A ISSN: 2594-3146 F

U Journal of Agriculture and Forestry University

Volume 2 2018

Agriculture and Forestry University Rampur, Chitwan ISSN: 2594-3146

Journal of Agriculture and Forestry University

Editor-in Chief Prof. Naba Raj Devkota, PhD

Managing Editor Prof. Bhuminand Devkota, PhD

Editorial Board Prof. Shrawan Kumar Sah, PhD Prof. Sunila Rai, PhD Prof. Madhav Prasad Pandey, PhD Prof. Balram Bhatta, PhD Prof. Arjun Kumar Shrestha, PhD Prof. Durga Devkota, PhD

Volume 2 2018 Frequency of Publication Annual

Editorial Policy A medium of publishing original scientific papers

Official Language English

ISSN 2594-3146

Subject of Interest Plant Science, Animal Science, Veterinary Science, Forestry, and Social Science

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Correct citation: Authors detail with surname of first author, first name, followed by first name and surname of other authors in sequence (2018). Title of the article, Journal of AFU (Volume 2): pages, Agriculture and Forestry University, Chitwan, Nepal. Agriculture and Forestry University Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal

Journal of Agriculture and Forestry University (JAFU) Volume 2 2018 Review Articles 1. Association of nutritional status to reproductive performance in buffaloes 1-7 B. Devkota

