COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS
1 Published in November 2019 by the National Geographic Society and African People & Wildlife © Text and design 2019 African People & Wildlife CONTENTS You can download this publication at africanpeoplewildlife.org. Citation: Lichtenfeld, L.L., E.M. Naro, and E. Snowden. 2019. Community, conservation, and collaboration: A framework for success. National Geographic Society, Washington D.C., United States, and African People & Wildlife, Arusha, Tanzania. FOREWORD 2 Reproduction of this publication for educational or other noncommercial purposes is authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of this publication for A MESSAGE FROM AFRICAN PEOPLE & WILDLIFE 4 resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder. INTRODUCTION 6 CONTRIBUTORS African People & Wildlife and the National Geographic Society are pleased INTENDED AUDIENCE 7 to acknowledge the following major contributors to this framework: THE ENDURING IMPACT OF COMMUNITIES IN CONSERVATION 8 Primary Authorship Research Contributions Project Conceptualization Laly Lichtenfeld, Ph.D. Beth Loechler Jonathan Baillie, Ph.D. PRINCIPLES FOR EFFECTIVE ENGAGEMENT 14 Elizabeth Naro United States Peace Corps Response Jonathan Bell, Ph.D. Estella Snowden Therese Tepe Ben Siegelman RECOGNIZING COMMUNITY 16 Conceptual Input Nicholas School of the Environment, Charles Trout Duke University ESTABLISHING COMMON GROUND FOR STRONG COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS 20 Neovitus Sianga Corey Creedon Revocatus Magayane School of Forestry & Environmental Defining Shared Goals 22 Studies, Yale University Identifying Mutual Threats and Opportunities 30 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This framework benefited greatly from the generous input, collaborative spirit, and partnership Governance and Diplomacy 32 of the following invited participants of the inaugural “Future of Community Engagement in Conservation” meeting held in Arusha, Tanzania, on November 14 and 15, 2018: AN EVOLVING PROCESS OF COLLABORATION 38
Herman Aindongo Malima Mbijima Stuart Slabbert Co-designing Activities 40 Namibian Association of CBNRM Support Tanzania National Parks Authority African Parks Working Hand-in-Hand 46 Organisations Alais Morindat Claudia Suca Flora Assey International Institute for Environment Gorongosa National Park Monitoring, Evaluating, Learning, and Adapting 48 Arusha Regional Commissioners Office and Development Michael Thompson, Ph.D. Hans Cosmas Hillary Mushi Frankfurt Zoological Society Financing Community Engagement 54 Vijana na Mazingira Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority George Wambura Joseph Karama Alex Ngabirano Community Wildlife Management COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT IN PRACTICE: EXAMPLES FROM THE FIELD 62 African Parks (Akagera National Park) Conservation Through Public Health Areas Consortium Natural Resource Management 64 Alphonce Mallya Noah Sitati, Ph.D. The Nature Conservancy World Wildlife Fund, Tanzania Wildlife Conservation and Human-Wildlife Conflict Prevention 68
Environmental Education 72 About the National Geographic Society About African People & Wildlife Enterprise and Economics 74 The National Geographic Society is a leading African People & Wildlife (APW) works to ensure a future nonprofit that invests in bold people and where humans and wild animals thrive living side by Development 78 transformative ideas in the fields of exploration, side. APW partners with communities to create effective, A SUSTAINABLE WAY FORWARD 80 scientific research, storytelling, and education. The sustainable solutions that improve the lives of rural Society aspires to create a community of change, Africans while protecting the natural world. Operating APPENDICES 82 advancing key insights about the planet and probing on the ground in Tanzania, APW establishes long-term some of the most pressing scientific questions of relationships with local residents based on the respectful Appendix 1 | Best Practices in Community Engagement: A Quick Reference 84 our time, all while ensuring that the next generation integration of science and tradition. APW’s strategic, Appendix 2 | A Toolkit for Meaningful Engagement 86 is armed with geographic knowledge and global holistic approach to conservation is widely applicable in Appendix 3 | A Reference to Conservation Programs Reviewed 87 understanding. Its goal is measurable impact: landscapes where people and wildlife coexist. Founded furthering exploration and educating people around in 2005, APW is a recognized leader in the field of Appendix 4 | Community Engagement: A Brief Institutional History 88 the world to inspire solutions for the greater good. For community-driven conservation. For more information, more information, visit www.nationalgeographic.org. visit africanpeoplewildlife.org. COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS FOREWORD
FOREWORD
“A community in balance leads to a planet in balance.” For this reason, we are hopeful this framework can support the broader — Eliana Elias, National Geographic Explorer WE ARE ENERGIZED conservation sector. By building on the experiences of others, NGOs and conservation practitioners can enhance their own community engagement BY THIS IMPORTANT At the National Geographic Society, we have helped intrepid explorers, strategies— adapting their tools and trainings to their specific sociocultural STEP. THROUGH AN cutting-edge scientists and researchers, and powerful storytellers contexts, landscape management needs, and community priorities. EVOLVING FRAMEWORK, change the world for over 130 years. One of the most powerful ways we have worked to create impact is by partnering with communities to help COUPLED WITH TRAINING We are energized by this important step. Through an evolving framework, advance local solutions and, in doing so, drive sustainable progress. AND SUPPORT, WE coupled with training and support, we aim to bolster traditional cultures AIM TO BOLSTER and livelihoods while empowering communities across Africa to safeguard Today, in the face of unprecedented threats to our planet’s wildlife and TRADITIONAL CULTURES their natural landscapes for years to come. As we look to the future, we will ecosystems, collaboration is more critical than ever before. Through our AND LIVELIHOODS continue to strengthen our partnerships with indigenous people and local global network of National Geographic Explorers—leading experts in WHILE EMPOWERING communities and harness our history of storytelling to amplify their voices. science and discovery, education and storytelling—we are working closely COMMUNITIES ACROSS with local leaders and champions for the environment and natural world to AFRICA TO SAFEGUARD As Eliana Elias said so powerfully, in order to have a planet in balance we drive new knowledge and solutions, and create a planet in balance. THEIR NATURAL must have communities in balance. LANDSCAPES FOR YEARS Throughout my career, and particularly in my role as chief scientist at the Together, I believe we can accelerate meaningful solutions to protect the TO COME. National Geographic Society, I have seen firsthand how global threats great diversity of life and build a brighter future for all. to biodiversity can be successfully met with locally driven solutions. In fact, I believe local communities play an essential role in biodiversity conservation and ecosystem health. This is why we are so proud to partner with African People & Wildlife and our very own National Geographic Explorer Laly Lichtenfeld. Together, Laly and her team are empowering and enabling local people to become drivers of their own natural landscapes through sound management, governance, and sustainable livelihoods. Jonathan Baillie, Ph.D. Executive Vice President and Chief Scientist To build on our mission and expand our impact, the Society launched Last National Geographic Society Wild Places, a 10-year initiative to help protect the diverse landscapes and marine environments that sustain life on Earth. As part of this effort, we have partnered with African People & Wildlife and other conservation organizations around the world that are embracing community-driven initiatives, building capacity at the local level, and integrating valuable local lessons to inform long-lasting conservation solutions.
The content outlined in this framework highlights many of these lessons Lichtenfeld © APW/Laly © APW/Felipe Rodriguez © APW/Felipe and strategies, which are imbued with a diverse range of traditional knowledge and contextualized experiences. While we recognize that individual communities are richly nuanced and complex, this framework takes great care to capture a cross section of case studies and conservation models from across the African continent, including in Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda. The contexts and implementations vary, but they all share one common theme: local communities are at the heart of the conservation and management efforts.
2 3 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS A MESSAGE FROM AFRICAN PEOPLE & WILDLIFE
A MESSAGE FROM Rodriguez © APW/Felipe AFRICAN PEOPLE & WILDLIFE
African People & Wildlife is committed to working in partnership with local communities. We recognize the critical role people play as stewards ONLY WITH A SPIRIT OF of our natural resources. Few places on Earth today escape the touch COLLABORATION AMONG of humanity—whether positive or negative. With decades of combined CONSERVATIONISTS, experience among our team, we have witnessed firsthand the magic that LOCAL PEOPLE, occurs when people come together; share their priorities, interests, and goals; respect and listen deeply to one another; and work together to GOVERNMENTS, develop effective and meaningful conservation programming. Yet, we BUSINESSES, AND also humbly acknowledge that there is so much still to learn. ADDITIONAL STAKEHOLDERS This is one of the reasons we feel so honored to work with the CAN WE TRULY UNLOCK National Geographic Society and a group of leading conservation THE SIMILARITIES AND practitioners in Africa to develop a framework for community engagement DIFFERENCES IN OUR in conservation. Each landscape that the practitioners reach reflects the EXPERIENCES AND beauty of originality and nuance, shaped by particular ecological, social, COME TO A DEEP cultural, economic, and political influences. Likewise, the communities in UNDERSTANDING those landscapes are individual. Only with a spirit of collaboration among OF THE BEST PRACTICES conservationists, local people, governments, businesses, and additional IN THIS FIELD. stakeholders can we truly unlock the similarities and differences in our experiences and come to a deep understanding of the best practices in this field.
Our efforts start with this document, but they do not end here. We anticipate future revisions to this framework as more partners join us. While we recognize the incredible significance of opening new pathways to community engagement, we also admit that this is only a part of what we need. The actual voices of local people must reach the conservation sector, represented by the individuals themselves as opposed to their conservation emissaries. They need a real-time seat at the proverbial table.
We hope you will agree that we have taken a bold step in the right direction and that this framework serves as an important contribution to the advancement of community engagement in conservation.
Laly Lichtenfeld, Ph.D. Co-founder and CEO, African People & Wildlife National Geographic Explorer
4 5 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS INTRODUCTION / INTENDED AUDIENCE
INTRODUCTION INTENDED AUDIENCE
We are reaching a critical time for conservation and in multiple contexts. In synthesizing our individual We developed this framework for NGOs, conservation It is our hope that conservation practitioners and environmental programming; trends leading toward knowledge and experience, we outline key principles practitioners, and protected area managers working on environmental managers in Africa will use this irreversible tipping points in the Earth’s biodiversity and suggest a road map—winding though it may be as the ground in eastern and southern Africa. For the sake framework and its associated toolkit to enhance and ecosystem health are becoming clearer as pressure applied in different contexts—for strong community of brevity throughout this document, we often refer their knowledge and skills when interacting and mounts from human population increase and natural engagement. to “NGOs” as the audience; however, we recognize working with local peoples. There is no doubt that resource overuse. Failure in environmental efforts and acknowledge that the intended audience is much the application of this framework will vary incredibly is not an option. The support and active engagement Therefore, this framework provides NGOs with a broader than non-governmental organizations alone. depending on the unique geographic, ecological, of local communities is a critical component of strong and elastic process for engagement, based Modern-day conservation challenges often require political, cultural, and economic circumstances of securing a healthy future for our planet—including on guidance derived from a substantial body of community engagement and participation. However, where it is applied. Some sections will apply more all beings, human and wild. To gain that support, knowledge on the topic. It is the result of collaboration many conservationists and environmental managers to high-level governance institutions or protected conservation actions must serve the dual purpose among donors, governments, NGOs, and academics remain trained principally in the ecological and area management while others focus specifically on of benefiting people and nature in order to also meet with the common goal of creating a comprehensive biological sciences with varying degrees of exposure to NGO implementation and on-the-ground activity the growing needs of communities dependent on guide to the principles of community engagement and community outreach strategies. Only in recent decades planning. Therefore, we provide general principles, limited natural resources. a flexible approach to working as partners with local have we seen a shift toward interdisciplinary studies an evolving road map for effective engagement, peoples. Over 60 academic articles and case studies and an increasing emphasis on the importance and and examples of best practices and strong projects Many conservation and development organizations were reviewed to lay the foundation of this framework, relevance of the social sciences to the conservation from the field to help guide those with an interest have important, practical experience working closely and more than 50 organizations’ strategies in eastern and protected area management fields. in further professionalizing their community with local peoples. We hope to learn from their and southern Africa were considered. Interviews were engagement strategies. successes and build on them. However, some lack a conducted with experts in community engagement formal approach that can be expanded, tested, and along with many people who have decades of used to inform the programming of new organizations. experience in the field. In an inaugural workshop on Much of the experience and knowledge surrounding the future of community engagement in conservation community engagement tools and methods is held and development, 15 organizations brought in the minds of practitioners long gone, lost in their experiences together, fostering a true spirit personnel turnover, or found only in literature of collaboration. hidden behind paywalls, rendering it inaccessible to © APW/Felipe Rodriguez © APW/Felipe implementing organizations working in the field on This framework is not intended to be the final product tight budgets. Other donors and NGOs have formal, of that collaboration but rather the first step. We seek written approaches that are heavy in theory but to contribute to the existing body of literature on missing the practical details of community engagement community engagement and provide an open access in action that would allow their models to be imitated guide from which all organizations can learn and adapt. or adopted. Through strategies, case studies, practical examples, and a suite of tools, this framework goes beyond theory And, of course, context matters. Often methods, and uniquely attempts to answer the question of “how” models, and theories of community conservation in a manner that addresses the complexity of our work have been developed to reflect the specific contexts and acknowledges that flexibility is required to account in which organizations with expertise in a region for variable community contexts. And our work is operate. Acknowledging the individuality and not finished here. We invite the input, feedback, and nuances of communities is key to a successful approach. critique of all organizations with experiences to share By reviewing a variety of programs, challenges, and intend for this framework to be a living document, and successes from a network of conservation and adapting and evolving along with the complex development organizations working closely with communities with which we work. communities, we found a unique opportunity to identify best practices in community engagement and highlight overarching lessons that can be applied
6 7 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS THE ENDURING IMPACT OF COMMUNITIES IN CONSERVATION
THE ENDURING IMPACT OF Rodriguez © APW/Felipe COMMUNITIES IN CONSERVATION
The history of our species has revolved around our working in conservation today, women have held a reliance on the natural world. For millennia, human critical—though often underappreciated—position in communities around the world have engaged in natural ensuring the sustainability of Earth’s natural resources. resource management and conservation of the lands Empowering women and girls at the community level on which they depend. Globally, we have impacted to embrace their role as influencers can advance our environment in many ways—from overuse and environmental initiatives regionally and globally. destruction to stewardship and restoration. The importance of engaging local communities in Many of today’s environmental challenges stem not conservation is intensified during this time of climate from poor resource management at the community change. Resilience and mitigation strategies to address level but rather from resource overuse and needs the impacts of unpredictable weather and natural emanating from the most developed countries on the disasters—for both people and wildlife—will require planet. While such rapid economic growth has often collaborations at the landscape level and beyond. created a schism between people and the natural Vulnerable populations and minorities, including world, this human-nature dualism is more unfamiliar to coastal peoples, islanders, and agriculturalists, are those whose livelihoods depend on the security of the deeply dependent on the natural world for their natural resources surrounding them. At the most local livelihoods and therefore stand to lose the most. level, many peoples around the globe have an intimate Fortunately, there is great opportunity in working relationship with and knowledge of their lands, wildlife, together. For example, after Cyclone Idai devastated water, and climate. As such, communities are important rural communities in Mozambique in March 2019, custodians of their environments. thousands of local people living near Gorongosa National Park mobilized to work in partnership with protected area authorities and rangers to facilitate relief efforts and mitigate the damage caused by AT THE MOST LOCAL LEVEL, MANY flooding. This example of communities and institutions PEOPLES AROUND THE GLOBE HAVE working closely for the betterment of people and AN INTIMATE RELATIONSHIP WITH planet is just one of many. The environmental problems AND KNOWLEDGE OF THEIR LANDS, we face provide an opportunity to amplify the voices of WILDLIFE, WATER, AND CLIMATE. AS local peoples, scale indigenous knowledge, and inspire SUCH, COMMUNITIES ARE IMPORTANT collective adaptation and innovation. CUSTODIANS OF THEIR ENVIRONMENTS. It is time to move forward, acknowledging the challenges we face together, recognizing communities’ This document aims to acknowledge the stewardship management of their landscapes, and learning from the role communities play and underscores the enduring wealth of existing traditional ecosystem knowledge. impact they have on landscape management. We We must embrace the beauty and complexity of recognize the importance of traditional systems of social-ecological systems, embodying the values of natural resource management and land allocation, sustainable use inherent in the traditional natural many of which have already inspired large-scale resource management systems that have existed for as landscape planning, influenced government policy, long as humanity itself. But to do this well, we must first and generated income for local peoples. And we ask how to meaningfully and effectively engage with call attention to and celebrate the important role of communities and their lands. women. From women’s responsibilities in sowing and harvesting to the growing number of female scientists
8 9 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS THE LASTING ROLE OF COMMUNITIES IN CONSERVATION
THE CHALLENGES WE FACE This tendency to romanticize non-Western peoples and vast amounts of literature on complexity and social synonymize traditional systems with a lack of desire processes, this critique of community engagement COMMUNITIES CAN NO LONGER The evolution of conservation programs and strategies is still highly relevant today. for progress can seriously hinder the effectiveness BE SIMPLE BENEFICIARIES OF PROGRAMS regulations to support more community-inclusive of community-based conservation and development OR TOKEN REPRESENTATIVES IN ideology represents a significant step forward in programs.3 Relationships with indigenous groups Imbalance of conservation MEETINGS. FOR CONSERVATION community engagement and creates a path toward a can falter if those groups are forced to retain and community benefits more harmonious concept of the relationship between INITIATIVES TO TRULY SUCCEED some stereotypical “primitive” practices. While Are win-win solutions possible? More specifically, are people and nature. Much has been learned along IN OUR GLOBALIZING WORLD, the incorporation of indigenous knowledge into equitable benefits for people and nature possible? the way. Four overarching critiques of community COMMUNITIES MUST BE DESIGNERS OF conservation programming is certainly a best practice, Many programs throughout the years have claimed engagement have emerged from nearly 50 years of distorting traditional practices for the benefit of both conservation and development successes, but SUSTAINABLE PROGRAMS, OWNERS OF experience. We seek to learn from these challenges to tourists or halting community development to retain fewer can claim that the gain to both has been equal.8 ENVIRONMENTAL ENTERPRISES, AND improve community engagement in conservation. the appearance of a natural utopia can cause lasting Programs are often conservation focused with a trickle CATALYSTS FOR CHANGE AT NATIONAL damage to communities and NGOs alike.4 of benefits reaching the community, or development AND INTERNATIONAL LEVELS. Romanticizing community focused with undefined or indirect benefits to the The concept of indigenous community has often Homogenous community perspectives environment. An imbalance in positive outcomes This challenge is perhaps the most difficult of the four been erroneously associated with primitive, Perhaps no pitfall of community engagement can cause resentment and diminishing support from to address, but good practice cases and an increasing backwards, or, in later conservation discourse, virtuous strategies is more prevalent in practice than that the community or insufficient ecological progress.9 number of global assessments provide evidence and pure. Western NGOs, donors, and academics of oversimplifying communities. As it is used on Reconciling conservation and development is an age- that win-win solutions are not only possible, but also engaged in community-based conservation have many NGO websites, in donor strategies, and in old problem, but one we must seek to solve through necessary for a sustainable future.11 idealized the “ecologically noble savage” as a standard government reports, the term “community” often improved project design, logic, monitoring, and by which we measure our ability to live in harmony refers vaguely to local peoples without regard for adaptive management.10 Social and ecological goals 1 Illusion of community involvement with nature. But as environmental historian William the internal complexity in community perspectives, have too often been in conflict or required unfortunate Cronon laments, indigenous peoples who adopt views, or socioeconomic statuses.5 Viewing community trade-offs, and programs aimed at addressing both The last critique is also the most problematic. While modern practices or technologies often suffer a “fall as a single entity with a homogenous position have too often done so only in name. the previous three critiques encompass a challenge 2 from environmental grace” in the conservationist’s view. on environmental initiatives can lead to further we can identify and mitigate, the pitfall that programs marginalization of subgroups that have been excluded “Conflicts between local people and conservation have only the illusion of community involvement is “Why in the debates about pristine natural areas are from the decision-making process.6 Disenfranchised initiatives have generated one of the greatest and difficult to recognize. As conservationists, we want ‘primitive’ peoples idealized, even sentimentalized, and vulnerable groups may not be easily accessible longest running debates in conservation science. to incorporate participatory approaches into our until the moment they do something unprimitive, but are often disproportionately affected by We have provided a novel, global analysis showing programming, and it is easy to believe we are doing modern, and unnatural, and thereby fall from inequitable benefit distribution or other unintended a positive association between the socioeconomic so if we conduct needs assessments, hold community environmental grace? What are the consequences consequences of NGO programming. Recognizing and biodiversity conservation outcomes of PAs meetings, and include community leadership in of a wilderness ideology that devalues productive these environmental justice issues and the complexity [Protected Areas]; these two objectives thus need discussions. However, the appearance of community labor and the very concrete knowledge that comes within communities is a necessary aspect of ethical not be considered as conflicting.” inclusion does not reflect legitimate interest in and from working the land with one’s own hands?” programming and can mitigate the challenges faced by —Johan A. Oldekop, 2016 support of conservation initiatives. Community —William Cronon, 1995 organizations that homogenize communities.7 Despite member participation in meetings does not demonstrate community ownership or empowerment. Of course, establishing strong monitoring systems and safeguards prior to program implementation can help 1 Redford, K. H. 1990. The ecologically noble savage. Orion 9: 25–29. mitigate this challenge. 2 Cronon, W. 1995. The trouble with wilderness; or, getting back to the wrong nature In William Cronon, ed., Uncommon ground: Rethinking the human place in nature. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 69–90. 8 Brichieri-Colombi, T. A., J. M. McPherson, D. J. Sheppard, J. J. Mason, and A. Moehrenschlager. 2018. Standardizing the evaluation of community-based conservation 3 Agrawal, A., and C. C. Gibson. 1999. Enchantment and disenchantment: The role of community in natural resource conservation. World Development 27 (4): 629–649. success. Ecological Applications 28 (8): 1963–1981. 4 Philipp, E. 2015. Ross, Anne, Kathleen Pickering Sherman, Jeffrey G. Snodgrass, Henry D. Delcore and Richard Sherman. Indigenous peoples and the collaborative 9 Babcock, K. L. 2010. Keeping it local: Improving the incentive structure in community-based natural resource management programs. stewardship of nature: knowledge binds and institutional conflicts. Agriculture and Human Values 32 (2): 365. Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law & Policy 21 (1): 201–229. 5 Waylen, K. A., A. Fischer, P. J. McGowan, and E. J. Milner-Gulland. 2013. Deconstructing community for conservation: Why simple assumptions are not sufficient. Human 10 Anthony, B. P., and L. Swemmer. 2015. Co-defining program success: Identifying objectives and indicators for a livestock damage compensation scheme at Ecology 41: 575–585. Kruger National Park, South Africa. Journal for Nature Conservation 26: 65–77. 6 Berkes, F. 2006. From community-based resource management to complex systems: The scale issue and marine commons. Ecology and Society 11 (1): 45. 11 Oldekop, J., G. Holmes, W. Harris, and K. Evans. 2016. A global assessment of the social and conservation outcomes of protected areas. Conservation Biology 30 (1): 7 Margulies, J., and K. K. Karanth. 2018. The production of human-wildlife conflict: A political animal geography of encounter. Geoforum 95: 153–164. 133–141.
