Dharma or Divine Laws. Some specific in- sist from seeking confrontation with Sri Rama terventions of Vishnu in physical form have because He is “virtue incarnate, pious and of become embedded in Hindu History as Avataras unfailing prowess, and ruler of the entire hu- or Incarnations. Doniger (2010: 474) refers to manity even as Indra is the ruler of gods”. “the first two human Avataras of Vishnu, Rama Tulasidas’s Ramacharitmanas is entirely and Krishna, who became incarnate on earth to dedicated to the divinity and worship of Sri fight against antigods (asuras) …and against Rama. He establishes firmly that Rama is the ogres () who are the enemies of hu- Redeemer who mercifully assumes different mans”. Doniger also asserted that in the Bhakti bodily forms to remove the suffering of god-fear- period Rama was conceived of as a “God who ing people. Sita is inseparable from Rama. combined the awesome powers of a Supreme Tulasi sees the world as Sita and Rama (Bala- deity with the compassion of an intimate kanda 7: 1). friend….” (Doniger 2010: 222). The foregoing The foregoing clarifies why scholars and background to Sri Rama also helps to locate Sri sages eulogise Sri Rama as the powerful, mer- Hanuman within the Vaisnava religious tradi- ciful Supreme. In daily life, many rites and ritu- tion and Ramabhakti. It is opportune to give als are observed, including the life stages or some further testimony to the Divinity of Sri Sanskaras (rites of passage). Sri Rama, more- Rama before discussing the servants and devo- over, pervades the spiritual, non-physical dimen- tees, as recorded in the Ramayana versions in- sions of our existence which we try to reach cluding the ur-text. The two relevant authorita- through the various practices, in which the hu- tive texts of the Rama story are the Srimad man actors are also called Rama, such as a new Ramayana of Valmiki and the Ramacharitmanas born boy or bridegroom. Thus, He is the recipi- of Goswami Tulasidas. Valmiki does state at ent of our prayers and supplications as well as various points that Sri Rama is the manifesta- the eternal witness and companion to our lives. tion of Vishnu; whereas Tulasidas infuses every Hindu rites and religious practices go hand line of his Ramacharitmanas with the Divinity in hand with Sri Rama, Ramayana and associ- 88 USHA SHUKLA ated celebrations. Characters and events are in- Havan completed the religious scenario. The tertwined and explanations are provided within small number of literate people, generally contexts rather than separately. Empirical re- learned priests, came to their assistance with search (qualitative) carried out by Usha Shukla more complex ritual observations for example towards higher degrees and published as (1) Sathyanarain Vrat Kathas and Jhanda offerings Ramacharitmanas in South Africa, Motilal to Hanuman. These learned individuals also pro- Banarsidass, Delhi (2002) and (2) Ramacharit- vided leadership through recitals and discourses manas in the Diaspora (2011), Star Publishers, on Ramayana. Prior to the erection of temples Delhi, record the religious practices of Hindi- which began soon after arrival, the home shrine speaking Hindus as well as their perceptions of where a lamp was regularly lit and prayers of- Sri Rama and the Ramayana. The thorough re- fered to images of deities, constituted the reli- search elicited facts through questionnaires and gious centre of the indentured Hindis in South interviews. As an “insider”, the author was able Africa (Shukla 2002: 107-108). Ramayana to use the ethno-methodological approach in the Sabhas, satsangs, temple worship and dis- qualitative empirical process. Religio-cultural courses etc. on Sri Rama and Ramayana began theory informed the theoretical approach early in the indentured Hindus’ lives in South (Shukla 2011: 10-12). Africa. Temples dedicated to Vishnu/Rama The foregoing detailed delineation of Sri emerged around the beginning of the 20th cen- Rama explicates how the Smartha Sanatani Hin- tury, and continue to be built in the early 21st dus lived a religious life dominated by Rama century. and Ramayana. The Ramacharitmanas had be- As alluded to earlier, the indentured immi- come part of the “collective consciousness” and grants brought with them a variety of religious of the “eternal journey of the soul” (Mishra practices which they maintained - rites of pas- 1983: 101). Thus when the Hindi indentured sage (inter alia, birth, marriage, death), prayers workers came to South Africa, they brought with for all new beginnings