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PEER REVIEWED / REFEREED RESEARCH JOURNAL A Premier Indo-Centric Foreign Affairs Journal Since 1980 October 2018 WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT RIVER WATER DISPUTES AND REGIONAL CO-OPERATION

38th 100 Year of Publication US $ 20 ’s Foreign Policy: Series-1

EDITORIAL The Kallanai Dam/ Grand Anicut was built in the second centuary AD by Chola king Karikalan, was built to for irrigation and flood control so as to not affect standing crops and the life of the people living around. The British made many more additions on the dam to increase its capacity and strengths on the Cauvery. The lower anicut built by Sir Arthur Cotton on the Coleroon a tributary is a replica of the same design of second century Kallanai grand anicut dam. Built by Chola king Karikalan in the second century Grand Anicut ( Kallani as PEER REVIEWED / REFEREED RESEARCH JOURNAL is called locally is a 2000 year water diversion and water regulating dam one of Volume XXXIX Number 10 October 2018 the oldest in the world, still functional.) King Karikalan is a visionary king who built a great irrigational project on the Cauvery that gave food security for the people living in the Cauvery delta region, which the area enjoys now G . Kishore Babu also to take it forward. Our government should connect the Netravati with the Editor Cauvery at the earliest.There is a bronze statue of king Karikala Chola near the dam, to honour this great son of India who built a great amazing engineering Bhabani Dikshit dam still in good condition now.Also improvements were made in the dam in Managing Editor the 19th century by Artur Cotton a British engineer and a general of the British army. Stuti S. Mandala The PM had recently mentioned in a speech during the elections Associate Editor that by linking water surplus Netravati River with the Hemavati a tributary of the Cauvery, the water shortage of the Cauvery basin will be over once and for all. WORLD FOCUS takes up every month one Currently about 100 TCM/(Thousand Million cubic feet) of water from the international issue and gives an analysis of its various aspects by persons well known for their Netraviti discharged into the and goes waste. With this amount of specialisation in the subject. The issues covered are water coming into the Cauvery river basin, water supply can be doubled year topical or near topical, but of an abiding interest. round. This would be of advantage to the two southern states i.e., The analysis is simple enough to interest even an and Karnataka who are currently engaged in water dispute. The short time initiate to world affairs, but without sacrificing depth. needed to complete this project is not more than 6 months given the short The aim is to present an Indocentric view on a length of tunneling required of about 12 km. To put an end to the water particular issue currently facing the world. problem in the Cauvery basin areain the long run the Government is also Opinions expressed in the articles are personal views planning to link river Indravati a tributary of the Godavari to the Cauvery that of the author and in no way reflect the opinion of adds 3000 TCM of water to the Godavari that is now discharged into the sea, World Focus. The author is solely responsible for work on Indravati-Cauvery is also expected to start soon but will take time the contents in his/ her article and the World Focus for the competition of the project. takes no responsibility in this regard. This project will also be energy neutral as the use of tunnels will not require The Contents of this magazine cannot be reproduced the water to be pumped by any motors into the Cauvery. Enough local in any form with out prior permission from World expertise also exists in the country for undertaking this kind of underground Focus. Any legal issues pertaining to World Focus tunnel boring which all rail metros including the Chennai Metro have. This will be settled in NCT region of Delhi only. project would also find favor at the Supreme Court that has already directed Unsolicited articles will not be returned or the centre in as early as February 2012 to implement the inter-linking of acknowledged. World Focus reserves the right to rivers. The Central Water Commission is also agreeable to this project. Further edit articles for brevity and clarity before publication. the Government of India (i.e., the National Water Development Agency (NWDA) already has a plan for this project. Edited, Owned, Published and Printed by However work has not yet started in absence of a central Government go G. Kishore Babu from B-49 (Ground Floor), Joshi Colony, I.P. ahead that is long overdue. Timely completions of this project will double the Extension, Delhi-110092 at Sanjay Printers, 12/31, Site-4, Industrial Area, Sahibabad-201010, UP quantity of water in the Cauvery, settling the Karnataka, Tamil Nadu water dispute once and for all. The Government can make announcements after Total number of Pages 124, including Covers 2000 years and bring back happiness to the Cauvery deltafor the starting of Copy Right : World Focus this project and ensure its completion on time. In addition to others, in particular Our Address: the farmers in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka will benefit the most. This will also World Focus substantially raise the level of the water table in the entire region resulting in substantial increase in the drinking and farming water supply. Out of the World Focus Publishing House OPC Pvt. Ltd. many water disputes in our country, this is a water dispute that can easily and B-49, (Ground Floor) Joshi Colony, quicklybe resolved by the government of Narendra Modi. I P Extension We are thankful to Prof. R.B. Singh, Dept. of Geography, Delhi University Delhi - 110092, India for co-ordinating this issue as the Guest Editor. Tel. : 011-22246905, Mobile No. 8130754555 Email: [email protected] New Delhi G. Kishore Babu Website: www.worldfocus.in October 2018 Editor 3 Water Resource Management: River Water Disputes and Regional Co-operation Contents

Spatial Information Technology in Water Resources Assessment Prof. R.B Singh, Dr. Dilip Kumar and Dr. Ranjeet Kaur...... 5 River Water Disputes Sanjiv Krishan Sood...... 10 The Indigenous Knowledge Systems of Water Management in India Rajendra Singh...... 16 Water Resources as Determinant Of Regional Cooperation: Exploring South Asia Prof. Snehalata Panda...... 25 Water Sacarcity and Integrated Water Resource Management in the Abbay River Basin of Ethiopia Dr. Aslam Khan & Embiale Beyene...... 33 Paradiplomacy and the Water Dispute: Modi Committed to an Early Solution of Teesta Water Sharing Dr. Pitam Ghosh...... 45 River Water Disputes and Regional Cooperation Manish Sharma...... 52 Indus Water Treaty: An Example of India-Pakistan Cooperation Rudra Prasad Sahoo...... 59 Rivalry over Water Resources: A Potential Cause of Conflict in South Asian Region Dr.Ghulam Qadir Bhat...... 66 Water Resources in Karnataka - Special Reference to Mahadayai Water Dispute: A Geographical Appraisal Dr. Basavaraj R.Bagade...... 75 Irrigation, Agricultural Sustainability and Water Management in Rajasthan Rajesh Kumar Abhay...... 81 Challenges in Decentralized Water Supply Management: Lessons from Dr. Debasri Mukherjee & Dr. M. N. Roy...... 87 India and Bangladesh Relations from the Prism of Muhari River Dipikanta Chakraborty...... 94 Transboundary Water Co-Operation Over The : India Must Refrain From A Water War With China Dr. Pitam Ghosh...... 102 Sustainable Water Management Subhash Anand, Vidhi Malhotra and Usha...... 109 Chinese Hydro-Hegemony and Regional Security Complexes in the Mekong River Basin Bhaskar Jyoti Deka...... 114

4 World Focus October 2018 Spatial Information Technology in Water Resources Assessment Prof. R.B Singh, Dr. Dilip Kumar and Dr. Ranjeet Kaur

Introduction conservation. As the resources and its concepts are Water in any form is the basic natural resource for fast changing, so the role of remote sensing is very sustenance of lifeon earth. It covers three-forth part important to promote the sustainable development of of the earth.According to FAO’s AQUASTAT any region. GIS is a decision support system, enables (UNESCO-WWAP 2017) estimates global freshwater society to analyze and manipulate spatial database withdrawal of 3928 km3 per year. Among these, about as provided by remote sensing and other collateral 44 per cent of this water is consumed by agriculture data. Both, remote sensing and geographic information (38 per cent), industrial (3 per cent) and municipal system are two different technologies. The former use (38 per cent). The remaining 56 per cent released provides the spatial database of natural resources and into the environment as wastewater by these sectors. the latter helps in integrating all these spatial and non- In India, more than 90 per cent of rural and nearly 30 spatial database and formulating development plans. per cent of urban population is dependent on These are used interactively in a complementary groundwater sources for meeting their drinking and way.The information on hydrological aspect such as domestic water requirement.It is an estimate that river/stream courses, canal network, lakes, tanks, about 90 per cent water is withdrawal by agricultural spring, etc. can easily delineated by using the sector and approximately 1 per cent withdrawal by technology of remote sensing data and other collateral municipal and industrial sectors.Itis also estimated that data in GIS environment. The technology has a around 61 per cent water is withdrawal by surface capability to assess the presence of water in the water and 39 per cent by ground water source (FAO atmosphere, surface and sub-surface. 2010).The scientist around the world are alarming bells of an impending water scarcity and various issues Remote Sensing for Atmosphere, Water and regarding water resources. Recently, Waterhas Rainfall Monitoring reached to acritical point due to greater pressure with Realizing the limitations of the uneven distribution of the growing demand for livelihood by the burgeoning rain gauge stations and inaccessible areas, remote population. The uneven distribution of ground water, sensing plays an important role in estimating rainfall coupled with its overexploitation and quality problems, in wider region. However, direct measurement of has ultimately resulted in scarcity of potable water. rainfall from remote sensing satellite is not feasible In this regard spatial information technology plays an because of cloud cover that restrict to get information important role in water resource assessment, in visible, near-infrared and thermal infrared monitoring, watershed characterisation and sensors.Butthese sensors can make indirect estimates development processes. of rainfall by measuring things such as the extent, thickness of cloud or the temperature of the cloud Spatial Information Technology tops.With the help of visible sensor, we can monitor With the advent of geo-spatial, a major technological the cloud thickness and their extent. The thick cloud breakthrough has taken place in the method of is more opaque than thin cloud because less sunlight acquisition of information about water resources. This passes through it and more reflected back into the technology includes the Remote Sensing, GIS and space as compare with thin cloud. In the satellite GPS. Remote sensing has its unique characteristics imagery, thick cloud appears very bright but when of synoptic view, repetitive coverage and reliability we see from the surface it appears very dark. In has opened immense possibilities for water resource thinner cloud, sun light penetrates more and very less mapping, monitoring, and their management to achieve reflected back to the space to direct capture by optimization of water resource utilization and sensor. Thermal Infra-Red (TIR) images are used to

Spatial Information Technology in Water Resources Assessment 5 distinguish raining cloud from non-raining cloud on and temporal coverage by thermal infrared the basis of their observed cloudtop temperature. It sensing.Another approach towards better satellite is also assumed that all rain comes from deep rainfall products is blendingthe satellite rainfall convective clouds with cold and high tops.The thermal estimates with available gauge measurementsthat can infrared sensor receives infrared energy according produce highly accurate information about the rainfall. to the temperature of the cloud. The emission of infrared radiation is less in lower temperature and The Integrated Multi-satellitE Retrievals for greater in higher temperature. The infrared sensor GPM (IMERG) is the near-real-time product therefore acts as a remote thermometer which can generated by NASA’s Precipitation Processing estimate the temperature of the cloud tops. Storm System (PPS) every half-hour with 6 hour latency clouds appear as very cold with temperatures typically from the time of data acquisition less than -40 °C and sometimes as low as –80 °C. (precip.gsfc.nasa.gov). The satellite data from Global Cirrus is also identified as very cold and lower, Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission is stratiform or inactive cumulus clouds show up at providing global information on rain and snow after higher temperatures of between 0 °C and -20 °C the success of the Tropical Rainfall Measurement which is non-raining cloud. Mission (TRMM). The advanced radar/radiometer system is used to measure precipitation from space. In Microwaveselectromagnetic energy, GPM is a joint venture by NASA and the Japan radiation is strongly affected by water drops and ice Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), comprises crystals in cloud. Unlike the other forms of radiation, a consortium of international space agencies, including microwaves can easily distinguish between clouds the Centre National d’EtudesSpatiales (CNES), the with big raindrops which is enough to produce rain Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO, the and other clouds. Microwaveenergy can also National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration penetrate cirrus clouds. Thus, microwave (NOAA), theEuropean Organisation for the energyiswell suited for rainfall detection than infrared Exploitation of Meteorological Satellite energy. However, rainy areas show up very well over (EUMETSAT) and others (https://pmm.nasa.gov). the oceans as bright against a dark background, it is The IMERG has also estimated the rainfall more complicated over the land because the accumulations from august 13 to 20, 2018. It reveals background emission from the surface is very variable. that two regions of heavy rainfall across south India. The wetness of the surface, roughness and different The first region appeared much broader and extends kind of vegetation, combined and individually create across the northern part of the peninsula India with variations in the emitted radiation.However, there are weekly rainfall total ranging from over 120 mm, some algorithms for overland rainfall estimation from towards the western half of the peninsula to as much microwave sensorthat shows the better accuracy than as 350 mm over parts of the eastern half towards the infrared estimates. The major problem of the Bay of Bengal. Thesecond region was more microwave sensing is the spatial resolution, which is concentrated, intense and closely aligned with the much courser than other wavelength band in southwest coast of India () and the Western electromagnetic spectrum. When we compare the Ghats. Rainfall totals in this band are generally over thermal infrared and microwave sensing, rainfall 250 mm with embedded areas exceeding 400 mm. estimates from thermal infrared offers a global The maximum estimated value from IMERG in this coverage, higher spatialresolution and more repetitive band was 469 mm (~18.5 inches). coverage at time but the accuracy of rainfall estimates is very limited. Onthe other hand, microwave sensing Remote Sensing forSurface Water Assessment offers a more accurate rainfall estimate but have Surface water may occur in liquid form as lakes, limited area coverage, coarsespatial resolution and reservoirs and rivers and in its solid form as snow, very low temporal resolution. Now there are glacier and, river and lake ice. Remote sensing has techniques that blend both capabilities to estimate a major role to play in estimating the areal extent better accuracywhich makes the best use of thebetter and water content of both these phases. Water accuracy of microwave sensing and the better spatial absorbs very little amount of visible wavelength of

6 World Focus October 2018 electromagnetic radiation (approximately 5 per and 6, European Space Agency (ESA) Sentinel-2 band cent) and rest of the visible energy reflected back 4,8 and 11.These bands are very much useful to to the atmosphere but strongly absorb near infrared demarcate frozen,appears light blue colour in imagery (NIR) and mid infrared (MIR) energy, produces and melt water appears dark blue colour in imagery sharp contrast between land and water which is (www.nasa.gov). These sensors are useful for suitable for identification of land and water mapping the snow lines. Basically, snow was first resources. The water appears blue or bluish-green observed by TIROS-1 satellite in eastern Canada in due to strong reflectance in visible energy and April 1960. Since then, potential for operational darker to black in NIR. In NIR shallow water satellite-based snow mapping have been improved appears lighter and deep water appears dark or and developed accordingly. The visible and near black. The rough water surface gives high infrared region of electromagnetic spectrum is widely reflectance due to more scattering (multi-direction) used to determine the snow cover area. The albedo appears lighter on imagery but smooth water of the snow surface can be easily measured in this surface reflects very high or very low reflectance spectrum to determine new and old snow cover area. because of specular reflection (one direction), New snow will have 90 per cent or more albedo depends on the sun angle. whereas older snow has low albedo as 40 per cent due to weathering, litter, accumulated dust, pollen and Water quality aerosols over time. The reflectivity of the snow The spectral properties of water vary with decreases with the age of snow in both region but it wavelength not due to molecular nature of water but is more pronounced in the infrared region due to also depend upon the impurities present with water melting and refreezing that result the increasing grain bodies.The quality of water resources is also size of the snow. The increasing grain size usually monitored by remote sensing. The organic increases sensitivity in the infrared region. (chlorophyll), non-organic (sediment), oil slick and other chemical pollutants change the reflectance Water harvesting structures behavior of the water. The waterbody GIS is very much useful to determine the water containingalgae containschlorophyll absorb blue harvesting structure or runoff conservation structures and red energy and reflect green energy of by integrating various thematic information with some electromagnetic radiations (EMR). Monitoring the decision rules. It supplements irrigation for survival concentration of chlorophyll is important for of horticulture and agriculture crops in drought prone managing eutrophication in water bodies. The areas having undependable and erratic rainfall. For hyperspectral sensor has a capability to measure this, excess rainwater has to be conserved/stored in biological productivity in aquatic system. Sediments different storage structures and can be directed to increase the brightness in visible region of EMR artificially recharging the groundwater for its use later. appears lighter in shade. Oil slicks create films on These are normally multi-purpose measures, mutually the water appears brown or black colour from thick complementary and conducive to soil and water oil slick and silvery or rainbow colour from thin oil conservation, afforestation and increased agricultural slick.Effluent dispersion patterns from industries productivity. They are suitable in area receiving low and from other sources are easily identifiable due to moderate rainfall mostly during a single to varying nature of temperature differences season and having little or no scope for transfer of determined in thermal infrared region (8-14 water from other areas. Different measures applicable micrometre). to run-off zone, recharge zone and discharge are available. The structures commonly used are farm Snow cover and glacier pond, nalah bunds, percolation tank, bench terracing, The information about the snow cover and glacier contour bunds, gully plugs and check dams. Farm can be detected and monitored by the various remote ponds are made either by constructing an sensing sensors such asAster data, IRS WiFS and embankment across a water course or by excavating AWiFS, LISS III band 3,4 and 5, Landsat MSS band a pit or the combination of both within individual farms 4 and 5, TM band 2 and 4 and FCC on OLI band 4,5 having flat topography with low soil permeability. The

