Newar Buddhism-Past and Present
Shinobu YAMAGUCHI (Professor, Toyo University)
1. Nepalese History and Buddhism
Nepal is a long country which reaches 885km in east and west, and ranges193 km in north and south. It bounds on Tibet in the north, and bounds on India in the south, east and west. The country has a population of about 26,400,000, and it has various kinds of people such as the Newars, the Tamangs, the Gurungs and the Sherpas, etc.. The Kathmandu Valley where the capital city Kathmandu is situated, is the cultural and the geographical center of Nepal. Inthe history of Nepal, the Kathmandu Valley has played an important role culturally as well as politically. The history of Nepal is divided into six periods as
불교학리뷰 (Critical Review for Buddhist Studies) 9권 (2011. 6) 305p~321p 306 불교학리뷰 vol.9
follows: (1) The period before the Licchavi dynasty (before 5C A.D.) (2) The period of the Licchavi dynasty (5C A.D. ~ 9C A.D.) (3) Transitional period from the Licchavi dynasty to Malla dynasty (10C A.D.~11C A.D.) (4) The period of the Malla dynasty (12C A.D.~1768) (5) The period of the Gorkha dynasty (1769~2008) (6) Collapse of the monarchy and the Republic of Nepal (2008~)
In the period (1), the Gopåla people, the Abhiras, the Kiråtas, the RåjpËts and so on are said to have ruled the Kathmandu valley. The first period when the existence of Buddhism was confirmed, is the period of the Licchavi dynasty. Under the Licchavi dynasty, the Newar people, who have lived since old period and speak Newari language, built their own urban culture. All the kings who ruled the Kathmandu Valley were Hindus. But they protected Buddhism, too. The inscription of the Licchavi period informs that king Brisha Deva (4C -5C A.D) builta Buddhist temple in the SwayambhË area in the northwest of Kathmandu. The kings of the early Licchavi period believed Hindu god Vi∑ˆu mainly. Manadeva I (reigned 464 -505 A.D.) established the images of Vi∑ˆu on the hilltop of Changu Narayan in the north part of Kathmandu. The Licchavi dynasty had matrimonial relationship with the Gupta dynasty in India. In the period, Sanskrit language was brought into Nepal. King Aμßuvarman (reigned 605-621 A.D.), who Newar Buddhism-Past and Present 307
was in the Íiva cult, preserved Buddhism, too. He married his daughter off to the Tibetan king Srong bstan sgam bo. She is said to have brought Buddhism into Tibet with another wife from China. In the inscription of Aμßuvarman’s period, the word ‘vajrayåna’ is found, which suggests the spread of Buddhist Tantrism in the Kathmandu Valley in the seventh century. At that time, in the Kathmandu Valley, Theravåda Buddhism, Mahåyåna Buddhism, and Tantric Buddhism coexisted. In the latter of the ninth century, the Licchavi dynasty fell and the Thakuri dynasty began to rule the Kathmandu valley. In that period, Hindu Íaiva sect became powerful. On the other hand, Buddhism also expanded. From the Thakuri period to the early Malla period (12-14C A.D.), Buddhism spread more and at that time Buddhist Tantrism began to play a major role. In the end of the fourteenth century, king Jaya Sthiti Malla (reigned 1382-1395 A.D.) introduced the caste system into the society of Newar people, who were in charge of the industries and the culture in the Kathmandu Valley. The innovation of the caste system, which is based on the differentiation of occupations, contributed to the reinforcement of the social and economic relationship between cities and villages. As a result, the Newar society and its culture made a remarkable progress. Under the condition, Newar Buddhism was obliged to contain the elements of Hinduism. In the place ofmonks in the monasteries, the Vajråcåryas, who belong to the caste of married priests, began to play a major role. At the period, two-thirds of the Newar people were Buddhists. 308 불교학리뷰 vol.9
Since the end of the fifteenth century in the Kathmandu Valley, three kings ruled respective-ly three cities, namely, Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur. In the period, many Sanskrit texts were transcribed, and the Buddhist Tantrism became the most influential. Among the Buddhist deities, those who belong to the Anuttarayogatantra, such as Mahåkåla, Yogin¥, Saμvara, Bhairava and so on became popular.
