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Abstract : Grammar , Lexis and Context 1 GRAMMAR , LEXIS AND CONTEXT Rob Batstone University of London , Institute of Education Thesis submitted for degree of PhD ABSTRACT : GRAMMAR , LEXIS AND CONTEXT Language teaching has been strongly influenced over recent years by talk of notions and functions , most notably through Wilkins' (1976) work on Notional Syllabuses . Yet the notional/functional syllabus has been criticized for failing to capture anything more than a superficial correspondence between form and meaning . In this thesis I argue for a framework in which a deeper congruence between form and meaning is developed . I identify regularities in the lexico-syntactic structure of English which express recognizable notional relationships , which in turn reflect deeper conceptualizations of relations between events and participants . These conceptualizations are represented on a semantic continuum of 'contextual distance' . By reference to this continuum , I argue that we can identify a clear congruence between increasing conceptual complexity and increasing lexico- syntactic complexity . This account gives considerable prominence to the role of lexis , and to the interdependence between grammar , lexis and context in the signalling of meaning , something which has not always been adequately considered within linguistics or within applied linguistics . I then consider a possible application of these ideas to pedagogy . In many 'product' approaches to syllabus design and methodology , learners work with language forms whose meanings are to an extent already fixed , with grammar subsuming lexis and with cotext and context already clearly related by the materials designer . In such approaches the interdependence between grammar , lexis and context is sometimes lost sight of , and I argue for a revised approach in which this interdependence is made central . Thus learners are encouraged to fashion their own meanings by working with lexical items , and by learning to grammaticize these lexical items by reference to context . By separating out grammar and lexis in this way , learners are given direct access to the deeper congruence between form and meaning - between grammar , lexis and context . The format of the thesis is as follows . I begin with a selective review of work in linguistics (chapter one) and applied linguistics (chapter two) , arguing that the importance of the grammar/lexis relationship has not (by and large) been much investigated . In chapter three I introduce the continuum of contextual distance , outlining a general hypothesis in which relationships between grammar , lexis and context are linked to a deeper understanding of the congruence between form and meaning . I go on to develop the detail of this hypothesis , looking both at ideational meanings (chapter four) and interpersonal meanings (chapter five) . Stepping back from these detailed arguments , I conclude by presenting an approach to classroom methodology (chapter six) and to syllabus design (chapter seven) based on the concept of learner grammaticization . 3 CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: GRAMMAR AND LEXIS IN LINGUISTICS Page Section Title 11 Introduction 11 1 Chomsky: TG and role of the lexicon 11 1.1 The Standard Theory 13 1.2 The Revised Theory 13 1.2.1 The Revised Theory: derivational & inflectional morphology 15 1.2.2 Enriching the Lexicon : Case Grammar 17 1.2.3 Case Grammar : further implications & Applications 20 2 J.R.Firth 20 2.1 Interrelations & the context of situation 20 2.2 Firth's categorisation: a brief overview 23 2.3 Collocation & colligation: a relationship between grammar & lexis 27 3 Halliday 27 3.1 Grammar & lexis in the Hallidayan framework: brief overview 28 3.2 System & set: grammar and lexis 31 3.3 Structure & the relegation of lexis 33 3.4 Collocation & the limitation of lexis 35 4 Speech Act Theory 35 4.1 Grammar, lexis & context: introduction 35 4.2 Lexical signalling: performative verbs 37 4.3 Grammar , lexis and context : Searle & the Literal Force Hypothesis 42 4.4 Summary and synthesis 44 5 Formulaic Language 44 5.1 Introduction 44 5.2 The units of language acquisition 45 5.3 The units of adult language production 46 5.4 Grammar & lexis in formulaic language 48 6 Grammar & lexis in descriptive linguistics : synthesis CHAPTER TWO: GRAMMAR AND LEXIS IN PEDAGOGY 51 Introduction 52 1 The rise & fall of the word based paradigm: Basic English 52 1.1 Outline 53 1.2 Grammar & lexis in Basic English 4 Page Section Title 54 2 The rise & fall of the word based paradigm: Michael West 54 2.1 Outline 55 2.2 Grammar & lexis in West's framework 57 2.3 West in the wider context 58 3 Fries and the structural approach 51 3.1 Outline 52 3.2 Lexis, grammar & context: a pedagogic mismatch 61 4 Wilkins and the notional/functional syllabus 61 