Spatial Information Technology in Water Resources Assessment 7 main objective is to provide water storage for life due to disruption of economic activity are all well saving irrigation in a limited area, drinking water for known. Remote sensing technologies in visible, near livestock and human beings. Nalah bund and infrared and microwave regionsare useful and parcolatedtanks are structures built across nallas desirable when applied during the planning process. (streams) where the slope of the nala should not be The primary objective of remote sensing methods is more than 2 per cent, as far as possible, and the to provide planners and disaster management catchment of the nala bund should not be less than institutions with a practical and cost-effective way to 40 hectares. There should have adequate soils identify the extent of floodplains and other susceptible permeability or good fracture development to facilitate areas and to assess the extent of disaster impact over good groundwater recharge. Nala bunds are small entire river basin. The method can be used in sectoral whereas percolation tanks are larger. Contour bunding planning activities, integrated planning studies and for involves construction of narrow-based trapezoidal damage assessment. The satellite remote sensing embankments or bunds along contours across the method is one of the important flood hazard slope of the land to impound water behind them which assessment techniques. The flood areas can be infiltrates into the soil and ultimately supplement identified by using the overlay analysis of temporal ground water recharge. This technique is generally satellite data. In this approach two infrared band adopted in low rainfall areas where rainfall is normally images, first image belongs to the post flood data and less than 800 mm and gently sloping agricultural lands second image belonging to flood period, are merged. with very long slope lengths are available with the The composite of these two-period data shows various permeability of the soils. Bench terracing involves colours. The black colour shows the permanent water leveling of sloping lands with surface gradient up to 8 body in the both period images. The red colour shows per cent and having adequate soil cover for bringing the flood inundated area in kharif season. The yellow them under irrigation. It also helps in soil conservation colour shows the area not affected by the flood. The and holding run-off water on the terraced area for shades between red and yellow reflect the flood longer durations, leading to increased infiltrated and affected areas. Recently, remotely-sensed information ground water recharge. Minor irrigation tanks should about the Kerala flood from IMERG was released be constructed across the streams where sufficient and editorial notes explains that rainfall accumulating catchment area is available in the upstream side for starting from July 19 to August 18, 2018 and received creating water reservoirs for providing irrigation to 42 percent more rainfall than normal for this time the crops at critical periods and to facilitate the ground period. Rain peaked on July 20 and again reached at water recharge in the downstream regions. As far as abnormally high levels between August 8 and 16. possible a narrow gorge should be selected for making Similarly, NASA has also acquired the image from the dams in order to keep the ratio of earth work to Landsat 8 OLI (Operational Land Imager) before storage as minimum. Geologically and structurally flood on February 6, 2018 and ESA Sentinel-2 satellite favorable site should be selected in order to avoid acquired imagery on august 22,2018 after flood water major loss of water.Check dams are constructed had inundated the area (earthobservatory.nasa.gov). across the lower stream order (up to third order) with medium slopes, where the water table fluctuation is Remote Sensing for Subsurface Water very high and the stream is influent or intermittently Monitoring effluent. There should be some irrigation wells in the Groundwater is considered as the major portion of downstream of the proposed structure to recharge. the world’s freshwater resources. Remote sensing provides the surface indicators of ground water such Flood as land use, drainage network, geomorphology, Flood is an unusually high stage in a river, normally lithology, structures and irrigated area.GIS provides the level at which the river overflows its banks and an excellent facility for the integration of various inundates the adjoining area. An overflow or thematic information for the assessment of ground inundation that comes from a river or other water water potential.In India, coarse resolution satellite data body causes damage. The damage caused by flood from IRS-1A/1B-LISS II and Landsat-TM have in terms of loss of life, property and economic loss been operationally used by the Department of Space,

8 World Focus October 2018 Government of India mainly for identifying and sensing data have widely used in groundwater mapping groundwater potential zones for entire assessment, monitoring and mapping. Near-real time country on 1:250,000 scale using IRS01C/D, and reliable information about groundwater is Resourcesat LISS III data for entire country under prerequisite for meeting the demand for drinking, Rajiv Gandhi Drinking Water Technology missionand domestic and industrial use.Here spatial information it has been planned to implementthe project work technology has capability to provide information of throughout the country in a phased manner. In Phase- not only the surface water resources but it extends I six statesnamely, Andhra Pradesh (eastern part), their wings to the atmosphere to the subsurface. Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Kerala, MadhyaPradesh & Various satellites are providing the near-real-time Rajasthan were covered. In Phase-II four more states information that can be used as an input for the namely; ,Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand and sustainable water decision support system in the GIS Orissa were taken up for preparing the environment. maps.Convinced by the overwhelming success of this project in ten states, coveringnearly 50 per cent of References the country, the Ministry has extended it to the rest NRSC, 2015. Concepts of ground water prospects of the countryunder Phase-III & IV programme mapping for Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water (NRSC, 2015).Hence, entire India ground water Mission Project. Report No. NRSC-RSAA-GSG- database was created within the radius of 1.5 km MARCH 2015-TR-686. covering for all the habitations using Indian remote Sensing Satellite series. Presently the GOI Orengo and Petrie, 2017. Large-Scale, Multi- hasrenamed this programme as National Rural Temporal Remote Sensing of Palaeo-River Drinking Water Programme(NRDWP)ISRO has also Networks: A Case Study from Northwest India and brought out Bhuvan-Bhujal portal where state-wise its Implications for the Indus Civilisation. Remote mosaics of groundwater prospect maps are available Sensing 2017, 9(7), 735 for 24 states, i.e.,Andanam& Nicobar, Arunachal Sibanda M., Dube T., Seutloali K. andAdelabu S., Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Delhi, , Haryana, Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, 2015. Operational Applications Of Remote Sensing Kerala, , Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, In Groundwater Mapping Across Sub-Saharan Nagaland, Puducherry, Punjab, Sikkim, Tripura, Africa. Transactions of The Royal Society of South Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (https:/ Africa, 70:2, 173-179. /bhuvan-app1.nrsc.gov.in/gwis/). Not only the optical UNESCO-WWAP 2017. Wastewater: The sensor sensing but also microwave sensor is also Untrapped Resources. The United Nations World utilized for driving information on landforms, lithology Water Development Report 2017: Facts and Figure. and structures. Imaging radar data is very much useful for discrimination of surface lithology buried palaeo- UNESCO-WWAP channels, dykes, sand-covered bed rock to a depth http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/ ranging from 1.5 to 6 metre (Drury 1990; Shankar et countries_regions/Profile_segments/IND- al. 2001). Remote Sensing data gives a better WU_eng.stm understanding of potential Palaeochannels and aquifer https://bhuvan-app1.nrsc.gov.in/gwis zones by combining rainfall, irrigation practice, crop https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/81814/ pattern, agriculture and soil data (Orengo and Petrie, 2017). MODFLOW is USGS based ground water ocean-revealed modelling software design to simulate aquifer system. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/92669/ before-and-after-the-kerala-floods# Conclusion https://pmm.nasa.gov Water resources are one of the vital natural resources https://precip.gsfc.nasa.gov/ to mankind. Its scientific management and judicious https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/snow-swamp- use are also important and it requires the unbiased on-canadas-lowell-glacier information regarding the water resources. Remote

Spatial Information Technology in Water Resources Assessment 9 River Water Disputes Sanjiv Krishan Sood

Water is a resource essential for existence amendement to the act was therefore passed by of life on the planet. With over 97 % of water the Parliament in 2002 which resolved the available on Earth being unfit for human difficulties to an extent. consumption, it is a very precious resource. Increasing population is leading to heavy increase It was however, felt that the act needed in demand for water and it is increasingly certain other amendments in order to be more becoming a cause of conflict amongst nations. effective. Therefore, “Inter-State Water Disputes (Amendment) Bill, 2017” was introduced in Closer home in India, we have only 4% Parliament which makes provisions for a of world’s renewable water whereas our permanent body with several benches to resolve population is over 18% of the world population. these disputes. It also provides for a cntral body Agriculture in India is heavily dependent either for collection of relevant data. on river water except during monsoon season. The above formal efforts to resolve the There are several rivers flowing through disputes notwithstanding, it is important that the the length and breadth of the country. These pass states concerned enter into negotiations to resolve through several states before falling into the Bay issues. This will save a lot of money and effort of Bengal or Arabian Sea. Each of the riparian and will go a long way in enhancing the quality state has competing claims over the waters of of life of the people of those states. these rivers. Any action to control the flow of these rivers or modify the quality of water of these rivers South African city of Cape Town1 was on either by the upstream or downstream states effects the brink of disaster. For months, the clock on Cape the interests of these states leading to conflict. Town’s water dashboard counted down ominously to The constitution of India provides that water is a Day Zero—the day the drought-stricken city would state subject. eventually run out of water. However the disaster has been averted for now but it may still happen in However keeping in view the conflicts 2019. arising between states on water use, an Act by the name Inter-State Water Dispute Act, 1956 has Similar, situation is predicted for several other been passed by the Parliament. This Act provides cities of the World.2 Severe drought conditions in that - In case, if a particular state or states recent years have led to famine and unrest in several approach to Union Government for the nations around the Arabian Sea, from Iran to Somalia. constitution of the tribunal: Central Government Water crises are also threatening many cities around should try to resolve the matter by consultation the world. among the aggrieved states. In case, if it does not work, then it may constitute the tribunal. Running water in Mexico City is available only for part of the day and at places only for few However, there were problems like delay hours a week. Several major cities in India don’t have in constitution of Tribunals, delayed submission enough water for daily needs. Melbourne, Australia, of recommendations by the Tribunal, Inadequate fears that they could run out of water in a decade. data being made available to the Tribunal for Jakarta in Indonesia is running dry and residents are arriving at a well-considered decision etc. An compelled to suck up groundwater. Reservoirs in Sao

10 World Focus October 2018 Paulo, Brazil, have run dry and mud flowed in the Absence of proper agreements on sharing pipes in 2015.Situation was so bad that population of river waters between riparian nations or their resorted to looting water trucks. The crisis could be improper implementation has the potential of causing averted only because of last minute rains. conflict and adverse effect on the relations between two countries. The reasons for emerging water crisis range from mismanagement and wastage by consumers, Discussions in this paper are being restricted lack of rainfall and its varied pattern due to climate to Interstate water disputes within India and efforts change and overpopulation etc. to resolve these.

With increasing demand, water is fast India is home to several other rivers flowing emerging as a critical resource and many prophesy across its length and breadth and passing through that the next world war will be fought over water. multiple numbers of states. The lower riparian states Out of all the water on Earth, only 2.5–2.75% is fresh whose agricultural activities and drinking water needs water, including frozen glaciers, ice and snow, fresh are dependent on waters of these rivers,stake claim groundwater and soil moisture. Less than 0.01% of it over and accuse the upper riparian states of denying is surface water in lakes, swamps and rivers. them their quota of water leading to agitations and litigations. Rivers being the prime source of fresh water for human consumption thus emerge a very important Actions of both downstream and upstream asset to control and harness for the countries through states can affect the interest of each other.3 which they flow. Such harnessing by the upper riparian nations is increasingly becoming a cause of A downstream state can affect the interests conflict amongst nations. of an upstream state by building a Dam or a Barrage near its state boundary which may submerge the There are many rivers in the Indian territory of an upstream state either temporarily or Subcontinent whose waters transcend International permanently. This is the only manner in which the boundaries. Each nation through which these rivers downstream state can affect the upstream state. flow has a competing claim over their waters. Waters of the five rivers in North West India flows into However, the upstream states can affect the Pakistan. There is a river water treaty between India interests of downstream states in many ways, some and Pakistan over sharing of the waters of these of which are discussed below. rivers. But Pakistan often accuses India of preventing allotted quota of water flowing into that country The upstream states curtail the flow of water through construction of barrages and Dams on the to downstream state through excess consumption in upstream. Waters of River and Teesta flow activities such as irrigation, drinking water, industrial to Bangladesh from India which accuses India of use, recreation, recharging of ground water. Besides controlling the flow of water of these rivers to the this they also do so by resorting to transferring river detriment of Bangladesh. Similarly waters of Kosi water outside the river basin and controlling non flood and Gandak rivers flow from Nepal into India. flow of water by way of constructing water storage Uncontrolled flow of the waters of these rivers led to reservoirs and subsequently using it foragricultural massive flooding of entire Bihar a few years ago. and non- agricultural purposes. Such transfer of water Brahmaputra flowing from China to India often causes also leads to enhanced evaporation losses. flooding in Assam in the North East. Recently there have been reports of China building a tunnel to divert These actions cause decrease in water Brahmaputra which led to massive damage to marine availability in downstream states as the upstream life downstream in Arunachal Pradesh. states would block the lean season river flow through construction of several small barrages and thereafter constructing massive water storage reservoirs for

River Water Disputes 11 storing peak flood waters. In the process the pattern and control category under IRWD Act. All the above and direction of river flow is altered drastically actions of an upstream state become reasons for converting it ephemeral / dry in downstream states water dispute with the downstream states since their most of the time except during floods. It also alters existing interests are affected. the ecology of the river located in downstream states affecting its riverine vegetation and aquatic flora & Any alteration in the pattern of use of water fauna. Already the delta area of rivers are eroding / or controlling its flow or altering the distribution of shrinking when adequate river water is not reaching river water in an upstream state invariably denies sea. This process of river water harnessing affects prevailing use / purpose in the downstream state as it the downstream states interests as they are deprived is altering natural flow regime of river water with of constantly available river water which they had respect to quantity, quality and time of availability in been using for their interests. This also puts a heavy downstream states. Further, failure of dams in financial burden on the downstream states as they upstream states can create flash floods or further need to construct reservoirs to store more flood water dam failures in downstream states causing to sustain the existing water use patterns. unprecedented property damage and loss of human lives. IRWD Act (section 3) clearly stipulates that The other issue relates to diminishing or mere anticipation of a riparian state actions which altering the quality of water. It would take place by can affect other riparian state interests is enough to accumulating the dissolved salts in the remaining raise interstate water dispute. water after its use. The dissolved salt content of water increases due to its consumption and also addition of The activities of an upstream state without more salts by anthropogenic activity. Also water can effecting downstream states interests are peak flood become more silt laden / turbid which can be caused control measures by impounding the flood waters only by mining and deforestation activities. Bringing water (not base flows) in 100% or more capacity storage from other river basins for upstream states use also reservoirs for use without effecting water quality effects water quality in downstream states. appreciably and run off hydro power generation taken up in its territory. If the water use is 75% of the total available water in the river, the dissolved salts concentration in Factors discussed above have caused many the river water increases by four folds. Alteration in Inter-State water disputes which have only increased river water quality / alkalinity / salinity effects growth in the recent times. List of Eight4 major Inter-State of traditionally cultivated crops as they are not best water disputes in the country shared by Government suitable with the enhanced soil alkalinity and or soil in Parliament are listed below:- salinity. They either give lesser yield or consume more saline water for the same yield. Also the aquatic flora Apart from the above mentioned disputes, there are & fauna would face survival threat / diminished a few other Inter-State water disputes egIndirasagar growth with the enhanced water salinity and or (Polavaram) Project, Andhra Pradesh, Babali alkalinity. If the river is blocked to reach the Sea (i.e. Barrage(In Maharashtra being objected by basin closure) in most of the years, the ecology / Telangana) Issue and MullaPeriyar Dam (Kerala) fisheries of the surrounding Sea / river mouth area is Issue also affected. Also there is threat of Sea water ingress As per Central water commission there have been into estuaries / delta of the river contaminating ground 114 other interstate water agreements reached water. amongst states to resolve disputes on water sharing or joint projects through mutual discussions and Generally river water is transferred to water agreements with or without the direct intervention of deficit areas for use after creating the infrastructure the Central Government. for its storage in water reservoirs and distribution network i.e. canals, pipelines, ground water charging, The Satluj Link Canal and Cauvery Water etc. All these acts fall under river water distribution Dispute remain the most contentious.