2. Present State of Newar Buddhism
The state religion of Nepal was Hinduism until 2008. Nowadays, approximately more than 85 per cent of the Nepalese people are Hidus. On the other hand, Buddhist occupy less than 8 per cent, which is in the second rank. Newar people occupy about 3 per cent of the whole population. Most of the Newars are living in the Kathmandu Valley, and most of them believe Hinduism or Buddhism. At present, four sorts of Buddhism exist in Nepal. They are as follows:
1) Newar Buddhism believed by the Newar people who have lived in the Kathmandu Valley since old time 2) Tibetan Buddhism believed by the Tibetan people who came to Nepal from China as therefugee due to the political change in 1959 downward 3) Theravåda Buddhism which has become popular in recent years Newar Buddhism-Past and Present 309
with the support of Myammar and Sri Lanka 4) The Buddhism in the mountaineous lands of Nepal, which are influenced by Tibetan Buddhism
Among those sorts of Buddhism, 4) is not in an important position. Mainly 1), 2), and 3) arefound in the Kathmandu Valley. In 2), namely, Tibetan Buddhism, the system of monks are comparatively well organized. With the plenty economic support of the refugee, the monks are in religious activity mainly at the Bodhnåth Temple in the east of the Kathmandu city andat the SwayambhËnåth Temple. Theravåda Buddhism in 3), was introduced into Nepal in the twentieth century. The monastery Ónandakuthi Vihåra was built in an area of SwayambhËnåth in 1943. This monastery is the center of the religious activity of Theravåda Buddhism in Nepal. In India, the NeoBuddhism introduced by Ambedkar, which is equivalent to Theravåda Buddhism, is mainly supported by low caste people comparatively. On the other hand, Therevåda Buddhism in the Kathmandu Valley is mainly supported by high caste people, such as the Vajråcåryas and the Íåkyas who belong to the highest class of Newar Buddhist caste system. The young generation of the Vajråcåryas and the Íåkyas including women, sometimes become monks or nuns of Theravåda Buddhism. Regarding the fact, some supposition can be refered. Some Newar Buddhists think that the decline of Newar Buddhism was caused by the factors of Anuttarayogatantra such as being married, eating meat and 310 불교학리뷰 vol.9
drinking liquor by Buddhist priests. And they think that Newar Buddhism should go back to ‘the original Buddhism’ since the period of Buddha. Recently, Newar Buddhism is losing its power. However, it has played an important role in the religious and cultural history of the Kathmandu Valley. Still today, the religious activities of the Buddhists such as performing rituals are continuing to play not a little role in the Newar society. As mentioned above, under the rule of Jaya Sthiti Malla in the fourteenth century, the Buddhist people accepted the caste system which they rejected before. The system still functions in the Newar society. The caste system of the Newar Buddhism consists of five classes. The people of the highest rank are the Vajråcåryas and the Íåkyas. Both of them are the groups of descendent priests. The Vajåcåryas and the Íåkyas perform the ritual called ‘bare shigu’ which is the initiation ceremony for Buddhist monks. Furthermore, only the Vajråcåryas take the consecration named ‘Ócåryåbhi∑eka.’ By performing this ritual, The Vajråcåryas are qualified as professional priests, on the other hand, the Íåkya people are not qualified. But nowadays, many of theVajråcåryas make livelihood as goldsmith and silversmith, like the Íåkya people. The Vajråcåryas and the Íåkyas often live together in the temples called ‘baha’ or ‘bahi’ and and cooperate in various rituals. The TËlådhars (‘those who hold a balance’), the Råjkarnikårs (confectioner), the Kaμsakårs (goldsmith) and the Tåmrakårs (coppersmith) belong to the second rank of Newar Buddhist castes. Newar Buddhism-Past and Present 311
These people are also called ‘Uråy’ or ‘Udas.’ They had monopolized the exchanges between Nepal and Tibet for a long time. Some of them are said to be the descendents of the children between the Vajråcåryas or the Íåkya men and Tibetan women. The third rank is the caste of the farmers. Da∫gols and Maharjan belong to this group. The Vyañjankårs (market garderners), the Taˆ∂ukårs (drummer) and the Nåpits (barber), belong to the fourth rank. They often engage in the butcher, and play a role of drummer in the festivals and the funeral rites. The Dya˙lå people and the Cyåμkhala˙ people belong to the groups of the lowest rank of theNewar Buddhist caste system. Those people engage in garbage collecting etc.. The people of that class usually cannot be divided into Buddhists or Hindus clearly. If one calls Buddhist priest in the funeral rite, he is considered as a Buddhist, and if he calls Hindu Bråhmana, he is regarded as a Hindu.
