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GRAMMAR , LEXIS AND CONTEXT
Rob Batstone
University of London , Institute of Education
Thesis submitted for degree of PhD ABSTRACT : GRAMMAR , LEXIS AND CONTEXT
Language teaching has been strongly influenced over recent years by talk of notions and functions , most notably through Wilkins' (1976) work on Notional Syllabuses . Yet the notional/functional syllabus has been criticized for failing to capture anything more than a superficial correspondence between form and meaning .
In this thesis I argue for a framework in which a deeper congruence between form and meaning is developed . I identify regularities in the lexico-syntactic structure of English which express recognizable notional relationships , which in turn reflect deeper conceptualizations of relations between events and participants . These conceptualizations are represented on a semantic continuum of 'contextual distance' . By reference to this continuum , I argue that we can identify a clear congruence between increasing conceptual complexity and increasing lexico- syntactic complexity . This account gives considerable prominence to the role of lexis , and to the interdependence between grammar , lexis and context in the signalling of meaning , something which has not always been adequately considered within linguistics or within applied linguistics .
I then consider a possible application of these ideas to pedagogy . In many 'product' approaches to syllabus design and methodology , learners work with language forms whose meanings are to an extent already fixed , with grammar subsuming lexis and with cotext and context already clearly related by the materials designer . In such approaches the interdependence between grammar , lexis and context is sometimes lost sight of , and I argue for a revised approach in which this interdependence is made central . Thus learners are encouraged to fashion their own meanings by working with lexical items , and by learning to grammaticize these lexical items by reference to context . By separating out grammar and lexis in this way , learners are given direct access to the deeper congruence between form and meaning - between grammar , lexis and context .
The format of the thesis is as follows . I begin with a selective review of work in linguistics (chapter one) and applied linguistics (chapter two) , arguing that the importance of the grammar/lexis relationship has not (by and large) been much investigated . In chapter three I introduce the continuum of contextual distance , outlining a general hypothesis in which relationships between grammar , lexis and context are linked to a deeper understanding of the congruence between form and meaning . I go on to develop the detail of this hypothesis , looking both at ideational meanings (chapter four) and interpersonal meanings (chapter five) . Stepping back from these detailed arguments , I conclude by presenting an approach to classroom methodology (chapter six) and to syllabus design (chapter seven) based on the concept of learner grammaticization . 3
CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE: GRAMMAR AND LEXIS IN LINGUISTICS
Page Section Title
11 Introduction
11 1 Chomsky: TG and role of the lexicon
11 1.1 The Standard Theory 13 1.2 The Revised Theory 13 1.2.1 The Revised Theory: derivational & inflectional morphology 15 1.2.2 Enriching the Lexicon : Case Grammar 17 1.2.3 Case Grammar : further implications & Applications
20 2 J.R.Firth
20 2.1 Interrelations & the context of situation 20 2.2 Firth's categorisation: a brief overview 23 2.3 Collocation & colligation: a relationship between grammar & lexis
27 3 Halliday
27 3.1 Grammar & lexis in the Hallidayan framework: brief overview 28 3.2 System & set: grammar and lexis 31 3.3 Structure & the relegation of lexis 33 3.4 Collocation & the limitation of lexis
35 4 Speech Act Theory
35 4.1 Grammar, lexis & context: introduction 35 4.2 Lexical signalling: performative verbs 37 4.3 Grammar , lexis and context : Searle & the Literal Force Hypothesis 42 4.4 Summary and synthesis
44 5 Formulaic Language