and auspicious occasions, them all the knowledge and spirituality so so- offering of propitiation to local deities licitously imparted by personalities such as (gramadevata-the various Devis and Devatas), Tulasidas. It is a natural corollary of the fore- Hanuman worship, Ganesha worship at the be- going that the Ramacharitmanas and Rama ginning of every ritual act; and Sri Satyanarain would wield similar influence over the Hindis Vrat Katha (Satyanarain = Vishnu = Rama). It in South Africa. is noteworthy that worship of Hanuman, devo- The research carried out into the various as- tee/servant par excellence of Rama, is performed pects of Hindu religious practices used question- together with Sri Rama (in His Vishnu or naires distributed to Hindi-speaking Hindus, the Satyanarain form) during the Katha and Jhanda. majority of whom were concentrated in the prov- Hanuman, facetiously described as an ugly mon- ince of KwaZulu-Natal (KZN). There was con- key by the Ramayana exponent Ramakinkara siderable uniformity in their religious obser- Upadhyaya, was nevertheless chosen by Rama vances, particularly those of orthodox Sanatani to locate Sita in and deliver his message; extraction. This ethno-methodological research an episode of beast conveying the message of was able to elicit authentic data on the subject. the Divine to the epitome of Divine Beauty The Hindis carried out their routine religious Mother Sita. Hanuman’s simian features and practices in the traditional manner. In this con- Sita’s beauty are compared thus by Upadhyaya text it would be appropriate to note that Sri (2006: 42): Rama also carried out the daily rituals. These If one has to criticize someone’s looks, it is consisted of lighting the lamp (Lakshmi or compared with a monkey’s visage. Yet miracu- Chirag), Sandhya, chanting Mantras, scripture lously Hanumanji found Mother Sita. reading or recital, and Aarti, or waving of lights All this was because of Hanuman’s Rama around an image of Vishnu, Siva, Rama, Bhakti and Vairagya (detachment). Indeed Krishna, Lakshmi etc. (Shukla 2002: 107). The Hanuman’s prominence and universal adoration Ramacharitmanas itself was worshipped by were known to him, as Hanuman says that He many and handled with great reverence because as servant of Rama is superior to Rama Him- of the sacredness of its subject matter. Obser- self: vances of Pitra Paksha, Sivaratri, Ramanaumi, My Heart, Lord, holds this conviction: Krishnashthami, Navaratri and Deepavali and Greater than Rama is Rama’s servant. RAMAYANA AS THE GATEWAY TO HINDU RELIGIOUS EXPRESSION 89

(Ramacharitmanas Uttarakanda, 120k, 16 - temples, education and religious observances. translated by Lutgendorf 2007: facing Preface). Almost 100 years after their arrival, the apart- The foregoing establishes Hanuman’s posi- heid regime’s philosophy of separate develop- tion in Ramakatha and Hinduism as Maruti, ment and group areas initiated massive dislo- Pavan Suta and Avatara of Siva, and devotee of cation of the Hindu communities and their Sri Rama. Hanuman is worshipped throughout religio-cultural institutions. This did not deter the Hindu world, increasingly in his “own right” the girmitiyas from their divine socialising, as and often together with Sri Rama. His strength research has shown. Beginning from the earli- is a hallmark of his personality as Vajrangbali est days of indenture, the Hindis gathered after (Bajrangbali) - one whose body is adamantine a day’s work to engage in listening, reciting and or steel-like. Sri Rama praised Hanuman’s reading Ramayana, Mahabharata etc. (Nowbath, gentle aspect as Pavan Putra (son of the wind- Chotai et al. 1960: 12 cited in Shukla 2002: god) because as Pavan he is mild, but in his 107). The Ramayana provided them with an- terrible aspect he is called Prabhanjan - destruc- swers to all life’s problems - Mr Andhee men- tive like a cyclone (Ramkinkar Upadhyaya 2006: tioned in an interview that the panchayats 105). Immense images of Hanuman have been (council of elders) found solutions to problems erected in India, South Africa (Chatsworth) and through the dohas and chaupais of the Rama- Trinidad to commemorate Hanuman’s person- charitmanas (Shukla 2002: 122). Other precepts ality. Ramayana conferences were held in South of the Ramacharitmanas such as Ayodhyakanda Africa (University of Durban-Westville, Depart- 27, 2 about ethical conduct were regularly ap- ment of Indian Languages in 2002 and Sri plied: Vishnu Temple Trust in 2009). Discourses on It has always been the rule of the