12 World Focus October 2018 1) Satluj Yamuna Link Canal Issue Four years before the due date of renewal of the The issue arose after the division of Punjab into agreement, Tamil Nadu Government approached Haryana and Punjab 1n 1966. Rajasthan is the third Central Government to constitute the tribunal to decide party effected in the issue. upon a more equitable distribution of the waters of Cauvery. At the same time an organization called In 1982, a canal linking Satluj with Yamuna “Tamil Nadu Farmers Association” filed a civil suit in was planned and its construction was started with Supreme Court in the same year alleging that the the purpose of enabling Haryana to use its share of farming activity in Tamil Nadu is getting adversely waters of Satluj and Beas. However, on objections effected as Karnataka was not releasing required from Punjab a tribunal was constituted which gave quantity of water and also that the agreement was its award within one year in 1987. Tribunal heavily tilted in favour of Karnataka. recommended that Punjab should get 5 Million Acre Feet (MAF) and Haryana 3.83 MAF as their shares. With no action taken on the application of Punjab Government claiming that tribunal had Tamil Nadu for setting up the tribunal for sixteen overestimated availability of watercontested the years, it renewed its request once again in 1986 and award. a tribunal was finally constituted in 1990 upon directions of Supreme Court. No action having been taken for 15 years, Haryana in 2002 approached Supreme Court to direct Through an interim orderin 1991, the Cauvery that SYL canal must be constructed. Supreme Court Water Disputes Tribunal directedKarnataka to release directed Punjab to complete the construction of canal 205 Thousand Million Cubic Feet water in every within 12 months. water year (counted from 1st June to 31st May every year) into Mettur reservoir of Tamil Nadu. To ensure Punjab, however, passed an Act in the that the entire quantity of water is not released in one assembly in 2004 terminating the water sharing go or a very short period of time, the tribunal put agreements with other states and thus jeopardising monthly and weekly stipulations. However, Karnataka the construction of SYL canal. In 2016, the Supreme government refused to obey the interim award. Court has declared this act unconstitutional under President Advice (Article 143). Punjab Assembly Finally in 2007, through its final order, the however passed another Act authorizing denotification tribunal allocated419 tmcft water to Tamil Nadu, 270 of the land acquired for the canal and return it to the tmcft to Karnataka, 30 tmcftto Kerala and 7 cft to original owners. Puducherry Both Karnataka and Tamil Nadu filed review petitions in Supreme Court. The Supreme Supreme Court has directed both Punjab and Court ordered initiation of contempt of court Haryana to maintain status quo in the Sutlej Yamuna proceedings in 2013 against Karnataka for refusing Link canal controversy.In the recent hearing, Centre to release ordered quantity of water. has offered to mediate to both Punjab and Haryana. Once again in 2016 when ordered by Supreme 2) Cauvery Water Dispute Court to release water as decided by tribunal, after a Cauvery originates in Karnataka and flows into Bay petition was filed, people protested the of Bengal after flowing through Tamil Nadu and decision saying they do not have enough water. Pudducherry. Three states namely, Kerala, The matter is still sub-judice. Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and one Union Territory Puducherry (UT) are dependent on its waters. Constitutional provision for resolution of water disputes The then princely state of Mysore and British Entry 17 of state list makes water a State subject province of Madras entered into a water sharing and empowers them to legislate on water supply, agreement in 1892 which was replaced by a new irrigation, canal, drainage, embankments, water agreement in 1924 for a period of fifty years. storage and water power etc.

River Water Disputes 13 Entry 56 of Union List gives power to the the tribunal. For example, in the case of Godavari Union Government for the regulation and development water dispute, the request was made in 1962. The of interstate rivers and river valleys to the extent tribunal was constituted in 1968 and the award was declared by Parliament to be expedient in the public given in 1979 which was published in the Gazette in interest. 1980.

Constituent Assembly anticipated the Similarly, in Cauvery Water Dispute, Tamil emergence of water disputes in future. Article 262 Nadu Government requested to constitute the tribunal of the constitution provides for resolution of disputes in 1970 but it was constituted in 1990- a delay of 20 relating to water.It provides that “Parliament may by years – and that too after intervention of Supreme law provide for the adjudication of any dispute or Court. complaint with respect to the use, distribution or control of the waters of, or in, any inter-State river or In absence of a tribunal to decide the dispute, river valley.” the States continue to invest in creating infrastructure to harness the water through construction and Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, modification of dams, thus strengthening their claims. Parliament may, by law provide that neither the In order to overcome the problems of delay in Supreme Court nor any other court shall exercise resolution of water disputes, an amendment was made jurisdiction in respect of any such dispute or complaint. in the Act in 2002 which mandated that the tribunal Parliament has enacted two laws according to Article has to be constituted within a year of getting the 262: request. It was further made mandatory for tribunalto 1) River Board Act, 1956 - The purpose of this Act give its award within 3 years. In certain situations, was to enable the Union Government to create Boards two more years can be given. Thus the tribunals had for Interstate Rivers and river valleys in consultation to give their award in a maximum time period of 5 with State Governments. The objective of Boards is years. The act further provides for the concerned to advise on the inter-state basin to prepare parties to seek clarification within a period of three development scheme and to prevent the emergence months after the award.The award of the tribunal of conflicts. will have the same force as the order or decree of However, till date, no river board as per above Act Supreme Court. The award is final and beyond the has been created. jurisdiction of Supreme Court.

2) Inter-State Water Dispute Act, 1956 – This Act However, the concerned States and even provides that - In case, if a particular state or states private individuals are able to circumvent the provision approach to Union Government for the constitution by approaching Supreme Court under Article 136 of the tribunal:Central Government should try to (Special Leave Petition) or under Article 32 resolve the matter by consultation among the respectively, linking the issue with the violation of aggrieved states.In case, if it does not work, then it Article 21 (Right to Life) to circumvent the provision. may constitute the tribunal. The act also provides that Another problem with the dispute resolution Supreme Court shall not question the Award or mechanism is that the composition of tribunals is not formula given by tribunal but it can question the multidisciplinary as it consists of persons only from working of the tribunal. the judiciary. Thus there is not much difference in tribunal and Supreme Court Bench.The serving judges The River Water Tribunal is constituted by being involved with regular court cases find it difficult the Chief Justice of India and it consists of one sitting to spare time for tribunal work. Moreover absence judge of Supreme Court and the other two judges of technically qualified persons in the tribunal leads who can be from Supreme Court or High Court. to the problem of identification, collection and analysis There are however, many problems in actual of data essential for arriving at a decisionthus delaying functioning of the prescribed mechanism. First of the work of tribunal. these relates to extra Ordinary Delays in constituting

14 World Focus October 2018 In order to overcome the problem, In 2017, Court verdict. As per Articles 53 & 142 of the Government introduced a bill in the Parliament namely, constitution, it is the duty of the President to enforce “Inter-State Water Disputes (Amendment) Bill, the tribunal/supreme court order/verdict without time 2017”Purpose of the bill was to expedite the interstate delay till the Parliament, under Section 6A of this Act, water dispute resolution. decides against or makes modifications to the already established implementation board/authority. The bill required the centreto set up Dispute Resolution Committee having experts from the In conclusion we find that that water is a different fields in case of water disputes. The precious resource and India has only 4% of Committee will try to resolve the dispute within 1 renewable water resources of the world whereas it year. A single permanent Tribunal having multiple has 18% of world population and 2.4% of the World’s benches will be approached only when this committee land. If sufficient steps are not taken, the uneven fails to settle the dispute. water distribution will increase the possibility of water conflicts between states. The Bill provides for a data collection system at the national level for each river basin and a single Inter-state river water disputes hinder the agency to maintain data bank and information system. cooperative federalism of our nation and encourage Under Section 9A of this Act, central government parochial mindset diminishing primacy of national shall maintain a data bank and information system at issues over regional ones. One should realise that national level for each river basin. State governments our nation is a family in which all states are its shall provide all the data regarding water resources, members. land, agriculture and matters related thereto as requested by the central government. Central Disputes must be resolved by dialogue and government is also vested with powers to verify the talks and the political opportunism must be avoided. data supplied by the state governments. However, Issues can be resolved through discussions in Inter- many state governments have not been furnishing State Council which provides a platform for talks. the land use data in their states. Central Water Such disputes must be resolved as early as possible Commission of Ministry of Water Resources also to ensure greater cooperation between the states. seems to be not pursuing the matter earnestly to get the data which is vital in water resources planning. References 1 https://qz.com/africa/1272589/how-cape-town- Under Section 6A of the Act, central delayed-its-water-disaster-at-least-until-2019/ government may frame a scheme or schemes to give 2 https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/02/ effect to the decision of a tribunal. Each scheme has cape-town-running-out-of-water-drought-taps- provision to establish an authority for implementation shutoff-other-cities/ of a tribunal verdict. However, every scheme and all 3 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki Interstate River its regulations shall be approved by the parliament Water Disputes Act after which, the same shall be complied by the union 4 https://factly.in/major-inter-state-water-disputes- government as the tribunal verdict is equal to Supreme country/ For any clarifications and queries regarding subscriptions, kindly just send an e-mail to us at [email protected] for our record as we discourage telephonic conversations. After receiving your e-mail, we will get back to you.

River Water Disputes 15 The Indigenous Knowledge Systems of Water Management in India Rajendra Singh

In Indian tradition, the knowledge was covering the whole range of legal and economic transmitted through practical work under the direction implications of a decentralized community- driven of respected elders and gurus. Thus the people water management, facilitated by the State. engaged in practical work were really the pupils of the indigenous knowledge system. The poor pupils, The ruler had to provide land, roads, trees the prosperous pupils, and the State joined hands for and equipment to those who participated to the the conservation of water and the preservation of construction of water -works. Those who did not knowledge. The prosperous pupils provided help to participate were made to pay a contribution, but were the poorest who were working for water conservation, not entitled to benefit directly from the structure. The and the State provided only the land. It was a pupil- methods of ownership and maintenance of new, driven decentralized water management, which is ancient and repaired structures were described in another name for indigenous water management. details. All users of irrigation facilities had to pay a tax, even when they had their own waterworks. But This functional management of water had exemption of tax was granted for a number of years wisdom of every drop of rain. These drops of rain to those who build new structures. However these were the life of the Indian pupil. This indigenous administrative rules were only safeguards and knowledge system respected the agro-ecological zone practical provisions for the e c o n o m i c diversity, and had developed a specific science, a consequences of the implementation of waterworks. relevant engineering and a technology appropriate to The real motivation came from another side. The each and every part of the country. participation to construction of community ponds, tanks and waterworks was a matter of pride and of The lowest rainfall in India is in the arid religious devotion. districts of Jaisalmer and Badmer. There the people have a Tanka in every house for drinking and In Bihar, the problem is not lack of water but domestic use. They also have a pond (Talab) for excessive water. Every year, devastating floods common use and drinking water for animals. They spread havoc in the state. The ancient indigenous also use Kuinya, for harvesting drinking water present knowledge had developed a method which puts to in the form of sand moisture in the sub-surface, where use the excess water, called ‘Ahar-Pyne’, which is the aquifer is brackish and separated from the layers in fact a ‘flood water harvesting system‘. The excess above it by a layer of gypsum. water from the Ganges was driven by channels called ‘pyne’ deep inside the land, up to 30 to 40 km. to fill The ancient indigenous engineering was not tanks called ‘ahar’. This ensured a long-lasting much documented in the modern sense, because the retention of water throughout the year, and a better technical aspects were transmitted through practice distribution of silt. and words of mouth, and gradually perfected by tradition. But in some cases the legal and The local Indigenous Knowledge in India has administration aspects were written, for example in always developed practical ways for Society to live Kautilya’s Arthasastra (Treatise of Administration in a sustainable manner with Nature, in full respect written by Kautilya, advisor and minister of the first with the diversity of agro-ecological climatic zones, Indian emperor Chandragupta Maurya, 321-297 BC). even those that seems the most difficult and One chapter of the Arthasastra gives a testimony of inhospitable. very comprehensive and detailed administrative rules,

16 World Focus October 2018 THE LOSS OF TRADITION, AND ITS To make things even more difficult, the CONSEQUENCES language itself has become corrupted. For example, The conservation of forest, water bodies and other the official jargon for the undisciplined water natural resources in an extremely healthy state over extraction technology is ‘ground-water development’. the past thousands of years even under difficult climate And, when educated engineers seem to re-discover and geographic conditions and with a growing the ancient tradition of responsible management of population and demand, was essentially due to an common resources, unfortunately they create extremely eco- friendly cultural traditions (dharma/ abstractions and awkward technologies, like ‘artificial parampara) of ‘live within what Nature sustainability groundwater recharge’, ignoring the proved local release, don’t be greedy’. The traditional knowledge traditions like Johads. Even when they begin to and practices of every area imbibed a through understand a traditional technology like the Tanka, understanding of ecological balances and technologies they feel compelled to ‘improve’ it, like using cement to harness natural resources in a sustainable and eco- instead of lime, or Rainforest or Cement Concrete friendly manner, through these had never been (RCC) slabs instead of brick domes, thus degrading documented. the tradition and its relevance, to the level of their limited understanding. The natural methods are not For centuries, the line of thinking that soil, only forgotten, their vestiges are day after day more water, forest, wildlife and the whole environment are deeply dug into the ground. the common asset of the local people bestowed by the almighty to be managed as a ‘trust’, was the To sum-up, the difficulties that we are facing can be commonly accepted worldview. categorized as such:

This age-old balance has been disturbed at Paradigm change an accelerating pace in the last 200 years, and every Exploitation and disintegration has taken the place of revolution and counter-revolution has indeed increased ‘feeling together’ and integration. the depth of the fall: the industrial revolution, the education revolution, the agricultural ‘green’ revolution, State takeover community functions the ‘development’ revolution, and now the The State has dispossessed the Communities of their ‘privatization’ and ‘information technology’ traditional rights and responsibilities. revolutions. Syndrome of dependence Wherever the State succeeded (even partially or for The European colonizers brought the idea that a short period) in implementing modern amenities like Nature was to be ‘exploited’, and undermined the water supply, sewage or power, the communities have feeling of responsibility for Nature. The modern State lost their initiative. (colonial or independent) dispossessed the rural communities of their rights and responsibilities, and Neglect of traditional systems rivers, either legally (tree felling licenses, water rights) Due to implementation or expectation of modern or illegally (corruption). The education revolution facilities, the traditional systems have been neglected. convinced the people that traditions and oral knowledge were the causes of poverty, the Disintegration of community institutions ‘development’ and socialist ‘welfare’ post The modern education and hollow dreams of independence State promoted the illusion that modernity have disintegrated the community everything has to be taken care of only by an all- Institutions. powerful government, and now that the reality of its incompetence has become clear, the capitalistic Inability to cope with increasing human and empires. Multi-National Corporations (MNCs) and livestock population high-technologies (IT, GMO etc.) are called to the The general degradation of natural and social rescues, most likely to result in further and deeper conditions has led to the inability of communities to degradation. face the problems created by a growing demand. The

The Indigenous Knowledge Systems of Water Management in India 17 rural communities have lost their food and livelihood carcass of cattle. Barely 3 per cent of cultivable area security, their living conditions have become more was irrigated. Life was difficult and hardship endless. difficult, resulting in forced migration to big cities in search of survival in indecent and exploitative One day, Mangu Patel, the wise old man of conditions. this village told me, ‘we do not want your literacy, we want Water’. But where was the Water? I did not RE-AWAKING THE INDIGENOUS know anything about Water. KNOWLEDGE Traditional Water harvesting system in India Mangu explained to me about the rich There are various types of methods of Water tradition existing in this region of building ’Johads’, Harvesting in India. The main common features of which were a prime example of the ingenuity of all systems are: inexpensive simple traditional technology that was - Use of local resources and technology quite remarkable in terms of recharging groundwater - Community based operation of the entire region. ‘Johads’ are simple mud and - Community driven de-centralized water concave shaped barriers built across the slope to arrest management the rainwater runoff with a high embankment on three - Sustainable conservation and use of natural sides while the fourth side is left open for the water resources to enter. The height of the embankment is such that Revival of systems using indigenous knowledge the capacity of the ‘Johad’ is more than the volume - Interventions understanding traditional systems of runoff coming from the catchment based on a and use of indigenous knowledge rough estimation of maximum possible runoff that - Mobilization of community around land, water and could come into it. Therefore the height varies from forest one ‘Johad’ to another, depending on the site, water - Participation in rejuvenating old structures and flow and pressure etc. In some cases to ease the construction of new structures. water pressure a masonry structure called ‘Afra’ is - Creation of new village level and river basin also made for the outlet of excess water. The water institutions. storage area varies from 2 hectares to a maximum of 100 hectares. How Tarun Bharat Sangh (TBS) has revived the tradition of Johad Water collected in a ‘Johad’ during monsoon On the night of 2 October 1985, when I got down at penetrates into the sub- soil. This recharges the the last stop of the bus at Bheekampura with four of groundwater and improves the soil moisture in vast my friends, we only had a single agenda, which was areas, mostly downstream. The groundwater can be ‘to fight injustice against the people’. And we only drawn from traditional open wells, built and maintained knew one way to do it, by spreading literacy in the by the villagers themselves without any input from villages. So we promptly started a literacy drive. outside. As the percolation process takes some time, depending on the soil, depth of water etc. during this But the people suffered from a severe scarcity of temporary period (sometimes several months), the water. The Region that once sustained the eco- water in the Johad is directly used for irrigation, system of the ‘Aravalli‘ had become barren. drinking of animals, and other domestic purposes. The advantages of this structure is that apart from arresting It was difficult to find young people in the and storing rainwater, it checks the soil erosion, villages, all of them had fled in search of employment, mitigates the floods, and ensures water availability in women trudged long distances to fetch a mere pot wells even for several successive drought years, like full of water. Crops failed regularly, lack of vegetation we had here in the last 5 years. Also, during the dry led to soil degradation; monsoon runoff washed away season when the water gradually recedes in the the topsoil. I remember there was not a single blade Johad, the land inside the Johad itself becomes of grass in the region and we often stumbled on the available for cultivation. This land receives periodically

18 World Focus October 2018 good silt and moisture, and that allows growing crops Prosperity returned back to the region, without any irrigation. So the Johad does not take agriculture became productive and due to availability away valuable arable land from cultivation. The of fodder cattle rearing started, resulting in increased distinctiveness of this structure is that it is based on production of milk. Higher water levels also meant simple and cheap technology with locally available less money on the diesel for pump set. resources, mostly labour and soil, and sometimes when necessary, stones, sand and lime, all locally available. Small inputs, Great Returns All the estimations are based on the villagers In 1985 only 20 per cent of the agricultural land was experience and intuition, without any physical cultivated, now it is 100 per cent, and villages started measurements. selling surplus grains in market for the first time. Studies have shown that an investment of Rs 100 per When I went to Bheekampura in 1985, this capita on a “Johad” raises the economic production unique traditional water management system was still in the village by as much as Rs 400 per capita per alive in the collective memory of the people remained annum. alienated from the global environment. On the advice by Mangu Patel, we became a catalyst to building As villagers mobilized themselves to improve ‘Johads’ the local authorities were dead against us their quality of life by contributing in building as we by-passed all bureaucratic channels and dealt “Johads”, this participation of the people promoted with the people directly to fulfill their requirements in the community to become self- reliant optimizing social the manner they decided. cohesion and emotive bonding in the community. Since people realized that members were responsible not The first ‘Johad’ took three years to build, in only for individual but also collective action, they the fourth year we built 50 ‘Johads’, in the fifth we became more aware of their rights taking on an activist built almost 100 in 2001 we built around 1,000 water stance to stop employment of children in the carpet structures and in total we have built nearly 9,000 water industry and fought a legal battle up to the Supreme harvesting structures in more than 1,000 villages. Court of India to stop indiscriminate mining on Forest When we started working, our area was classified Land. by the government as ‘dark zone’, it means with severe water shortage and the water level had An enlightened and active community also receded to difficult depths. The same area after 10 enforced self-discipline for the common good of the years was classified as ‘white zone’, which means village. They strictly enforced their own rules to stop underground water level is satisfactory and it does deforestation, hunting wildlife and consumption of not need attention from the government. liquor. The development of community participation through the “Gram Sabha” or Village Assembly, gave No Engineer was called for consultation; we each and everyone an opportunity to freely discuss, were guided entirely by the traditional wisdom of the decide and implement a common decision taken for people who have maintained the ecological balance the general benefit. This process also made them for generations. These water structures were built reflects on the problems of others in their community with the active participation of the community in its and helps each other in solving them. While the construction from identification of the site to the community became active in social and economic designing of the structure and by contribution in the change, the crime rate dropped in the villages as cost of its construction and latter in its maintenance, economic conditions improved of the entire region. which ensured that all the structures were need based. This momentum in the community caused by the construction of “Johads”, has encouraged the As a result, water became abundant; more villagers to go further looking for innovative methods water meant better crops, better conditions of soil, of Social Change. Now the greatest challenge before time for the girls to go to schools, and rich community them is to sustain those traditional values that started life. It helped forestation in the area and development this movement in the face of the transformation of of wildlife. the community due to progress and prosperity.

The Indigenous Knowledge Systems of Water Management in India 19 The rebirth of Aravari River In this example, you see community leadership in From 1985 onwards we have been helping people to action in protecting a resource. build Johads. These Johads are traditional earthen - First people work on their priority i.e. water, and dams. These small scales, low cost structures do not develop this resource through rainwater harvesting look like very much, but taken together in hundreds - Second when resource is fully developed there is and thousands they have changed the face of our an intrusion to demolish the concept of people’s right part of India (Rajasthan). TBS has helped people to over water. build more than 9,000 Johads, Check Dams, and - Third community puts up a strong resistance Anicuts for Harvesting the Rain Water. In 1996 we and removes intrusion. were amazed to find Aravari River flowing even at - Fourth community consolidates and takes the peak of summer. responsibility. It gets a mandate from 72 Villages

Since then four more rivers, Sarsa, Ruparel, Finally a lesson the Community initiated work unites Bhagani and Jahajwali have become perennial. When people and builds bonds of cooperation between there was plenty of water in Aravari, there was natural different constituent groups. growth of fish, which went on multiplying. Seeing that the government wanted to get hold of fish and brought The restoration of the river Arvari to life is in a contractor. The people resisted and the also the story of various watersheds linked to each Government had to cancel the contract. It is not that other. Contrary to the impractical engineer’s dream the local people wanted control over the fish. Far (or nightmare?) of interlinking of rivers” (current from it. They are all vegetarians and do not eat fish, project of massive inter-basin water transfer), it is a but they realized that today, it was fish tomorrow it logical conclusion of decades of water conservation would be water. work by the people, and a practical and efficient step towards retrieving the link between the people and Since 1940s the Aravari River had been their river in a meaningful and useful manner. The degraded to a mere monsoon drain, witnessing only Arvari river is the lifeline of prosperity for 72 villages brief and strong flows of muddy water. We had been situated along its bank, and the Arvari River Parliament building these structures over the years without acknowledges this fact and just draws the logical realizing that we were in fact recharging the river conclusion. This river has to be taken care of, in a through percolation underground. Now the water is civilized, concerted and responsible manner. clear and shows gently throughout the year. Arvari River Parliament The government through the contractor was Need for Arvari Parliament intruding into community’s domain, its right over the Why should people come together to form a use of water. Water as a resource was developed by parliament around natural resources is a big question? them and they wanted to have full control over it. If It would have been impossible to think of river they had allowed that intrusion to succeed, the parliament without the TBS intervention in formation leadership would have failed the community to protect of new institutions, such as, Village Water Council its right over water. But since they resisted and won, and Women Self Help Groups (SHG), and construction one can see the shift in the centre of power as far as of different kinds of water harnessing structures control over use of Arvari water is concerned. directly benefiting the population. Rise in groundwater level and increase in area under cultivation and Then there was fear that intrusion having irrigation tempted people to listen to the TBS idea of taken place once could take place again. Besides, formation of the River Parliament. The awareness there were differences over sharing of Arvari waters built by various discussion, group meetings, training’s, within the community. This led to the formation of exposure trips etc. also contributed in mobilizing and Arvari Sansad (Parliament) representing 72 villages sensitizing community to form a group to address inter and it has framed 11 rules for use of Arvari water. and intra village land, water and vegetation related This Parliament meets 2 times a year. issues and to resolve conflicts if any. Also events,

20 World Focus October 2018 such as conflict between state and community in nominating two or three members in the Parliament. reaping benefits of water stored and conflicting claims A working group of 20 members including few co- over ownership and control over surface water opted members from outside basin to guide the harnessed through various structures triggered the proceedings and activities of Arvari Parliament was idea of coming together and protecting the interest of also proposed. It was planned to have at least two community1. meetings of full house and more than twice of the Management Committee or Working Group as and Arvari Parliament when needed. The main goal of this Parliament was The concept of river basin approach was applied to to create a larger vision or perspective i.e. thinking Arvari River Basin in Alwar district of Rajasthan using beyond a village, in management of common pool community centre water management approach. On resources. The specific objectives were – December 28, 1998 a River Parliament of 70 villages 1. Sustainable management of natural resources with the membership of 205 was formed in the through Arvari Parliament. catchment area of Arvari River. The Parliament 2. Control usages of water by treating it a scarce meets twice a year at the interval of six months. The resource Arvari Parliament met 14 times since its formation. 3. Managing the soil fertility and checking land erosion by construction of anicuts, mairbandi and The Arvari River Basin has got 46 micro Johads; watersheds. There are broadly two major streams 4. Stopping illegal mining activity negatively affecting starting from the top of the basin and joining at the the land, water and vegetation. dam called Sainthal Sagar. Tarun Bharat Sangh (TBS) 5. Generating self-employment and alternative continuously constructing water harvesting structures livelihood options through better management of land, in the catchment area along with other watershed water and forest resources. management activities. It resulted into rise in 6. Sensitizing and building awareness among women groundwater table in the basin and increase in the groups on water related issues and seek their active longevity of flow in the Arvari River. Holistic view in participation. management of natural resources by undertaking land, 7. Increase agricultural productivity by growing water water, and vegetation related activities was the saving crops with local seeds and manure. objective of TBS. As the existing formal state structure i.e. the different department of government, In the first meeting of parliament certain namely Forest, Irrigation, Groundwater and Revenue guidelines were drawn to regulate the behaviour of department have almost failed to check the people, foresee future problems in management of deteriorating condition of natural resources. TBS tried NRM, resolved conflicts if any related to access and to educate people on the NRM issues by forming a use of resources, provide guidelines for conservation, Village Water Council in each village. The objective protection and management of resources, and treat of this village institution was mainly to protect, water and forest as a community resource rather than conserve and manage the natural resources in a private property. The specific informal rules sustainable way by community participation. After formulated are as follows – long years of hard work these councils made a dent 1. Ban on sale of fish produced in water stored by in natural resource management by forming certain anicuts or Johad to contractor informal rules, acceptable to all the village members. 2. Ban on use of pumps to lift water from anicuts However, water and vegetation are common pool 3. Not to sale land for mining or quarrying or industrial resource and do not belong to only a single village as activity. was contemplated while planning Arvari River 4. Encouraging people to grow water saving crops Parliament. More than one village had access to and 5. Restrict use of chemical fertilizers use of forest and water resources. It was decided to 6. Limiting production of cotton and sugarcane crops form a River Basin Parliament comprising of several only for self-consumption micro watersheds. It was planned that each Village 7. Construction of anicut, johad, mairbandi to check Water Council (VWC) will be represented by free flow of rainwater

The Indigenous Knowledge Systems of Water Management in India 21 8. Construction of mairbandi to check degradation approach to water resource management. People of farmlands gradually understand the benefits of coming together 9. The issues related to land, water, and vegetation to and managing natural resources. So far they were be dealt by combined effort of village community by having all the freedom to use land, water and forest ensuring maximum participation of households in a resources to meet not only domestic requirements village. but derive livelihood at the cost of complete These informal rules are discussed in each degradation or deterioration of the natural resource. parliament meeting to highlight practical problems in The social sanctions approved by the parliament are their implementation and suggest new guidelines if adhered by most of the villagers. It has made lot of needed. Suggestions if any are also debated and dent on their behaviour pattern towards natural discussed to see that the members agree to implement resource management. Arvari Parliament has provided in their respective villages. In the parliament meeting people a platform to address their needs, prioritize members report their efforts in implementing the them and design use patterns, which can maintain objectives of the parliament and seek guidance for health of the resources. It has also provided resolving conflicts if any. Most of the conflicts opportunity for young local leaders to come up and pertaining to access control and management of safeguard the interest of the community. The resources are resolved in the meetings of Village discussion in meetings of Arvari Parliament is quite Water Council. open providing equal opportunity both for men and women to express their views. Despite all these The organization of parliament benefits there are objectives yet partially attended. It The basin level institution created by TBS is expected is not that people do not want to address those issues to perform several roles such as – but the process of evolution in any institution takes lot 1 To conserve water resources and emphasize on of time and energy to arrive at major issues of equity demand side management and access in use of natural resources. There were 2 To ensure community control and management over traditional norms for sharing of water from a well in water resources case of joint ownership. These are still in practice. 3 Equitable distribution of resources The major problem attaining the objectives of equity 4 Provide equal access to all sections of the society and access is the multiple and undefined nature of 5 Ensure sustainable use of water resource to protect property regimes. The ownership and control rights interest of future generation are loosely defined, rarely understood in a proper 6 To resolve conflict if any around water resources perspective and practiced. In case of water, surface and and groundwater is governed by different laws related 7 To organize and empower people through natural to private property, state property, and community resources management. property. Groundwater is completely privately controlled and managed. On the other hand surface It was the part of the scheme to ensure equal water harnessed by construction of structures both participation of women on all its activities and see by state and community are legally owned by state. that they too are empowered in the process. In the Also the water laws are directly in favour of the state organization structure it was planned to have both government and people are mostly unaware of these men and women representatives. Presently women laws. Groundwater is treated as private property and are actively participating in all activities. therefore used in a fashion to maximize individual profits at the cost of over exploitation of the resource Being a very young organization and first of to the extent that has negative environmental impact. its kind it will take some time to understand and act. However, in case of forest resources ownership rights Different stakeholders are taking lot of time to are clear and therefore, better managed by community understand the concept of river parliament and get in compared to water resources. practice. As it requires change in perception from individual, private, narrow profit maximization The community efforts in water resources approach to a broad, village and basin level community are mostly in the form of harnessing of rainwater by