3. Newar Buddhist Pantheon
As mentioned above, the Newar Buddhism has the element of the Late Tantric Buddhism (anuttarayogatantra). The Newar Buddhist Pantheon is the following.
(1) Tathågatas (如来) (2) Bodhisattvas (菩薩) 312 불교학리뷰 vol.9
(3) Female Deities (女神) (4) Dharmapålas (Guardian Deities of the Buddhist doctrines, 護法神) (5) The other deities
Among the deities who belong to the first group, Pañcabuddha or Five dhyåni Buddhas, namely, Mahåvairocana, Ak∑obhya (Fig. 1), Ratnasambhava, Amithåbha, and Amoghasiddhi, are verypopular. ‘ Other than these calm Buddhas, the Buddhas called the secret ' Buddhas, who have fierce character are in this group. Those fierce deities are also called Heruka (Fig. 2). Herukas have blue-black colored bodies, embrace their consorts, hold in their hands many kinds of weapons, such as a sword, a bow, an arrow, a trident etc., and sometimes hold the head of Hindu god Brahmå. Those attributes are borrowed from those of Hindu god Íiva. Herukas are considered to be
strongly influenced by Hinduism. To the second group of the Newar Buddhist Pantheon, Avalokiteßvara (or lokeßvara), Mañjußr¥, and Vajrasattva (Fig. 3) etc. are belonging. Especially, Vajrasattva is highly respected as theteacher (guru) of Pañcabuddha as well as the guru of Vajråcårya. The third group contains both gentle goddesses and fierce goddesses. Tårå, Sarasvat¥, Vasudharå (Vasundharå) etc. belong to the gentle ones. The latter group of the goddesses consists of flåkin¥s and Yogin¥s (Fig. 4), who have supernatural powers such as flying in the sky, and hold kart® (a knife for cutting meat) and kapåla (a skull filled with blood) in their hands. They are often regarded as the consorts of Herukas. The fourth group consists of the deities who guard Dharma, the
Buddhist doctrine, such as Caˆ∂amahåro∑aˆa, Mahåkåla. They have also rather fierce characters but distinguished from Herukas mentioned above. The fifth group contains the deities such as planets, lunar mansions (nak∑atra), and the other deities originated from Hinduism, such as Ganeßa, Bhairava. In the month of Guñlå, which is considered as the most sacred month in the Newar calender, the Buddhists visit SwayambhËnåth Temple which is the center of Newar Buddhism, and recitethe hymn to the Buddhist deities such as Nåmasa∫g¥ti in which bodhisattva Mañjußr¥ is praised.