Raghus Ramayana are contributed by local as well as that one’s plighted word must be redeemed even international exponents. Following the 2002 at the cost of one’s life. International Ramayana Conference at the Uni- The recognition of Sita and Rama, who are versity of Durban-Westville; the Ramakrishna inseparable and essentially one as the All Per- Centre and Divine Life Society in collaboration vasive Supreme, places Rama and the Ramayana with Vishwa Sahitya Sanskriti Sansthan, Delhi, at the centre of the devotional life of Hindus. held a three-day Hanuman Conference in April Tulasidas confirms this in Balakanda 7: 1 2003 (Shukla 2011: 164-165). The success of Recognizing the entire creation as full of Sita all these events in which Hindus of all linguis- and Rama, I make obeisance to them with joined tic groups participated, points to the convergence palms. of modern technology-driven life and the rich Thus Hinduism in South Africa acquired sta- spiritual gifts of Hinduism. Ramayana and bility and strength with the introduction of Hanumanology are ancient sciences - we still Ramayana Sabhas or groups, starting from the find new gems in them. The Sri Vishnu Temple shelter of trees, to spare rooms or sheds, and Trust held a Hanuman conference in May 2012. much later “garages” and halls. These became The Chinmaya Mission (South Africa) planned focal points of community life in various areas discourseson the Hanuman Chalisa (eulogy of just two years following arrival; and served not 40 couplets for Hanuman) from 25-29 June only for delving into Ramayana but also for 2012. The Hanuman Chalisa is emerging as a learning Hindi and celebrating Diwali, Rama- powerful mantra to people across linguistic and naumi and Krishnashtami amongst others. cultural variations. An episode of a modern “en- Rituals and ceremonies underpinned Hindus’ counter” with Hanuman is recorded by Lut- religious lives, not abstract contemplations gendorf (2007: 296-297) which demonstrates (Shukla 2002: 110). Even the Ramayana Ethos Hanuman’s response to devotees. The Chinmaya took on an “applied” aspect with the enactments Mission also planned to have 5,000 people chant of birth scenes of Sri Rama and the staging of Hanuman Chalisa at Curries Fountain on 8 July dramas and dances on the Ramayana theme 2012. (Richman 2001: 18-19). The improvement of South African Hindis’ religious lives were both secular and cultural education, as well as characterised by struggle and sacrifice - they the influx of neo-Hindu movements from India depended on their own resources to provide the promoting the Rama Ethos, signalled a gradual venues for Ramayana discussions (satsangs), for transition to the philosophical aspects of 90 USHA SHUKLA

Ramayana. Spiritually, though, Rama and is God, to 68.6 percent He is an Avatara, 21.1 Ramayana have their assured place in South percent feel He is a Great Man, 21.1 percent Africa. The Ramacharitmanas has examined say He is a Hero and 26.5 percent regard Him every aspect of religious thought, the Absolu- as a Leader (p. 169). tistic and Theistic Vedanta being chief amongst There is no contradiction in the above per- these. The overwhelming presence of the divine ceptions. Such ambivalences attest to the mul- aura of Rama and Ramabhakti ensure the con- tifaceted, multidimensional nature of both tinued appeal of Ramayana. Ramayana/Ramacharitmanas and Sri Rama. The empirical research carried out by Shukla Ramakinkar Upadhyaya (2006: 122) suggests (2002) elicited responses from 3rd and 4th gen- that we embrace the Divine aspect of Sri Rama eration South African Hindis, which demon- for Shakti (strength) and His humanity for strate the strong, unshakeable faith in Sri Rama Prerna (inspiration), thus benefitting from both. and the Ramayana. The sublimity of Sri Rama’s Within a “diaspora” situation, amongst character, the irreproachable actions and unfail- people born far from the source and separated ing compassion of God on earth in human form by 80 - 100 years in time from the Mother coun- Who embodied the Vedas, 18 Puranas, six try, the foregoing responses touching on a few Sastras (systems of philosophy) and the essence major aspects of the Rama Ethos demonstrate of all the scriptures is the cure for all ills of the significant role of the Ramacharitmanas / Kaliyuga (Ramayana Arati by Tulasidas). Ramayana and Sri Rama in the life of Hindus The most valuable part of the empirical re- in South Africa, which enabled and empowered search on Ramayana/Ramacharitmanas is the them to transcend