22 World Focus October 2018 creation of different types of surface structures. have changed status of women in the household Community participation is ensured while construction activities and decision making. of the structures right from the beginning and therefore people show interest in Arvari Parliament. Challenges faced by the Arvari River Parliament There is a lack of clarity regarding the Ownership Impact of Arvari Parliament and Responsibility for Water Harvesting Structures There are direct and indirect impacts of Arvari and resulting Water Resources. The Arvari Parliament Parliament. These can be categorized into three broad attempts to retrieve the ancient tradition of Community aspects namely, Physical, Economic, and Social. In responsibility towards Common Resources, in a category of Physical impact, it is mostly the protection difficult legal and administrative environment, with of water resources, increase in area under cultivation, its impractical and counterproductive provisions, which improvement in the quality of land and forest resources lets the so-called “owner” of a plot of land, do virtually and most important of all is physical community control anything with the soil and water, including for example over land, water, and forest resources. emptying the whole aquifer or polluting the soil forever, but which puts a lot of obstruction in the way of any Economic impact is largely manifested in initiative for community-based management of the change in livelihood pattern because of improved common resources. One of these obstructions is the access to water resources in general and groundwater Irrigation and Drainage Act, 1954, which does not specifically. Increase in water availability has led to recognize the indigenous water management system. several commercial activities such as production of tomato and other vegetables, increase in employment In all this, workers of TBS function as and trade activities. Because of increase in agricultural facilitators with Gram Sabhas and their leaders. But production of both commercial and other nature, all this is possible when every member of Village marketing in activities came up in a big way, exporting Community has a feeling of Ownership. This feeling produce from river basin to metropolitan cities, of ownership is very important and is a product of establishment of commercial states and activities of one’s contribution, participation and sharing. middle men and other businessmen dealing with the produce, transport activity, emergence of service such REVIVING THE INDIGENOUS as agro service centres, commercial shops, dhabas, TRANSMISSION OF KNOWLEDGE: TARUN tea stalls etc. This has also led to diversification in JAL VIDYAPEETH livelihood activities. Several livelihood alternatives After having run a 9-month training for its own came up which has engaged large number of volunteers for many years, Tarun Bharat Sangh has population and stop them migrating outside in search started in 2005 a Professional School of Water, Tarun of jobs. Jal Vidyapeeth. The Vidyapeeth offers different courses open to all and specifically designed to fulfill The social impacts, is quite significant as the the needs of young village boys and girls. The course Arvari Parliament empowered people to fight for their design process itself involves the active participation claims over resources, question state bureaucracy of of the students, to ensure a “need-based” course and their programmes and plans, and better implementation their full commitment and responsibility for the revival of programmes at ground level. Further it also help of the indigenous knowledge system of water drawing plans for future use of natural resources. It management. is particularly the women who had no chance to put forward their views and opinion in any of the policy THE USE OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE matter or activities in a village got platform to represent IN TBS WORK their case. Now they are participating in all the Awareness in the Community activities organized at village or basin level. It is also - Awareness of various aspects of water important to note that the Self-Help Groups formed management by women are all active and doing well compare to - Respect for cultural, traditions and historical the failure of groups formed by men. Women SHG’s practices

The Indigenous Knowledge Systems of Water Management in India 23 - Will to work together for community’s common River System of Rajasthan, 2004 (unpublished) interest Kishore A ; Taking Control of Their Lives, undated Working Strategy Mishra A.: Aj Bhi Khare hai talab, Gandhi Peace - Constitution of Village Councils. Monthly meetings Foundation, New Delhi, 1993 of all grown ups Mishra A. : Rajasthan ki Rajat Bunde (The radiant - Maximum possible use of traditional technology raindrops of Rajasthan) Gandhi Peace Foundation, New with advice from engineers if needed Delhi, 1995 - All decisions including technical (sitting, materials, design etc) by Gram Sabha Rathore M.S. : Arvari River Parliament, 2003 - All decisions by consensus, and not majority (unpublished) - Role of women in helping reach consensus Singh R.: Indian Water Management Water - Minimum of 30 per cent of total cost contribution is Philosophy and Alternatives in Gandhiji’s Philosophy by the community rest from support agencies thru TBS. Singh R. : Acceptance Speech for the Magsaysay - Total responsibility assumed by the Award 2001 (unpublished) community Singh R.: Paryavaran astha evam Bharatiya parampara, Environmental Conservation and Indian Water Abstraction and Use Management - River Parliament (Arvari Sansad) with all 72 villages Consciousness, Jaipur, 2004 of Arvari Basin represented - Responsible for planning and enforcing sustainable Foot Notes use of water, particularly in agriculture 1. Water harnessing structures called Jabbar Sagar dam in Hamirpur village was constructed by Tarun Bharat Bibiliography Agrawal A. and Narain S. : Dying Wisdom, Centre for Sangh. The State Government tried to claim ownership Science and Environment, New Delhi 1997 and control over water by floating tender for fishery Agrawal G. D.: An Engineer’s Evaluation of Water activities in 1996. One time morning a contractor came Conservation Efforts of Tarun Bharat Sangh in to collect fish from the dam. The village community 36 Villages of Alwar District, 1996 (unpublished) was taken by surprise as they were under the impression Agrawal G.D. : Turning the Odds into Advantages. that water belongs to them. The community fought How Tarun Bharat Sangh Overcame the Threat to the with the State and finally won their claim over water and fish resources.

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24 World Focus October 2018 Water Resources as Determinant of Regional Cooperation: Exploring South Asia Prof. Snehalata Panda

Divided into three countries Indian subcontinent (SAARC) tops the list despite the fact that almost all has the worst experience of disputes over its members except Maldives were a part of Indian distribution and uses of aquatic resources. subcontinent with same administrative system under Geographical division has divided natural British rule. But the super structure of a regional resources which are complementary thereby arrangement could not ensure an environment to work increasing interdependence. But damming of a together for achieving the goals that it envisaged. river by one country arouses scare of depletion Territorial division of the Indian subcontinent is an of water by the other riparian. Release of flood awful experience. Ever since independence disputes water is one important reason whichneedprior arising from geographical delimitations has deterred preparation to save life and property. While all bilateral relationship which is reflected in unsuccessful the nations highlight economic, technological and regional cooperation .Sharing of water of trans social development conflicts over resources boundary rivers is an important determinant of conflict sharing, ethnic, linguistic and religious issues which is reflected in failure of the organization to undermine the importance of more relevant issues cooperate on the issues defined in its objective. Even which could have been achieved by working so it is interesting to note that some of India’s together. neighbours like Bangladesh and Nepal having disputes relating to water resources have cooperated with India Introduction to evolve a structure of regional cooperation .But Regional cooperation envisages mutual interest for Pakistan’s relation with India has never been peaceful achieving a common goal. Structural as well as .Water resources’ sharing isintertwined with the psychological determinants play an important role for unending dispute over Jammu and Kashmir its success. Geography,culture, economic culminating in to terrorist activities which has compatibility, politics, threats to security, religion, adversely affected peace in the region and viable ideology, relation with powerful economies and regional cooperation. The paper focuses on water interdependence on resources etc. impact on its resources sharing between India and her neighbours stability. Among the organizations of regional and challenges to regional cooperation. cooperation during the cold war European Economic Community is cited as the best performer until it was India and Pakistan absorbed in European Union .Common perceptions, A potential conflict between India and Pakistan is prosperity and security provided by an external power distribution of water resources. Water being essential contributed for its success. Association of South East for human survival India and Pakistan haveutilized Asian Nations is successful for the common the water resources of Indus for the benefit of people perception of external threat and concentration on across the riparian area as well as beyond. But not economic prosperity with external security guarantee withstanding the Indus Water Treaty of 1960(IWT) despite disputes on bilateral issues. Members of the use of Indus water remains unresolved between India Gulf Cooperation Council share a common religion, and Pakistan. Pakistan has not agreed to the have almost similar political institutions and common Kishenganga and Ratle hydropower projects being economic resources. Its success has been due to built in India on the Indus basin. India holds that the harmony between economic condition and analogous construction is within the ambit of the I W T. Pakistan perceptions ofthe external environment. Among the has the right to the water of the three western rivers; unsuccessful organizations for regional cooperation Indus, Jhelum and Chenab in the Indus basin and India South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation has rights over three eastern rivers; Beas, Ravi and Water Resources as Determinant of Regional Cooperation: Exploring South Asia 25 Sutlez. Pakistan has been allocated about 80 percent Commission was set up for arbitration of disputes. of waters in the six rivers while India has certain non Involvement of World Bank is hailed as beneficial consumptive rights over the waters of the western for following the treaty obligations by both the rivers. As per the Indus treaty dispute between the countries .Provision to appoint a neutral expert to two countries is to be resolved bilaterally .But Pakistan resolve a dispute between the two countries is insisted that it should be decided by International Court recorded in the treaty. of Arbitration(ICA) as deliberations at the Permanent Commission of Indus Waters did not settle the dispute. Dispute surfaced in 1965 on non delivery of The dispute centres round two issues .One is that water by India and construction of the Salal dam by “whether India can draw down the water in the India on the Chenab river but was settled through reservoir below the dead storage level in any event negotiation. (2)Even so both the countries have a other than an unforeseen emergency” and the other feeling of doubt about future problems arising from is “whether India’s diversion of water for the run of management of water on the basis of “equitable the river projects was a violation of the Indus Water utilization” and “no appreciable harm” .India resents Treaty”. The dispute over the design of the dams violation of the principle of “equitable utilization” as that India is constructing is yet to be resolved. World Pakistan has been allocated more water in the rivers Bank has asked Pakistan to accept India’s offer of than India. Pakistan claims that its arable land is larger referring it to a neutral expert instead of the ICA .As in area than the water allocated thereby questioning it played a key role in the IWT it is recognized as the “no appreciable harm”. World Bank has hailed the arbiter for disputes arising within the purviews of the treaty as a success which might be a model for water treaty. Pakistan resented World Bank offer as it might sharing between India’s other neighbours particularly be a precedent to settle disputes in future. Bangladesh and Nepal. But the Indus water treaty has not resolved the Kashmir issue mainly because The originates in the Tibetan Kashmir is claimed by Pakistan and most of the six Plateau near the Manosarovar lake and flows from rivers in the Indus basin rise in Kashmir .Therefore, the states of Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir is important for Pakistan. Some Pakistani Kashmir and Sindh. Indus that is “Sindhu” is leaders link the river issue with Kashmir, some others sacrosanct for Hindus. It is claimed that the ethno - have delinked. But Kashmir remains the core of religious identity of “Hindu” emerged from “Sindhu”. dispute between both the countries to which all other Major tributaries of Indus river are the principal issues are linked. source of water to undivided Punjab. Following partition the upper head waters of Indus remained Geographical division of Indus basin with Pakistan. The division has been resented as remained free from contention until India began to much by the downstream riparian as by the upstream construct the two dams .(3)Pakistan had objected riparian inhabitants .As both the countries could not the BagliharHydro electric project on the Chenab settle the dispute bilaterally the World Bank mediated. river, Tulbul navigation project, Sawalkote After prolonged discussions the Indus Water Treaty hydroelectric project, the Kishanganga and Ratlehydro (IWT) was signed in 1960. electric projects. While Baglihar was amicably settled others are yet to be solved. Thus management of Drafted by US technical experts at the peak water resources under the IWT has consistently put of cold war world order when Pakistan was US ally, on trial political resources and negotiation skills of it allowed Pakistan for unrestricted use of the western India .The treaty was concluded at a time when India rivers .As per the treaty India must allow unimpeded was a victim of cold war diplomacy .Now the world flow of water .A good number of dams and barrages order has changed and India is stronger with an ability were to be built by Pakistan. A detailed schedule was to negotiate from a position of strength. But envisaged for supply of water to Pakistan for ten challenges are many. years (1) India was also required to make substantial financial contribution along with exchange of data Creation of Pakistan was the outcome of the and cooperation on other issues. A permanent Indus feeling that the Hindus and Muslims could not coexist

26 World Focus October 2018 due to differences in their culture and religion which water to keep it silt free.(7) The Indo-Bangladesh is sustained in the ethos of the people in both countries Treaty of Friendship,Cooperation and Peace ,1972 even after seven decades of separate existence. has provision for setting up Joint River Commission Preceding its creation violence pervaded in some areas for water resources sharing and allied matters. The of the country .Precious lives were lost in the controversy relates to the drawing of excess water communal riots. Pakistan was assigned predominantly by India .An agreement was reached in 1975 to Muslim areas where as India had predominantly operate the feeder canals for shorter period by India. Hindu and Sikh areas administered by the British But India discontinued the negotiations after the (4)Dispute centred round the boundary and the establishment of military rule following the princely states specifically Kashmir which remains assassination of Sheikh Mujib the founder, first unresolved as both countries claim it while the president and then prime minister of Bangladesh. An separatists want an independent state. Pakistan has agreement was signed between both the countries in not reconciled to the merger of Kashmir with India 1977 to share water for five years but was not while the independence granted to Kashmir vide renewed after it expired in 1982.Governments in Art.370 has bolstered the perception of the people Bangladesh hostile to India raised the issue in regional that it is unlike rest of the states of India.Incessant and international forums. conflict since then has characterized Pakistan’s relation with India .All other issues are construed with Teesta derived from Tri srota (three streams) a focus on Kashmir including IWT. originates in the Dzongu glacier in Sikkim.Before merging in the Bay of Bengal through Bangladesh, it Of late terrorism has embittered the relation flows through West Bengal and Sikkim in India .It is between the two countries. Defined as “peace time the fourth largest trans-boundary river shared equivalent of war crime” it was not the bone of between India and Bangladesh;the other three being contention between the two countries until the Soviet Ganga, Brahmaputra and Meghna.. Its total invasion of Afghanistan and US funding to train catchment area is 1.75 sq.kms. Its flow in Sikkim – “jehadis” to infiltrate into Afghanistan. Soviet West Bengal boundary is 142 kms and in Bangladesh withdrawal from Afghanistan and end of the cold war 121 kms.The river is the lifeline of West Bengal and coincided with radical Islamic terrorism across the covers about 14 percent of the cropped area of Indo- Pak border. Terrorists funded by Pakistan Bangladesh. Sharing of waters of Teesta came up support “freedom movement” that is to free the after Bangladesh was formed in 1971 and Joint River Muslims of Kashmir from the aggressor .(5)The Commission was established as per the Indo issue of sharing water resources has remained Bangladesh Treaty of Friendship. In 1983 an unresolved basically for several other reasons agreement was reached for sharing of water on ad categorized under the broad parameters of Indo – hoc basis according to which India had a share of 39 Pak relationship . Fractured bilateral relationship is percent and Bangladesh 36 percent until 1985. Basing stretched too far including regional cooperation. on hydrological data the share of water was increased for both the countries in 1984. Bangladesh started India and Bangladesh Teesta Barrage irrigation project in 1998 .An interim As many as fifty four rivers flow into Bangladesh agreement supposed to continue for 15 years was from India but dispute centred round sharing of the opposed by Sikkim and West Bengal. water resources of Ganga .It flows through northern India into Bangladesh and could not be settled until India can enter into trans -boundary river 1996 when a comprehensive bilateral treaty was water related treaty with a riparian state taking into signed between the two countries recognising the consideration the socio, political and economic impact rights of Bangladesh as a lower riparian state and of such a treaty in the catchment area. But being a sharing of water between the two countries for thirty democratic federal state it cannot override the years.(6) The Farakka barrage constructed on objections raised by a state/s .Thus interestsof Bhagirathi, a distributory of Ganga controls flow of WestBengal is amajor determinant for such a treaty the river .A feeder canal liking the Hoogly river diverts between India and Bangladesh. Bangladesh needs