4. Rituals in Newar Buddhism
The Newar Buddhists worship Buddhas, gods and goddesses mentioned above. In the Kathmandu Valley, you can see various rituals in temples every day. There, pËjå (offering worship) and homa (fire ritual) are the popular ritual acts. In Newar Buddhism, worshiping may be the most important among religious acts. Fig. 5 shows the offering worship (pËjå) to goddess Hår¥t¥ in front of the Hår¥t¥ shrine at SwayambhËnåth. The priest offers flowers, insence, lamps and so on to the goddess. Especially, the bali-offering, which consists of boiled rice, beans, flowers and sometimes meat, is offered to Hår¥t¥. Maˆ∂alas are also used in the rituals. In the most rituals, Newar Buddhism-Past and Present 315
Gurumaˆ∂alapËjå is performed first. Gurumaˆ∂alapËjå is one of the most fundamental rituals in Newar Buddhism. In this ritual, the priest ‘ ' offers flowers etc. to the small circle named gurumaˆ∂ala in front of him.Then he thinksthe circle as the Sumeru world. The Sumeru world is also considered as the body of the priest himself. Finally, he offers gurumaˆ∂ala as the Sumeru world to guru Vajrasattva who is considered as the teacher of the priest. In the Kathmandu Valley, Vajradhåtumaˆ∂ala is popular. Besides, Dharmadhåtuvåg¥ßvaramaˆ∂ala of which Mañjußr¥ Dharmadhåtuvåg¥ßvara is situated at the center is often found in the temples. In the rites of passage also, the Newar Buddhists perform pËjås and ‘ homas. In the ritual of initiation for the Buddhist monk named Bare ' shigu, the priest performs a homa ritual. Vajråcåryapeople, who belong to the caste of the priest, should be qualified as Buddhist ‘ ' Tantric priests performing the ceremony called Vajrayåna. In the ceremony, they perfom homa rituals accompanied with their wives. ' After one s death, they perform the funeral rite using the 316 불교학리뷰 vol.9
Durgatiparißodhanamaˆ∂ala which was refered Sarvadurugatiparißodhanatantra compiled in India in the 8th century. ' Then, from the next month of one s death till two years later, they perform the memorial service named Piˆ∂apËjå. Piˆ∂a is the ball made with rice powder, flour and so on. In Piˆ∂apËjå, the family member of the deceased prepare piˆ∂as and offer them to their ancestors (Fig. 6). In this ritual, the performer hopes that the deceased will get the enlightenment. As mentioned above, Piˆ∂apËjå is a kind of Buddhist ritual for ancestors, but its procedure was borrowed from the Hindu ritual. In Manusm®ti, which was compiled till 2C A.D., the act of offering piˆ∂as to ancestors was already referred. Nowadays, the Hindus perform the ‘ ' same kind of ritual named Śråddha. I had a chance to observe the Śråddha ritual performed at the sacred place named Gokarˆa on August 20, 2009. On the day, both the Hindus and the Buddhists visited the place and bathed inthe river, then they performed ancestor worships according to own their traditions. However, Newar Buddhism-Past and Present 317
' both two ancestor worships are so similar that I couldn t distinguish the Buddhist ritual from the Hindu one from their appearances.