2. Can organic materials supply enough nutrients to achieve food security? 9-21 J.Timsina

3. Current diagnostic techniques of Mycobacterium avium sub sp. paratuberculosis in 23-34 domestic ruminants S. Singh, I. P. Dhakal, U. M. Singh, and B. Devkota Research Articles 1. Effects of climate change on mountainous agricultural system in Makwanpur, Nepal 35-44 A. P. Subedi 2. Assessment of gender involvement and decisions in agriculture activities of rural Nepal 45-52 D. Devkota, I. P. Kadariya, A. Khatri-, and N. R. Devkota 3. Gender roles in decision-making across the generation and ethnicity 53-62 D. Devkota and K. N. Pyakuryal 4. Out-migration and remittances in Nepal: Is this boon or bane? 63-72 R. R. Kattel and N. Upadhyay 5. Economic valuation of pollination service in Chitwan, Nepal 73-77 S. C. Dhakal 6. Behavioral practices of supply chain actors on quality maintenance of raw milk in Nepal 79-89 U. Tiwari and K. P. Paudel 7. Livelihood improvement through women empowerment for a broader transformation in 91-99 the way of living: A case of Churia area Y. Humagain and D. Devkota 8. Effect of organic and conventional nutrient management on leaf nutrient status of broad 101-105 leaf mustard (Brassica juncea var. rugosa) B. P. Bhattarai, K. P. Shing, S.M. Shakya, G. B. K.C., and Y. G. Khadka 9. Effect of planting dates of maize on the incidence of borer complex in Chitwan, Nepal 107-118 G. Bhandari, R. B. Thapa, Y. P. Giri, and H. K. Manandhar 10. Growth, yield and post-harvest quality of late season cauliflower grown at two ecological 119-126 zones of Nepal H. N. Giri, M. D. Sharma, R. B. Thapa, K. R. Pande, and B. B. Khatri 11. Efficacy of commercial insecticide for the management of tomato fruit borer,Helicoverpa 127-131 armigera hubner, on tomato in Chitwan, Nepal R. Regmi, S. Poudel, R. C. Regmi, and S. Poudel 12. Efficacy of novel insecticides against South American tomato leaf miner (Tuta absoluta 133-140 Meyrick) under plastic house condition in Kathmandu, Nepal R. Simkhada, R. B. Thapa, A. S. R. Bajracharya, and R. Regmi 13. Simulation of growth and yield of rice and wheat varieties under varied agronomic 141-156 management and changing climatic scenario under subtropical condition of Nepal S. Marahatta, R. Acharya, and P. P. Joshi 14. Wet season hybrid rice seed production in Nepal 157-163 S. N. Sah and Z. Xingian 15. Nutritional parameters in relation to reproductive performance in anestrus chauri (Yak 165-169 hybrid) cattle around Jiri, Dolakha B. P. Gautam, B. Devkota, R. C. Sapkota, G. Gautam, and S. K. Sah 16. Changes in physiological and metabolic parameters of sheep (Ovis aries) during trans- 171-175 humance at western himlayan pastures K. Bhatt, N. R. Devkota, I. C. P. Tiwari, and S. R. Barsila 17. Reproductive status and infertility in Chauries around Jiri, Dolakha 177-182 R. C. Sapkota, B. Devkota, B. P. Gautam, T. B. Rijal, G. R. Aryal, and S. K. Sah 18. Determining chemical constituents of the selected rangeland to help improve feed quality 183-189 under the context of climate change in the districts of Gandaki river basin S. Chaudhari and N. R. Devkota 19. Productivity and chemical composition of oat-legumes mixtures and legume monoculture 191-198 in southern subtropical plains, Nepal S. Dangi, N. R. Devkota, and S. R. Barsila 20. Effect of forced molting on post molt production performance of locally available 199-204 commercial laying chicken S. Sapkota, R. Shah, D. K. Chetri, and S. R. Barsila 21. Supply chain analysis of carp in Makwanpur, Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts of Nepal 205-210 K. Adhikari, S. Rai, D. K. Jha, and R. B. Mandal 22. Efficacy of tamoxifen on sex reversal of nile tilapia reochromis(O niloticus) 211-216 N. P. Pandit, R. Ranjan, R. Wagle, A. K. Yadav, N. R. Jaishi, and I. Singh Mahato 23. Performance of pangas (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) under different densities in 217-224 cages suspended in earthen pond S. N. Mehta, S. K. Wagle, M. K. Shrestha, and N. P. Pandit 24. An assessment on abundance of aquatic invasive plants and their management in 225-230 Beeshazar lake, Chitwan A. Sharma, S. Bhattarai, and B. Bhatta 25. In the search of end products of commercially important medicinal plants: A case study of 231-239 yarsagumba (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) and bish (Aconitum spicatum) G. Kafle, I. Bhattarai (Sharma), M. Siwakoti, and A. K. Shrestha 26. Carbon stocks in Shorea robusta and Pinus roxburghii forests in Makawanpur district of 241-248 Nepal P. , G. Kafle, and B. Bhatta Journal of Agriculture and Forestry University (2018), Vol. 2 : 73-77 73 Research Article ECONOMIC VALUATION OF POLLINATION SERVICE IN CHITWAN, NEPAL

S. C. Dhakal* Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal

ABSTRACT Pollination is a regulatory and production form of ecosystem service. In the global scenario of declining pollinators, the study on potential consequential economic loss and ways to conserve them are essential. In this context, this study was conducted to estimate the economic value of pollination and vulnerability of agriculture to pollinator decline in of Nepal. Bioeconomic approach, which integrated the production dependence ratio on pollinators with total economic value, for the food crops grown in the district was used to assess the economic value of pollination. The total economic value of pollination in the study district accounted to about NRs. 999 millions which represented 11% of the total value of the agricultural production used for human food in 2014 in Chitwan district. In terms of welfare, the consumer surplus losses were estimated as NRs. 1,893 millions and NRs. 3,102 millions for assumed price elasticities of − 1.2 and − 0.8, respectively. Vegetables (48.8%) were the leading crop category in value of insect pollination and vulnerability, followed by edible oil crops (24.9%), fruit (9.4%) and pulses (1.8%). Hence, it is recommended that farmers, policy makers, researchers and other stakeholders are to be mindful of such great value of pollination and its vulnerability to protect pollinators and sustain the environment along with promotion of the peoples’ livelihoods. Key words: Bioeconomic approach, consumers' surplus, pollinators' decline, vulnerability