44 5.1 Introduction 44 5.2 The units of language acquisition 45 5.3 The units of adult language production 46 5.4 Grammar & lexis in formulaic language
48 6 Grammar & lexis in descriptive linguistics : synthesis
CHAPTER TWO: GRAMMAR AND LEXIS IN PEDAGOGY
51 Introduction
52 1 The rise & fall of the word based paradigm: Basic English
52 1.1 Outline 53 1.2 Grammar & lexis in Basic English 4
Page Section Title
54 2 The rise & fall of the word based paradigm: Michael West
54 2.1 Outline 55 2.2 Grammar & lexis in West's framework 57 2.3 West in the wider context
58 3 Fries and the structural approach
51 3.1 Outline 52 3.2 Lexis, grammar & context: a pedagogic mismatch
61 4 Wilkins and the notional/functional syllabus
61 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 Grammar & lexis: the semantico-grammatical category 63 4.3 Communicative function & modal meaning 65 4.4 Summary & synthesis
67 5 The organising framework of communicative syllabus design
67 5.1 Introduction 67 5.2 The organising principle & its' problems 69 5.3 Implications of the organising principle for grammar & lexis
72 6 The Relational Syllabus
72 6.1 Outline: informing the syllabus 73 6.2 Outline: the syllabus framework 74 6.3 Organisation & integration in the relational syllabus 75 6.4 Grammar & lexis in the relational syllabus
79 7 The Lexical Syllabus
79 7.1 Outline 81 7.2 Grammar & lexis in the lexical syllabus
85 8 Summary & synthesis
CHAPTER THREE : GRAMMAR , LEXIS & CONTEXT : OVERVIEW OF A HYPOTHESIS
87 1 BACKGROUND : GRAMMAR AND MEANING
87 1.1 GRAMMATICIZATION : GRAMMAR AS PROCESS
87 1.1.1 A continuum of grammaticization : over time 88 1.1.2 A continuum of grammaticization : at any one point in time
88 1.2 GRAMMATICIZATION AND MEANING
88 1.2.1 Discourse and the origins of grammaticization 89 1.2.2 Grammar and the coding of meaning 5
Page Section Title
90 1.3 GRAMMAR , MEANING AND NOTIONS
91 1.3.1 Surface form/meaning correlations 93 1.3.2 Form/meaning congruences: conceptual & linguistic independence
94 1.4 Synthesis
95 2. GRAMMAR , LEXIS AND CONTEXT : PRESENTING A HYPOTHESIS
95 2.1.1 Preliminaries : defining grammar & lexis 96 2.1.2 Preliminaries :a brief outline of the hypothesis
97 2.2 Overview 97 2.2.1 The continuum of contextual distance : a form/meaning congruence 101 2.2.2 Ideational language & the ideational context
103 3 CONTEXTUAL AND CONCEPTUAL LEXICO-GRAMMAR
103 3.1 Outline 105 3.2 Inflectional & lexical restriction 106 3.3 Transparency and opacity 106 3.3.1 Opacity and temporal coding : introduction 107 3.3.2 Temporal opacity 108 3.3.3 Conceptual opacity 109 3.3.4 Summary
110 3.4 Synthesis 110 3.4.1 Conceptual form and independent clauses 111 3.4.2 Coding and the continuum of contextual distance 112 3.4.3 Contextual distance and its limitations
114 4 CAUSAL DETERMINACY
114 4.1 Overview : cause and contextual distance 114 4.2 The coding of determinacy and degrees of contextual distance 115 4.2.1 No coding of cause/effect 115 4.2.2 Lexico-grammatical coding of general cause/effect 116 4.2.3 Lexico-grammatical coding of high determinacy 117 4.2.4 Types of high determinacy : participant & circumstantial
119 5 HYPOTHETICAL MEANING
119 5.1 Hypothetical meaning & contextual distance : two categories
119 5.2 Participant & Circumstantial modality 123 5.2.1 Coding future probability 124 5.2.2 Coding Compulsion
126 5.3 Degrees of hypothetical distance 126 5.3.1 Introduction and overview 127 5.3.2 The form/meaning congruence 127 5.3.2.1 The grammatical coding of grounds 6
Page Section Title
129 5.3.2.2 The grammatical coding of possibility without grounds 131 5.3.2.3 The grammatical coding of impossibility 131 5.3.2.4 Summary
132 6 REFERENTIAL ABSTRACTION & CONTEXTUAL DISTANCE : IDIOMS & PROVERBS
132 6.1 Overview 132 6.2 Introduction : defining idioms & proverbs 134 6.3 Contextual components and referential abstraction 136 6.4 The form/meaning congruence 137 6.4.1 Proverbs 138 6.4.2 One component idioms 139 6.4.3 Two component idioms 141 6.5 Summary
142 7 INTERPERSONAL MEANING AND CONTEXTUAL DISTANCE
142 7.1 World to words : contextual distance and interpersonal meaning 144 7.2 Contextual distance interpersonal coding & the congruence 144 7.2.1 Coding the interpersonal context : want and willing 145 7.2.2 Conceptual lexico-grammar & the form/meaning congruence 146 7.3 Summary