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 Grammar & lexis: the semantico-grammatical category 63 4.3 Communicative function & modal meaning 65 4.4 Summary & synthesis 67 5 The organising framework of communicative syllabus design 67 5.1 Introduction 67 5.2 The organising principle & its' problems 69 5.3 Implications of the organising principle for grammar & lexis 72 6 The Relational Syllabus 72 6.1 Outline: informing the syllabus 73 6.2 Outline: the syllabus framework 74 6.3 Organisation & integration in the relational syllabus 75 6.4 Grammar & lexis in the relational syllabus 79 7 The Lexical Syllabus 79 7.1 Outline 81 7.2 Grammar & lexis in the lexical syllabus 85 8 Summary & synthesis CHAPTER THREE : GRAMMAR , LEXIS & CONTEXT : OVERVIEW OF A HYPOTHESIS 87 1 BACKGROUND : GRAMMAR AND MEANING 87 1.1 GRAMMATICIZATION : GRAMMAR AS PROCESS 87 1.1.1 A continuum of grammaticization : over time 88 1.1.2 A continuum of grammaticization : at any one point in time 88 1.2 GRAMMATICIZATION AND MEANING 88 1.2.1 Discourse and the origins of grammaticization 89 1.2.2 Grammar and the coding of meaning 5 Page Section Title 90 1.3 GRAMMAR , MEANING AND NOTIONS 91 1.3.1 Surface form/meaning correlations 93 1.3.2 Form/meaning congruences: conceptual & linguistic independence 94 1.4 Synthesis 95 2. GRAMMAR , LEXIS AND CONTEXT : PRESENTING A HYPOTHESIS 95 2.1.1 Preliminaries : defining grammar & lexis 96 2.1.2 Preliminaries :a brief outline of the hypothesis 97 2.2 Overview 97 2.2.1 The continuum of contextual distance : a form/meaning congruence 101 2.2.2 Ideational language & the ideational context 103 3 CONTEXTUAL AND CONCEPTUAL LEXICO-GRAMMAR 103 3.1 Outline 105 3.2 Inflectional & lexical restriction 106 3.3 Transparency and opacity 106 3.3.1 Opacity and temporal coding : introduction 107 3.3.2 Temporal opacity 108 3.3.3 Conceptual opacity 109 3.3.4 Summary 110 3.4 Synthesis 110 3.4.1 Conceptual form and independent clauses 111 3.4.2 Coding and the continuum of contextual distance 112 3.4.3 Contextual distance and its limitations 114 4 CAUSAL DETERMINACY 114 4.1 Overview : cause and contextual distance 114 4.2 The coding of determinacy and degrees of contextual distance 115 4.2.1 No coding of cause/effect 115 4.2.2 Lexico-grammatical coding of general cause/effect 116 4.2.3 Lexico-grammatical coding of high determinacy 117 4.2.4 Types of high determinacy : participant & circumstantial 119 5 HYPOTHETICAL MEANING 119 5.1 Hypothetical meaning & contextual distance : two categories 119 5.2 Participant & Circumstantial modality 123 5.2.1 Coding future probability 124 5.2.2 Coding Compulsion 126 5.3 Degrees of hypothetical distance 126 5.3.1 Introduction and overview 127 5.3.2 The form/meaning congruence 127 5.3.2.1 The grammatical coding of grounds 6 Page Section Title 129 5.3.2.2 The grammatical coding of possibility without grounds 131 5.3.2.3 The grammatical coding of impossibility 131 5.3.2.4 Summary 132 6 REFERENTIAL ABSTRACTION & CONTEXTUAL DISTANCE : IDIOMS & PROVERBS 132 6.1 Overview 132 6.2 Introduction : defining idioms & proverbs 134 6.3 Contextual components and referential abstraction 136 6.4 The form/meaning congruence 137 6.4.1 Proverbs 138 6.4.2 One component idioms 139 6.4.3 Two component idioms 141 6.5 Summary 142 7 INTERPERSONAL MEANING AND CONTEXTUAL DISTANCE 142 7.1 World to words : contextual distance and interpersonal meaning 144 7.2 Contextual distance interpersonal coding & the congruence 144 7.2.1 Coding the interpersonal context : want and willing 145 7.2.2 Conceptual lexico-grammar & the form/meaning congruence 146 7.3 Summary 147 8 GRAMMAR , SYSTEM AND RULE : THE NATURE OF LINGUISTIC KNOWLEDGE 147 8.1 Introduction 148 8.2 Idioms , speech acts & grammaticization : a qrammar/lexis continuum 150 8.3 The mental lexicon & degrees of analysability CHAPTER FOUR : CAUSAL DETERMINACY : A FORM/MEANING CONGRUENCE 153 1 Introduction and overview 154 2 PARTICIPANT DETERMINACY & THE FORM/MEANING CONGRUENCE 154 2.1 Degrees of participant determinacy : anticipation & control 156 2.2 Overview of the form/meaning congruence 156 2.2.1 Inflectional restriction 157 2.2.2 Opacity and that— complementation 158 2.2.3 Lexical restriction 159 2.3 Expectation : the form/meaning congruence 160 2.4 Hope/wish : the form/meaning congruence 162 2.5 Intention : the form/meaning congruence 162 2.5.1 The semantic perspective 165 2.5.2 The linguistic perspective 165 2.5.2.1 Overview 7 Page Section Title 165 2.5.2.2 Other action 167 2.5.2.3 Self action 169 2.6 Preemption : the form/meaning congruence 169 2.6.1 Overview 171 2.6.2 The form/meaning congruence 173 2.7 Summary and synthesis 174 3 CIRCUMSTANTIAL DETERMINACY 174 3.1 Introduction 175 3.2 The semantic perspective : overview 178 3.3 The linguistic perspective : overview 179 3.4 Indirect circumstantial determinacy 179 3.4.1 Introduction
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