INTRODUCTION Agriculture is the mainstay of the livelihood in Nepalese economy, providing primary occupation to about 65.6% of the total population (MOAD, 2016). However, as agriculture is only a means of subsistence for the majority, the share of agriculture to the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is minimal, contributing just 31.4% to the total GDP (MOF, 2017). The agricultural land is gradually degrading by heavy use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and other forms of pollutant technologies in the form of intensive agriculture (Deshar, 2013). In addition, such agrochemicals have led to decline of beneficial insects, such as crop pollinators and bioagents (Thapa, 2006). Pollination is an important regulatory and production form of the ecosystem services, which provides a variety of benefits including food and fiber, plant-derived medicines, ornamentals and genetic diversity (MEA, 2003). Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of flowering plants (Roubik, 2002). At the global level, 75% of primary crop species and 35% of crop production depends on animal pollination (Klein et al., 2007). Declines in the pollinator populations and species diversity widely have raised concerns regarding the potential risks to global food security, particularly to resource poor developing countries like Nepal. In the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region, evidence of the decline in pollinator numbers has been reported from apple farming in of Nepal (Pratap, 2001). An increase in honey hunting and the ruthless hunting of the nests of wild honeybees is contributing to the decline in the population of indigenous honeybees (Pratap, 2010). Evidence of decline in population of Apis laboriosa in Kaski District of Nepal was reported in another similar study (Ahmad et al., 2003). Like in many other parts of the world, pollinator loss in Chitwan has been attributed to habitat loss resulting from misuse of fertilizers and pesticides, reluctant in beekeeping, deforestation, loss of natural vegetation, increased commercial agriculture, use of high yielding varieties, and many other abiotic and biotic factors. In addition to increasing habitat loss, wild bees face many of the same health perils as managed bees, and their populations have also been declining (Devkota, 2012). This research focused on economic valuation of pollination service and vulnerability assessment of agriculture in the study area to the decline in pollinators. The location-specific empirical research findings from this study could be guiding tools for promotion of pollination service in a sustainable manner.

* Corresponding author: [email protected] 74 S.C. Dhakal MATERIALS AND METHODS This study was based on secondary data collected on production and price of different crop commodities. The methodologies for estimation of the economic value of pollination and vulnerability of agricultural production to decline in pollinators were started from the categorization of crops grown in Chitwan district into different categories based on the dependency ratio to animal pollinators. The scoring of degree of dependency of crop production on insect pollination was categorized into five classes: (i) essential (production reduction by 90% or more without flower visitors, meaning that production requires animal pollination), (ii) high (40 to less than 90% reduction), (iii) modest (10 to less than 40%), (iv) little (greater than 0 to lessthan10%), and (v) no reduction (Klein et al., 2007). Dependency ratio was further enumerated for minimum and maximum value along with the mean dependency ratio of a particular crop upon animal pollinators. Total economic value of production was estimated by multiplying the production with price of respective commodity or commodity groups. Economic value of crop dependent on insect pollination was further estimated by multiplying total economic value of the crop with the dependency ratio. The next assessment was made about the vulnerability ratio of agricultural production to insect pollination. This estimation was done with ratio of the economic value of insect pollination to the total value of crop and expressed in percentage for ease of simplicity in interpretation. Vulnerability ratio was estimated individually for different categories of crops like cereals, fruits, oilseed crops, pulses, roots, tubers, spices, sugar crops and vegetables; and on an overall average level as well. The details of the above description on the total economic value of crop production, economic value of insect pollination and the vulnerability ratio assessment model are presented in following equation (Turner et al., 2003).