147 8 GRAMMAR , SYSTEM AND RULE : THE NATURE OF LINGUISTIC KNOWLEDGE
147 8.1 Introduction 148 8.2 Idioms , speech acts & grammaticization : a qrammar/lexis continuum 150 8.3 The mental lexicon & degrees of analysability
CHAPTER FOUR : CAUSAL DETERMINACY : A FORM/MEANING CONGRUENCE
153 1 Introduction and overview
154 2 PARTICIPANT DETERMINACY & THE FORM/MEANING CONGRUENCE
154 2.1 Degrees of participant determinacy : anticipation & control
156 2.2 Overview of the form/meaning congruence 156 2.2.1 Inflectional restriction 157 2.2.2 Opacity and that— complementation 158 2.2.3 Lexical restriction
159 2.3 Expectation : the form/meaning congruence
160 2.4 Hope/wish : the form/meaning congruence
162 2.5 Intention : the form/meaning congruence 162 2.5.1 The semantic perspective 165 2.5.2 The linguistic perspective 165 2.5.2.1 Overview 7
Page Section Title
165 2.5.2.2 Other action 167 2.5.2.3 Self action
169 2.6 Preemption : the form/meaning congruence 169 2.6.1 Overview 171 2.6.2 The form/meaning congruence
173 2.7 Summary and synthesis
174 3 CIRCUMSTANTIAL DETERMINACY
174 3.1 Introduction 175 3.2 The semantic perspective : overview 178 3.3 The linguistic perspective : overview
179 3.4 Indirect circumstantial determinacy
179 3.4.1 Introduction and overview 179 3.4.2 Indirect participant reaction 181 3.4.3 Indirect contra expectation 183 3.4.4 Cause as control : as a result of
184 3.5 Direct circumstantial determinacy
184 3.5.1 Introduction and overview 185 3.5.2 Direct cause as control : the passive 185 3.5.2.1 Conceptual independence : the semantic perspective 186 3.5.2.2 The passive & conceptual lexico-grammar : linguistic perspective
190 3.5.3 Direct participant reaction : like/enjoy + gerund 192 3.5.4 Direct contra-expectation : only to
193 3.6 Summary and synthesis
CHAPTER FIVE : INTERPERSONAL MEANING : A FORM/MEANING CONGRUENCE
196 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
196 1.1 World to words : contextual distance & interpersonal meaning 197 1.2 Contextual distance and the coding of suasion
199 1,3 Coding suasion : the form/meaning congruence 199 1.3.1 Lexical and inflectional restriction 200 1.3.2 Opacity
202 1.4 The on/off record continuum : inflectional and lexical restriction
205 2 INTERLOCUTOR DEPENDENCE
205 2.1 Overview 206 2.2 Interlocutor dependence and the want/willing distribution 8
Page Section Title
207 2.3 The form/meaning congruence 207 2.3.1 Requests for hearer action 209 2.3.2 Requests for permission 210 2.3.3 Giving permission 210 2.3.4 Offers 211 2.3.5 Promising
212 3 SPEAKER DETERMINACY
212 3.1 Introduction 213 3.2 Speaker determinacy and contextual distance 214 3.2.1 Weak speaker determinacy 215 3.2.2 Strong speaker determinacy 215 3.3 Speaker determinacy and the on/off record continuum
217 4 CIRCUMSTANTIAL JUSTIFICATION
217 4.1 Defining circumstantial justification 218 4.2 Circumstantial justification and speech acts
220 4.3 Circumstantial justification & contextual distance : the congruence 220 4.3.1 Introduction and overview 223 4.3.2 Circumstantial determinacy and conceptual form 224 4.3.3 Circumstantial justification & ambiguity : advise/Warn/tnredt-
226 5 IMPLICATURES
228 6 EXPRESSION AND MEANING : SPEECH ACT CONDITIONS
228 6.1 Overview 228 6.2 Want . willing and the congruence 231 6.3 Speech act conditions
234 7 SUMMARY AND SYNTHESIS
CHAPTER SIX : APPLICATIONS FOR PEDAGOGY : TOWARDS A METHODOLOGY
236 1 THE CASE FOR A REVISED METHODOLOGY : OUTLINE
236 1.1 Grammar lexis and context : a pedagogic framework 238 1.2 Theoretical justifications for a revised pedagogy 241 1.3 Towards a process approach
244 2 EXPLOITING THE MEANING POTENTIAL OF LEXIS AND CONTEXT
244 2.1 Introduction
244 2.2 Lexis , context & schema : varying the degree of guidance
244 2.2.1 Schematic lexical associations & knowledge of the world 246 2.2.2 Situational associations 9
Page Section Title
246 2.2.3 The lexical signalling of ideational meanings & pedagogic exploitation
254 2.2.4 The lexical signalling of interpersonal meanings & pedagogic exploitation
256 2.2.5 Lexis , context and cultural knowledge : varying the cognitive load