10 11 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS THE LASTING ROLE OF COMMUNITIES IN CONSERVATION
This critique can also invoke the problem of oversimplifying the community, since some subgroups in a community may be genuinely engaged in conservation projects while others may
be marginalized, excluded, or ignored. Reflecting on Serex © Jonathan organizational intentions and refraining from imposing goals on communities can help distinguish between Lichtenfeld © APW/Laly surface-level involvement and true community ownership of conservation efforts. While these can be difficult processes—even for well-intentioned organizations—they are a necessary aspect of program adaptation and evolution.
“Attempts to broker partnerships need to start from the recognition of indigenous people as ‘equals at the discussion table,’ not (as so often in the past) as subaltern groups to whom rights might be conditionally ceded by pragmatic conservation proprietors.” —William Adams, 2007
IMAGINING A NEW PATH
“How can we begin to move toward ecological and cultural sustainability if we cannot even imagine what the path feels like?” 12 — Robin Wall Kimmerer, 2013
Despite these common pitfalls, the importance of succeed in our globalizing world, communities must human-nature relationship. Indeed, we must question community engagement in conservation efforts be designers of sustainable programs, owners of our own relationship with nature and strive to set THE NECESSITY OF A RIGHTS-BASED continues to grow. Development and environmental environmental enterprises, and catalysts for change aside the human-nature dualism that has threatened APPROACH TO CONSERVATION work must occur simultaneously for long-term, at national and international levels. Our role, as coexistence for centuries. Most importantly, we must CANNOT BE OVERSTATED. WE MUST sustainable outcomes to be achieved. None of the organizations with political leverage, financial be agents of change, inspiring all sectors of society challenges described above are impassable if we as resources, scientific prowess, and environmental to be good stewards of their natural environments. BUILD THE CAPACITY OF COMMUNITIES conservationists recognize them and seek to alter our management expertise, must shift toward one of TO MANAGE THEIR OWN RESOURCES, programs accordingly. This requires not just adjusting support, facilitation, and advocacy. The necessity of Though not all community engagement strategies RECOGNIZING THEIR WEALTH OF problematic program designs but also reflecting on our a rights-based approach to conservation cannot be have been successful in the past, in most cases today TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE WHILE ALSO own perspectives, learning from our history, and—most overstated. We must build the capacity of communities there is simply no other way to do conservation. PROVIDING ACCESS TO NEW SCIENCE importantly—shifting to a new environmental paradigm to manage their own resources, recognizing their Shifting our environmental paradigm from community- AND TECHNOLOGICAL TOOLS. in which communities drive conservation. wealth of traditional knowledge while also providing based to community-driven conservation is crucial to access to new science and technological tools. We finding balance between people and nature, society The time has come for us to redefine our role as must empower the most vulnerable populations in and ecology, tradition and innovation. Perhaps the conservationists. Communities can no longer be simple communities while working within existing cultural more appropriate question to ask ourselves—as we beneficiaries of programs or token representatives and governance structures. We must be facilitators of embark on a journey toward more ethical, equitable, in meetings. For conservation initiatives to truly innovation while encouraging the revival of a healthy and ecologically sound conservation—is not why we should engage communities, but why communities 12 Kimmerer, R. W. 2013. Braiding sweetgrass: Indigenous wisdom, scientific knowledge and the teachings of plants. Minneapolis: Milkweed Editions. should engage with us.
12 13 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS PRINCIPLES FOR EFFECTIVE ENGAGEMENT
PRINCIPLES FOR EFFECTIVE ENGAGEMENT
Engaging effectively with communities requires a linkages; empathy and attention to perspectives; FIG. 1 solid foundation of trust based on mutual respect and responsiveness to emerging problems; and support to INCLUSIVE PARTICIPATION 1 understanding of priorities. Establishing principles as increase resilience of community conservation efforts. Real and active participation is perhaps one of the REPRESENTATION a code of conduct helps the relationship process by most challenging principles to implement in practice. When donor-imposed timelines require NGOs to meet setting expectations for all parties. To avoid the pitfall of the illusion of community benchmarks and deadlines, there can be a tendency to engagement, NGOs must ensure that participation It also assists NGOs in developing their approaches push the process along. However, when working with in conservation initiatives is inclusive and substantial. to and activities around community engagement. communities, rigidity is not favorable. It is important to BALANCED LANGUAGE These five strategies, which also reflect the principles RESULTS AND And it sets the stage for transparency, which remain fluid, flexible, and responsive to the momentum KNOWLEDGE mentioned, can assist NGOs in fostering genuine conservationists agree is critical to building and pace of local people. The specific values reflected INCLUSIVE INCLUSION participation in a target community. PARTICIPATION lasting, meaningful partnerships. in the principles will undoubtedly vary based on culture, project, and setting. Still, in virtually all cases, Some organizations use guiding principles as a agreed upon, documented principles serve as a lens foundation for their models of engagement. For that is critical to ensuring conservationists remain example, housed in the acronym PARTNERS, the Snow mindful of the concerns of residents. LOCAL CREATING Leopard Trust emphasizes its principles of community RELEVANCE SPACES engagement: the presence of conservationists among In a workshop on community engagement hosted the community members; the aptness of interventions; by African People & Wildlife in Arusha, Tanzania, on relationships built on respect; transparency with local November 14 and 15, 2018, our invited collaborators communities; negotiations based on conservation shared what they believed to be the most essential principles:
Ensure Widespread Representation Create Spaces for Information Exchange PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT Reach out to minority members of a community and As an NGO, make staff members available to vulnerable populations to ensure they are aware the community regularly. NGO staff should be Flexibility Integration of and have access to program activities. This may approachable and open to listening to and discussing Remaining responsive to shifting community Embracing a shared learning environment that mean sending team members to remote areas of a relevant issues with community members. Both interests and issues, adjusting direction and emphasizes understanding and empathy through community, providing transportation, and closely formal and informal spaces for ideas and feedback monitoring activity demographics. Providing are extremely useful. momentum as necessary dialogue, listening, and support of local languages opportunities for majority-minority or gender disaggregated meetings and ensuring confidentiality Ensure Local Relevance Respect Relevance will help give underrepresented people the Programs should be co-designed with the community Upholding cultural institutions, local governments, Incorporating traditional knowledge and diverse opportunity to speak freely. and be pertinent to their needs. People are not likely and community decision-making structures in perspectives of local communities and indigenous to participate in programming that seems unlikely to conservation initiatives peoples Foster Language and Knowledge Inclusion affect them or is irrelevant to their lives. Remember, Ensure that translators are present during activity relevance will change over time so programs must Trust Empowerment implementation when necessary and encourage follow another principle: flexibility. Optimizing benefit-sharing and improving Inspiring community involvement by committing community members to contribute what they know livelihoods through transparency, equity, to resource ownership, capacity building, and about a relevant topic. Note that this knowledge may Aim for Balanced Results and reciprocity accountability not be shared in the way we are used to (through Ensure that program benefits are distributed as books or records) but may be provided in the form equally and equitably as possible among community Participation of stories, songs, and art. Similarly, accessing this subgroups. Groups that feel shortchanged or Eliciting inclusive community participation knowledge can require different lines of questioning marginalized will be less likely to participate in and collaboration with stakeholders to account for varying perceptions of what information future programming, which will further the cycle of is important. A wide range of tools beyond interviews imbalanced results. Providing equitable benefits is also or group meetings can also be used to learn about a strategy for another principle: trust. 1 Snow Leopard Trust. 2019. Partners principles. https://www.snowleopard.org/our-work/conservation-programs/partners-principles. local knowledge.
14 15 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS RECOGNIZING COMMUNITY
RECOGNIZING COMMUNITY
Jamii. Communauté. Olosho. primary community over time. But regardless of the Finding Each Other feature that binds people together—be it geographic, Comunidade. Gemeenskap. Community. How do we decide upon our community partners? NO MATTER THE FEATURE THAT BINDS historical, religious, political, or linguistic—individuals For an NGO with limited experience in a target THE COMMUNITY TOGETHER, ASSESSING Every spoken language on our planet has a word to identify with a community as a way of making meaning region, they may be predetermined by organizational THAT COMMUNITY’S INTEREST describe the fellowship between people living in the in their lives. We are social beings, and membership priorities, geography, eco-indicators, and existing IN ENGAGING IN CONSERVATION same area and experiencing the same environment. in some community is a necessary aspect of a healthy connections. In the beginning, NGOs typically work PROGRAMMING IS CRUCIAL TO Communities are often bound by historical and life. It is therefore imperative for conservation NGOs with the communities they know on issues relevant cultural ties, and those within them have often intending to work with people to first recognize how DETERMINING IN WHICH COMMUNITIES to their conservation goals, expanding programming suffered similar challenges and celebrated similar joys. the communities are defined locally, understand what THE PROGRAM WILL SUCCEED. as they grow their networks, resources, and Within communities, there will always be complex binds them together, and consider how they serve to organizational reputations. In this case, a community social, political, economic, religious, or professional make meaning for their members. interest assessment is often a strong place to begin. For established NGOs with well-known programming, differences, but members of them are nonetheless This type of appraisal can include a formal needs the task of determining which communities to connected by the shared experiences inherent in their As NGOs, we must also clarify the definitions of words assessment or be comprised of informal meetings and work with can require an entirely different process. common environment. often used synonymously with community: society, discussions with community members and leadership. Ideally, established NGOs no longer need to conduct indigenous, local, and native are just a few of the terms This is also an ideal time to begin identifying diversity interest assessments since community leadership will Of course, sharing a locality is just one way of defining often interchanged with community, despite having and complexity within a community to avoid the pitfall seek out the NGO and make their interest known. a community. Individuals may identify with broader internationally recognized distinguishing features. We of assuming homogenous community perspectives. It is then imperative for NGOs to develop rapid global communities such as political parties; ethnic, cannot assume that all communities we work with are Tool 1 in the toolkit provides a guide for assessing response protocols for assessing internal readiness religious, racial, or gender groups; or people who indigenous or even native. Subgroups of communities community interest along with a checklist to ensure and for engaging a new community, since delayed share some other trait. People may also identify with may certainly be indigenous, but ascribing this trait NGOs have not overlooked important processes in response times or disorganized start-ups can hinder specific sectors of a larger community, choosing to to the whole can lead to the pitfalls of homogenizing early community engagement. relationships before they begin. Using standard highlight the diversity that can be found even in the or romanticizing the community. Thus, in recognizing templates for start-up project planning, budgeting, most isolated places. Members of one subgroup communities, we must accept and embrace the and timeline charts, NGOs can work with communities may intersect, conflict, or overlap with members of complexity inherent in social systems. on a program package, ready to be adapted to the another subgroup, and individuals may shift their
CASE STUDY with local leaders—use a mobile-based reporting meetings between pastoral committees and APW staff. system to provide updates on pasture quality to their Together, they identified rangeland management African People & Wildlife’s community networks. goals early in the start-up process. © APW Sustainable Rangelands Initiative APW began implementing the Sustainable Rangelands By 2019, word of mouth and organizational partners In the northern Tanzania rangelands, 92 percent of Initiative in 2016 in its home village of Loibor Siret, had spread awareness of this program to new available wildlife habitat consists of places where where the NGO has strong relationships, a physical communities. In geographies where the program is people and wildlife interact. African People & Wildlife’s presence, and an in-depth understanding of local implemented, APW no longer seeks out villages and (APW’s) Sustainable Rangelands Initiative works to rangeland dynamics. Soon thereafter, the program assesses their interest; instead, APW rangeland officers keep these critical areas open and flourishing for expanded to include two additional villages where act as ambassadors of the program and village pastoral the long-term benefit of rural communities and wild APW had been implementing human-wildlife conflict committees seek their assistance. Through established animals. Through regular data collection, assessment, programming for several years. Conversations with start-up protocols and a long-standing positive information sharing, and active management, community members in those villages indicated a organizational reputation in northern Tanzania, APW volunteer rangeland monitors—selected in conjunction substantial interest in rangeland monitoring and has been able to expand its Sustainable Rangelands management. This interest was assessed during Initiative—with communities making the first move.
16 17 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS RECOGNIZING COMMUNITY
operations and intended outcomes. The ambassadors community or subgroup can escalate conflicts between
1 groups, exacerbate existing inequities, and create Free, Prior, and Informed Consent may need to travel to new locations to assess the interest of geographically new communities, or they unwanted competition. The right of all people to give or withhold may need to consider adapting existing programs to However, working in multiple communities consent to a program or project that may affect include new subgroups (e.g., based on politics, simultaneously can also be challenging. Limited them, their property, or their natural resources. gender, or religion) in a familiar locality. No matter the financial resources can cause NGOs to stretch Particularly relevant to indigenous peoples, and feature that binds the community together, assessing programming too thin; where a well-funded program recognized in the United Nations Declaration that community’s interest in engaging in conservation may have succeeded in one community, spreading on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Free, programming is crucial to determining in which the financial resources between multiple communities Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC) empowers communities the program will succeed. can lead to poor implementation and eventual communities to negotiate the conditions of project failure. Moreover, if the NGO prioritizes one a project and its design, implementation, Setting Boundaries community over another or funnels funding into continuation, and termination. Though embracing complexity is a necessary aspect of working with diverse communities, NGOs must also certain aspects of programming but not others, it could be seen as favoritism. This can create conflict or Tool 1 in the toolkit provides guidelines set boundaries. Taking into account organizational competition for resources between communities or for initial communication with communities mission, capacity, and limitations, these boundaries Multiple-Community Programming subgroups and damage relationships with the NGO. to ensure that FPIC is honored from the start may be geographic, political, cultural, or demographic. When conservation initiatives are relevant to many Facilitating collaboration between staff in multiple of engagement. Programmatic boundaries can also be set to target geographic communities or demonstrate early success, communities can mitigate this challenge and ensure a livelihood-specific subgroup within a community; NGOs will likely be encouraged to work in multiple the benefit of shared learning opportunities. As always, perhaps an NGO can target farmers and pastoralists localities. For conservation, this can be ideal. With the following the principles of community engagement but does not have the expertise or resources to work appropriate resources and capacity, NGOs working in when interacting with potential target communities specific context of the community. By showing an with wildlife scouts, teachers, or medical professionals. multiple locations have an excellent opportunity to is crucial. In particular, maintaining trust through immediate willingness to engage and demonstrating All members of a community may have valuable learn from implementation in varied landscapes and to transparency in community selection will prevent a well-structured start-up procedures, an NGO can gain perspectives on a topic of mutual interest to the NGO, apply best practices across borders. As programming breakdown in relationships. Further, it is always critical the confidence of the community, especially if the but the NGO must determine the community within becomes more adaptable to new communities, to determine the local relevance of programming. community has had unsuccessful engagement in the a community that will enable the most success as a outreach opportunities increase and allow for Simply employing blanket scale-ups across past. Tools 2.1 and 2.2 in the toolkit provide a template partner during program implementation. Identifying exponential conservation and development benefits. start-up budget and timeline chart, respectively, which community champions is a proven strategy used by communities assumes all challenges and solutions are uniform and may ignore critical nuances that NGOs can adapt to their own programming. many NGOs that will be discussed in further detail in Working in multiple communities across diverse render programming ineffective and expenditures Accessing the Community. landscapes and ecosystems also provides NGOs irresponsible and wasteful. Of course, even after years of positive relationship with financial and administrative insurance. Should building, demonstrated success in programming, and “A problem common to both scholarly and advocate political, social, or economic conditions change in one Lastly, when working across diverse landscapes or with structured start-up protocols, NGOs may still conduct agendas might be described as ‘genericization.’ community—resulting in program termination or delay— multiple subgroups within one geographic community, regular outreach to expand their programs to new Advocate model-building can too easily become work can continue in other areas where conditions are NGOs must be aware of different community priorities geographies and communities. Appointing local staff— embroiled in implementing management regimes more stable. Diversifying communities is, in this way, and goals. It can be easy to expand programming who are both knowledgeable about the work and in which concepts such as community, territory, similar to diversifying funding portfolios. strong communicators—as organizational ambassadors rights, resources, management, indigenous, and based on the interests of communities while not setting boundaries to retain the organizational mission. is key to approaching new communities as potential traditional are used generically without regard to There are many ethical reasons for implementing While we must avoid generalizing programming and partners. These staff members should speak the local local contexts and wide-ranging political stakes in conservation programming in multiple communities. be flexible and willing to adapt to new community languages, be well aware of local culture and traditions, these terms.” 2 —James Brosius, 1998 As in the health and development sectors, sharing the contexts, working with communities based on mutual and be prepared to answer questions about program benefits and technology of conservation programming goals (see Tool 1: Assessing Community Interest) can widely allows for greater equity between communities prevent mission drift. and helps prevent further marginalization of already 1 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2019. Free, Prior and Informed Consent. http://www.fao.org/indigenous-peoples/our-pillars/fpic/en/ vulnerable populations. Programs targeting just one 2 Brosius, J. P., A. L. Tsing, and C. Zerner. 1998. Representing communities: Histories and politics of community-based natural resource management. Society & Natural Resources 11 (2): 157-168.
18 19 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS INTRO PAGES © APW/Felipe Rodriguez © APW/Felipe
ESTABLISHING COMMON GROUND FOR STRONG COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
Determining which communities to work in based on their interest and readiness is only the beginning of true engagement. In this section, we walk through three key aspects of community engagement that must be considered early in an organization’s program timeline: defining shared goals with the community, assessing mutual threats and opportunities, and supporting good governance and diplomacy.
20 21 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS ESTABLISHING COMMON GROUND FOR STRONG COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
DEFINING SHARED GOALS
One of the most important phases of building Accessing the Community introductions to other people. If the NGO is lucky, a strong relationships with communities is discovering community champion will be a member of the village Goals. Objectives. Results. Depending on how established or evolved an the goals we have in common. Just as all members council or other local governance institution. Finding Benchmarks. Targets. Milestones. organization is, the precise starting point for engaging of a community must share some trait in order to community champions may take time, but without Project. Program. Activity. with a community may vary substantially. A new NGO identify with that community, NGOs must learn which them it can be more difficult for NGOs to engage may struggle initially with zero or few contacts to environmental goals they share with a community effectively and consistently. Individuals who know As NGOs, we often get caught up in defining begin a relationship. As referenced in Recognizing in order to integrate effectively. This process may the influencers in a community can help inform the and differentiating terms. While this can be Community, it is preferable to work with communities begin informally and gradually shift toward formal NGO about the local decision-making and social extremely important for donors and within where the NGO has some connections. However, new goal-setting exercises; it may be years long or even processes and ultimately endorse and give credibility organizations, it is beyond the scope of this relationships can always begin through the simple an ongoing phase of community engagement. In to conservation interests. framework. Thus, we focus on concepts rather act of being present in a community and establishing defining common ground with the community, than precise definitions. Some terms may be friendships. Attending community events, celebrations, we should promote open dialogue and foster Community champions should help facilitate used interchangeably, and it is up to each NGO and meetings or visiting eating establishments and collaborative relationships that help the NGO become introductions with, or provide contact information to determine how they fit within their own places of worship can be excellent ways to begin not just tangential to the community, but a part of it. for, members of a community executive council or organizational structure. Remember: When meeting community members. Importantly, this places local people squarely at the working across cultures and languages, this other leadership authority. When getting to know center of the conservation discourse. local leadership, it can be helpful to arrange a brief flexibility is key! Through our local connections, we should try to introductory meeting first to build trust before identify at least one community champion. A planning for larger presentations or discussions. This community champion is an individual in the community meeting should include introductions with key people who has strong connections to local leadership and from the NGO and the community and may involve the community at large and is willing to facilitate a brief description of the NGO’s mission statement.