Water Resources as Determinant of Regional Cooperation: Exploring South Asia 27 water during December-April when there is no Nepal.(13)But the area is prone to natural disasters precipitation and water level is fairly low. Indian hydro and socio-economic backwardness. Hydropower power generation company has built a dam in Rambhi projects built in Nepal are a source of its income and and Kalijhora, .The Gajoldoba barrage releases water meet the water and power requirements of India.(14)It into Teesta river entering Bangladesh and into the is an upstream country and construction of dams and Teesta main canal .The latter irrigates more than reservoirs in Nepal will benefit India in reducing 60000 hectares of land in North Bengal and the water ecological damages , natural disaster and facilitate from Teesta canal feeds a hydel project in cultivation . There is complete interdependence Phansidewa. Therefore, West Bengal government between both the countries so far water resources has objected to the demand of Bangladesh and has are concerned. (15)But relation between the two suggested for setting up a commission to share water countries is not free from misunderstanding created of river Tosra which is closer to Sikkim and by the issue of water sharing. Historical, political and Bangladesh. demographic factors have more leverage than practical and positive approaches to gain from each Bangladesh argues that India shares major other’s natural bounties and economic resources. portion of water and there should be a fair share of Indo Nepal relation precede independence of India water for irrigation .On this issue terrorist activities as the first treaty of peace was signed between the surfaced before Sheikh Hasina government assumed two countries in 1815. Even before independence the power. Cooperation between the two countries could British government had initiated process to manage settle the land boundary issue. Resolution of disputes the water resources by construction of a barrage in with Bangladesh including water sharing would check river Mahakali in Nepal .After independence Treaty China’s influence in Bangladesh. The latter has been of Peace and Friendship was signed between the two successful in getting the maritime boundary settled countries in 1950. It was signed when China asserted through arbitration by the International Court of its rights over Tibet and Nepal was crucial as a buffer Arbitration which was the immediate reason for India state between India and China. to settle the long pending land boundary problem .But sharing of water resources has been a principal area The Kosi project was started in 1950.It is of concern that determines relation between the two the largest trans boundary river which originates in countries as per the political environment in Tibet. Deliberations on using its water resources were Bangladesh. (8) initiated during the British rule in India .In 1953 further survey was conducted for damming the river primarily India and Nepal to control flood in Bihar. Survey was taken up in 1946 Nepal is a mountainous land locked country. It has for construction of a multipurpose project in Nepal. three groups of river basins depending on size and In 1953 further investigations were carried on for a source of water. The first group of rivers is sourced multipurpose project. For construction of a barrage in glaciers (9).The second group originate in the and other components of the Kosi project an mountains and rainfed.(10) In the third category are agreement between India and Nepal was signed in small rivers originating in Tarai with small catchment 1959. (16) areas.(11) Mahakali river forms the western international border with India .Gandaki river extends It was the most contentious project between to the Ganges –Brahmaputra plains to the south.(12) both the countries as opposition political parties in Nepal criticized it for not benefitting Nepal and that The huge water resources of Nepal are not “it gave extra territorial rights to India for an indefinite harnessed for multiple uses due to lack of human as period without obtaining compensation and benefits well as material resources .Most of them are not from the project” with loss of fertile land of Nepal easily accessible. Therefore, connectivity requires and designed for serving India’s interests. The main huge investment on roads and infrastructure.Most of contention of the opposition was loss of control over the rivers in the Ganges basin of India originate in land which was tantamount to loss of sovereignty. Nepal with considerable catchment areas in Resentment against India intensified due

28 World Focus October 2018 tononpayment of compensation ontime, delayed It may be noted that both Kosi and Gandak implementation of rehabilitation of the displaced projects were designed and implemented by India. people and restrictions on the use of water above the Nepal had to facilitate the projects on payment of project site. (17) compensation. But political parties opposed to the government in power at that time in Nepal had Following its inauguration relation between criticized the agreements on the projects as unilateral the two countries deteriorated and pressure was put and ignored the interests of Nepal by unjust distribution on the Nepalese government to revise the project. of resources .Nepalese water resources experts have Under mounting pressure the treaty was revised to also criticized the agreements for inadequate include provision for bilateral consultation, intimation consultations during the planning of the projects, its to the Nepalese government on operational aspects impact on environment and benefits to both the of sovereignty over land, lease and compensation. countries. Location of the barrages closer to India’s The land for the project was to be in possession of border has been criticized for facilitating India’s the Nepalese government and India had to pay control over operation of the barrage. The people compensation thereby changing ownership to were not apprised about the project due to which leasehold .(18) It enhanced the power of Nepal mistrust has been created. Institutional arrangements over water and power .The number of items for for consultation lacked in a time frame for consultation. which India had to pay royalty was also increased. The feeling in Nepal is that the projects have India had to utilize the human resources of Nepal. benefitted India while the benefits of Nepal are far Fishing and navigation rights in the river were less than the social and economic costs it incurred retained with Nepal. India had to provide civic for the project. Considerable amount of arable land amenities and educational facilities in the project area in Nepal was submerged and rehabilitation of the with the prior approval of Nepal. Provision was also displaced was not properly attended. The made for mutual settlement of dispute and arbitration. disenchantment with India was so much that Nepal The revised agreement rectified the provisions refrained from consulting it when nationalist parties centering the allegation of the opposition parties in assumed political power. Nepalese experts on water Nepal in the perspective of big power- small power resources have contended that lack of resources was relationship. But India considers that it is more the main reason for Nepal’s dependence on India. generous in the first ever treaty that it signed with its “Any lean towards extra benefit to Nepal at the time neighbouron atransboundary river. of Kosi and Gandak agreements would have helped to solve all the prevailing misunderstanding which India had also taken up the Gandak project unfortunately have permeated down to the on river Gandak which originates in Tibetan plateau. people.Now the situation is such that no politician or Floods in the river devastated life and property in bureaucrat will ever dare to stake his earlier career both the countries. An agreement to construct a and fame in dealing with the sensitive issue of water barrage on the river was concluded between the two resource which resolves the question of sharing countries in 1959. The canal water irrigates more between and among the coriparians”. (19) land in India compared to Nepal but the command area of the canal is in Nepal. The power house is India has contended that Nepal has lost some located in Nepal .Even with most reasonable terms land because of the construction of the barrage near in the agreement on the issues of sovereignty, land the border which could have been built upstream of acquisition, power generation, compensation, the Kosi river for better flood control and irrigation in arbitration etc. the Gandak agreement was criticized Nepal. Subsequent constructions have benefitted as encroachment by India of Nepalese territory, Nepal. Nepal’s allegations that the Kosi and Gandak breached its sovereignty and chipped away the projects benefitted India is not true as the geography interests of the people of Nepal. Political parties of Nepal is such that it has less irrigable land lying in opposed to the government in power in Nepal the Terai where the rivers open to Ganga .But India vehemently criticized it as neglecting the interests of had taken measures in the light of objections raised the people. by Nepal, storage facilities were provided within its

Water Resources as Determinant of Regional Cooperation: Exploring South Asia 29 territory and for checking damages caused by the perception that it did not gain from joint ventures inundation. with India on waterresources. No agreement on water resources could be possible until 1990 as the Geography is an important determinant in political environment in Nepal was unstable. An India India‘s relation with its neighbours. It has played a friendly government of K.P Bhattarai proposed for key role in the foreign policy of India. Nepal is located “common rivers” that was “shared water resources at a strategic position in the Himalayas. Nepalese between India and Nepal”. But there was strong traders had used the ancient Himalayan silk route for protest in Nepal leading to amendment of the trade. Scholars contend that Hinduism preceded constitution which made it imperative for approval Buddhism in Nepal .Common religion is often by the Nepalese parliament in a joint sitting by two contended as the binding force between the two thirds majority of any agreement on natural resources countries .It was not colonized but its foreign policy with a foreign country. The constitutional amendment was conducted by the British to serve their interests. reflected intensity of dissatisfaction against India It served as buffer between India and China. Land over the joint ventures for hydro power projects. Even locked Nepal virtually remained isolated from rest of so the Tanakpur agreement on Mahakali river the world. After independence India negotiated with concluded as per the revised Nepalese constitution its neighbours to utilize resources for mutual was a better deal between India and Nepal when advantage but its assistance for infrastructure Nepal had an India friendly government. (21) But development was misunderstood. Even so India had opposition continued by the Communists in Nepal. contributed to the socio ,economic and infrastructure The issue was taken to the Supreme Court of Nepal development of Nepal.Rivers are the most important which ruled that it is a “treaty” and should be referred resource of Nepal for generating revenue .India had to the parliament for approval. It could not materialize negotiated for using the resource at a time when the despite discussions for a pretty long time.Sharing of political environment was favourable .Resentment water resources polarized the Nepalese people. The against India surfaced with growing consciousness earlier agreements though revised were criticized as among the people about the importance of water “sell out” to India .Geography and politics have played resources. Opposition parties targeted major role in shaping the perceptions of the people of thegovernment for being outsmarted by India in Nepal .Anti India attitude has veered round the water construction of the Kosi and Gandak projects. (20) resources sharing despite substantial economic aid by India. Even with so much of dissension the King Mahendra’ accession to power in Nepal Mahakali treaty was signed between India and Nepal set the trend for dissociating with India and in 1996.It was a comprehensive treaty encompassing befriending China with the intention to reduce Nepal’s almost all earlier water resources related treaties.(22) dependence on India. It was interesting to note that Perception on geography is not similar between India Nepal’s relation with China was increasing while its and Nepal as for example Nepal claims that the relation with India did not deteriorate. But the Mahakali river is considered to be equally shared Nepalese government took a neutral stand when India between India and Nepal where as India contends China relations were deteriorating during late 1950s. that the river does not belong to either of the countries The dismissal of Koirala government by King but can be used by both the countries .India is viewed Mahendra ,reaction of his supporters in Nepal, as hegemonistic and had prevailed on Nepal to achieve abrogation of the democratic constitution in Nepal its ends which prompted the latter to explore were some of the reasons for embittered relation with alternative sources for its water resources India. China’s invasion of India served as the turning development. Nepal is strategically important for India point for Nepal to negotiate with India from a position being located in the Himalayas along the southern of strength .Revision of Kosi and Gandak projects slopes of the central Himalayas.It separates the arid was done at a time when Nepal had enhanced its Tibetan plateau from the Indian plains (23) Even negotiation power with India. This is reflected in the though India has maintained amicable relation with Trishul and Devighat projects as well as other power Nepal, its internal politics and the misperceptions projects constructed during this period. Nepal had

30 World Focus October 2018 about India strongly embedded in the minds of people goal primarily because of the conflict over territorial are bottlenecks for smooth bilateral cooperation. issues centering round India and Pakistan .All member countries support regional cooperation but Pakistan But regional cooperation is not affected as considers that in view of territorial conflicts regional much which is evident from the summit of Bay of cooperation focusing on economic cooperation will Bengal Initiative for Multisectoral Technical and dilute its position and marginalize the core issues. Economic Cooperation(BIMSTEC)held in Nepal in Strategic asymmetry is at the core of its intolerance August 2018 of which Bangladesh, Bhutan towards India .The fear of insecurity has prompted it ,India,Nepal,Myanmar,Thailand and SriLanka are to concentrate on military and bolster friendship with members. It was heldat a time when Nepal is leaning China. “The sense of insecurity ..has led to divergent towards China.But the deliberations were on security perceptions in the region that is reflected by terrorism to prevent which connectivity was the practical policies of all the regional states.”(24) emphasized. It was primarily conceived as an India is misperceived as a country that wants its economic organization but has expanded its scope neighbours to be integrated to its security interests. over the years though meetings were infrequent in Its neighbours particularly Pakistan consider India is the last two decades of its existence. Linking it to a threat to security against whom it has to position India’s Act East policy and exhorting the member its security arrangements. Competition with India in nations to play a role in the Indo pacific context the military sector vindicates this perception. During indicates that it is excluding Pakistan .Thus while the cold war such differences provided a fertile ground SAARC is not successful in evolving into a viable to external powers to play one nation against the other organization for regional cooperation BIMSTEC and for expanding their influence and armaments business. other sub regional organizations like India Myanmar, After the end of cold war similar perceptions have Thailand trilateral cooperation indicate India’s option not ceased to exist rather India’s relation with its to cultivate friendly nations in the east of Asia is neighbours has worsened with China’s expanding successful in evolving a viable structure for regional presence in all the member states of SAARC. cooperation. Conclusion Regional Cooperation Geographical division has divided resources which Regional cooperation gained momentum in South Asia are complementary thereby increasing in the early eighties and the South Asian Association interdependence. Damming of a river by one country for Regional Cooperation(SAARC) was formed with arouses scare of depletion of water by the other a view to ensure peace , security, prosperity and social riparian. Release of flood water is one important welfare of the people with similar colonial experience reason which needs prior preparation to save life and developmental goals .It is primarily an economic and property. Divided into threecountries Indian concept to which social ,infrastructural ,technology , subcontinent has the worst experience of disputes scientific development etc. are tagged on to. Regional over distribution and uses of aquatic resources. While cooperation is much wider in scope with a range of all the nations highlight economic ,technological and areas like ,security strategic deterrence, social social development but conflicts over natural resource development and so on .Its primary objective is sharing ,ethnic ,linguistic and religious issues national development which includes society, political undermine the importance of more relevant issues. structures and functions ,culture, environment and Comparative perspectives between India and demography . Domestic peace and prosperity are its itsneighboursfavours India with its vast territory nucleus which is achieved through social integration, ,demography and resources which has created cultural cohesion and peaceful environment within misunderstanding among the South Asian nations. and outside a nation. The South Asian region has However, it is encouraging to note that despite cultural diversity and religious differences but has differences Nepal and Bangladesh have cooperated similarities in geography ,political and economic with India on issues of mutual interest .Therefore, structures .Therefore, it has immense potentiality to cooperation with its neighbours excluding Pakistan work together .Surprisingly it has failed to achieve its will be favourable to counter the challenges that