IPEV I I = = × × × RV ∑ = (Pi Qi Di)*100% /∑ = (Pi Qi) EV i 1 i 1 Where, RV = Vulnerability ratio EV = Economic value IPEV = Economic value of insect pollination th Pi = Price of i crop th Qi = Quantity produced of i crop Di = Reported value of dependency (Klein et al., 2007) Consumer surplus related to crop pollination in Chitwan was estimated using the approach adopted by Gallai et al. (2009). This approach gives the value of consumers' surplus directly with the use of assumed constant value of price elasticity of demand, economic value of the crop and dependency ratio of a particular crop on insect pollination. According to this approach, consumer surplus is basically sum of two components. The first component is the difference in farm revenue without pollination and the revenue with pollination. The second component is the value placed on the product by consumers who will buy at the low price but would not have bought at the high price of the product in the absence of pollination. The details of the algebraic model used to estimate the impact of pollinators decline on consumer surplus is expressed here under. CSloss = PiQi ((1/1-D)1+E-1) 1+E Where, CSloss = Consumers' surplus loss th Pi = Price of i Crop th Qi = Quantity of i crop E = Assumed value of elasticity of demand

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Animal pollination dependent crops The efforts on economic valuation of pollination service were started from the listing of crops and crop categories grown in the district Table (1). The dependency of crop production on animal pollinators was then segregated into essential, great, modest, little and no increase category based on known values of dependency on insect pollinators. Cucurbits was the single category of crop in the essential group of dependency grown in the district. Whereas, buckwheat, mango, guava, peach, plums and apricot were the crop Journal of Agriculture and Forestry University (2018), Vol. 2 75 in the great pollination dependency group. Similarly, other commodities like okra, broad beans, eggplants, coffee, oilseeds, and soybean were the crops and crop categories that have modest degree of dependency on animal pollinators. The rest of the crops like beans, peas, chillies, peppers, tomato, lemons, linseed, orange, papaya, persimmons, pigeon peas were in the category of little pollinator dependent. The last category of the crops, with no increase in edible parts due to pollination, Morse and calderone (2001) included lentil, maize, millet, rice, sugarcane and wheat in the study area. Table 1. Dependency of different crops to animal pollination grown in Chitwan Dependence Dependence ratio Crop upon insect pollination Min Max Mean (D) Cucurbits Essential 0.9 1 0.95 Mango, guava, buckwheat, peach, pears, plum and apricots Great 0.4 0.9 0.65 Broad bean, coffee, oilseed crops and soybean, okra and eggplants Modest 0.1 0.4 0.25 Beans, peas, chillies, peppers, tomato, lemons, limes, linseed, Little 0 0.1 0.05 oranges, papaya, persimmons, pigeon pea Lentils, maize, paddy, wheat, millets No increase 0 0 0 Source: Klein et al., 2007 Economic value of insect pollination in Chitwan The estimated value of the pollination by insect pollination to the agricultural economy of the study district calculated using the market price valuation is presented in Table (2). The best estimate of the value of pollination by insect to agricultural crops in Chitwan is approximately NRs. 999 millions in 2014 prices. The figure indicates only use value of main product as human consumable goods. Cucurbits, buckwheat, oilseeds and tomato occupy the largest value dependent on insect pollination in descending order. Table 2. Economic value of insect pollination in Chitwan district of Nepal Economic value of insect Average price Production Total value of crop (TVC) Crop pollinators (EVIP) (NRs./mt) (mt) In NRs. millions in NRs. millions Cucurbits 37,500 16,718 626.93 595.58 Okra 42,000 3,616 151.87 37.97 Eggplants 33,000 3,386 111.74 27.93 Beans/peas 71,000 1,788 126.95 6.35 Beans, dry 89,740 500 44.87 2.24 Broad beans 60,634 353 21.40 5.35 Buckwheat 45,628 1,200 54.75 35.59 Chillies 150,069 207 31.06 1.55 Tomatoes 50,081 6,030 301.99 15.10 Lemons/ limes 127,000 100 12.70 0.64 Linseed 38,391 160 6.14 0.31 Mango and guava 50,000 1,696 84.80 55.12 Oilseeds 73,000 10,855 792.42 198.10 Oranges 60,420 1,689 102.05 5.10 Papayas 90,000 320 28.80 1.44 Peaches 70,500 45 3.17 2.06 Pears 55,000 62 3.41 2.22 Pigeon peas 516 144 0.07 0.00 Plums 57,500 10 0.58 0.37 Overall total 40,859 7,416 9066.23 999.11 Source: Authors' estimation based on secondary data obtained from DADO, Chitwan, 2014 76 S.C. Dhakal Vulnerability assessment The value of agricultural crops dependence on animal pollination was estimated using dependency ratio at mean level. Table 3 presents the economic value of animal pollinators and vulnerability ratio. The aggregate vulnerability level of agricultural production to the pollinators decline in Chitwan District was 11%. This vulnerability ratio is quite high as compared with other economies because of growing vegetable production as dominant sub-sector of agriculture in Chitwan district. The reported vulnerability ratios of some other studies using similar methodologies were Africa (8.2%), South Asia (6%), European Union (10%) and USA (11%) (Turner et al., 2003). Breaking it to crop categories components, vegetables, Winfree et al., (2007) oil crops, fruit and pulses have the vulnerability ratios of 48.8, 24.9, 9.4 and 1.8 percentages, respectively. Consumers' surplus loss estimated at elasticity coefficient 0.8 and 1.2 has shown the loss value of about NRs. 3,103 millions and NRs. 1,893 million respectively in the study area (Table 4). Some crops like cereals, roots and tubers, spices and sugar crops grown in the district possess zero level of vulnerability to pollinator decline.