TIPS AND TOOLS: TIPS AND TOOLS: CLARIFY INTERNAL GOALS ASSESS INTERNAL CAPACITY © APW
Before engaging with communities to determine their own priorities, areas for expansion, and When working with communities, we have a mutually held goals, NGOs should have a strong red lines they won’t cross. For instance, an NGO responsibility, at the very least, to “do no harm.” sense of their own identities and priorities. This focused on stabilizing apex predator populations Before implementing a project, organizations should will help ensure they come prepared to meetings may draw a red line if a community goal is to have a strong grasp of their own skills and strengths with community leadership. Many NGOs already extirpate the predator population in their area. in order to maximize their engagement efforts. have a vision, mission statement, or desired end Without defining red lines before meeting with If done comprehensively with a self-critical lens, state defined in their organizational frameworks, community leadership, an NGO may be subject to internal readiness assessments help pinpoint gaps which can serve as an internal guideline for priority- mission drift or lose its foundational vision. Thus, and areas where additional resources are required to setting exercises. However, broad visions must be we must recognize, as conservation NGOs, that be successful. pared down to goals that are relevant to the scope there is some inherent, and yet essential, risk in and context of the intended project site. Goals community-driven goal setting. Using STEP analysis, Tool 4 in the toolkit guides should be feasible, but also ambitious! Goals that organizations through the process of assessing are too lofty may leave a project with no realistic Tool 3 in the toolkit can help NGOs clarify internal capacity for social, technical, economic, targets, whereas goals that are too easy to achieve their internal goals, areas for expansion, and and political work in their target communities. may not allow for project growth and expansion. red lines and organize them before meeting Before conducting visioning workshops with with communities. community leadership, NGOs should understand
22 23 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS ESTABLISHING COMMON GROUND FOR STRONG COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
While all these assessments may seem cumbersome members will have their own interests and red lines, or complicated, they will often overlap significantly in which may overlap, conflict, or complement those COMMUNITY CHAMPION Community Champion results. Some organizations may choose to conduct of the NGO. HIGHLIGHT An individual in the community who is rigorously sampled assessments, while others may knowledgeable about community structure, find it more useful to glean this information through When meeting with community leadership for a Helena Mbarnoti has connections with community leadership, informal discussions and conversations with community visioning workshop, we should allow significant Tanzania and is willing to facilitate introductions to members. Either way, this initial scoping phase will help time for members of the community to state their Helena Mbarnoti, known as Mama Helena to the other people. the NGO deepen its understanding of the community perspectives, issues of interest, and goals, recognizing village of Loibor Siret, Tanzania, is a natural leader. while strengthening relationships with individuals, that the community will not have homogenous She lives in a Maasai village where women’s roles subgroups, and leadership. views. Understanding local politics and the multiple are defined by tradition and a long history of a perspectives within communities can help NGOs pastoralist and patriarchal lifestyle. Nevertheless, Importantly, the community leadership should be Remember to keep the principles of community build layered alliances that span multiple levels of 1 Mama Helena has spent years empowering encouraged to describe the critical environmental engagement in mind so that all communication with governance. There are several strategies that we use women in the village to be in control of their own issues in their community and how the NGO’s mission community members is respectful and the NGO’s in visioning workshops with communities to foster an futures, to gain financial independence, and to fits—or doesn’t fit—within existing priorities or intentions are transparent. This can expedite the inclusive and participatory atmosphere: learn useful skills. programming and initiatives. relationship-building process and alleviate suspicion of newcomers. • Joint facilitation: Identify facilitators from both the NGO and the community who can meet before Mama Helena has served as a community Understanding the Local Context champion for African People & Wildlife’s Women’s Connecting with the Community the visioning workshop to delineate the roles and After an introductory meeting, the NGO should learn Beekeeping Initiative since its inception. After an With a better understanding of the local context, responsibilities of each facilitator. as much as possible about local needs, priorities, issues, initial environmental entrepreneurship training, grounded in developing relationships, we can now existing systems, and other NGOs working in the she led the Women’s Association in choosing begin connecting more deeply with the community • Language inclusion: Ensure that translators region. This phase of community engagement is critical beekeeping as a sustainable and environmentally leadership to identify shared goals and mutual will be present for all languages spoken in the to truly understanding the people, their culture(s), and friendly enterprise. “When the women apply priorities. At this stage, it is important to remember community so that all subgroups in attendance the social dynamics within which an NGO intends to themselves, take responsibility, and work, and acknowledge that community leadership and will have the opportunity to understand the work. A suite of assessments can be conducted at this [they] gain an added freedom,” Mama Helena proceedings and voice their perspectives in phase, all of which comprise a Context Assessment. says. “I am very thankful for the organization their preferred language. This is also an opportune time to begin collecting because women are directly benefiting and they baseline information, even though indicators for are grateful.” Mama Helena has been able to monitoring may not be defined. strengthen her natural leadership skills by heading TIPS AND TOOLS: the Women’s Association. She is a catalyst for Depending on the region, community, NGO mission, STAKEHOLDER MAPPING women’s empowerment in her community via her and assessment capacity of the NGO, a Context championing of African People & Wildlife’s mission. Assessment may include the following: Building relationships in new communities can Tool 5 in the toolkit provides two templates for sometimes be overwhelming, with many new stakeholder mapping. The first, Tool 5.1, allows • Needs appraisal people, organizations, and civil society groups NGOs to categorize stakeholders as “opponents” • Conflict analysis vying for their voices to be heard. It may be or “supporters” of their cause along with their • Historical background research difficult initially to determine which individuals levels of engagement. The second, Tool 5.2, • Land-use change analysis and groups can help, which will oppose, and asks NGOs to rank the level of power that each why. Examining these new relationships in depth stakeholder may have and thus determine if • Market assessment
© APW/Felipe Rodriguez © APW/Felipe through a stakeholder analysis can help orient an that stakeholder’s support or opposition will be • Attitudinal survey NGO while also providing necessary context for significant in programming. building community partnerships.
1 Agrawal, A. 2005. Community, intimate government, and the making of environmental subjects in Kumaon, India. Current Anthropology 46 (2): 161–190.
24 25 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS ESTABLISHING COMMON GROUND FOR STRONG COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
• Disaggregation: Consider offering separate visioning workshops for women or other minority Conflict Transformation Model groups to ensure their views are included. Members of minority subgroups may not feel One model that can be used for conflict comfortable voicing their opinions in front of the resolution within a working group is the greater community. Disaggregating may help Conflict Transformation Model.4 This model avoid the pitfall of homogenizing community conceptualizes conflicts as opportunities perspectives. to understand and change the factors shaping priority conflict. It entails long-term • Mirroring: Encourage the community facilitator engagement with conflicting parties and to lead the proceedings as they would in any acknowledges that disputes about a given other community meeting, with the NGO issue may be based on underlying histories of facilitator representing the interests, goals, conflict.5 Members of the working group must
© APW/Laly Lichtenfeld © APW/Laly and red lines of the organization. The location therefore meet regularly, and are encouraged and atmosphere should mirror those of to discuss their shared values, differing community meetings in which the NGO does perspectives, and personal connections to CASE STUDY not participate. This will avoid the pitfall of the conflict issue. Only through repeated, the visioning workshop becoming purely NGO respectful human engagement can meaningful driven and the workshop results appearing to be Acknowledging the Importance overlapped spatially with elephant corridors, creating relationships be built between conflicting initiated from the top down.3 of Traditional Knowledge in further conflict between people and elephants, parties on an issue. When members of a Conflict Prevention particularly at night. As conservation organizations working group understand each other’s recognized this issue, they began to probe community • Structured participation: Create an agenda for sociopsychological needs and begin to develop Including traditional knowledge in conservation elders for traditional methods of preventing conflict the meeting in collaboration with the community relationships outside of the conflict sphere, programming is often said to be a necessary between humans and elephants and instilling pride in facilitator that encourages each subgroup within open communication is more likely element of community engagement. Recognizing the communities for their traditional livelihoods. Now, the community to state its priority goals and and resolutions to conflict issues become where traditional knowledge is useful begins at through a combination of technological early warning red lines. This often requires strong facilitation more feasible. the assessment phase when NGOs can speak with systems, easily implementable deterrents such as chili to ensure the discussion remains targeted on community members about their past and current oil and beehives, and traditional ecological knowledge the topic of potential shared community-NGO practices in natural resource management and of elephant movement patterns, communities are more programming and not all societal needs as Managing Conflicting Goals human-wildlife conflict prevention. prepared when elephants are present in the corridor, recognized by the community. leading to fewer conflicts and consequent incidences Of course, while some goals of the NGO and In some communities where prolonged international of retaliation. • Actionable agenda: At the beginning of the all subgroups of the community will overlap or aid efforts have overshadowed indigenous knowledge, visioning workshop, ensure that the facilitators complement each other, other goals will conflict. NGOs may have to actively encourage a revitalization “People had forgotten how to use the wind, the clarify an end goal or deliverable that should Red lines may be crossed where one community of traditional practices. In the Transmara District of time of day, and the look of the soil. The indigenous be completed by the end of the meeting. This group’s priority goals directly contradict those of southwestern Kenya, for instance, elephant conflict knowledge was disappearing and that explained will help each member of the community frame another group or the NGO. has long been a challenge to the safety of the local why there was high conflict. Now, we’ve made some their thoughts around that deliverable and allow communities. As development partners pushed the good progress in terms of community engagement, for more productive and actionable discussion. For instance, a farmers’ association or other agricultural communities toward agriculture over pastoralism with less focus on sophisticated and expensive Community members should be able to see how community group may have land-use priorities that for food security reasons, crop raiding by elephants anti-conflict measures, and more on simple and their perspectives and input are reflected in the conflict directly with the land conservation goals of became a dire threat, not just to safety but also to cost-effective methods that incorporate traditional final deliverable. the NGO, the infrastructure development goals of a livelihoods. The traditionally nomadic people became knowledge of the land.” — Noah Sitati, World Wide more permanently settled near their farms, which often Fund for Nature 2 3 Measham, T. G., and J. A. Lumbadsi. 2013. Success factors for community-based natural resource management (CBNRM): Lessons from Kenya and Australia. Environmental Management 52 (3): 649–659. 4 Madden, F., and B. McQuinn. 2014. Conservation’s blind spot: The case for conflict transformation in wildlife conservation. Biological Conservation 178: 97–106. 2 Sitati, N. W., and M. J. Walpole. 2006. Assessing farm-based measures for mitigating human-elephant conflict in Transmara District, Kenya. Oryx 40 (3): 279–286. 5 Madden and McQuinn. 2014.
26 27 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS ESTABLISHING COMMON GROUND FOR STRONG COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
transportation authority, and the economic goals of a to create a working group tasked with discussing Even when no mutually ideal solution is proposed, a community-owned tourism venture. Reconciling these and designing a resolution around the issue. Thus, a working group gives individuals in conflicting parties directly conflicting priorities requires committing to visioning workshop can continue as planned when a a venue dedicated to engaging with those competing genuine conflict resolution. Many organizations might venue for conflict resolution has been created. priorities. Since much conflict is shaped and inflamed advise NGOs to focus on complementary goals to by individuals’ feelings of marginalization, lack of maintain positive relationships. However, embracing The case study below describes two scenarios of respect, or lack of power in decision-making, a regular and attempting to resolve conflicts can be a powerful conflict in which NGOs and community subgroups working group can offer the needed platform for Rodriguez © APW/Felipe entry point for building trust and commitment. had directly conflicting priorities. Comparing influence and appreciation. As individuals begin to feel Meanwhile, ignoring or setting aside conflicting the community engagement strategies of each respected, heard, and included, histories of conflict can goals can lead to resentment or tension that is sure to demonstrates how priorities can be reconciled or naturally de-escalate and amiable resolutions become raise issues in later stages of the project cycle. When conflict can escalate between parties. more feasible. conflicting priorities are identified through visioning exercises, it can be more productive in the long run
IT MAY TAKE SEVERAL ITERATIONS OF THE SHARED GOALS DELIVERABLE COMPARATIVE CASE STUDY BEFORE AGREEMENT IS REACHED. HOWEVER, THE VISIONING PROCESS Case One Case Two CANNOT CONTINUE FOREVER; WHEN Though the Ijara pastoralists of eastern Kenya value In rural Nevada, where ranchers and the timber GENERAL AGREEMENT AROUND the hirola antelope as a heritage symbol, livestock industry coexist with tourists and relocated SHARED GOALS HAS BEEN REACHED, had depleted grazing land and left the hirola critically environmentalists, development and growth are seen EVEN IF SPECIFIC WORDING HAS NOT endangered. When the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) as key instigators of conflict. The Natural Heritage BEEN SOLIDIFIED, THE PROCESS OF tried to translocate the remaining hirola to a national 2020 (NH2020) plan was designed as a collaborative CO-DESIGNING ACTIVITIES CAN BEGIN. park, conflict ensued between conservationists and the response to the perceived risks of rapid growth. The community and NGO facilitators will likely need Ijara seeking to protect their cultural heritage. After Planners of this “inclusive” approach, however, did not to define goals more specifically by meeting in small years of court battles, the Ijara proposed creating the take into account the political interests and divisions Arriving at Goal Agreement groups, proposing wording of certain goals, and community-managed Ishaqbini Hirola Conservancy. that pervaded the conversation. This left them blind When expanding the dialogue from individual allowing individuals in the visioning workshop to In the conservancy, managers and youth scouts to the resentment of ranchers and farmers, which priorities to shared goals, visioning workshops can suggest edits, amendments, or additions to the are elected by the local community and trained by powerful interests recognized and capitalized upon. easily stray into broad discussions of human values. goals. At this stage in community engagement, it may KWS. Reformulated grazing rules and enforcement The opponents of NH2020 successfully campaigned Certainly, all groups may share the desire for respect, be necessary for community leadership and NGO mechanisms have increased not only hirola populations against what they framed as a “stacked” process that power, ownership, and wealth. However, specific representatives to review notes from the initial sessions but also those of elephants, giraffes, hyenas, warthogs, served environmentalist goals and subsequently programming cannot be designed around these values. of the workshop and develop preliminary drafts of and African wild dogs. The project’s success relies on derailed the process by publicly attacking the goals before reconvening with the community as a four key factors: The community had direct interest in program’s legitimacy. Here, attempts at community- Thus, the final deliverable should be a relevant and whole. It may take several iterations of the shared the conservation goals; conservation strategies were based natural resource management created the achievable list of specific goals that are shared among goals deliverable before agreement is reached. initiated and controlled by the community; there were conditions for a more contentious management all subgroups and the NGO. Remember: The NGO However, the visioning process cannot continue secure communal property rights; and government and climate, deepening long-standing divisions and should bring to light issues of interest and discuss forever; when general agreement around shared goals NGOs played supportive roles, including for capacity precipitating new conflicts. This is a risk of any its organizational priorities, but in the end, act as a has been reached, even if specific wording has not building, without ever imposing projects or solutions.6 management process that fails to recognize, analyze, catalyst for the community to implement its own goals been solidified, the process of co-designing activities and address the power dynamics embedded in where they are shared with the NGO. These goals can begin. The initial goals defined in the visioning environmental management.7 will likely have social and economic outcomes that exercises form the beginnings of a common theory 6 Measham and Lumbadsi. 2013. encourage sustainability and local relevance, but they of change, shared between the community and 7 Walker, P. A., and P. T. Hurley. 2004. Collaboration derailed: The politics of “community-based” resource management in Nevada County. Society and Natural Resources NGO. We discuss theories of change in more detail 17 (8): 735–751. should also be directly tied to conservation outcomes. in Co-designing Activities.
28 29 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS ESTABLISHING COMMON GROUND FOR STRONG COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
IDENTIFYING MUTUAL THREATS AND OPPORTUNITIES
express pride in their capacities and find places where Finally, identifying external threats to mutual goals they can be genuinely integrated into programming. during a SWOT analysis requires strong facilitation to TIPS AND TOOLS: prevent the session from becoming disempowering. CONDUCT A SWOT ANALYSIS While discussing internal weaknesses can be Having the facilitator come prepared with a few challenging, creating spaces where participants in a categories of threats and structuring the discussion In addition to defining shared goals, NGOs must • Strengths: What ecological, social, political, SWOT can be vulnerable is a powerful opportunity around them can be helpful. Further, this section of also work with community leadership and other and economic assets do we have, as a for relationship building. Not only does identifying a SWOT analysis may be better conducted in small subgroup representatives to identify threats community and as individual subgroups? weaknesses allow subgroups and organizations to be groups, with each group reporting back to the whole; and opportunities potentially impacting goal Highlight which subgroups are best equipped self-reflective and recognize gaps in their capacities, having the groups write down their threats and present achievement. Jointly conducting a SWOT analysis, to handle certain situations or activities. it creates a bond between all participants, particularly them back to the group encourages productive either together as a large group or in small break- where there are already strong social hierarchies. discussion. Remember to distinguish threats from out groups, is an excellent way to start. SWOT— • Weaknesses: What ecological, social, When conducting the weaknesses section of a SWOT, weaknesses since threats are external challenges rather or strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and political, and economic capacities do we lack it is important for the NGO to also partake and be than internal gaps in capacity. threats—is a commonly used strategic planning which may limit our ability to achieve our transparent about its expertise and lack thereof (See technique that can help committees comprised goals? Highlight potential partnerships that Tool 4: STEP Analysis for Internal Capacity). The threats session should not be demoralizing of diverse members to identify both internal and could fill these gaps. but rather should emphasize the areas where the external capacity for programming. Tool 6 in the community and NGO have little control and need toolkit provides a template that NGOs can use • Opportunities: What external ecological, to build partnerships. Oftentimes, the threats will for SWOT analysis. social, political, and economic factors can we THE THREATS SESSION SHOULD highlight a need for government partnerships. In the use to achieve our goals? NOT BE DEMORALIZING BUT RATHER next section, we discuss the challenges and benefits of While SWOT was originally designed for business SHOULD EMPHASIZE THE AREAS working with government at multiple levels, building ventures, we use the same template with slightly • Threats: What external ecological, social, WHERE THE COMMUNITY AND NGO effective partnerships, and working within and different questions. With the common goals political, and economic challenges may strengthening existing governance structures. developed through visioning workshops already threaten programming and the achievement HAVE LITTLE CONTROL AND NEED defined, an NGO facilitator can frame a SWOT of our goals? TO BUILD PARTNERSHIPS. analysis around those goals. For environmentally focused NGOs, facilitating a SWOT analysis in The answers to these questions become Discussing opportunities is the highlight of most a planning committee meeting may involve the building blocks of strategic activity SWOT analyses. Having just examined individual questions such as the following: planning through the collaborative creation strengths and become vulnerable in referencing of a theory of change, which is discussed in weaknesses, this session should be fun, innovative, Co-designing Activities. and inspiring. No longer reviewing internal subgroup traits, the community and NGO can come back
together as a team during the opportunities session. Rodriguez © APW/Felipe This is also an excellent time for the NGO and A SWOT analysis outlines who or which subgroups Completing a SWOT analysis collaboratively also allows community to begin thinking about potential activities. have the technical abilities, language fluency, cultural for different subgroups in a community to recognize Although co-designing activities will take place later, awareness, knowledge of local decision-making the value of working with other groups that may the opportunities session of a SWOT analysis can processes, and authorities needed to make initial have a comparative advantage in some sector. The contribute heavily to activity planning. Note that inroads. This is particularly relevant in rural settings. process should provide mutual learning opportunities opportunities should be factors that the community Building on existing interpersonal connections can save as organizations and community members highlight and NGO, based on their respective strengths, can valuable time and resources and immeasurably affect their strengths. This is particularly important for reasonably change to achieve mutual goals. Due to our ability to engage key community members. empowering women, youth, and other vulnerable its inspiring and innovative nature, many facilitators groups since it creates a designated space for them to choose to conduct the opportunities session last, rather than before threats.