Water Resources as Determinant of Regional Cooperation: Exploring South Asia 31 affect security and prosperity of the region. K. Khatri [ed.] Energy Policy: National and Regional Additionally China’s influence in the region has to be Implications, NEFAS Publication, Kathmandu, 2002. countered with more investments and commitmentsby India so that an environment of trust can be created. 13. Uttar Pradesh, northern part of Bihar, Uttaranchal and a portion of West Bengal. Notes and References: 14. T. Prasad “Water Resources as a Factor in India st 1. From 1 April to 31 March 1970. Nepal Relations” Indian Journal of Nepal Studies, Vol. 2.TheSalal dam dispute was resolved in 1978. V and Vol. VI, 1995-96, pp. 76-77. 4 The Rising Nepal, 3.TheKishenganga Hydroelectric Plant is run of the 13 May 1983. river hydroelectric scheme to divert water from the 15.B.G. Verghese “Learning to Say Open Sesame” in Kishenganga river to a power plant in the Jhelum river David J. Eaton [ed.] The Ganges Brahmaputra Basin: basin and Ratle is a hydro electric power project Water Resource Cooperation between Nepal, India and constructed over river Chenab in Kishtwar district of Bangladesh, Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs Jammu and Kashmir. Publication, Austin, 1992. 4.The line of partition or the Redcliff Line became 16.See P.C. Rawat, India Nepal Economic Relations, more contentious .The Mounbatten plan envisaged National Publishing House, New Delhi, 1974. Hindus,Muslims and Sikhs in Bengal and Punjab would 17. Jagdish C. Pokharel, Environment Resources: vote in their respective legislative assemblies and Negotiation between Unequal Powers, Vikash inclusion in India and Pakistan was to be decided by a Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1996. simple majority,while Sindh was to take a decision 18. Text of Amended Agreement between his Majesty’s independently, A boundary commission was to be set Government of Nepal and Government of India up and the princely states were allowed to merge with Concerning the Kosi Project, 1966 in C.K. Sharma, India or Pakistan. Water and Energy Resources of the Himalayan Block, (5)NeerajSolanki, American International Journal of Sangeeta Sharma Publication, 1983, pp. 439-444. Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 5(2), 19.B.G. Verghese, Waters Of Hope, Konark Publishers, December 2013-February 2014, pp. 174-179 New Delhi, 1990. (6)Treaty between the government of the Republic of 20.See B. C. Uprety, Uneasy Friends: Readings on Indo India and the Governemnt of The People’s Republic of Nepal Relations, Kalinga Publication, Delhi, 2001, H Bangladeshon sharing of ganga/Gangeswaters at B.G. Verghese and Ramaswamy R. Iyer, Hamessing Farakka,www.ssvkorg/koshireports/ the Eastern Himalayan Rivers: Regional Cooperation in treaty_on_farakka_ india_bangladesh_4 South Asia, Konark Publishers, New Delhi, 1993. 7.Heitzman, James; Worden, Robert, eds. (1989). 21. Memorandum of understanding on The Tanakpur “India”. Bangladesh: A Country Study. Washington, Barrage Project, Dec. 6, 1991. D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. 22.Tanakpur agreement was also validated. pp. 188–191 23 .See Olaf Caroe,The Geography and Ethics of 8.https://www.clearias.com/teesta-river-dispute India’s Northern Frontiers”,The Geographical 9.Mahakali, Karnali,Gandaki and Saptakoshi. Journal,vol 126.1960 10.Bagmati,WestTapti,Mechi,Kankai,Kamla and Babai 24.NaushanWasi ,Regional Cooperation in South 11.Tilawe,SirsiaHardinath,Sunsari and Banganga Asia,www.sothasiatogether.org 12.See Kamal Rijal, “Role of Nepalese Water Resources for Meeting Energy Needs in South Asia,” in Sridhar 32 World Focus October 2018 Water Scarcity and Integrated Water Resource Management in the Abbay River Basin of Ethiopia Dr. Aslam Khan & Embiale Beyene

In this study, the challenges and opportunities of the ecosystem, for life is impossible without fresh water resources development and management in water, and it can be substituted by nothing else the Abbay basin had been critically analyzed. To (Getches, 1997: 1). However, this vital resource due this effect, case study research design and to population growth and increasing demands for relevant theories of water resources management agriculture, industry and urbanization, in one hand, had been employed. The finding showed that first climate change and environmental degradation, on the and second order scarcity of water resources, other hand, becomes scarcer across the globe in trans-boundary nature of the river, lack of general and the Abbay basin in particular (Tesfaye, adequate and relevant information; economic and 2001: 1). legal challenges, domination of sectoral and project based approach and lack of capacity are Ethiopia is a large country endowed with huge factors which have been posing significant water resources with huge irrigation, hydropower and challenges to water resources management and tourism potential. From its diverse topography, 12 development in the Abbay basin. major river basins emerge and generate a total annual run off about 123bcm (Yacob, 2007:28), from which Introduction about 50% is generated by the Abbay River. The Though it is scarce, underdeveloped and unevenly Abbay basin accounts for 17.5% of the total area, distributed at local, national and international levels, 50% of the total surface water, 25% of the total water is a basic human need and precious asset population, 29% of the total irrigation potential, and (Tesfaye, 2001: 1; Yearly, 1996: 50). It is impossible 52% of the total hydropower potential of the to have a clean and sanitary environment; ensure country(MWR, 1997: 11). The Abbay basin also has health, social and economic development without an high potentials of fishery( 50% of the country), adequate and wholesome water supply (Gabre- navigations( mainly at Lake Tana), tourism( mainly Emanuel, 1977: 17). The same author (1977: 17-18) at -Tis-Isat fall of Abbay and Lake Tana islands) has pointed out that ‘It takes about 10 liters of water that contribute a lot for the realization of food security to produce one liter of petrol; it takes about 40 liters in the country. of water to produce one can of vegetables; it takes about 100 liters of water to produce one kilogram of Unfortunately, the country has made a little paper; it takes about 600 liters of water to produce use of its hydropower and irrigation potentials of these one kilogram of woolen cloth; it takes about 3500 rivers and more than 97% goes to the neighboring liters of water to produce one kilogram of dry cement.’ states. As a result, Ethiopia suffers from recurrent Therefore, the availability of a plentiful supply of problems of soil erosion, deforestation, energy water in both quality and quantity is the basic shortage, droughts, low productivity of the agricultural requirements for developing the natural resources of sector and the accompanying poverty, human misery any country, and sustaining and improving the life of and food insecurity (MWR, 1999: 1; Zewdie, 1994: the people. 10; Grima, 2000: 8). In this regard, Yohanneshas characterized Ethiopia as ‘…a country of paradoxes. Water resource is the most essential of all Poverty in the midst of biotic plenty and thirst in the natural resources for human existence in any given midst of hydrological abundance...’ (2008: 92). environment. Fresh water is an extremely crucial ,though limited, natural resource for the continued Water is one of the least developed natural existence of life, future prosperity and security of resources of Ethiopia in general and the basin in

Water Scarcity and Integrated Water Resource Management in the Abbay River Basin of Ethiopia 33 particular and little has been developed for drinking connect the two colonial territories of Somalia and water supply, hydropower, agriculture and other Eritrea (Waterbury, 2002: 64). As a reaction to them, purposes (MWR, 1999: VII). However, to fulfill its the Ethiopian authorities conceived a Lake Tana sustainable development needs, to feed its growing project with the main objective of constructing a population and to meet its needs for irrigation and barrage on Lake Tana’s outlet to the main Abbay hydropower generation, to curve the frequent and River and to sell the water to the British government recurrent challenges of drought and its resultant food in Sudan. insecurity and famine, the country is expected to aggressively work on the development and The Ethio-American negotiation went very management of its water resources. In this regard, well and their interests were compatible and timely. Tesfaye and Wondwsone(2006: 85) have rightly A concession was signed that the corporation would argued that underdeveloped water resources of the construct a barrage on the outlet of Lake Tana and country’s major river basins are the main reasons for sell water to the British colonial government in Sudan Ethiopia in general and the basin in particular to remain for profit, and that the corporation would pay royalties poor and food insecure. This study has tried to reflect to the Ethiopian Government from the sales of the on: What type of water resources management is in water (Wondimeneh, 1979: 99; Waterbury, 2002: 64). place in the Abbay basin? What are the major As for Ethiopia, the country would avert any overspill challenges for water resources management and of British imperialism in the Nile basin and would get development in the Abbay basin? And what are the royalties from the sale of the water. The third attempt major opportunities for water resources management was when Ethiopia embarked on the Abbay basin and development in the Abbay basin? master plan study program in 1958 to compile a complete inventory of the water and other natural Background resources in the basin; to establish a model for other Ethiopians have a strong desire to develop the water basin studies in the country; and to create and develop resources of the Abbay Basin since ancient time. The human resource capacity for development of the first attempt was made by colonial British to construct water sector(Zewde, 2000: 9). Water Reservoir in Ethiopia. By occupying Egypt in 1882, and colonizing Sudan in 1898, and Uganda and The intensive study of the Abbay basin project Kenya in the 1890s, Britain became the most dominant proceeded for five years (1959 – 1964), the result of imperial power over a large portion of the Nile valley. which was a comprehensive report on the hydrology, They believed that the waters of the White Nile would water quality, geology, sedimentation, mineral be geared for Egypt, while the waters of the Abbay resources, land resources, ground water and the local would be used mainly in Sudan. The main aim was to socio-economic situation (Collins, 1990: 279). It was make a desired year-round quantity of water available estimated that the projected hydroelectric capacity to Egypt (Collins, 1990: 199 – 201). The British needed of the Abbay basin would be three times greater than the Lake Tana reservoir for colonial agricultural the hydroelectric power produced at Aswan High developments in both Sudan and Egypt before the Dam (Ibid). In spite of its high quality and the relatively World War I and to exploit the Nile politics as their high cost of the study, the projects were never bargaining instrument against emerging anti-British implemented mainly due to financial constraints in nationalist uprisings in Egypt after World War First. the country, and the difficulty of getting financial loans The second attempt was when the Ethiopian from international financial sources. authorities prompted to embark on a Lake Tanadevelopment project, having been provoked by As the fourth attempt in 1962, a German the Anglo-Italian bilateral agreements. The two engineering team carried out an extensive study of powers had exchanged notes of agreement on 14 the GilgelAbbay basin to determine the development and 20 of December 1925 with the main points of potential of the basin. The study identified a great agreement that Italy would allow Britain to construct potential for producing oil seeds, pulses and fodder at a dam on Lake Tana , and in return, Britain would a commercial scale, and indicated that the export of allow Italy to construct a railway through Ethiopia to the crops would earn foreign exchange for the country

34 World Focus October 2018 (Lahmeyer Consulting Engineers, 1962). The findings disproportionately large slices of the resource pie, of the study, however, could not be translated into while leaving others with progressively smaller portion actual investment ventures because the GilgelAbbay and absence of any alternative source for it (Mason, development prospect was subsumed in the larger 2004: 14; Hussein and Turton, 2000: 41; E. Zein and Abbay basin study being carried out during 1958 – Hamad, 1997: 186). Allan(2001) has also classified 64. Hence, nothing of particular importance came water scarcity in two forms: ‘first order scarcity’ is from the German study of the GilgelAbbay basin the shortage of the water resource itself and ‘second development study. The fifth attempt was the order scarcity’ which relates to the scarcity of social, TanaBelese sub basin study project which suggested administrative, managerial and technical capacity to that water be transferred from Lake Tana to the Beles address successfully the first order fresh water River by a tunnel and then made available for large- scarcity and ameliorate it (cited in Mohamoud, 2003: scale irrigation in the valley downstream(Dieci and 26-27). When there is a simultaneous existence of Viezzoli 1992: 61). both a first order resource (water) and a second order resource (social adaptive capacity) scarcity within a The sixth attempt is the construction of the given social entity, there is water poverty (Hussein Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam(since 2011) is an and Turton, 2000: 51). under construction gravity dam on the Abbay River in the Benishangul-Gumuz Region of Ethiopia. At Water scarcity is a concern for all actors and 6,000 MW, the dam will be the largest hydroelectric is a highly politicized issue in the world. David Sckler power plant in Africa when completed, as well as the (1999) has stated that ‘water scarcity is now the single 13th or 14th largest in the world. The Ethiopian greatest threat to human health, the environment and government has stated that it intends to fund the entire the global food supply’ (cited in Mason, 2004: 1). cost of the dam by itself and has issued a bond Almost every country faces the challenge of providing targeted at Ethiopians in the country and abroad to sufficient water to meet the escalating needs of that end. All the above project based developments expanding populations with the available resources lacks integrated basin development approach. equitably, efficiently and sustainably. Lituinoff (1990: Moreover, they were supply side management 152) has also pointed out that “ ‘The main threat to approaches. But they indicate Ethiopia’s long term our environment is more and more people, and their interst for the management and development of the activities; the land they cultivate even more basin resource for alleviating the daunting problems intensively; the forest they cut down and burn; the of food and energy insecurity. mountain sides they lay bare’ “ (quoted in Misana, 1996: 22). Conceptual and Theoretical Frameworks Understanding Water Scarcity Understanding Water Resources Management When there is a gap between demand and supply of Water resource management emphasizes that we water the condition is known as water must not only focus on development of water scarcity.Mohamoda (2003:8) has defined water resources but that we must consciously deal with water scarcity as a situation where the annual supply of development in a way that ensures sustainable use renewable freshwater is less than 1000 m3 per person. for present and future generations. Barrow (2005: It is resulted in firstly by demand induced factors 45) has pointed that as population increases and which arises from increase in demand due to demand for water grows, water resource management population growth, urbanization and industrialization. is a crucial tool to fill the gap between demand and Secondly by supply induced factors which arise from supply of water. When water scarcity is felt storing reduction of total availability and deteriorating water water and avoiding wastage of water are important quality due to environmental degradation or depletion, approaches in water resources management (Salih, pollution, over consumption, climate change and 2001: 21). drought. Lastly by structural induced factors which arises from the unequal distribution of or access to, Water resource management is the activity resources which results in some groups receiving of planning, developing, distributing and managing the

Water Scarcity and Integrated Water Resource Management in the Abbay River Basin of Ethiopia 35 optimum use of water resources. Integrated Water harvesting and recycling water to cope with variable Resources Management (IWRM) was emerged and unpredictable water flows. While the latter around the 1980s in response to increasing pressures approach concerns on increasing the awareness of on water resources from competition amongst various efficient use of water for different purposes, applying users (Chauhan, 2007: 508; Zewdie, 1994: iii). IWRM quota system with penalties on abuse of water, is a process which promotes the coordinated enhancing water price system, proper irrigation development and management of water, land and scheduling, reduction of evaporation losses, irrigation related resources in order to maximize the resultant of appropriate crops, improving irrigation technologies economic and social welfare in an equitable manner (Mohamoud, 2003: 27;Hamid and Hamod, 2000: 234). without compromising the sustainability of the vital The demand side management is concerned with the ecosystem. But, the sectoral and project based reduction of water consumption and raising water approach that applies in many countries in a manner productivity. Historically water resource management where responsibility for drinking water rests with one approaches capitalized on supply-side management agency, for irrigation water with another and for the to meet the growing demands for water in specific environment with yet another, lacks cross-sectoral areas, and little effort was directed towards demand linkages that leads to uncoordinated water resource side management to reduce society’s demands for development and management, which in turn resulting water (Wirkus, 2005: 15). This has been the existential in conflict, waste and unsustainable use of the scenario in the Abbay basin. resource pie. Understanding Water Resources Development Integrated resource use implies that each Water resources development may be interpreted as water resource should be developed and managed to the activities aimed at improving the beneficial use of benefit a community in ways that are compatible with water for human society. In this definition, all possible its ecological potentials and limitations (Chauhan, uses such as consumptive (e.g. water supply, 2007: 508; Zewdie, 1994: iii). It involves having data irrigation) or non consumptive (eg. Hydropower, on population of humans and livestock, topography, navigation), as well as all aspects related to the vegetation cover, rainfall, run off, erosion problems, considered resource (quantity, time distribution, statistics on existing water bodies (surface and quality) are involved. Water resources development ground), service facilities, and development deals with projects that are implemented for the proper components such as soil, forest and water utilization and control of water (World Bank, 2004; conservation of the basin. The centralgoal of IWRM Grey and Sadoff, 2006). Traditionally, water resources at the river basin level is to achieve water security development has been largely project based without for all purposes. Water security is the capacity to due regard to the overall basin development. Schemes provide sufficient and sustainable quantity and quality or projects were planned and implemented for single of water for all types of water services and protect or multiple purposes. A single project is designed and society and the environment from water-related implemented to serve one objective, which could be disasters. The basic tenet of effective IWRM is that energy production, i.e. hydropower scheme. If the all water users within a catchment must share scheme involves storage of water, then the regulated responsibility for determining the short, medium and flow that is used for energy production can be used long term objectives of the management of the further downstream for irrigation, in which case the resource, whilst ensuring that water allocation is both project serves two purposes, namely energy equitable and fair (Salih ,2001: 21; Wirkus, 2005: 15; production and irrigation. Such multipurpose projects Zewdie, 1994: 111). needs for good operating procedures so that all the objectives are met to some acceptable degree. Water There are two aspects of water resource resource development projects have often been used management. The first is supply management and to represent the engineering works or systems such the second is demand management. The former as dams, canals, hydropower stations, etc. designed includes the establishment of large storage reservoirs, to develop a specific water potential. inter-catchments water transfer schemes, rain water