Table 3. Vulnerability of agricultural crops to pollinators decline grown in Chitwan district Total value of crop Economic value of Ratio of Average price Crop category (TVC) insect pollinators vulnerability (RV) (NRs./mt) In NRs. millions (EVIP) in NRs. millions in percentage Cereals 17,114 4165.39 0.00 0.0 Fruits 44,787 716.32 67.03 9.4 Oil crops 72,696 822.56 204.41 24.9 Pulse 73,543 425.37 7.60 1.8 Roots and Tubers 35,310 1261.17 0.00 0.0 Spices 130,234 184.54 0.00 0.0 Sugar crops 9,955 14.93 0.00 0.0 Vegetables 44,128 1475.94 720.07 48.8 Total 9066.23 999.11 11.0 Source: Author's estimation based on secondary data obtained from DADO, Chitwan (2014)

Table 4. Consumers' surplus loss (NRS. millions) agricultural crops to pollinators decline grown in Chitwan district Consumers' surplus loss Crop category E= -0.8 E= -1.2 Cereals 0.00 0.00 Fruits 114.90 94.48 Oil crops 242.07 228.55 Pulse 8.66 8.28 Roots and Tubers 0.00 0.00 Spices 0.00 0.00 Sugar crops 0.00 0.00 Vegetables 2737.90 1561.86 Total 3103.53 1893.17 Source: Authors' estimation based on secondary data obtained from DADO, Chitwan (2014)

CONCLUSION Using a bioeconomic approach, the value of pollination in the Chitwan district of Nepal was calculated, and vulnerability was estimated for the case of a decline in pollinators. It was concluded that agriculture production of Chitwan has ample numbers of essential to the modest degree of pollination dependent crops such as cucurbits, buckwheat, mango, guava, peach, plums, okra, broad beans, eggplants, coffee, oilseeds and Journal of Agriculture and Forestry University (2018), Vol. 2 77 soybean. The estimated economic value of insect pollination to agricultural crops was approximately NRs. 999 million in 2014 prices and this was 11% of total production by value. This vulnerability ratio is quite high because of commercial pockets of vegetables in the study area. Considering the huge value of pollination services, raising awareness at all levels about the importance of pollination, beekeeping and other natural pollinators should be considered . It is suggested to consider and prioritize pollination as a technological input in agricultural development programs of the nation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author express his gratitude to the Global Pollination Project (GPP) funded by GEF and implemented by Institute of Agriculture and Animal sciences for the financial support to conduct this study.

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