30 31 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS ESTABLISHING COMMON GROUND FOR STRONG COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
GOVERNANCE AND DIPLOMACY
The relevance of good governance and working “Whether their [a community’s] self-governed in community-driven conservation initiatives, may often leave little room for the devolved decision across multilayered governance structures enterprise succeeds over the long term depends question the efficacy of community management, or structures and community-held property rights on for sustaining community-driven efforts should on whether the institutions they develop are may be unwilling to give local communities control over which community conservation depends, making these not be underestimated. Navigating the decentralized consistent with design principles underlying robust, management decisions. For these reasons, advocates strategies a burden for officials bound to national decision process necessary for effective community- long-living, self-governed systems.” of community ownership of conservation programming, regulatory structures. driven conservation can be daunting, with decision- —Elinor Ostrom, 2009 in addition to designing effective programs, must makers conflicting and overlapping from the develop effective strategies for demonstrating and To engage government actors, address potential community level to the national government. This The principles of good governance are similar to the communicating the benefits to government officials. tensions, and encourage government to adopt section addresses the significance of local good principles of community engagement: integration, community-driven conservation initiatives, governance and provides tools and tips for mapping trust through transparency, flexibility, and participation Because they require a committed shift from normal environmental practitioners can draw on multiple the decision process, challenging that process when in particular. Indices of good governance also include governance strategies, these approaches can meet strategies. To know what strategies will be most useful needed, or adapting to work within it to ensure legitimacy, accountability, connectivity, resilience, resistance from government agencies at multiple and at what levels of governance to work, NGOs should government support. and fairness.2 When working with communities and levels. Though community members and advocates take time to outline the relevant decision processes within existing governance institutions, NGOs must may see local people as those best suited to manage at play. Similar to a stakeholder analysis, a decision Local Good Governance be cognizant of the mechanisms by which individuals the environment in which they live, technical experts process outline simply clarifies who is responsible, A devolved governance structure that empowers are granted government and leadership positions, the in government agencies may be reluctant to accept accountable, consulted, and informed of all decisions community members to formally manage resources timeline and method of turnover, consistency in policy, “nonprofessional” decision-makers. Agencies at local made related to an environmental initiative. See through a combination of local organizations and and the ability of leadership to respond to community and regional levels face pressure to meet policy Tool 7.1: RACI Chart for Decision Process. institutions, rule development and enforcement, and conflicts. This will also inform the NGO’s assessment targets with limited staff and budgets, and may view shared responsibilities for environmental outcomes of community perceptions of government legitimacy, community management as a risk for job performance. So where do we start? contributes to the strength of community-driven connectivity, resilience, and participation. At the national scale, legislation and agency policy projects. This may require renegotiating the balance of decision-making power between communities and In many situations, NGOs will find it necessary to focus on strengthening local governance institutions in regulatory agencies. Governments may be asked to TIPS AND TOOLS: order to support effective community conservation establish and enforce community property rights, share OUTLINE RELEVANT DECISION PROCESSES WITH A RACI CHART decision-making power with local nongovernment programming. While it may seem to be outside the actors, and establish policies that will maintain long- realm of many conservation NGOs’ expertise, we A common tool used to outline a decision process • Responsible: The primary decision-making term collaborative relationships. encourage NGOs working with communities to include governance capacity building within potential areas is the RACI chart, which can be found in the authority on an issue—often an individual toolkit as Tool 7.1. This chart organizes potential With this support, communities around the world for expansion. After all, true community engagement decision-makers, at all levels of government, into • Accountable: The entity that is accountable can successfully manage land and marine resources, requires passing ownership onto the community and their respective roles on various decisions and for making the decision—often an agency head protect endangered species, and produce sustainable ensuring that initiatives are sustainable beyond the actions. By first charting environmental decisions who usually has veto power over decisions (the livelihoods. Yet passing ownership of conservation management of the NGO. related to a program in this format, an NGO can buck stops here!) initiatives to communities requires the communities visually depict where it should focus its efforts. to have equitable, strong, and transparent local Encouraging National Government Support Often, an NGO’s efforts may have to start with • Consulted: Those with relevant information governance structures in place. Institutions are a Even though community engagement practices changing the decision process itself. If the RACI or expertise about an issue who must be significant player in social-ecological systems, and their have become popular in conservation strategies, the chart is completed and the NGO recognizes that consulted before a decision is made sound policy and management are critical to ensuring decentralized management structure often necessary there are areas where decision-making authority that rights-based approaches to conservation are for effective community-driven conservation can must change for effective programming, it may • Informed: Those who are impacted by the implemented and sustained.1 easily conflict with existing environmental policy. recreate the ideal RACI chart, present it to all decision and must be informed of changes National government officials may not see the value relevant parties, and encourage shifts in the in policy but do not have authority in the decision process. Of course, this is easier described decision process than achieved! 1 Ostrom, E. 2009. A general framework for analyzing sustainability of social-ecological systems. Science 325 (5939): 419–422. 2 Lockwood, M. 2010. Good governance for terrestrial protected areas: A framework, principles and performance outcomes. Journal of Environmental Management 91 (3): 754–766.
32 33 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS ESTABLISHING COMMON GROUND FOR STRONG COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS © Ellen Naro © Ellen
1. Build Trust First: Relationships built on trust and 3. Emphasize the Role of Government in Community- mutual respect may be the single most important Driven Conservation: Community management does factor in natural resource management.3 Scholars not entail removing government actors, and this who study successful adaptive co-management can be a starting point for productive conversation. stress the importance of strong social networks, Successful community conservation projects rely on mutually perceived legitimacy, and social learning government offices for skills training, organizational characterized by equality and transparency capacity building, material and staff resources, and among collaborators.4 Advocates who build these shared project responsibilities. Government actors relationships with government actors early—before are particularly vital in their capacity to support promoting devolved management regimes—will and enforce communal property rights and local have a stronger foundation from which to effect decision-making.7 Delineating these roles can help change. government actors recognize how community conservation will best use their offices’ capacities 2. Highlight Success Stories: One way to foster trusting without creating extra burden or precluding relationships and establish mutual legitimacy is agency oversight. by sharing victories. The global mainstreaming of community-based management creates compelling 4. Appeal to Government Imperatives: At the local narratives for governments with conservation goals.5 level, government officials may be burdened by Likewise, local pilot projects can be a powerful tool numbers-based targets, reporting deadlines, chronic CASE STUDY for advocating for community-driven conservation. understaffing, and budget constraints. In this Success stories show how devolved management context, community engagement may seem like a From Local to Global, Transboundary opportunities to overcome conflicting priorities and can succeed in the local context while providing a hindrance. By acknowledging these difficult work Conservation Initiatives align revenue streams of adjacent communities and clear project template for government actors who conditions, conservationists can help local officials neighboring countries. The future of large-scale conservation lies in may be wary of ceding control. This can spur scale- see how community-based solutions may alleviate transnational, transboundary, and multiple- up or replication of community-based management pressure. Community-based monitoring, for example, Yet KAZA’s varied land-use allocation, from strict land-use initiatives that seek to improve coexistence at a regional or national scale, as in Zimbabwe’s may benefit understaffed environmental offices.8 protected areas to productive agricultural fields, and maintain habitat connectivity in fragmented, CAMPFIRE project.6 Though managers must be Devolved management may particularly appeal to provides a platform for the landscape-scale human-dominated landscapes. Naturally, at its most mindful that wide-scale replication can counteract government actors whose strategies have fallen conservation efforts needed to maintain healthy complicated tier, linking community-level conservation goals for empowerment and conservation and short, as when the translocation of endangered ecosystems and redefine the relationship between efforts to international conservation goals requires may invoke common pitfalls, leveraging successful hirola antelopes failed in northwest Kenya (see people and nature. Through a six-tiered governance transnational cooperation and strong governance models can engage local and national governments Case One on page 28). The Ijara pastoralist structure—with the Ministerial Committee providing institutions. to shift environmental policy toward devolution. community proposed a co-management solution, multinational political leadership, national committees and the resulting community-managed conservancy ensuring alignment between country and KAZA-wide The Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation has seen social and ecological success.9 priorities and distributing benefits to communities, Area (KAZA TFCA) encompasses lands in Angola, and a secretariat coordinating day-to-day operations— Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, covering KAZA seeks to link community conservation and nearly 520,000 square kilometers (km2 ). As the largest development initiatives with global conservation aims. transfrontier conservation area on the globe, KAZA 3 Brosius, J. P., A. L. Tsing, and C. Zerner. 1998. Representing communities: Histories and politics of community-based natural resource management. Society & Natural Resources 11 (2): 157–168. comprises 20 national parks, 85 forest reserves, 22 Though there is much to learn in governing 4 Lundmark, C., S. Matti, and A. Sandstrom. 2014. Adaptive co-management: How social networks, deliberation and learning affect legitimacy in carnivore management. conservancies, 11 sanctuaries, 103 Wildlife Management European Journal of Wildlife Research 60 (4): 637–644. transfrontier conservation areas, the KAZA TFCA, Areas, 11 Game Management Areas, and over 148,000 5 Campbell, B., and S. Shackleton. 2001. The organizational structures for community-based natural resource management in Southern Africa. African Studies Quarterly through its diversity- and community-based approach, 2 5 (3): 87–114. km of land for agriculture and rangeland. This is emerging as a leader in landscape-scale conservation 6 Babcock, K. L. 2010. Keeping it local: Improving the incentive structure in community-based natural resource management programs. extraordinary diversity in land use and livelihoods 10 Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law & Policy 21 (1): 201–229. through community-driven initiatives. 7 Radachowsky, J., V. Ramos, R. McNab, E. Baur, and N. Kazakov. Forest concessions in the Maya Biosphere Reserve, Guatemala: A decade later. Forest Ecology and creates extreme governance challenges. But, by Management 268: 18–28. necessity, it also drives cooperative and collaborative 8 Hazzah, L., A. Bath, S. Dolrenry, A. Dickman, and L. Frank. 2017. From attitudes to actions: Predictors of lion killing by Maasai warriors. PLoS ONE 12 (1): e0170796. 9 Measham, T. G., and J. A. Lumbadsi. 2013. Success factors for community-based natural resource management (CBNRM): Lessons from Kenya and Australia. Environmental Management 52 (3): 649–659. 10 Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area. Master Integrated Development Plan: 2015–2020.
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COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS ESTABLISHING COMMON GROUND FOR STRONG COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
6. Recognize Limitations: Finally, advocates of FIG. 2 community-driven conservation must recognize PRINCIPLES OF GOOD GOVERNANCE16 that this strategy is no panacea, and it will not fit all social, political, and environmental settings. Acknowledging this will increase NGOs’ legitimacy with government actors and allow practitioners to identify suitable sites based on specific social, environmental, and governance contexts. With this in mind, advocates should appreciate that even GOVERNANCE VALUES HUMAN VALUES in appropriate local contexts perceived power Legitimacy: The acceptance and justification Affection: Desire for friendship imbalances can derail these initiatives.13 To address of shared rule and loyalty this limitation, NGOs may want to invoke facilitated conflict resolution strategies at an early stage as Transparency: The visibility of Enlightenment: Desire to give addressed previously in Managing Conflicting decision-making processes and receive information Goals.14 NGOs must also recognize when existing governance structures are sufficient. In these cases, Accountability: The allocation and acceptance Power: Desire to make and establishing new leadership to fit community of responsibility for decisions and actions carry out decisions engagement objectives may result in inefficient, 5. Build on Existing Policies and Organizational Inclusiveness: The availability of opportunities Rectitude: Desire for moral or redundant, or parallel governance structures. Structures: Many countries have natural resource for all stakeholders to participate in and ethical standards Similarly, forcing participation when there is a lack of policies that encourage, or at least allow for, some influence decision-making capacity or readiness—purely for the sake of meeting Respect: Desire to give degree of devolved management. Though these demographic diversity targets—can do more harm Fairness: The attention given to and receive recognition policy and legislative mechanisms do not guarantee than good, both for the NGO and the community stakeholders’ views and absence of environmentally or socially successful management,11 members involved. personal bias in decision-making Skill: Desire to develop talents they are nonetheless key strategic instruments for convincing governments to support community Connectivity: Effective coordination and Well-being: Desire for mental “In struggling to create a sustainable world engagement in conservation. Existing frameworks coherence between levels of governance and physical health and functional societies, individuals inevitably may come in the form of national legislation, express shared concerns about human dignity, Resilience: Balance between flexibility Wealth: Desire to control resources resource management policy, or government- mutual respect, and healthy environments, and security in anticipating and responding supported civil society structures. Examples include manifest in their perspectives and behaviors. to threats and opportunities ejido communal agricultural lands in Mexico, the Functionally, achieving sustainability requires National Forest Policy of Tanzania, and government- that societies be made up of whole individuals— supported people’s organizations in the Philippines. that is, people who are physically, psychologically, Though these policies are likely insufficient for fully and socially integrated within the institutions supporting community engagement in conservation, of society.” and further policy and legislative advocacy may —Susan G. Clark and Richard L. Wallace, 2015 15 Good governance is closely connected to the As human institutions, governance structures are be required,12 invoking them can open windows of preservation of core human values. People create dependent on the people they serve to retain opportunity for government buy-in. governance institutions as a means to protect their authority. If good governance principles are not met, base values, though often we do so subconsciously. human values will degrade, and the community will Therefore, one role of governance institutions is to seek a change in authority. Thus, human values and 11 Li, T. 2007. The will to improve: Governmentality, development, and the practice of politics. Durham: Duke University Press. ensure that human values are upheld in a community. principles of good governance are interdependent. 12 Pomeroy, R. S. 1995. Community-based and co-management institutions for sustainable coastal fisheries management in Southeast Asia. Ocean & Coastal Management 27 (3): 143–162; Lindsay, J. M. 1999. Creating a legal framework for community-based management: Principles and dilemmas. UNASYLVA-FAO: 28–34. 13 Walker, P. A., and P. T. Hurley. 2004. Collaboration derailed: The politics of “community-based” resource management in Nevada County. Society and Natural Resources 17 (8): 735–751.
14 Redpath, S. M., J. Young, A. Evely, W. M. Adams, W. J. Sutherland, A. Whitehouse, A. Amar, R. A. Lambert, J. D. C. Linnell, A. Watt, and R. J. Gutierrez. 2013. 16 Adapted from Clark, S. G. 2002. The policy process: A practical guide for natural resource professionals. New Haven: Yale University Press; Lasswell, H. D. 1970. The Understanding and managing conservation conflicts. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 28 (2): 100–109. emerging conception of the policy sciences. Policy Sciences 1 (1): 3–14; Lockwood, M. 2010. Good governance for terrestrial protected areas: A framework, principles 15 Clark, S. G., and R. L. Wallace. 2015. Integration and interdisciplinarity: Concepts, frameworks, and education. Policy Sciences 48 (2): 233–255. and performance outcomes. Journal of Environmental Management, 91 (3): 754–766.
36 37 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS INTRO PAGES © APW/Felipe Rodriguez © APW/Felipe
AN EVOLVING PROCESS OF COLLABORATION
Genuine community engagement requires not just community inclusion in preliminary meetings, analyses of the local context, and shared goal setting but also true collaboration in all aspects of program implementation, evaluation, and adaptation. This section walks us through an evolving process of collaboration in which communities design activities, implement them, and participate in the monitoring and evaluation of those programs.
38 39 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS AN EVOLVING PROCESS OF COLLABORATION
CO-DESIGNING ACTIVITIES
When common goals have been defined in an In an activity-designing session with the project inclusive and participatory way, and mutual threats Theory of Change 1. Input: The project resources. (What financial and planning committee, take time to create one or two and opportunities have been identified, we begin to human resources are you putting into activities?) causal chains as a group, logically linking potential work with community leadership or other influential A cause-and-effect hypothesis, or model, for activities to their intended goals. Results from a members of the community to plan activities aimed how a suite of activities will achieve a project’s 2. Output: The project activities. (What direct results SWOT analysis, particularly from the opportunities at achieving those goals. Of course, planning at this goals. Usually, a theory of change is comprised will come of the resource inputs?) session, can spark ideas for activities. If the committee stage cannot be done productively in large community of “building blocks” that begin with project has trouble linking activities to an end goal, it is often meetings, so we ensure multiple perspectives are activities and, through cause-and-effect logic, 3. Outcome: The intermediate results of the project a result of predetermining activities where either the incorporated by working closely with a planning end with the achievement of long-term activities. (What indirect actions or changes will be NGO or members of the community wish to implement committee made up of community subgroup leaders. project goals. caused by the activities?) certain activities, despite the possibility that they We do not select these leaders ourselves, but rather might not reflect or lead toward mutually defined ensure that the community members identify who 4. Impact: The project goal. (What will ultimately goals. Working backwards from mutual goals to should represent them in the planning committee. change as a result of the activities?) activities can mitigate this common pitfall and ensure Most importantly, we find that when local employees that the NGO is not imposing unwanted activities on represent the NGO in a planning committee, the But what is a theory of change? In a simple model, an input causes an output. The a community or genericizing. As a committee, use the meetings are more productive. output causes an outcome, which then causes an results of SWOT and STEP analyses (Tool 6 and Tool 4 Because using sound cause-and-effect logic is critical impact. Or, to think of it in reverse: The impact is a from the toolkit) to rethink the types of activities that NGOs must also bear in mind that there may be in developing a theory of change, some organizations direct result of the outcome, which is a direct result can be implemented mutually and which lead logically programming already happening in their target refer to theories of change as logical frameworks. of the output, which is a direct result of the input. A to the achievement of common goals. communities. Through the preliminary assessments Other donors and organizations phrase each “building simple theory of change with just one building block at referenced in the previous section, the NGO should be block” of a theory of change as the effect, or result, of each level is often called a causal chain. well aware of the types of programs being conducted, the previous building block. For this reason, theories what those programs are achieving, and what resources of change can also sometimes be called results they may be lacking. Together, the community and frameworks. NGO should have identified the programming that has overlapping or complementary goals in order to better Despite the different names used to describe theories focus their resources, whether it be to expand, adapt, of change, the concept is always the same: Every or modify. Of course, if no such programming exists, project should have a hypothesis of how activities will or if the NGO and community have innovative ideas achieve defined goals. Thus, developing a theory of Rodriguez © APW/Felipe for solving existing challenges, they have the exciting change as a strategic planning exercise with the project opportunity to work closely to design and introduce planning committee is a necessary step in co-designing new initiatives. activities. We begin theory of change development through a process called backwards mapping, where Planning for Results we start with the mutual goals developed in visioning Much of the material discussed earlier in this workshops and work backwards through cause-and- framework lays the groundwork for creating a theory effect logic until we arrive at implementable activities. of change. It is a phrase that many NGOs use, and many have organizational theories of change, but rarely are While there are several ways to structure a theory of they created in collaboration with the community. For change, and many organizations and donors will have conservation initiatives to be truly community driven, their own preferences, the basic structure remains the community must be involved with designing the same. In a very simple theory of change, there are activities through the mutual creation of a theory generally four levels: of change.
40 41 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS AN EVOLVING PROCESS OF COLLABORATION
Since we live in a complex world and many factors When backwards mapping, planning committees FIG. 3 effect changes in ecology, society, and the economy, frequently rush through the intended outcomes and SIMPLE THEORY OF CHANGE most theories of change have many levels between focus solely on inputs and outputs. However, this the four listed above. Conservation theories of is a sure way to create unwanted logical leaps from change are often comprised of several interconnected program activities to impact. Having a facilitator who is INPUT OUTPUT causal chains. The key is not to let this become too knowledgeable about the backwards mapping process overwhelming or complicated so as to discourage and final product can mitigate this challenge (see Tips OUTCOME participation or confuse committee members. and Tools: The Role of the Facilitator on page 44). It is INPUT OUTPUT through these logical leaps that many programs fail Figure 3 on page 43 page shows a relatively simple to consider unintended negative consequences of IMPACT theory of change with four distinct causal chains. A their activities, forget to include minority groups, or INPUT OUTPUT more realistic theory of change that demonstrates oversimplify the interdependent relationships between additional complexity in a project can be found in the ecological, social, and political spheres. Thus, OUTCOME Tool 8 in the toolkit. Figure 4 on the opposite page we encourage the planning committee to assign a INPUT OUTPUT shows one causal chain from African People & Wildlife’s “skeptic” or “contrarian” for the discussion (see Tips and theory of change. The Living Walls program in this Tools: The Role of the Skeptic on page 45). This can be chain comprises one part of a larger human-wildlife a role that rotates every 10–15 minutes, or it can be the conflict prevention objective. Of course, Living Walls same person for the entire session. FIG. 4 alone cannot lead to APW’s organizational vision, but when implemented simultaneously with other holistic LIVING WALLS* CAUSAL CHAIN programming, multiple impacts can be achieved, and together, lead toward the NGO’s vision. INPUTS OUTPUTS OUTCOMES IMPACT VISION
HIGHER NUMBER LIVING OF TREES IN TREES LANDSCAPE
DECREASED
© APW/Felipe Rodriguez © APW/Felipe HABITAT FRAGMENTATION DECREASED RURAL TREE REMOVAL INCREASE IN COMMUNITIES CHAIN-LINK LIVING WALLS FROM LANDSCAPE WILDLIFE AND WILDLIFE FENCING FOR STANDARD POPULATIONS COEXIST AND BOMAS THRIVE
DECREASED RETALIATORY KILLING
HUMAN RESOURCES DECREASED TO INSTALL DEPREDATION
* Living Walls are environmentally friendly corrals that keep livestock safe from predators. To build a living wall, community members plant a circle of trees to serve as posts for chain-link fencing. As the trees grow, they add height to the wall and create an impenetrable barrier.