5. The relationship between Buddhism and Hinduism in the Kathmandu Valley
The example of the ancestor worship mentioned above shows the close relationship between Buddhism and Hinduism in the Kathmandu Valley. Other than the rituals, we can see the other examples which show their relationship. There is a Hindu temple named Kumari Chowk in the old city of Kathmandu, where a girl called Kumari lives. A girl who is 4-5 years old is selected for Kumari. The Nepalese term ‘ ' ‘ ' kumari which derived from Sanskrit means a virgin , and Kumari in Kathmandu is considered as a living goddess who is identified with Hindu goddess Durgå. In the Hindu festival called Indra Jåtra, even the kings groveled before her, because the successive kings were all Hindus and Kumari was also regarded as the goddess of the royal family named Taleju, as well as goddess Durgå. And Kumari was selected from the family of Íåkya which is the caste of the Newar Buddhist monks. I mean that the Hindu living goddess Kumari was always selected from the Buddhist family. What does it mean? I already told that all the kings in the Kathmandu Valley were Hindus. Due to this fact, there might be the pressure for the Buddhist 318 불교학리뷰 vol.9
people, and they may have displeasure for the conditon of the society. Therefore, there must have been a way to relieve the discontent of the Buddhist people. The existence of Kumari might have played a role of the diffusion of the negative energy of the Buddhists. The Buddhists might have been satisfied seeing the scene that the Hindu king bowed respectfully to the small living goddess who was from the Buddhist family. There is a Hindu temple named Íobhåbhagavat¥. Íobhåbhagavat¥ is the goddess who is identified with Durgå. In the precinct of the temple, there is a stËpa. And behind the main temple, another old Buddhist stËpa can be found (Fig. 7). This Hindu temple seems to have been a Buddhist temple before, and sometime it has been changed into the temple of the Hindu goddess. We often find li∫ga-yoni shaped stËpas in the kathmandu Valley (Fig. 8). The li∫ga-yoni is the image of phallus (li∫ga) and the female
sexual organ (yoni) which is regarded as Hindu godŚiva and his wife Pårvatī. In Fig. 8, the stËpa was standing on the yoni. The stËpa seems to represent the li∫ga. Here, the stËpa, which is the symbol of nirvåˆa or Buddha himself, has the shape of the important symbol of Hindu god Śiva . Thus, we can find the connection between Buddhism and Hinduism in the Kathmandu Valley.
6. The future of Newar Buddhism
In 1769, Prithvi Narayan Shah established the Shah Dynasty, and integrated Nepal. That dynasty, unlike the other past ones, sometimes pressured the Buddhist people. In 1990, the movement of democratization began and the Buddhists as well as the Hindus were involved in the disturbance. In the due time, Nepal produced the new power of ideology. It is the Maoists (The Communist Party of China denies the connection with the Nepalese Maoists). The Maoistswon the poverty over to their side. They fought a guerilla war with the slogan of the abolition of discrimination based on the caste system, and the abolition of Hinduism as a national religion. In 2008, the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified-Maoist) won the selection and became the government party. They disestablished the kingship, and Nepal became the republic. However, the prime minister from the Maoist party resigned in 2009, and the Unified-Maoist seceded from the ruling party. The situation of Nepalese society 320 불교학리뷰 vol.9
remains unstable. Maoists attacked the conservative traditional system of Nepal, because they thought that the traditional thought and culture are the main cause of discriminations in the society. For example, They set fire to the Sanskrit manuscripts. Such the fact that the communist power destroyed the traditional culture, can be found at various areas in Asia, like the Cultural Revolution in China and the war in Cambodia. Fortunately, Newar Buddhism still has not got a catastrophic damage. But the Buddhists as the minority in the Nepalese society are facing the difficulty in maintaning their own cultural tradition due to the economic problem. For example, The Buddhist temples cannot be well maintained. ‘ The Nepal government decided the year 2011 as the year of visit ' Nepal and is planning the invitation of the tourists. In 2009, I visited Cambodia, where so many tourists came to see the relics of Angkor. The Buddhist temple where many people were killed by the Khmer Rouge in the civil war was fully reconstructed. In Cambodia, I felt the guts of the people who are reorganizing their own state, getting over the war. Nepal does not have the large-scale relics like Angkor in Cambodia. But it has preserved its cultural tradition for a long time. Newar Buddhism shows us the living Buddhist tradition, which originally came from India and transformed into its particular form with the element of Newar local tradition. Such a Buddhist tradition, as well as Hindu, has much possibility of attracting foreigners. Nowadays, a college for teaching Buddhist thought and culture was newly built by Newar Buddhism-Past and Present 321
the Newar Buddhists in the city of Patan which is located next to Kathmandu. The social effect of this kind of action by the Newar Buddhists themselves must be the key to the future of Newar Buddhism.