all the neglect, prohibitions, discovery of the extent of love and devotion for maltreatment and discrimination at the hands Sri Rama that subsists in the Hindu psyche in of their supposedly civilized masters in the days South Africa. of colonial indenture, dominion South Africa The responses to some key questions (Shukla and apartheid South Africa. The Hindus made 2002) were: their own transitions to religio-cultural victory First Acquaintance with Ramayana: 19.5 percent of respondents had heard from grand- with help only from their own inner resources parents, 63.2 percent heard from parents; other and religio-cultural artefacts. As political ani- sources were friends, family, literature, films, mals they were counted amongst the victims of Hindi Studies, satsangs (p. 162). racism and apartheid: as spiritual beings Rama Attitude Towards Ramayana: 48.1 percent - and Ramayana stood by them. veneration, 49.2 percent - great respect; Rea- The Social Aspects of Rama and Ramayana: sons – Ramacharitmanas is scripture, represents These were also canvassed in question 5.5 (pp. Sri Rama and must be worshipped (p. 164). 170- 171) where responses such as “duty and Innermost Feelings Towards Sri Rama: service”, “offering hope and help in distress” Responses included “One and only God”, “Voice were offered. Being deeds of the Ideal Man and I hear within”, “my all”, “my rescuer”, “The Maryada Purushottam (Exemplar of propriety) Absolute, Supreme Being Whom I worship”, all Rama’s actions coincide with Dharma, jus- “Ideal human being in every way”, “Rama is tice and morality. This small segment of the God Who appeared to teach man by example”, original research highlights the potent role of “He is a literary character symbolically repre- the Rama Ethos which persists among South senting God Almighty”, “Essence of the four African Hindi-speaking Hindus until today, fos- Vedas”, “Maryada Purushottam” (Exemplar of tering social cohesion and solidarity. Decorum/Propriety), “All Pervading Brahman” Recent research by Paula Richman in Durban …etc. (pp. 168-169). (2008, Vol. 2.2) recorded observation of The foregoing feelings towards Sri Rama are Ramayana Week in greater Durban at Shree all valid: perceptions at different levels of view- Ramayana Sabha in Overport, The Sree Venkat- ing a text are represented here. Even the re- esvara Devasthanam and Cultural Centre in sponse “Ruthless” – (in Sita’s test by fire) is Chatsworth and the Durban Hindu Temple in appropriate to the reader who regards the Somtseu Road. Richman subtitled this last ob- Ramayana as literature. servation “Urban Commerce and Heritage” How Rama is Viewed: This crucial question (2008: 120) and stated “That the temple holds elicited two major views: 69.7 percent said Rama its Main Ram Navami ritual at noon on a week- RAMAYANA AS THE GATEWAY TO HINDU RELIGIOUS EXPRESSION 91 day and the temple still fills with people illus- Kelly JD 1991. A Politics of Virtue. Chicago & London: trates the draw it continues to exert on Hindus University of Chicago Press. Kelly JD 2001. “Fiji’s Fifth Veda: Exile, Sanatan Dharm, in Durban”. Shukla’s observation at the same and Countercolonial Initiatives in Diaspora.” In: Paula temple during the Ram Navami Celebration Richman (Ed.): Questioning Ramayanas-A South approximately 20 years previously recorded the Asian Tradition. Berkley & Los Angeles: University of same degree of meticulous procedures, dedica- California Press, pp. 329-351. tion and interest (2002: 147). Lutgendorf Philip 2007. Hanuman’s Tale. New York: Oxford University Press. McDermott RF 2008. The Pujas in Historical and Political CONCLUSION Controversy. London: Equinox Publishing Ltd. Mishra VN 1983. The Rama Story in Indian Folklore. In: Hindus are called Amritasya Putra – chil- Srinivas Iyengar K (Ed.): Asian Variations of the Ramayana. Madras: Sahitya Akademi, pp. 100-107. dren of Immortality. They applied knowledge Mishra VN 1999. Vachik Kavita: Bhojpuri. Delhi: Bharatiya of the highest sciences of the Vedas, Upanishads Jnanapitha. and Shastras; yet they were treated as illiterate Nilsson U 2001. Grinding millet but singing of Sita: Power in the indenture colonies. Their “God” Sri Rama and domination in Awadhi and Bhojpuri women’s is characterised as Bhava Bheshaja - remedy for songs. In: Paula Richman (Ed.): Questioning Ramayanas - A South Asian Tradition. Berkley & Los the ills of births and deaths. Rama and Sita, the Angeles: University of California Press, pp. 137-158. 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