42 43 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS AN EVOLVING PROCESS OF COLLABORATION
Ideally, through the joint efforts of the NGO, the Most importantly, the theory of change developed in community planning committee, and the skeptic, a early activity-design sessions must be adaptable and TIPS AND TOOLS: TIPS AND TOOLS: theory of change will emerge with clear and defined flexible. As NGOs and communities mutually learn THE ROLE OF THE FACILITATOR activities (outputs) along with their needed resources from activities, test assumptions about outcomes, THE ROLE OF THE SKEPTIC for implementation (inputs). There will be sound logic and measure impact, the theory of change will likely The role of the facilitator is extremely linking these activities to their intended outcomes and require modification. Remaining in close contact The role of the skeptic is simple: Ask questions! important in the development of sound logic. those outcomes to a final impact. In the process of with community planning committee members A few examples of questions asked by a While the facilitator should be knowledgeable co-designing activities, the NGO and the community through both informal meetings and scheduled contrarian include the following: about the technical aspects of a theory of will have deepened their respect for and trust in each theory of change review sessions is necessary for • But how is this rangeland management change (input, output, outcome, impact), it is other and will move forward into implementation of ongoing program evolution. The theory of change training leading to healthier pasture? not necessary for them to explain it in detail to locally relevant efforts with enthusiasm. must be a living document that is reviewed regularly the planning committee. In fact, describing the and expanded as both NGO and community learn • Have we considered whether improving theory in too much depth can halt the process, from implementing conservation programs and as local access to livestock markets might cause confusion among participants, and result circumstances change on the ground. lead to interest in larger herds with in unproductive planning sessions. subsequent unintended consequences Rather, the facilitator’s role is to support the for the rangeland? planning committee in developing a theory • Have we thought about how this location of change through targeted questioning. In for the well will affect girls’ ability to essence, the facilitator is leading the planning attend school? committee through a problem orientation
exercise in which participants are asked to Sadock © APW/Mercy • What awareness mechanisms do we need define the root causes of the problems they to add to this initiative to ensure that face and design solutions to target those people living far from the village center causes. The facilitator could ask questions like will know about it? the following: • Is a beekeeping technical training enough • What factors would create stable to ensure women’s ownership of the wildlife populations? enterprise or do we need to train on financial management and marketing • What factors lead to improved as well? livestock health?
• What would prevent the community from expanding their agricultural fields?
• What might cause people to feel better about living with wildlife?
• What is the root cause of overgrazing in this area?
• Why are people hunting lions in this area?
• What can the Women’s Association do to bring more girls and youth to events?
44 45 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS AN EVOLVING PROCESS OF COLLABORATION
WORKING HAND-IN-HAND
Activities have now been designed and the team is have more knowledge of donor requirements and be building its capacity and enthusiasm to work in enthusiastic about creating positive change for the deadlines, while the community project manager will conservation while providing tools where necessary community and the environment! At this phase in likely have a better understanding of logistics, the for successful implementation. As project work begins, community engagement, the real work can begin. Local feasibility of timing, and the financial resources needed it is imperative to apply the principles of community team members should be supported based on their to complete each task. Monitoring and evaluation engagement, not just with community staff but also respective strengths, and project leadership should activities should be included with program activities with beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries. include community members. Where NGO staff have in both the budget and illustrative timeline. Through Rodriguez © APW/Felipe expertise needed by the community project managers, creating a work plan together, both the NGO and Maintaining a Presence capacity building should occur through shadowing, community staff will build their own capacity for Through Implementation mentorship, and skills training. Remember: Project working in the conservation field. Holding regular check-ins with community project and team management is a skill in itself and local staff managers and staff is a key aspect of assuring quality should be given the resources necessary to succeed in Earlier in this framework, we used the RACI tool to and maintaining positive relationships. For check-ins management roles. help NGOs demystify the decision process in their with community member staff, be sure to provide communities. The same format can be used in role translation services if necessary and consider locating clarification for implementing activities. Especially these meetings somewhere in the community where with large teams consisting of multiple levels of the staff member is comfortable. HAVING A CONSISTENT PRESENCE management from NGO executives to on-the-ground IN THE COMMUNITIES IN WHICH WE laborers, the RACI tool can prevent duplication of Check-in meetings should not appear to be a WORK APPEALS TO PEOPLE’S CORE efforts and ensure that the appropriate people have disciplinary measure. Scheduling them often, even if VALUES, DEMONSTRATING THAT THE authority to make decisions, spend financial resources, there are no apparent issues, will alleviate concerns in frequent discussions with project beneficiaries, and NGO DOES NOT VIEW COMMUNITY or drive NGO vehicles. Each task or decision can be that meetings are problem-oriented and allow for NGO executives attending important cultural events MEMBERS SIMPLY AS “CONSERVATION assigned by using the following categories: open communication for both positive and negative in the community. Empathy with people is built as we OBJECTS” BUT AS EQUALS TO BE performance feedback. Of course, check-ins should share in their celebrations and ceremonies, grieve • Responsible: The people actually performing the RESPECTED AND VALUED. not be so often or lengthy that the community staff when they suffer losses, and engage in genuine task (e.g., trainers, builders, game scouts) feel unappreciated or unable to complete their work. human connection. Finding the balance between offering necessary Planning for Implementation • Accountable: The project manager or other support and allowing professional growth and Having a consistent presence in the communities entity reporting back to the donors—often Creating a work plan for project activities is an independence can be challenging, but it is critical in which we work appeals to people’s core values, NGO leadership extremely activity-specific task. Some activities in fostering a healthy environment of community- demonstrating that the NGO does not view community may require lobbying government authorities for driven conservation. Individuals will have different members simply as “conservation objects” but as • Consulted: Community members or groups land tenure, while others may involve distributing preferences and strengths, so NGO managers must equals to be respected and valued. who may have knowledge or expertise about materials to schools, building infrastructure, hanging navigate these relationships carefully. Going back to the activity and its implementation beehives, removing fences, presenting at meetings, the principles of community engagement is a great way “Indeed, people should not be seen as ‘objects or conducting wildlife counts. No matter what the to ensure that communication is open and respectful or empty vessels’ but rather as drivers of their • Informed: Community members or groups activity, it will require an illustrative timeline with tasks and that relationships between the community and destinies and masters of their own development.” who may be affected by the activity and inputs defined. As referenced in Recognizing NGO remain positive. —Alais Morindat, International Institute of Community, using a template start-up budget and Environment and Development The implementation version of the RACI tool can be timeline chart can expedite this process and give the Lastly, for NGOs to maintain strong, healthy found in Tool 7.2 in the toolkit. project managers tools for project planning. These relationships with the people in their target tools can be found in the toolkit in Appendix 2. communities—particularly large NGOs or those without As much as possible, the NGO should play a role of offices in the communities—it is imperative that they support, facilitation, guidance, and mentorship. In NGO staff with project management experience should demonstrate consistent presence. This can be achieved supporting community members as staff, members work closely with local project managers to complete through program staff participating in community of a field team, volunteers, casual laborers, or a budget and timeline. This process should be a shared meetings—even if they are unrelated to conservation general contributors to a project, the NGO should learning experience since the NGO staff member may initiatives—monitoring and evaluation staff engaging
46 47 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS AN EVOLVING PROCESS OF COLLABORATION
MONITORING, EVALUATING, LEARNING, AND ADAPTING
Once implementation has begun, how do we, as NGOs From these questions, communities and NGOs can and community leadership, know that the theory of collaboratively begin to develop indicators to monitor TIPS AND TOOLS: change we developed is working as planned? In a their programs. Indicators provide a way to measure CO-DESIGNING EVALUATIVE QUESTIONS complex world with diverse communities and limited the current condition or state of outputs, outcomes, financial resources, testing our theories is a critical or impacts defined in a program’s theory of change. ➞ aspect of program adaptation, evolution, and success. Indicators should begin with the unit of measurement, Just as a theory of change can be compared to Process Focus on how a program Tool 9.1 in the toolkit provides more information on or inherently be a unit of measurement (e.g., annual a hypothesis, evaluation can be compared to was implemented scientific research wherein research questions are monitoring complex programs to increase confidence income). They are specific, observable, and measurable Process questions are relatively easy to monitor by asked and the scientist seeks answers through in intended outcomes. accomplishments or changes that show the program’s reviewing project records. progress, and they should aim to provide answers experimentation. Formally, evaluation is a process The importance of monitoring, evaluating, learning, to predetermined questions (see Tips and Tools: Co- that critically examines a program. It involves • What were the main barriers to completing and adapting cannot be overstated. For communities designing Evaluative Questions on the opposite page). collecting and analyzing information about a the forest restoration project? to truly own their programs and support conservation program’s activities, characteristics, and outcomes. initiatives, they must see measurable change in their To ensure community engagement in the monitoring Its purpose is to promote accountability, improve Outcome ➞ Focus on project effects livelihoods and environments. As with all aspects process, local people should be involved in developing program effectiveness, and inform programming in a target population of community-driven conservation, community indicators and included as monitors, enumerators, or decisions. Formative evaluations generally take members must be empowered to monitor and evaluate interviewers in data collection. In the case of large, place before or during a project’s implementation Most outcome questions require some evaluative conservation efforts. Monitoring and evaluation also diverse monitoring teams, potentially spanning with the aim of improving the project’s design and work to answer. help organizations and communities improve their multiple landscapes (e.g., community game scouts, performance. Summative evaluations generally • To what extent did the native tree planting program designs and create greater impact with rangeland monitors, human-wildlife conflict officers), occur at the end of a program cycle and are used to activity achieve restoration targets at the limited resources. indicators must be well-defined to avoid ambiguity in assess program effectiveness. project site? methods and guard against variation in data collection Developing evaluation questions is a key part of Developing a Monitoring Plan from site to site and over time. designing a monitoring and evaluation system Working in collaboration with communities to assess or framework. Including community members, Impact ➞ Focus on whether results have been change is critical to program effectiveness and a key Examples of well-defined indicators include the leadership, and program staff in discussions achieved due to the intervention strategy for maintaining strong relationships with following: about evaluation questions can set the stage for community partners. If a program is ineffective and this Impact questions are generally very difficult to productive monitoring and ensure that communities goes unrecognized, community members may also lose • Number of people who attended each training answer and require costly experimental design. are invested in the project outcomes and impact. respect and confidence in their NGO partner. • Percentage of local farmers who partook A few examples of the types of questions useful to • To what extent did the forest restoration project contribute to improved habitat To begin creating a mutually beneficial monitoring in a tree planting initiative consider when developing a monitoring plan with connectivity for wildlife in the landscape? plan, several angles or questions are important to the community are provided here. • Hectares of land showing at least a 25 percent consider: increase in bird diversity Remember: Answers to process and outcome • What needs to be monitored questions cannot be used to attribute observed to effectively assess the program and test • Annual income of herders (in U.S. dollars) changes solely to the project. Correlation does not the program logic? imply causation! • Percentage of survey respondents who • What is useful for the community to measure so demonstrate improved understanding of
it can adapt programs to changing social and restoration targets Rodriguez © APW/Felipe environmental conditions? • Percentage of seedlings planted that survive • What social, political, and ecological assumptions to year two are inherent in the theory of change? Indicator definitions must clearly explain all terms and • What is useful for the NGO to measure to meet elements of the indicator to ensure both consistent funding and reporting requirements?
48 49 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS AN EVOLVING PROCESS OF COLLABORATION
FIG. 5 BEHAVIOR CHANGE INTERNAL VS. EXTERNAL EVALUATIONS
The science of behavior change is complex. This monitoring plans for behavioral or attitudinal field is highly relevant to NGOs and conservation change must allow time for societal change to practitioners, who must frequently focus occur, while maintaining consistent indicators and programming on human attitude and behavior avoiding shifting baselines. change. Nevertheless, behavior change experts Internal Evaluations InternalExternal Evaluations Evaluations are rarely approached or consulted. Evaluations are often a more useful avenue for measuring behavior change than monitoring Conducted by project team ConductedConducted byby externalproject team evaluators From a monitoring point of view, while a theory activities, due to the qualitative nature of or organization staff or organizationthose with no staff fiduciary of change may logically outline the links between perception and the need to capture unintended relationship with implementers Usually not required Usually not required activities and desired changes in human behavior, outcomes. Remember: Experienced and culturally by donors by donors social indicators can be much more difficult to sensitive interviewers with sociological knowledge Often required by donors measure than their biophysical counterparts. and language competency will often prove more Main objectives: learning Main objectives: learning and Main objectives: decision-making, Human behavior change takes time—often more able to recognize behavioral and attitudinal shifts and improving adaptive management accountability, and learning time than the ecological system restoration over time than conservationists. dependent on that behavior change.1 Thus,
collectors. If the indicator is a percentage or ratio, While both internal and external evaluations have One of the most useful methods for evaluating there must be a description of the numerator and pros and cons, they can be equally valuable to programs in rural communities is Participatory Participatory Learning for Action denominator. Monitor training should occur at least NGOs and communities implementing conservation Learning for Action (PLA). Formerly called Participatory An evaluation approach, formerly called once per year, both to ensure continued engagement programming. It is imperative to remember that Rural Appraisal, PLA techniques allow us to understand Participatory Rural Appraisal, that includes of community data collectors and to adjust targets and evaluations, even those conducted by donor- the effects of programs on vulnerable or stigmatized a suite of participatory and largely visual clarify methods as needed. See Tool 9.2 in the toolkit contracted third parties, are not audits. Instead, they populations including children, refugees, and victims of methods for assessing local community for more detail on tracking your monitoring data. are generally used to promote accountability, improve abuse, among others. perspectives. Participatory Learning for Action effectiveness, or inform decision-making. It is the role Since many PLA tools are visual, and can be described techniques often include tools for addressing Evaluation for Learning of the NGO to impress upon community staff and as data collection games, the approach is also useful for children, illiteracy, or other vulnerable While monitoring describes the consistent beneficiaries that honesty and openness are key to gathering information when verbal communication is populations or issues. measurement of defined indicators aimed at achieving receiving useful evaluation feedback. challenging due to language barriers or illiteracy. expected results, program evaluation allows NGOs For most conservation practitioners, we will not be and communities to understand the higher-level conducting rigorous evaluations (although we may Some examples of PLA data collection techniques outcomes and impact of their programs, receive participate in evaluations if a donor contracts a include the following: interpretation and that the intended measurements recommendations on program improvement, and third-party evaluator!). Likely, we will conduct our are reliably collected. Vague terms (e.g., effective, recognize unintended outcomes. Planning for program own monitoring, provide monitoring data to external • Community mapping quality, youth, vulnerable) must be defined. Indicators evaluations should take place during the project evaluators, and perhaps conduct simple performance • Priority sorting that pertain to populations, geographic areas, or test co-design phase, and evaluations should be included evaluation surveys and interviews. Thus, NGOs may • Role playing scores should include specified parameters or ranges. in an illustrative project timeline. Some donors want to focus less on technical evaluation methodology An equation or description of any calculations required may require third party, or external, evaluations of and more on what to do when we receive evaluation The PLA approach ensures that evaluations are to derive the data must be readily available to all data programs, but even if they are not required, internal results, either from external evaluators or from simple inclusive of perspectives that may be difficult to obtain internal reviews. and further emphasizes the importance of recognizing 1 Kollmuss, A., and J. Agyeman. 2002. Mind the gap: Why do people act environmentally and what are the barriers to pro-environmental behavior? heterogeneity within communities. Environmental Education Research 8 (3): 239–260.
50 51 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS AN EVOLVING PROCESS OF COLLABORATION
ATTEMPTING TO RESPOND TO COMPLEX CULTURAL OR SYSTEMIC ISSUES WITH TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS IS A COMMON ERROR IN PROGRAM MANAGEMENT © APW/Felipe Rodriguez © APW/Felipe THAT CAN LEAD TO FURTHER Rodriguez © APW/Felipe INEFFECTIVE PROGRAMMING. evaluations should be planned before implementation begins. Figure 5 shows some of the main differences between internal and external evaluations.
Results from evaluations can be daunting to receive, but remember that they are aimed at improving programming for better conservation outcomes. When you receive an evaluation report, keep an open mind, actively trying to reduce defensiveness. There may be places where NGOs feel the evaluators © APW/Laly Lichtenfeld © APW/Laly missed key aspects of their programming. In these cases, it can be helpful to return to the evaluators and ask for more information. Perhaps they did overlook certain programmatic efforts, or the NGO may have overestimated the effect of those efforts. Therefore, it is prudent to read recommendations with the mindset that they are there to help, not criticize. While not all recommendations may need to be enacted, they should all be read and considered as a learning tool. along with their community partners. Conservation over which we have some control—our intervention— But, how do we ensure that we are evolving along with is a field with ever-shifting ecological goal posts, and must change based on feedback from the monitoring the communities we partner with? Open communication, Evolving with Communities likewise, communities adapt, change, develop, and and evaluation of program effects. Responding to this dissemination of evaluation results, and regular reviews progress. True and meaningful engagement, with real feedback in a timely and relevant manner speaks to of the theory of change can facilitate this evolution. Through monitoring and evaluation efforts, years of impact, will occur over decades, not annual program our principles of community engagement, particularly Most importantly, we must maintain an evaluative program experience, and changes in social, political, cycles. As a result, complex communities and complex flexibility and trust. mindset, constantly questioning our assumptions and and ecological trends, NGOs must adapt and evolve programs require flexible adaptive management striving to grasp shifting priorities. practices and a systems-thinking approach. We must also recognize when the trends and changes we observe through monitoring and evaluation are In the process of this evolution, we may realize, as NGOs, Complex Adaptive System As discussed in Appendix 4, Community Engagement: purely technical or when they are embedded in broader that our guidance is needed less in program activities. A Brief Institutional History, our world is comprised institutional or cultural systems. Attempting to respond The community may take ownership of certain programs A system in which each component may of social-ecological systems where humans and our to complex cultural or systemic issues with technical and seek support with new, community-driven initiatives. change and have unpredictable effects on the environment are inextricably linked. As we learn about solutions is a common error in program management They may become increasingly independent and, whole. An understanding of the individual how our program interventions are affecting these that can lead to further ineffective programming. Thus, ideally, develop revenue streams to make conservation components of a complex adaptive system systems, we must be open and willing to embrace in NGO-community partnerships, we must define programming sustainable beyond the support of the does not imply an understanding of the system-level change. Our program interventions and problems by their root causes, not by their symptoms. NGO. This “pull factor,” discussed in the next section, whole system due to the interdisciplinary and their effects on society and the environment constitute In identifying the basis of these problems, we are more is our ultimate objective in genuine community interdependent relationships between parts. a complex adaptive system (CAS). The part of this CAS likely to evolve our programming effectively. engagement in conservation.
52 53 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS AN EVOLVING PROCESS OF COLLABORATION
FINANCING COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT
As outlined in The Enduring Impact of Communities in This “pull factor” often manifests in shifting FIG. 6 Conservation, NGOs and conservation practitioners management responsibility and increasing the A SPECTRUM OF COMMUNITY FINANCING must begin to redefine their role in conservation community’s financial self-sufficiency. Of course, efforts. We must actively blur the line between the NGO will likely retain some form of fiduciary implementers and beneficiaries, acting as catalysts for relationship with the community. Depending on the community-driven initiatives and using our financial local capacity for financial management, level of Level of Involvement resources to support communities in designing program development, and donor requirements, sustainable programs. Through consistent monitoring there are a suite of options for financing community- and evaluation, we must work closely with the driven conservation initiatives. Generally, these communities we support to verify their conservation options fall along a spectrum from the least Level of and development outcomes. Moreover, we should be sustainable—direct aid and donations—to self- Risk willing to shift financial support to efforts producing sustaining community programs, which may receive the greatest and most balanced results. supplemental NGO support. Figure 6 shows six finance mechanisms frequently used in conservation PAYMENTS FOR DESERVED DONATIONS ECOSYSTEM GRANTS CO-FINANCING LOANS programming and where they fall along this spectrum. REWARD SERVICES The figure also shows the NGO’s level of involvement WHEN NGOS WORK WITH MULTIPLE in program implementation and the level of outcome Direct Aid to Communities Community-Funded Conservation COMMUNITIES IN DIFFERENT STAGES OF risk to the NGO as we move along the axis of DEVELOPMENT, DIFFERENT FINANCING financial sustainability. Direct Aid and Donations: Funding raised for for contributing to the costs. The principle behind MECHANISMS MAY BE APPROPRIATE These financing mechanisms are not necessarily distinct, communities, often without their involvement, that co-financing schemes is that communities will put more FOR EACH COMMUNITY. FLEXIBILITY nor are they mutually exclusive. NGOs may find that may or may not be used for conservation initiatives. value on conservation outcomes and feel more invested WITH FINANCING OPTIONS AND they engage in programming financed through in programming if they are financially contributing. TRANSPARENCY WITH THE COMMUNITY many of these sources simultaneously. When NGOs Payments for Ecosystem Services: Through WILL ENSURE THAT NGOS RETAIN work with multiple communities in different stages international finance mechanisms such as REDD+, Loans: Funding provided to community initiatives POSITIVE RELATIONSHIPS THROUGHOUT of development, different financing mechanisms payments for ecosystem services (PES) provide that requires start-up assistance but is intended to THE FUNDING CYCLE. may be appropriate for each community. Flexibility incentives for communities to forego landscape provide revenue from conservation initiatives to with financing options and transparency with the degradation from deforestation, land conversion the community. Microloans or other microfinancing community will ensure that NGOs retain positive to agriculture, or other harmful practices such as options encourage communities to take the lead The Pull Factor relationships throughout the funding cycle. monoculture farming and overgrazing. PES may be on conservation programming. Loans provided provided for active conservation efforts or simply to communities should have some accountability Conservation NGOs and practitioners may find that for not partaking in destructive practices. requirements through reporting and should not be their level of involvement in financially supporting “You know you’re having success when you’re provided interest free. However, payback mechanisms conservation initiatives changes as ownership of doing less of the talking and more of the listening, Grants: Funding provided for community initiatives and timeframes should be flexible and cognizant of the programs shifts from the NGO to the community. and when the community is fully contributing that may be managed or supported heavily by the local context, helping to mitigate potential constraints Ideally, communities will begin initiating program their ideas to you. A challenge is to move away NGO. Often grants are passed down from an NGO that to repayment. design and drawing from their own resources, seeking from a common situation where people wait for received a larger or more comprehensive grant from an NGO technical and financial support when needed permission before they start to act, as this dampens international donor. Grants usually require reporting Deserved Rewards: Funding awarded to a community based on the positive relationship built between the their enthusiasm and stifles their creativity. When on conservation outcomes and involve significant for continuing programs that demonstrate NGO and community. Rather than the NGO pushing the community is cohesive and fully engaged, it community engagement. conservation successes. Communities may have to a conservation agenda on the community, the creates an atmosphere for them to pull their own apply for such awards in a competitive process. NGOs community will begin pulling the NGO into a mutually resources into their agenda, rather than waiting for Co-financing: Joint programming requires a high may have little involvement in the program itself, as beneficial agenda, founded in common goals. the NGO to deliver an agenda to them.” —Michael Thompson, Frankfurt Zoological Society level of NGO involvement in implementation but initiatives are entirely community managed. Deserved also empowers the community to manage aspects rewards often act as a supplement to self-sustaining of the project. Projects are often conceived by the revenue from a program and are not intended to community and beneficiaries should be responsible externally finance a community initiative.
54 55 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS AN EVOLVING PROCESS OF COLLABORATION
spectrum. Of course, this may not and often cannot Most importantly, encouraging the community to Creating Equity in WE MUST VALUE AND LEVERAGE happen quickly. A gradual shift in management and develop conservation-based enterprises is a critical Conservation-Based Economies phase in program evolution. By using environmental THE CHANGEMAKING ABILITY financial responsibility for conservation efforts will As conservation work continues to evolve, shifting outcomes to create markets, communities can OF ECONOMIC INCENTIVES AND also mitigate the insecurity potentially caused by from NGO-driven to community-driven initiatives begin generating their own income to support their NGOs terminating work in a community without prior and increasingly embracing economic and market- MARKET TRANSFORMATION, livelihoods and further conservation initiatives. planning. It is imperative that NGOs have consistent based incentives, it is important to recognize both the AS SUCH MECHANISMS CAN BE In time, and through facilitating linkages between and open communication with community leadership strengths and limitations of such engagements. We POWERFUL AND APPROPRIATE TOOLS communities and markets, NGOs will be able to shift regarding their exit strategies. And within an exit must value and leverage the changemaking ability of FOR EMPOWERMENT AND financial resources toward the self-sustaining end strategy, the NGO should include time for transitioning economic incentives and market transformation, as COMMUNITY-DRIVEN CONSERVATION. of the spectrum. Through long-term engagement management roles, technical capacity development, such mechanisms can be powerful and appropriate in this fashion, we as conservation organizations can and financial sustainability measures. Introducing tools for empowerment and community-driven co-financing schemes is an excellent way to begin support the development of large-scale conservation- In general, as NGOs and communities work toward conservation. There are many instances where this transition. based economies. more community-driven efforts, program support conservation outcomes can be improved and local will shift toward the self-sustaining end of the communities empowered through the creation of conservation-based economies. However, we must
CASE STUDY The ≠Khoadi-//Hôas Conservancy, located in Namibia’s past three years and sustained monitoring of the Kunene Region, serves a population of over 4,000 conservancy’s rhino population. Rhino poaching, which Private Sector Partnerships Namibians, many of whom benefit from conservancy- plagued the area in 2014-15, has now been brought based income generation. One such example is the under control with the last rhino poached in August in Namibia’s Communal Conservancies © L.M. Benitez Grootberg Lodge tourism enterprise which directly 2016.4 Through stable employment for conservancy Namibia boasts one of the most comprehensive benefits local people through employment, skills members and a sustainable revenue stream for and country-wide community-based conservation training, and income-sharing schemes that support the community to implement social programs, the programs on the African continent. Founded on its community development projects. Grootberg Lodge ≠Khoadi-//Hôas Conservancy has seen a decrease three pillars of community conservation—natural is owned by the conservancy but managed by a in poaching incidents and a recovery of wildlife resource management; institutional development; and private sector tourism partner. As the first lodge in populations. business, enterprises, and livelihoods—the Namibian Namibia to be wholly owned by the community with Ministry of Environment and Tourism, in collaboration a strong private sector partnership, Grootberg sets NGO presence in the Kunene Region includes with the Namibian Association of CBNRM Support an example for the distribution of both financial and Integrated Rural Development and Nature Organisations (NACSO), has spent over 20 years nonfinancial benefits. Today, 98 percent of Grootberg Conservation, which provides technical support to streamlining its approach to community-managed Lodge’s employees are members of the surrounding conservancies in natural resource management, and resources. Eighty-three conservancies are now communities, using traditional knowledge of wildlife Save the Rhino Trust Namibia (SRT), which implements registered in Namibia with nearly 44 percent of the movements and tracking skills to provide unparalleled rhinoceros conservation through joint monitoring country’s land area under conservation management.1 wildlife experiences for tourists.3 For example, the efforts and responsible rhinoceros tourism ventures lodge supports six conservancy rhino rangers who lead led by SRT-trained local conservancy rhino rangers. Joint venture tourism lodges have formed a strong the lodge’s popular rhino tracking safari integrating Thus, through NGO support to conservancies and a base of Namibian conservancy programming since the their routine monitoring work. This activity generated nation-wide movement toward conservation-based first conservancies were registered in 1998.2 significant income to the conservancy over the economies, Namibia is creating a path toward more self-sustaining conservation efforts. 1 Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) and Namibian Association of CBNRM Support Organisations (NASCO). 2018. The state of community conservation in Namibia: A review of communal conservancies, community forests and other CBNRM activities (annual report 2017). Windhoek: MET/NASCO. 2 Roe, D., M. Grieg-Gran, and W. Schalken. 2001. Getting the lion’s share from tourism: Private sector-community partnerships in Namibia. London: International Institute for Environment and Development. 4 Save the Rhino Trust Namibia. http://www.savetherhinotrust.org. 3 Grootberg Lodge. ≠Khoadi //Hoas Conservancy. https://grootberg.com/conservancies/khoadi-hoas-conservancy.
56 57 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS AN EVOLVING PROCESS OF COLLABORATION
DESPITE LIMITED FINANCIAL RESOURCES AND CONFLICTING DONOR SCHEDULES, MANY NGOS HAVE NAVIGATED THE FUNDING MAZE WHILE SUCCESSFULLY
© APW/Felipe Rodriguez © APW/Felipe Rodriguez © APW/Felipe ENGAGING COMMUNITIES IN CONSERVATION EFFORTS.
in restricting or dictating local ownership or use of resources.8 For example, the demand for illegal timber or ivory may have just as much to do (or more) with the exploitation of these resources as actions at a local scale. Similarly, distant markets and other socioeconomic factors may create barriers to the long- term adoption of sustainable practices.9 By extension, financial incentives, economic compensation, and open access to markets to promote alternative livelihood solutions all require paying close attention to questions of equity and empowerment—and a gaze that is not purely focused on the local.
To build trust and promote sustainability over time, NGOs should be sensitive to issues of budget transparency and funding cycles in addition to understanding the complex economic entanglements of communities. In fact, some of the most cited ensure that, as programming is increasingly linked natural resource management. Conservation-friendly researched and designed, they can lead to bankruptcy, necessary conditions for achieving conservation and to livelihoods, we are not perpetuating a cycle of livelihood activities must align with people’s core dependency, and poverty traps.7 To avoid such development under multiple-use and community- environmental injustice or expanding economic gaps values, recognizing that individuals will act in their own externalities, we must not only consider the local engaged management include trust building, in communities. self-interest. Programs incorporating conservation context but also embrace the broader socioeconomic communication, and revenue distribution.10 Ensuring outcomes and revenue for local communities, such as system within which local communities are situated, transparency and open communication with local As with payments for ecosystem services, financial through producing shade-grown crops or harvesting allocating financial and nonfinancial benefits communities with respect to project budgeting incentives can be used to provide economic benefits honey, offer economic value and encourage appropriately. and funding allocation is imperative to maintaining to local people who engage in positive community communities to control their resources sustainably.6 positive community relationships. Community project engagement conservation activities.5 Examples Further, conservation programs that place the managers may express frustration, a lack of trust, and a of such engagement include participation in local However, it is crucial to gain a deep understanding of blame for degradation and seek to correct only local feeling of being used by NGOs when such information meetings, community mapping, altered hunting community economic relations and the asymmetrical practices risk being deeply misguided, since broader is hidden. practices, and forest restoration initiatives. Yet to gain power dynamics at play, which may be perpetuated by institutional forces can play important roles true community investment in conservation efforts, market-based community engagement. If programs it is imperative to link livelihoods to sustainable and benefit distribution mechanisms are inadequately 7 Redpath, S. M., J. Young, A. Evely, W. M. Adams, W. J. Sutherland, A. Whitehouse, A. Amar, R. A. Lambert, J. D. C. Linnell, A. Watt, and R. J. Gutierrez. 2013. Understanding and managing conservation conflicts. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 28 (2): 100–109. 8 Dove, M. 1993. A revisionist view of tropical deforestation and development. Environmental Conservation 20 (1): 17–24. 5 Hazzah, L., M. B. Mulder, and L. Frank. 2009. Lions and warriors: Social factors underlying declining African lion populations and the effect of incentive-based 9 Slusser, J. L., A. Calle, and E. Garen. 2015. Sustainable ranching and restoring forests in agricultural landscapes, Panama. European Tropical Forest Research management in Kenya. Biological Conservation 142 (11): 2428–2437. Network (ETFRN) News 57: 31–38. 6 Nilsson, D., G. Baxter, J. R. Butler, and C. A. McAlpine. 2016. How do community-based conservation programs in developing countries change human behaviour? 10 Radachowsky, J., V. Ramos, R. McNab, E. Baur, and N. Kazakov. 2012. Forest concessions in the Maya Biosphere Reserve, Guatemala: A decade later. Forest Ecology A realist synthesis. Biological Conservation 200:93-103. and Management 268: 18–28.
58 59 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS AN EVOLVING PROCESS OF COLLABORATION © Piotr Naskrecki
WHEN EQUALITY ISN’T EQUITABLE
We often reference the need to ensure that groups, vulnerable populations, and those benefits are distributed equally within a disproportionately affected by environmental community, or between community and justice issues. conservation. But equal distribution of benefits—
that is, providing the same benefits to all parties— Rodriguez © APW/Felipe can result in the perpetuation of existing social hierarchies or economic imbalances.
In conservation and development work, we must instead strive for the equitable distribution of benefits, or HARVEST EQUITY. While equality implies sameness, equity implies fairness. In providing equitable benefit distribution, we seek to close the social and economic gaps in communities by raising up minority
Finally, conservation often operates at different Despite limited financial resources and conflicting scales according to the interests of various parties.11 donor schedules, many NGOs have navigated the This is particularly true in the world of international funding maze while successfully engaging communities conservation, whereby donor governments, in conservation efforts. As a whole, conservationists CASE STUDY philanthropists, or foundations provide grant-based continually demonstrate the financial and social funding to NGOs or other agencies, which in turn carry resilience necessary to work in complex environments. The Gorongosa Model out conservation projects with local communities. The next section highlights NGOs that implement best In Mozambique’s Gorongosa National Park, the park’s At the core of the Gorongosa model is a strong With this structure, conservation NGOs may be practices in community engagement with a variety of Human Development Department (representing emphasis on gender mainstreaming. By focusing on operating at a time scale that corresponds to donor funding mechanisms. about half of Gorongosa’s budget) engages with lifting half of the population up through women’s cycles and project timelines but fails to adequately surrounding communities in education, health care, and education, employment, and empowerment, address the timelines for decision-making and action “Relationships with communities are not based on small farmer support to ensure the park is beneficial Gorongosa is leading the field of conservation to that are most appropriate at the local or community annual funding cycles. This work is long term.” for all. While a substantial amount of funding for the gender equity. scale. Ultimately, a reconciliation between local —Charles Trout, African People & Wildlife park’s budget comes from private and government and global interests is needed—and a longer-term donors, an increasing percentage is generated through “By reframing Gorongosa National Park as a ‘human commitment and flexibility of external donors and conservation enterprise. Gorongosa’s Sustainable development engine,’ we are supporting and actors is required.12 Finance Plan seeks to shift financial stability from enhancing national health services, agricultural
donors to earned income through sustainable green programs, and education for local people, trying to businesses owned by the park, ranging from the lift them out of poverty and create more support tourism sector to Gorongosa brands of coffee, cashews, for the park in a positive feedback loop—with a and honey. special focus on providing more opportunities for 11 Redpath et al. 2013. women and keeping girls in school.” 12 Radachowsky et al. 2012. —Greg Carr, Gorongosa Project
60 61 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS INTRO PAGES © APW/Laly Lichtenfeld © APW/Laly
COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT IN PRACTICE: EXAMPLES FROM THE FIELD
While there are many organizations that successfully engage communities, the following pages highlight programs in Africa that exemplify the principles and practices we have emphasized throughout this framework as most effective. For simplicity, they are grouped into five categories: natural resource management, wildlife conservation and human-wildlife conflict prevention, environmental education, enterprise and economics, and development. Best practices appear in italics. Please see Appendix 3 to access a full list of the organizations and programs reviewed for this framework.
62 63 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT IN PRACTICE— EXAMPLES FROM THE FIELD
NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Communities are not homogenous groups with a (ENR-CSO) Network, and the Uganda Forest Working singular mindset for how natural resources should be Group (UFWG). Its programs focus on areas including KWCA, MCDI, AND NRT managed. Addressing the complexity and diversity environmental and natural resource management, within communities can prove challenging for outside water sanitation and hygiene, food security, promoting These terrestrial CBNRM organizations organizations, and therefore understanding the community innovation, and governance. recognize that land-use planning is a key social-ecological structures involved is crucial to component to community-driven conservation facilitating community-based resource conservation. Environmental Alert focuses on policy development and must be done in collaboration with Lichtenfeld © APW/Laly Finding a balance between community ownership and strengthening to support the sustainable use of community leadership. These organizations and organizational involvement is key to equitable natural resources in areas that lack representation, implement decision-making institutions which and effective community-based natural resource have fragile ecosystems, or have high levels of have a mechanism that holds them accountable management (CBNRM). The following organizations poverty. It addresses the links between poverty and to local people who bear the burden of exercise a variety of strategies, including the the environment to promote resource conservation exclusion and management. establishment of conservancies, ecosystem as well as food security and health. Natural resource services preservation, and policy and governance management programs target forests, wetlands, land strengthening, to engage, empower, structure, and and soil, and energy, as well as weather and climate. Its support local communities in conservation. forest programs include a partnership with the IUCN to promote pro-poor REDD+ principles and rights- Kenya Wildlife Conservancies Association based forest management is to see communities own, manage, and benefit from their forests in a way that Environmental Alert based approaches to strengthening the conservation, Kenya Wildlife Conservancies Association (KWCA) is ethical, sustainable, and long-lasting. It seeks out Environmental Alert advocates for policy, practices, and governance, and sustainable management of works with communities to establish conservancies income-producing ecosystem services that empower activities that represent communities while promoting landscapes in Uganda. Through its partnerships, for the sustainable management of natural resources communities to protect their forests and end cycles the sustainable use of natural resources. It has members Environmental Alert involves an appropriate mix outside of protected areas. Its theory of change of deforestation, resource depletion, and inefficient from and partners with several organizations including of actors with the power, capacity, mandate, and states that by giving conservancies a voice, providing land use. Its process is to support local community the Wetlands Advisory Committee, International motivation to assume the roles required to advance knowledge and support, and establishing regional ownership of forests, train local people in responsible Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Secretariat conservation. collaboration in a way that emphasizes the involvement techniques for timber extraction, connect communities of Prolinnova Uganda country program, Secretariat of Website: envalert.org of youth and women, the conservancies will improve with customers, and ensure communities decide how the Environment and Natural Resources Civil Society governance and be better placed to decrease human- funds will be used. The resulting benefits further the wildlife conflict and poaching. Results provide benefits desire to conserve natural resources. MCDI illustrates to the community from conservation and ensure that the best practice of maintaining long-term support wildlife is conserved. KWCA’s programs are rooted and engagement while also being flexible with the in policy, collaboration through networking and management of that support. It emphasizes self- communication, and capacity building to protect determination in community management of acquired ecosystems and use natural resources sustainably. funds, showing an understanding that communities Its approach highlights the importance of including know their needs better than external actors. It capacity building and information sharing in project addresses the need to connect conservation with design and emphasizes the importance of including economic incentives and, along with many of the women and youth in strategies to conserve resources. organizations highlighted in this document, treats local © Jo-Anne McArthur/Unbound Project McArthur/Unbound © Jo-Anne Website: kwcakenya.com communities as contemporaries with equal or even greater interests at stake. Mpingo Conservation & Development Initiative Website: mpingoconservation.org Mpingo Conservation & Development Initiative (MCDI) promotes forest conservation in southeastern Tanzania by finding and creating opportunities where local communities can benefit from sustainably managing their forests. MCDI’s goal for community-
64 65 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT IN PRACTICE— EXAMPLES FROM THE FIELD © Jeff Waweru © Jeff © WWF Marine
Northern Rangelands Trust a community-elected grazing committee to help World Wildlife Fund, Coastal Tanzania the rehabilitation of fish stocks and preserve wildlife improve and implement conservancy grazing plans. populations by helping communities decide how The Northern Rangelands Trust (NRT) supports The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) is a global This ensures that decision-making institutions have to determine quotas, monitor fishing, prevent illegal community conservancies throughout northern Kenya. conservation organization focused on six major a mechanism that holds them accountable to local activities, and protect endangered species, such NRT conservancies aim to encourage community areas—forests, oceans, wildlife, food, climate and people. In certain conservancies, these committees as turtles. conservation of natural resources and the development energy, and freshwater—by addressing three main manage invasive plant species and replant perennial of sustainable economies. Key targets of its work drivers of environmental degradation—markets, grasses using local ecological knowledge to inform WWF’s Beach Management Units take into account include peace and conflict resolution as well as an finance, and governance. WWF’s Coastal Tanzania conservation work. There are still challenges to the complexity within communities and the need to emphasis on good governance. Conservancies rely on division has established over 60 Beach Management working at the community level, and NRT aims to pursue conservation efforts with an awareness of the traditional cultural structures and the empowerment of Units, in conjunction with local communities, to broaden conservancy rangeland management to social-ecological systems involved. By establishing women and youth to improve governance and increase conserve and manage natural resources used in coastal coordinate on a larger landscape scale. NRT’s rangeland legal partnerships for resource management, these participation. Its programs focus on areas including areas. Fishing is a critical part of coastal community program emphasizes the importance of land-use units ensure that local ownership and good governance wildlife protection, rangeland management, security livelihoods in Tanzania, both economically and for planning as a key component of community-based are priorities, protecting the resource and property and peace, governance, and livelihoods and enterprise subsistence. Irresponsible fishing practices, however, conservation, which should be done in collaboration rights of communities. Conserving coastal natural development. have endangered not only coastal ecosystems but with community leadership. resources is a critical environmental concern for also food security, public health, and the economies local people. Therefore, determining goals in a way NRT’s rangeland initiatives address decreased Website: nrt-kenya.org/community-conservation of coastal communities. WWF’s support for Beach that includes a range of stakeholders is necessary to productivity resulting from changing grazing patterns, Management Units empowers local communities successfully change trends in overfishing and natural human population growth, climatic change, and to manage their marine environment and its use in resource depletion. invasive non-native species proliferation. Establishing a sustainable way. These units are legally binding community conservancies is a strategy to tackle the partnerships between communities and government Website: wwf.org.uk/what-we-do/projects/ multifaceted issues surrounding rangelands through that allow local people to have decision-making power recovering-community-fishing-grounds-and-turtle- better planning and restoration of rangelands. Each over their fishing areas and coastlines. WWF trains and populations conservancy has a rangeland coordinator who leads supports Beach Management Units to plan and execute
66 67 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT IN PRACTICE— EXAMPLES FROM THE FIELD
WILDLIFE CONSERVATION AND HUMAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICT PREVENTION
Coexisting with wildlife and preserving biodiversity are among the most important challenges for conservation. These pressures will only intensify with the escalation of human population growth and climate change. Connections with nature, ecosystems, and the overall environment are diverse and unique to each © APW/Laly Lichtenfeld © APW/Laly country, region, society, and individual, which adds to Rodriguez © APW/Felipe the complexity of conservation at the community level. The organizations highlighted in this section apply successful methods to prevent conflict, protect wildlife and habitats, and maintain biodiversity in collaboration with the relevant communities.
African People & Wildlife African People & Wildlife (APW) partners with local communities to create effective, sustainable solutions that improve the lives of rural Africans while protecting the natural world. Operating on © APW/Charles Trout © APW/Charles the ground in Tanzania, APW establishes long-term relationships with local residents based on the respectful integration of science and tradition. APW’s strategic, holistic approach to conservation is widely applicable in landscapes where people and wildlife coexist. Its program areas focus on preventing human-wildlife conflict, conserving endangered species and vital habitats, building capacity for the management of natural resources, and fostering local conservation incentives. that recipients are invested financially and not simply Community Forests International establishment of the first school and water collection receiving aid. APW’s methods employ flexible and system, and economic growth for the community. Community Forests International (CFI) was formed adaptable solutions, which can be applied to varied CFI shows how connecting economics with the To prevent livestock depredation and promote to address drastic and severe deforestation on the contexts and communities. Its strong monitoring environment is often necessary for conservation coexistence with large carnivores, APW has partnered island of Pemba, off the coast of Tanzania. With help protocols ensure targeted outcomes and financial projects working with communities. Assuring that with local communities to develop the Living Walls and advice from local communities, CFI began to responsibility. Living Walls are an excellent example economic functions are considered as part of the program. Living Walls fortify traditional thornbush combat deforestation by replanting native trees with of a win-win solution, demonstrating equal balance solution was a goal from the project’s inception, corrals with live Commiphora trees, surrounding the the consideration of local ecology. What began as a between community benefits and conservation swhich has contributed greatly to the project’s success. corrals and then securing the gaps between trees with small group with limited resources expanded into a outcomes as both livestock and wildlife are protected. CFI relies on community members as the main drivers chain-link fencing. This project highlights the principle network of community members who have turned of reforestation and conservation in Pemba, and of participation by relying on community knowledge Website: africanpeoplewildlife.org/living-walls to conservation as a sustainable livelihood through its program emphasizes working side by side with to co-design Living Walls using locally relevant and beekeeping, earth block building, permaculture, and communities instead of simply delegating tasks environmentally sound methods to protect livestock agroforestry. Islands are among the most affected and responsibilities. and reduce conflict. Instead of relying solely on outside ecosystems by climate change; consequently, knowledge and expertise, APW’s Living Walls program communities living on islands face many challenges, Website: forestsinternational.org/about-us results from the wealth of information and knowledge from rising coastlines to coral bleaching. The local communities have amassed through generations. community-based conservation efforts to combat The program also requires community members to deforestation and climate change in Pemba have pay a portion of construction costs, which ensures led to the replanting of over two million trees, the
68 69 COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT IN PRACTICE— EXAMPLES FROM THE FIELD © Charles Capel
lion conflict prevention organizations have created The Elephants and Bees Project practices meaningful programs that rely on local members of the community community engagement by searching for flexible and to be a voice for wildlife in an attempt to mitigate applicable solutions to mitigate conflicts in response and prevent conflicts. Organizations using this model to crop degradation by elephants. This research- include Ewaso Lions’ Warrior Watch, the Ruaha based project aims to protect crops from elephants Carnivore Project’s Lion Defenders, Lion Guardians, by using an elephant’s natural avoidance of honey and African People & Wildlife’s Warriors for Wildlife. bees as a deterrent through the creation of “beehive These programs demonstrate the use of local fencing.” Similar techniques to reduce crop destruction knowledge in project development as local herders include the Southern Tanzania Elephant Program, track lions and livestock, alerting fellow community which also uses beehives as a preventative tool, and members about the lions’ locations to help prevent the Mara Elephant Project’s Chili Fences program. conflicts and advocating for peace between humans These programs demonstrate the importance of and wildlife. These projects embrace the complexity recognizing that community livelihoods are linked to of communities and take into account the social- conserving wildlife and that they must be mutually ecological systems that cause conflicts while also protected. These programs understand human-wildlife Conservation Through Public Health environmental well-being. CTPH uses the best practice being mindful of the cultural and historical reasons conflict as a complex and multifaceted issue that of treating health care programs as complex adaptive Conservation Through Public Health (CTPH) is a for conflict. Treating community members as equals must be addressed by finding solutions that promote systems and not as linear cause-and-effect models. Uganda-based organization that works to prevent at the discussion table and empowering local coexistence. As human populations continue to grow, Its reliance on local community VHCTs recognizes the and control the transmission of diseases between communities is key to increasing engagement. These finding solutions that protect wildlife as well as people community as equals in the process of advancing health people and gorillas, cattle, and buffalo while advancing organizations also recognize the power in hiring and their livelihoods will be increasingly difficult. and well-being and ensures messages are delivered the quality of life for communities to decrease their local staff as voices for wildlife as this encourages These projects search for unique solutions that are by fellow community members who understand local dependency on fragile ecosystems. It strives to participation and strengthens community investment easily applied by communities to discourage negative languages, customs, and culture. prevent conflict through three programs that in a project’s success. wildlife interactions. encourage local communities to be caretakers for Website: ctph.org Websites: Websites: both their environment and public health: Village • ewasolions.org/conservation/warrior-watch • elephantsandbees.com Health and Conservation Teams (VHCTs), Human- East African Lion Conservation Projects • ruahacarnivoreproject.com/lion-defenders-6 • stzelephants.org/projects/human-elephants- Gorilla Conflict Resolution Teams, and Community Centered Around Community Inclusion • lionguardians.org/about-us co-existence Animal Health Workers. Many of the organizations working to prevent conflict • africanpeoplewildlife.org/warriors-wildlife • maraelephantproject.org between humans and lions in East Africa rely on similar The VHCTs are made up of trained community techniques. One method commonly used is to enlist members who volunteer to provide integrated community members as ambassadors for wildlife. In East African Organizations Focused community-based public health information and East Africa, pastoral tribes like the Maasai historically on Elephant Conflict Prevention services—including hygiene practices, infectious killed lions as part of cultural coming-of-age rituals. Preventing conflict between humans and wildlife is disease prevention and control, family planning, Today, lion hunting occurs in the form of retribution particularly challenging in the case of elephants, which nutrition, and conservation education—to individual for conflict between lions and livestock. NGOs working are highly at risk of poaching and killing in retaliation households. Through this program, networks are in these regions must be mindful of the cultural and for destroying crops and infrastructure. Preventative established in communities living adjacent to political agendas involved in program design and solutions and on-the-ground programs are needed protected areas and gorilla populations, allowing
implementation, specifically with an awareness of the for true coexistence, instead of relying too heavily on © APW/Laly Lichtenfeld VHCTs to provide health services while advocating for cultural background of lion killing. compensation programs. conservation and education. The aim is to establish a mutually beneficial relationship and open dialog Attitude is a key parameter of behavior change between the community and the organization. and can have significant impacts on human-wildlife Conservation Through Public Health’s VHCT program conflict. Therefore, project implementers must test exemplifies the importance of empowering community their assumptions about behavior and causation members to take command of their personal and before embarking on a project. Many of East Africa’s
70 71 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT IN PRACTICE— EXAMPLES FROM THE FIELD
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION © Brett Kuxhausen/Gorongosa Media Kuxhausen/Gorongosa © Brett
Environmental education is essential to the future Coaching for Conservation of conservation, and educational components are Coaching for Conservation works in South Africa and critical for sustainable community-based conservation Botswana to inspire schoolchildren to become stewards initiatives. Increasingly, conservation-based education of their environment through sport. Its programs build programs recognize that education systems are confidence, teach team-building skills, and provide complex and that oversimplified solutions may do little a fun pathway for students to become engaged to generate meaningful change within a community. in conservation. Through after-school programs, The following organizations and programs treat summer camps, and exposure to wildlife, Coaching conservation education as a fundamental part of their for Conservation works to show the importance community engagement. of protecting the environment while providing community youth the opportunity to grow, learn, and African Parks play. Its model is not to evangelize to communities that African Parks’ community engagement programs aim caring for the environment is important, but to instill a to provide benefits to surrounding communities by love for the environment through positive experiences establishing mechanisms for local involvement with and meaningful connections. Instead of relying on parks while also guaranteeing community interests homogenous solutions to the provision of conservation are considered in management decisions. African education, Coaching for Conservation employs a and to pursue careers with skill building and on environmental education. It is a United Nations Parks’ community projects include the construction of unique and flexible solution that is adaptable to development opportunities that are linked directly Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization schools, the provision of educational support, and the different contexts and communities. back to the park and wildlife conservation. (UNESCO) partner supporting education across South facilitation of enterprise development. These programs Website: coachingforconservation.org Africa. WESSA runs three environmental education focus on building enthusiasm for conservation while To be truly inclusive in community engagement, centers that provide students with the opportunity to supporting communities’ access to jobs, education, Gorongosa National Park organizations must actively involve marginalized learn hands-on in an outdoor classroom. The education health care, and commercial enterprise development. groups. Gorongosa demonstrates this by emphasizing programs offered include outdoor adventure, The resurrection of Gorongosa National Park is the African Parks establishes environmental education that women and young girls are part of education environmental awareness, leadership, and capacity result of a partnership between the Carr Foundation programs that share with the local population the projects. Its projects also aim to improve environmental building, as well as continuing education programs and the government of Mozambique aimed at importance of conserving natural resources and their education for all ages, emphasizing that older focused around investment, curriculum building, restoring the park after civil conflict destroyed an sustainable use. It seeks to ensure that communities, community members are essential to fostering change support, logistics, and youth engagement. WESSA abundance of the wildlife. Due to new protections and especially local youth, have access to the parks and in cultures where elders are highly respected. Providing demonstrates the best practice of maintaining long- the reintroduction of many species, animal numbers are able to see the benefits of conserving them. It also access to higher education and teaching adults term support, commitment, and engagement while have significantly increased in the park. More than implements mechanisms and structures that ensure usable skills can be a tool for increasing awareness of being flexible with how this support is managed. It 200,000 people also live in communities around the communities have access to education at feasible times, environmental issues as well as overall community well- pairs environmental education with work trainings that park, and Gorongosa recognizes the importance developing seasonal curricula based on agricultural being. (See Case Study on page 61.) benefit the community while increasing awareness and of working in unison with local communities and calendars. This practice emphasizes the importance of encouraging youth to conserve natural resources. This government. Its community development programs Website: gorongosa.org/human-development corresponding program timelines with a community’s creates a positive feedback loop of empowering local include education initiatives that support girls’ seasonal and cultural timelines. African Parks’ education communities to increase engagement. programs illustrate the importance of recognizing the clubs, primary and secondary school programs, and Wildlife and Environment Society Website: wessa.org.za complexity involved in environmental education and scholarships for higher education. Cross-cutting of South Africa awareness as well as the critical need to ensure that goals include the following: ensuring that all children, The Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa community members are able to access the areas they and particularly girls, have access to primary and (WESSA) works in a variety of capacities to promote are being asked to conserve. secondary education; educating students and teachers conservation and environmental protection while about the environment and conservation; ensuring Website: africanparks.org/our-work/community- addressing the economic and social challenges local environmental awareness and understanding development involved with environmental management, ecotourism, are sufficient to make wise decisions regarding the education, and youth development programs. environment; and supporting adults to be literate Its education program works with schools and teachers to improve and support curricula focused
72 73 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT IN PRACTICE— EXAMPLES FROM THE FIELD © L.M. Benitez ENTERPRISE AND ECONOMICS
Developing conservation-focused enterprise and Namibian Association economic programs that are relevant to community of CBNRM Support Organisations needs and viable for a range of individuals (including Namibia is a pioneer in both community-based and women) can be difficult, to say the least. Diverse national conservation and was the first nation in Africa challenges may arise, from acquiring materials to to include conservation as part of its constitution. implementing best business practices and addressing The Namibian Association of CBNRM Support market forces. The organizations and programs in this Organisations (NACSO) helps conservancies and section demonstrate some of the best strategies for rural groups by facilitating community-based natural developing conservation-based economies, fighting resource management. NASCO—an association of poverty, creating businesses, and offsetting the various consultants, regional conservancy associations, economic costs of conservation. allied organizations, and the University of Namibia— aims to combine the knowledge and skills of various Community Markets for Conservation stakeholders for the benefit of communities through Community Markets for Conservation (COMACO) improved governance, natural resource management, establishes economic incentives for the conservation and the expansion of economic opportunities. of natural resources to combat poaching and Namibia’s National Protected Area System is divided unsustainable resource depletion in Zambia. Farmers into national parks and private and communal and poachers pledge to pursue sustainable practices concessions. Benefits of concessions are used to grow determined by the community to maintain ecosystem the local and national economies. A majority of funding health. In return, COMACO provides training, support, goes toward the communal concessions, which were and the capacity to pursue a sustainable livelihood established as a means to empower communities and via farming. Its methods include training farmers to reduce poverty by providing the benefits of capital use organic composting, minimum tillage, and a crop growth, job creation, business expansion, and increased rotation scheme that increases crop yields, avoids community capability. nutrient depletion, and saves farmers from the cost of purchasing chemical fertilizers. COMACO then NACSO views conservation-based enterprise purchases the resulting premium products and resells development as something that should benefit the them under its brand, It’s Wild! communities most affected by land conservation and the restriction of land use. This strategy combines COMACO’s model is based off an understanding the conservation of natural resources with economic of the economic complexities behind why people growth and incentivizes sustainable practices. poach. It aims to break positive feedback loops that (See Case Study on page 56.) exacerbate poverty, which leads to further poaching. Website: nacso.org.na COMACO’s methods have led to a 450 percent increase in farmers’ annual incomes, providing food for families and removing the driving force behind poaching for sustenance. It addresses the costs of conservation and the connection to social justice by finding a way to compensate communities for conserving their natural resources and protecting wildlife. Website: itswild.org
74 75 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT IN PRACTICE— EXAMPLES FROM THE FIELD
Conservation Through Public Health’s Gorilla Conservation Coffee partners with farmers living near protected areas in Uganda to promote conservation while providing an alternative livelihood to decrease reliance on fragile environments. Its program provides trainings and supports capacity building and the
© APW/Felipe Rodriguez © APW/Felipe introduction of products into larger national and international markets. CTPH highlights the best practice of focusing on geographic hot spots
of human-wildlife conflict as well as tying conservation Project McArthur/Unbound © Jo-Anne efforts to economic incentives. Website: ctph.org/alternative-livelihoods
Gorongosa National Park’s Rainforest Coffee supports 1,000 families to establish sustainable, small-scale production of coffee in partnership with the park, the government, and the private sector. This program works to link sustainable development and land use with biodiversity conservation while supporting families in the community. Through an integrated focus on education, health, and enterprise development, Gorongosa aims to thoroughly address community issues and simultaneously protect indigenous species and ecosystems. Website: gorongosa.org/our-story/rainforest-coffee- people © Jen Guyton © Jen Small-Scale Enterprise Support African People & Wildlife’s Women’s Beekeeping Northern Rangelands Trust’s BeadWORKS initiative Initiative combines entrepreneurship with eco-friendly Community-based economic development projects provides support to local women’s groups business principles in a way that uplifts communities that support small-scale conservation enterprises in order to create small businesses run by women. while protecting the environment. APW facilitates the focused on entrepreneurship and capacity building It supports women’s groups by providing trainings, training of Maasai women in enterprise management, are often both successful and enduring, particularly materials, business management, and access to record keeping, project supervision, and monitoring when they encourage self-reliance and resilience. international markets. Programs like this demonstrate and evaluation. APW provides trainings—from the Small-scale enterprise support can be used to the importance of empowering women in the creation of their business through its development engage communities as active participants and create community to be a force of change in the integration over time—to strengthen and expand the women’s entrepreneurs within the community in a way that is of community economics and conservation. knowledge. Its program empowers women in a male- targeted and collaborative. The following programs dominated culture to be involved in community Website: nrt-kenya.org/beadworks rely on communities as partners to create small conservation. The program also highlights the best businesses that are applicable, simple, and beneficial practice of facilitating horizontal knowledge and to both the community and the environment. These experience sharing between women by working with programs tie economic incentives to conservation existing women’s groups and forming new connections. initiatives in a way that encourages community members to create enterprises that are self-reliant, Website: africanpeoplewildlife.org/womens- resilient, and collaborative. entrepreneurship-empowerment-initiative
76 77 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT IN PRACTICE— EXAMPLES FROM THE FIELD
DEVELOPMENT
Organizations and programs in this section link enterprises, develop and improve infrastructure, Tuungane Project This project has a defined theory of change that conservation to broader development objectives. In and increase regional tourism to boost the economy. measures both its biologically and socially intended Tuungane Project is a collaborative effort between addition to contributing to economic development, African Parks is furthering the development of these outcomes and demonstrates sound logic in linking The Nature Conservancy, Pathfinder International, the they also support infrastructure improvements and parks in a way that is sustainable and impactful for project activities to those intended outcomes. The Tanzanian government, and local communities. Rapidly the strengthening of local and national security. These local communities. Its education, health, development, Tuungane Project recognizes the importance of growing populations combined with severe poverty organizations recognize development as a multifaceted conservation, and enterprise programs employ ensuring monitoring and evaluation are primary have led to the endangerment of local communities challenge to the conservation of nature and approach complex adaptive systems to develop tourism in these aspects of program operations. and their environments in rural areas around eastern sustainable development by directing efforts toward regions by working with the communities in a way Tanzania’s Lake Tanganyika. The project’s goal is to Website: nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/ the underlying problems of inadequate governance, that is mutually beneficial. In Akagera, African Parks preserve local ecosystems and their ability to support africa/stories-in-africa/tuungane-project education, economic development, and capacity. addresses the economic factors involved with wildlife healthy communities. Lack of access to education, poaching and the cultural issues behind increases in health services, clean and safe drinking water, and Virunga Alliance African Parks, Akagera and Majete livestock. Its programs in Akagera and Majete make modern contraception have all contributed to the Virunga National Park, located in the Democratic sure that alternative livelihoods are both available Akagera National Park was headed for disaster in the exploitation of natural resources. The Tuungane Project Republic of the Congo, is a leader in linking and supported. 1990s as refugees from the Rwandan genocide turned implements water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) conservation with community development. Political, to the natural landscape for relief from poverty and Websites: programs along with conservation activities in the social, and military conflict in the region challenges starvation. Poaching, environmental degradation • africanparks.org/the-parks/majete/community- region to support community health, education, and the integrity of Africa’s most biologically diverse from livestock, and deforestation brought the park involvement the empowerment of youth and women while also protected area, and Virunga relies on its team of to the verge of collapse. Majete Wildlife Reserve in • africanparks.org/the-parks/akagera/community- protecting the local environment. rangers to conserve the park’s wildlife. In conjunction Malawi was in a similar state as local communities were involvement with its conservation programs, the Virunga Alliance uninvolved in park operations and received very few supports local communities through natural resource benefits from its existence. Consequently, community management programs targeting hydropower, interaction with wildlife was mostly limited to illegal sustainable agriculture and fisheries, and tourism to poaching for subsistence. create sustainable livelihoods and combat poverty. The Virunga Alliance partners with various private sector, Decreased wildlife populations caused both parks to civilian, and public organizations to bring peace and struggle with low tourism numbers and revenue until economic relief to an area torn by conflict and poverty. African Parks began projects to address these issues. In Akagera, African Parks partnered with the Rwanda The Virunga Alliance addresses a significant Development Board to increase law enforcement and impediment to social justice as lands are allocated improve benefits for local communities by creating for conservation and potentially prevent people in more tourism and employment opportunities. While need from using natural resources. In an attempt to © Brett Kuxhausen/Gorongosa Media Kuxhausen/Gorongosa © Brett focusing on the drivers of wildlife population declines— fight the illegal extraction of resources and provide poaching as well as forestry and livestock grazing an alternative means of livelihood, the Alliance within the park—African Parks simultaneously created strives to improve local infrastructure, governance, opportunities for alternative livelihoods. African Parks’ and development. The challenges to developing initiatives in both Akagera and Majete focus on hot the economy in eastern Congo are immense, and spots of human-wildlife conflict surrounding the park to the Alliance is targeting some of the largest of these prevent illegal poaching through economic, education, problems: roadways, power, and governance. The park and infrastructure development. seeks input and support from the local community to prioritize its development initiatives and recognizes its African Parks has worked in both Akagera and Majete dependence on community support to operate many to provide employment through the park, establish of its programs. education and scholarships for those in need, involve Website: virunga.org the community in park management, establish small community-based tourism and local product
78 79 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS A SUSTAINABLE WAY FORWARD
A SUSTAINABLE WAY FORWARD Rodriguez © APW/Felipe
We are now, undoubtedly, in the era of the engagement be adopted broadly by all organizations Anthropocene. No ecosystem on our planet is working in conservation and development. Small- untouched by humanity, and yet humans are so scale market solutions to environmental problems often the last factor to be considered in efforts to are effective locally, but they do not define a global protect those places. It is well recognized that the shift toward sustainable living. This work must human-nature binary underpinning the conventional be implemented on national and regional scales, conservation paradigm is flawed. Yet many impacting not just individual communities but conservation organizations struggle to meet their whole landscapes. financial needs, purely in terms of environmental and wildlife management objectives. Given this, how do We must do more than change our program design we even begin to meaningfully and systematically retroactively—embracing communities and their goals advance community engagement in conservation needs to be a core component of our conservation across broader landscapes? models from the outset. By demonstrating the complex processes involved in community More Than Change engagement, we must also advocate for long-term In this framework, we have outlined a process by which efforts that uphold the principles of flexibility and conservation organizations can build their capacities relevance as circumstances inevitably change on to partner with communities, act as catalysts for the ground. community-driven conservation, and work toward © L.M. Benitez conservation-based economies. Moving forward, By deepening our involvement with communities we cannot superimpose a model of community and engaging in development and conservation engagement on a fortress conservation system and work simultaneously, we can create win-win solutions. expect lasting change. Our efforts must become more We can revitalize our relationship with nature and repair our relationships with those who have suffered holistic and embrace community engagement as a key Project McArthur/Unbound © Jo-Anne aspect of the management of conservation landscapes, environmental injustices. Within these pages, we where multiple land uses and a spectrum of protective have demonstrated that real impact is possible when designations form a sustainable Earth. We cannot do we embrace the values of equity, justice, and human this in a system where conservation and development dignity. We cannot create a sustainable Earth alone. We remain distinct. These sectors are intimately linked; no must advocate for communities, for conservation, and development project should be without a conservation for collaboration—all in one. component and no conservation program can ultimately succeed if the surrounding communities Many of us, as conservationists, entered this field Media © Gorongosa do not embrace sustainable livelihoods. for a love of wildlife and wild places—but the future of our work is with people. With the passion and Rather, we must transcend the system. innovation that have ignited our efforts thus far, we create positive change for the Earth’s last wild places. © Piotr Naskrecki To make this paradigm shift and to implement When we share that passion with communities, we programs on an impactful scale, the field of create more than change. community-driven conservation needs more than change. A doubling of conservation budgets We create a transformation. (not a reallocation of existing funds) is needed to meaningfully advance environmental initiatives in the lands humanity depends on. While any implementation of community-driven conservation is a step forward, resilient outcomes require that real community
80 81 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS INTRO PAGES © Bob Poole
APPENDICES
This framework for community engagement in conservation strives to provide actionable recommendations, real-world examples, and tangible tools to assist NGOs and conservation practitioners in their efforts to create positive change in Africa. These appendices include a list of best practices in community engagement, the toolkit items referenced throughout the framework, a reference to conservation programs reviewed for Community Engagement in Practice: Examples from the Field, and a brief history of community engagement. We intend for these appendices to help bring this framework to life as we transition from theory to practical application.
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APPENDIX 1 BEST PRACTICES IN COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT: A QUICK REFERENCE
Throughout the process of reviewing literature, Planning, Monitoring, Evaluation, • Commit to conservation with a social justice– and • Communication with community members should, analyzing programs, and discussing strategies with and Learning human rights–based approach. when possible, occur in the local language, and experienced practitioners in the field of community- information should be delivered by either a Practices relating to logical, results-based planning, • Projects should emphasize the empowerment of driven conservation, we compiled a shortlist of best member of that community or a member of the strategic goal development, and program evolution women and youth. practices in community engagement. Many of these ethnic group being addressed. practices are implemented on the ground through • Monitoring and evaluation are crucial. Indicators • Honor the principle of Free, Prior, and Informed the projects highlighted in Community Engagement should be developed for multiple layers of Harvest Equity Consent, ensuring that participating community in Practice: Examples from the Field, but we recognize a theory of change and be measurable— Practices relating to the distribution of conservation members are informed of and consent to new that there are contexts where implementation may quantitatively or qualitatively. program benefits, cost allocation, and financial programs and changes in existing programs vary. This list is intended to be generalizable, a list from incentives • The determination of biological and social goals and feel empowered to withhold consent as which NGOs, donors, and practitioners in other fields should be participatory, informed by a range of • Programs should tie the strengthening of local they see fit. can draw on for inspiration in strategic planning. Of stakeholders and people affected by the project, livelihoods directly to conservation. course, practices must be tailored to the strengths of and embedded in traditional knowledge and the NGO and community context. Activities and Strategies legal systems. • A portion of monetary costs can be covered by the outside organization; however, money should not Practices referring to specific and implementable These best practices cover the entire project cycle • Reporting, transparency, and knowledge-sharing be freely distributed, and it is often better if all activities, project logistics, and human resources from planning through evaluation and touch on topics with communities during monitoring and after stakeholders financially contribute. • Projects should include capacity-building and as specific as activity logistics and as broad as systems independent evaluations is necessary for effective learning components. thinking. We encourage NGOs to delve into this list feedback loops. • Financial and development benefits should be distributed equitably, not just equally, to avoid by recognizing which best practices they may be • Land-use planning is a key component of perpetuating wealth gaps. implementing, which they are overlooking, and which Culture, Beliefs, and Perception many community-based conservation programs may be adapted to fit their local contexts. and should be done in collaboration with Practices referring to the human dimensions of Governance and Institutions community leadership. conservation, behavioral science, social justice, and Flexibility, Complexity, and Systems Thinking Practices regarding decision-making authority, social inclusion of heterogeneous views • Use local ecological knowledge to inform processes, and institutional capacity to support Practices referring to high-level program design, the conservation work when possible. interconnected nature of development sectors, and the • Ethnographic, sociological, and anthropological conservation programming philosophy of conservation studies can help inform the social and cultural • Support a significant percentage of team • Local ownership, local control, and good dimensions of conservation initiatives. members from local communities—not just in governance are fundamentally important to • Use flexible solutions that are adaptable to assistant roles but also management roles—to • In addition to biodiversity and habitat successful programs. Central governments and different contexts and communities. increase investment in project success. preservation goals, NGOs should pursue conservationists must be willing to delegate • Education, health, development, conservation, conservation aims that respond to the authority to the local level and support clear and • Projects dealing with environmental crime and enterprise programs comprise complex environmental concerns of local people (such as sufficient property and resource rights. should address economic and cultural issues adaptive systems, and should not be considered as soil fertility and water quality). that encourage conflicts and illegal activities. • Decision-making institutions should have a linear cause-and-effect models. Alternative means of living should be available • Attitude is a key parameter of behavior change mechanism that holds them accountable to local and supported. • Complexity should be embraced in communities, and can significantly impact conservation efforts. people who bear the burden of exclusion and programs, and theories of change, and be Managers should test their assumptions about management. • Where evidence supports it, focus on geographic understood in terms of social-ecological systems. behavior and causation before embarking on a hot spots of human-wildlife conflict. project and during implementation. • Understand time scale differences (e.g., donor, conservation groups, project cycles, community, • Facilitate horizontal knowledge and experience • Consider indigenous and local peoples as equals and political timelines). sharing among local actors (e.g., farmer to farmer). at the discussion table and as drivers of local conservation efforts.
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APPENDIX 2 APPENDIX 3 A TOOLKIT FOR A REFERENCE TO CONSERVATION MEANINGFUL ENGAGEMENT PROGRAMS REVIEWED
This toolkit is intended to provide NGOs and appropriate use, but only the format and organization Conservation initiatives often depend on community This is not an exhaustive representation of the many conservation practitioners with practical instruments of the tool is generalizable. We encourage users of this involvement to be impactful, and communities organizations meaningfully engaging communities for implementing the guidance provided in toolkit to adapt, adjust, and modify these tools to best also have their own conservation priorities. Over on the African continent. Examples have been Community, Conservation, and Collaboration: A fit their needs. Note that these tools are listed in the 50 organizations in eastern and southern Africa with selected from a combination of remotely collected Framework for Success. The tools within are generic order they appear in the framework text which does strong community engagement components were information and direct communication with the templates, applicable to any community-based not necessarily reflect the order in which they may be reviewed for this framework and grouped into five relevant organizations. However, on-the-ground conservation effort. While some of the tools were completed. As community engagement is cyclical and categories: natural resource management, wildlife practices have not been directly observed. A full list created specifically for this framework, most have been cannot be categorized in rigid steps, when an NGO conservation and human-wildlife conflict prevention, of the organizations and programs reviewed for this adapted from instruments used in other sectors or completes each tool will depend on the project, the environmental education, enterprise and economics, framework is available at africanpeoplewildlife.org/ created by partner organizations. As this toolkit is a NGO’s level of establishment in a community, and the and development. Of course, in practice there is often conservation-programs-reviewed. living document, we invite input on the existing tools rate at which conditions in the community and NGO overlap as many program objectives, targets, and and call for additional tools that may be helpful to the change. The tools are intended to be living and flexible applications address multiple categories. Nevertheless, conservation NGO community. documents and should be reviewed and revised for simplicity, organizations and projects have been as needed. allocated to a category based on their most relevant Just as NGOs must adapt to changing community application. contexts, these tools must be tailored to reflect To access the tools listed below, please visit the needs of the users. In some cases, the tools africanpeoplewildlife.org/community-conservation- provide hypothetical examples to demonstrate their collaboration.
TOOLS* Tool 1: Assessing Community Interest Tool 6: SWOT Analysis for External Capacity Tool 2: Rapid Response Kit 2.1 Budget Template Tool 7: Role Clarification 2.2 Project Timeline Template 7.1 RACI Chart for Decision Process 7. 2 RACI Chart for Implementation Tool 3: Clarifying Internal Goals Tool 8: Theory of Change Template Tool 4: STEP Analysis for Internal Capacity Tool 9: Monitoring for Results Tool 5: Stakeholder Mapping 9.1 Complexity and Confidence 5.1 Identifying Community Champions 9.2 Performance Indicator Tracking Table 5.2 Power Ranking with Radargram
* Note: These tools are listed in the order they appear in the framework text which does not necessarily reflect the order in which they may be used.
86 87 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT: A BRIEF INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY
APPENDIX 4 Publishing Co. © Detroit COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT: A BRIEF INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY
On March 1, 1872, U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant signed The important relationships between communities the Act of Dedication, which created the world’s first and nature necessitate a broadening of conservation national park: Yellowstone. An iconic park representing scope from localized “fortresses” to landscape and the “quintessential American wilderness,” Yellowstone ecosystem-scale conservation. The U.S. National Park has long been regarded as the landscape that inspired Service embarked on such a mission with the 1995 conservation efforts around the globe.1 reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone, intending to restore natural trophic cascades in the region. In the Yellowstone was but the first of many wildlands set same year, environmental historian William Cronon aside for conservation purposes, and its creation published “The Trouble with Wilderness”; its adoption began a global movement toward land protection. marked a significant shift in conservation philosophy, Nevertheless, its demarcation also set off a great and it is now one of the most notable pieces in 20th- debate regarding the meaning of wilderness and century conservation literature.3 the question of humanity’s relationship with and connection to nature. “The dualism at the heart of wilderness encourages its advocates to conceive of its Establishing Yellowstone meant displacing Native protection as a crude conflict between the AN EVOLVING TIMELINE OF ENGAGEMENT American tribes that had lived on the landscape for ‘human’ and the ‘nonhuman’—or, more often, centuries. Keeping the park free of human settlement between those who value the nonhuman and Despite the strong conservation intentions of early preserve the natural landscape for human enjoyment. and safe for tourists and recreationists required those who do not. This in turn tempts one to national parks, wilderness was typically identified Thus, while indigenous peoples were seen as the the force of the U.S. Army.2 Former residents of the ignore crucial differences among humans and in terms of its benefits to recreationists. Not only destructive force in wildlands, park authorities also park were seen as destructive, and Yellowstone was the complex cultural and historical reasons were indigenous peoples removed from parks, but often enacted anti-predator policies that caused marketed as untouched, pristine, and wild, despite why different peoples may feel very differently even wildlife deemed dangerous for tourists were lasting damage to the very ecosystems they were extensive human influence on the landscape. To about the meaning of wilderness.” extirpated; gray wolves (Canis lupus) were hunted to tasked with preserving. preserve natural places, early conservationists sought —William Cronon, 1995 local extinction in Yellowstone in an ironic attempt to to create fortresses, seemingly protected from the perceived damaging effects of human inhabitants. Cronon’s work highlighted an existing problem in conservation where the peoples with a direct 1872 1916 1926 1975 1995 2017 This classification of some lands as wild and others as connection to the natural landscapes under protection President The National Park Due to prolonged Grizzly bears Wolves are Studies confirm Ulysses S. Grant Service Organic Act hunting by the are listed as a reintroduced to wolf reintroduction human dominated perpetuated the belief that humans were excluded from these protection efforts. He signs the Act of is signed, creating U.S. Army and threatened species Yellowstone from impact on are separate from our environment. This human-nature critiqued the policies that negatively impact the Dedication, creating the U.S. National tourists, wolves are in the Greater Canada’s Jasper Yellowstone the world’s first Park Service. extirpated from Yellowstone National Park. ecosystem recovery. dualism has been a subject of debate, philosophical peoples most dependent on wild landscapes and national park: the Yellowstone Ecosystem. Park visitation discussion, theological writings, and existentialist offered environmentalists an alternative, self-critical, Yellowstone. ecosystem. reaches an thought for centuries, and the newly created national and cross-cultural land ethic.4 all-time high. parks reinforced the trend toward human separateness from nature. And yet communities around the world Through Cronon’s writings and those of other have profoundly influenced the global environment, environmental philosophers, theories of conservation William Cronon managing resources and impacting landscapes gradually saw a shift from “fences-and-fines” toward The U.S. Army arrives The U.S. Army leaves publishes “The Oswald Schmitz for millennia. more people-friendly approaches.5 The concept of in Yellowstone Yellowstone, turning The IUCN passes the Trouble with to manage the over management A National Park Kinshasa Resolution Wilderness,” publishes The New park. Institution of and protection to Service Director’s on the Protection calling for a new Ecology: Rethinking “fences-and-fines” the U.S. National Order prohibits the of Traditional Ways conservation a Science for the 1 West, P., J. Igoe, and D. Brockington. 2006. Parks and peoples: The social impact of protected areas. Annual Review of Anthropology 35: 251–277. conservation. Park Service. killing of predators. of Life. paradigm. Anthropocene. 2 West et al. 2006. 1886 1918 1934 1975 1995 2017 3 Cronon, W. 1995. The trouble with wilderness; or, getting back to the wrong nature In William Cronon, ed., Uncommon ground: Rethinking the human place in nature. New New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 69–90. 4 Cronon. 1995.
88 89 COMMUNITY, CONSERVATION, AND COLLABORATION: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT: A BRIEF INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY © APW/Deirdre Leowinata © APW/Deirdre
“pristine” nature and “unfettered” wilderness gave way national and local levels in their project, conducting to the modern ideals of sustainable social-ecological environmental awareness programs, and providing Social-Ecological System systems.6 In steep contrast to the human-nature financial benefits for the nation and people surrounding dualism that dominated conservation thought for The integration of both the natural and social the park, the Mountain Gorilla Project became one of decades, social-ecological systems provide a model sciences with systems theory, recognizing the the first community-oriented conservation initiatives 11 for including humans as an integrated part of the interdependent interactions between biology, in Africa. natural world. ecology, and social systems. Integrated conservation and development projects Oswald Schmitz, Oastler Professor of Population and (ICDPs) like the Mountain Gorilla Project emerged in Community Ecology at the Yale School of Forestry the 1980s. Those projects emphasizing sustainable-use & Environmental Studies, takes the discourse a step initiatives on the ground, which were historically initiatives gained international support.12 The 1990s further in his 2017 book, The New Ecology: Rethinking managed by ecologists with minimal exposure to the brought about the rise in community-based natural a Science for the Anthropocene. Schmitz expands social sciences. resource management programs, founded in the the social-ecological system model, recognizing that belief that economic benefits for rural people would humans are not just integrated in the natural world The disciplinary divide between social and natural further incentivize communities to partake in wildlife but engineers of it. Elaborating upon a new approach sciences—still prevalent in academia today—began to and wildlands protection and to manage their own to conservation science, he recognizes humans as be challenged in the late 1970s. Notably, Amy Vedder, natural resources sustainably.13 By the time Cronon stewards of biodiversity. Rather than viewing humanity an ecologist, and her husband, Bill Weber, a social published his iconic piece critiquing “wilderness” in as a destructive force against wilderness, Schmitz’s scientist, moved to Rwanda in 1978 to study gorillas 1995, few conservation initiatives could obtain donor new ecology recognizes human communities for their and their conservation at Karisoke Research Center, support without referencing community inclusion. crucial role in its protection.7 founded by Dian Fossey. The couple arrived just weeks Ecotourism projects and locally managed conservancies after a well-known silverback gorilla named Digit had rose up all around Africa, with Zimbabwe’s Communal Of course, Cronon and Schmitz are far from the first 9 been poached. As one of the first interdisciplinary Areas Management Programme for Indigenous to conceive of a conservation ethic that requires the teams to work in wildlife conservation, Vedder and Resources (CAMPFIRE) being perhaps the most well- engagement and inclusion of indigenous peoples. Weber defied the status quo by insisting that including known.14 Community-conserved landscapes and the Long before the theory of human inclusion in the concerns of Rwandan people neighboring co-management of protected areas with indigenous conservation was so eloquently laid out by academics, Volcanoes National Park was necessary to protect peoples were solidified in international protocol some practitioners in the field recognized the necessity gorilla habitat and reduce poaching. in the Durban Action Plan of 2005, which states that of engaging with people. As far back as the 1970s, “the rights of indigenous peoples, including mobile international human rights bodies condemned the In the aftermath of Digit’s death, Fossey’s team reacted indigenous peoples, and local communities should forced displacement of indigenous peoples from with strict anti-poaching measures. While thousands of be secured in relation to natural resources and protected areas. In 1975, the IUCN passed the Kinshasa postcards arrived from angered Americans demanding biodiversity conservation.”15 Resolution on the Protection of Traditional Ways of Life, justice for the gorillas, few expressed concern for and the UNESCO World Heritage Convention created a the people of Rwanda or their development and In the 15 years since the Durban Action Plan was classification to protect areas of historical and cultural 10 conservation priorities. Vedder and Weber sought to passed, conservation practitioners, academics, and significance.8 However, these regulatory changes, change this by founding the Mountain Gorilla Project, governments around the globe have made great while significant at a high level of governance, did not which used the first ecotourism model in the region strides in ensuring that environmental efforts are always influence the implementation of conservation to implement holistic conservation and development inclusive of and often led by local peoples, but there programming. By partnering with Rwandans at is still much more to do.
5 Oldekop, J., G. Holmes, W. Harris, and K. Evans. 2016. A global assessment of the social and conservation outcomes of protected areas. Conservation Biology 30 (1): 11 Weber and Vedder. 2001. 133–141. 12 Adams and Hutton. 2007. 6 Berkes, F. 2004. Rethinking community-based conservation. Conservation Biology 18 (3): 621–630. 13 Babcock, K. L. 2010. Keeping it local: Improving the incentive structure in community-based natural resource management programs. Colorado Journal 7 Schmitz, O. J. 2017. The new ecology: Rethinking a science for the Anthropocene. Princeton: Princeton University Press. of International Environmental Law & Policy 21 (1): 201–229. 8 Adams, W. M., and J. Hutton. 2007. People, parks and poverty: Political ecology and biodiversity conservation. Conservation and Society 5 (2): 147–183. 14 Babcock. 2010. 9 Weber, B., and A. Vedder. 2001. In the kingdom of gorillas: The quest to save Rwanda’s mountain gorillas. New York: Simon & Schuster. 15 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). 2005. Benefits beyond boundaries. Proceedings of the fifth IUCN World Parks Congress. Cambridge: IUCN. 10 Weber and Vedder. 2001.
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