36 World Focus October 2018 Theories of Water Resources Management and and Turton, 2000: 45). Thus, water scarcity is taken Development as an opportunity for cooperation and a powerful Due to growing awareness of problems of water inducement to promote peace across the globe. There resources management and development various should be decentralization of power to local theories with different arguments about the causes communities and also centralization of power above and the way outs of these problems come to the the state up to the regional and global level (Hussein surface. and Turton, 2000: 13). Thus, the principle of equity and fairness should be institutionalized at basin level Neo-Malthusian Theory and the shared interests of the community of the basin By omission or commission, people mismanage the should be given priority so as to solve the shared water resources for short term gains and this problems (Steans and Pettiford, 2005: 2008). misguided exploitation of resources with unwise methods and their transgression of ecologically Shallow Ecology defined limits is the cause for the problem (Adams, This theory maintains faith in the ability of science, 2001: 192). According to Neo-Malthusians, each technology, and human cleverness to accommodate resource has a carrying capacity beyond which it the world’s population demand for resources, cannot be utilized without causing damage, particularly for water. According to the proponents deterioration and decreasing productivity (Devereux of this theory, water crisis is the consequence of and Maxwell, 2001: 99; Yearly, 1996: 52). Central to inadequate water management knowhow or Neo-Malthusian theory is that as the number of technological underinvestment (Dolatyar and Gray, populations increases ; resource degradation and 2000: 52; Hussein and Turton, 2006: 13). For them, depletion exacerbate poverty, inequality and the problem is not the physical scarcity of water, but undermine overall economic productivity and finally scarcity of managerial skills or low investment for lead to water war (Brainard and Chollet, 2007: 62). technological facilities for comprehensive and efficient Hence, for this theory the way out from the various use of the existing water. The solution for water problems mentioned above is structuring development scarcity, is, therefore, improving technological and and utilization of resources within the carrying capacity management techniques (Adams, 2001: 110). of the resource. Market Environmentalism As the capacity of the water resources is According to this theory, the market is the only limited, development programs and population growth efficient way to regulate human use of scarce should take this into account to make the latter resources (Adams, 2001: 104). Here, water scarcity sustainable and conducive for life. is seen to follow from the misallocation and miss- utilization of resources. Accordingly, the further Deep Ecology market exchange penetrates into the resource, the For this theory, the state and the global institutions, greater the efficiency of water resources current patterns of consumption and production, management and the lesser resource scarcity (Ibid: erroneous intellectual approach and misguided 105). Economists argue that water scarcity is behavior to the natural world, modern science and basically an economic problem which will be alleviated technology viewed as the major causes of if nation’s treat water as an economic asset- water environmental degradation and resource depletion with a price. Thus, the solution for water scarcity lies across the globe (Dolatyar and Gray, 2000: 16; Baker, in the application of market mechanisms, especially 2006: 3; Steans and Pettiford, 2005: 206; Adams, 2001: in terms of virtual water trading (Dolatyar and Gray, 164). It argues that water crisis is part and parcel of 2000: 16). the global environmental crisis that we are facing today. It also argues that grave consequences of In this context, Ethiopia has recognized, at resource scarcity and environmental degradation are least at policy and strategy level, the fact that water not limited to national boundaries and will inevitably is a scarce economic resource that demands efficient affect all stakeholders in one way or another (Hussein utilization of the resource.

Water Scarcity and Integrated Water Resource Management in the Abbay River Basin of Ethiopia 37 Existential Challenges: information, awareness and knowledge, financial, Trans-boundary Nature of Water Resource human resource and equipment constraints- capacity All over the world, the legacies of the colonial era constraints; problems of priority, wrong perception (treaties) are still causing harm today. During the time of water and the environment (as with abundant of colonialism, the British were well aware that Egypt resources), and lack of integration of activities and heavily depend on the Nile water and its interest will much concern for supply led developments as the be protected if there is secured flow of the Nile water major challenges of water resource management in to Egypt and later to the Sudan (Woldeamlak, 2007: the basin. According to one key informant from 6). British had sought to secure their interest, mainly Amhara Regional State Land and Environment in the Abbay Basin waters in order to ensure the Protection Authority Ensuring Sustainable production and export of long staple cotton for its Environmental Protection Process Owner, (interview industry at home in the expense of the upstream 8April, 2012) many institutions of water and country ( Zewdie, 1994: 25-261). In addition, the environment are recently established and they are in British had planted the idea of historical/natural rights the stages of problem identification, but not in the on the use of the shared resources of the Abbay stages of problem solving. waters through the 1929 Anglo-Egyptian Agreement, which created/creates enormous differences between According to another key informant from, the riparian states in terms of actual utilization of its Oromia Water Resources Bureau Irrigation and waters. The whole exercises of the colonial era Drainage Process office,( interview 16April, 2012) agreements were directed mainly to the protection mentioned that there are many researches conducted and promotion of the downstream interests of Egypt on the basin but their contribution for awareness and the Sudan without giving any due attention to the creation is very limited, not accessible to the interests of the source states, mainly Ethiopia. concerned bodies for capacity building and other Moreover, by the colonial era agreements, Egypt and benefits. The other key informant (interview 16April, the Sudan had a veto power over the projects planned 2012), Oromia Water Resources Bureau Water and implemented by upstream states (the Reporter, Resources Management office, also mentioned that May22, 2010: 1). The agreement also included a there is no separate body which is responsible for the provision that without the consent of the Egyptian management and development of trans-boundary government, no irrigation or hydroelectric works can water resources in the region. Many of the activities be established on the tributaries of the Nile or their are drought oriented and not sustainable and small lakes of the source countries. The doctrine of scale irrigation schemes on small tributaries of the historical rights or absolute territorial integrity which river have not got attention (interview with Mohamed has been enduring legacy of colonial era treaties has H., 15April, 2012). All the above challenges could also been foreign policy orientations of the political therefore logically reflect the absence of a real leaderships of the downstream states, mainly Egypt. capacity and commitment for an integrated approach That in essence means that the Ethiopian people are to develop and manage the water resources of the supposed to sacrifice the use of their water to Egypt basin. and go experiencing drought and desertification. The dependence on rain-fed agriculture has Second Order water Scarcity contributed to the lack of experience in water At national level, in Ethiopia, there is chronic shortage resources development, particularly irrigation in the of skilled human resources, adequate equipment and sub basin. As indicated by key informants, institutional facilities, institutional capacity, adequate data and changes and staff turnover are very frequent and information about the potentials, needs and problems are seldom accompanied by the planned and smooth of the water resources for implementation of an transfer of authority, information and knowledge. Most integrated and comprehensive water resources of previous institutions in the water sector were management and development. All of the informants created to meet short-term objectives and not one from the Amhara and the Oromia Regional States of water-sector institution survived for more than 10 Ethiopia have capitalized on the problems of consecutive years prior to the establishment of MoW

38 World Focus October 2018 Ethiopia in 1995. Although the new universities are and infrastructural development. In addition, the producing many graduates, the theory-based training population of Ethiopia and the basin is growing at an does not offer an immediate solution. There are average rate of 2.6% and providing standard services almost no short-term, tailor-made and professional to such huge and scattered rural population is a huge development programmes, and there are little capacity task. and managerial skills to deploy modern technology Over population, deforestation, overgrazing such as analytical capacity, remote sensing and GIS, and over cultivation, land shortages, drought, and contract management, negotiation skills, poverty has a direct impact in the basin via water standardization etc. and to manufacture the inputs shortage and their resultant decline of irrigation and needed for water resources development and hydropower productivity. Moreover, the Abbay basin management. is a closed system that cannot carry other national uncoordinated supply oriented development activities Data quality and information systems play any more, but sustainable, integrated and cooperative an important role in policy-and decision-making development and management of the shared processes, monitoring and evaluation of these resources (interview with Teferra, 22April, processes and enforcement as well as developing 2012;Sharma et al., 2005: 24). cutting-edge knowledge. Having crucial and relevant qualitative and quantitative information on resources, Uncoordinated Sectorial Approach their uses and users, ecosystems, challenges and Shortcomings in the management of water, a focus opportunities for communities engaged in the on developing new sources rather than managing development and management of water resources is existing ones better, and top-down sector approaches very important. The issue of information or data use to water management result in uncoordinated is central in assessing and responding to the development and management of the resource. development needs of the basin as well as developing Absence of coordination among bodies for integrated effective and transparent institutions. Knowing how water resources management on the national level, and where to develop the basin resources in order to river basin level and also on the level of local maximize benefits through more efficient as well as municipality; inadequate communication among equitable use of the resource is very essential for stakeholders dealing with water policy; and absence integrated water resources management. In this of specialized expert and advisory body for integrated regard, all the informants from Amhara and Oromiya water resources management. Principles of integrated Regional states of Ethiopia have stressed the gap of water resources management are not applied in information about the potentials and problems of the practice, inadequate administration of small water Abbay basin. courses, lack of area protection of water resources in the landscape, lack of new forms of management Environmental Challenges and cooperation to improve water management and The Abbay basin has low annual run off and the elimination of soil erosion, non-existence of local population is heavily dependent upon agriculture. water planning. Ethiopia is food deficient and Much of the area of the basin is characterized by underdeveloped, indebted, agrarian and the poorest erratic rain fall that fluctuate temporally, seasonally, of the poor (Yacob, 2007: 30). There has been poor spatially and annually. The basin is affected by cooperative and integrative approach in use and increasing gab between available fresh water and management of the scarce resources and highly the demand for it(Yacob, 2007: 177). Recurrent dependent upon water resources for its survival. The drought and floods, recurrent food insecurity and limited implementation of Ethiopia’s water policy is famine forced Ethiopia to resort to irrigated primarily caused by internal economic and political agriculture so as to improve the living standards of constraints (Mason, 2004: 231). the people and to generate hydropower to answer for the energy crisis. Unpredictable rainfall, drought Economic challenges and failure of crops aggravate the situation. Besides, Water resources development and management the mountainous terrain complicates communication demands a major investment. The low level of

Water Scarcity and Integrated Water Resource Management in the Abbay River Basin of Ethiopia 39 involvement of the private sector places immense Ethiopia is beneficial for the Sudan by providing pressure on an already overstretched treasury. environmental friendly hydropower, reduce Ethiopia seeks support from international financing evaporation loss and minimize siltation of dams. This agencies to fund its infrastructure. It is not easy to will reduce flood and siltation of dams and answer acquire such support, particularly for trans-boundary the water supply problems of the downstream states rivers, for which legal agreements with downstream of the basin (interview with Teferra, 22April, 2012; countries are a precondition for grants or loans. This Mohamoud, 2003: 38) and, if the total irrigable land in situation has encouraged Ethiopia to develop its own the Abbay basin irrigated, it will require about 6bcm capacity to finance infrastructure through budgetary of waters of the river which does not significantly allocation, issuance of bonds, lottery system and public harm the down stream states of the basin (Daniel, financial mobilization. Despite this, the overall finance 1999: 149; Kinfe, 2003: 73). Thus, water saving is still inadequate. As a result of population growth schemes would need to be part of the overall and improved standards of living, the hunger for integrated development of the basin in full participation renewable energy from proliferating industries and of all the stakeholders and in line with the hydrological businesses, and rapidly expanding irrigation and climatic conditions of the basin. development needed to cope with the food deficit contribute to massive investment demand for water Potentials of Hydropower Trading supply. The Abbay basin of Ethiopia has a hydropower potential three times larger than the combined national Existential Opportunities hydroelectric potentials of both the Sudan and Egypt. There is abundant irrigation and hydropower potential Consequently, there is a potential for power trade in the basin, if properly managed and developed can between Ethiopia and the Sudan which is being change the living conditions of the people of the entire explored under the NBI (Michael, 2005: 157). The basin and its surroundings. Sudan is keen to get hydropower from Ethiopia which has abundant hydropower potentials and is close to it Sudan’s Interest of Cooperation with Ethiopia and studies have been carried out to assess the position In the management and development of the basin’s of inter connection between them (Michael, 2005: water resources promoting the ecological integrity of 168; interview with Teferra, 22April,2012). The basin the basin is very essential for various reasons. First, has a great and ever-intensifying need for power. It since environmental resources, mainly forests have also has greatest untapped hydropower potential, if a direct bearing on humidity, temperature, and harnessed properly can change the living condition precipitation, their destruction can affect the various of the people of the basin. The development of the micro climatic zones and by extension, the whole huge hydropower potential sites that have been regional climatic regime. Second, they protect soil identified in the Abbay basin will be in the interest of erosion (and its resultant siltation) from wind and Ethiopia, for it maximizes the productivity of water in water caused and the resultant improvement of water agriculture and hydropower generation and minimize availability in both quality and quantity. Third, forest environmental problems and the burden of petroleum cover is an important source of organic matter, which expenses. is a key for soil formation and fertility and water holding which improve water productivity in both Furthermore, the international community has irrigation and hydro-power (Yohannes, 2008: 21). recognized the role of hydropower as one of the renewable and clean and environmental friendly According to Tesfaye (2001: 93), the Sudan energy sources which should be used in an would prefer to have cooperative agreement with environmentally sustainable and socially equitable Ethiopia and appreciates the construction of dams in manner. This will enable Ethiopia to get financial aid Ethiopia because the water that could be stored in and loans from financial institutions to construct Ethiopia reduces water losses via evaporation and hydropower dams. In addition, the growing need to seepage and can easily be delivered to its agricultural reduce Green House Gas emission in the world, the land by gravity flow. Constructing dams in highland millennium development goals, NBI supported regional

40 World Focus October 2018 power trading and integration are in line with the gained acceptance by all the upper riparian states of expansion of the sector (Michael, 2005: 177). Hence, the basin (Capital, 14Feb., 2010: 30). The upstream the Nile waters will cement economic integration of riparian countries have come together and began to the riparian countries and their people along the basin properly address their rights of using their water serving as a reliable source of development and resources (Daily Monitor, 1June, 2010: 3). Ethiopia is integration if it is properly, efficiently and fairly currently using active diplomacy to challenge Egypt’s managed. entrenched diplomacy. There has been increasing financial support to Ethiopia’s water resources Ethiopian Commitment to Develop Water development from donors (Fortune, 25April,2010: 41; Resource Daily Monitor,1June, 2010: 3). The Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty (PASDEP), implemented during the Ethiopia’s national capacity of developing and period 2005/06–2010/11, stressed that untapped water utilizing its water resources is also showing resources could play a significant role in reducing improvement. For instance, TanaBeless multipurpose poverty and accelerating growth, if properly used. projects and Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam The PASDEP also identified six Growth Corridors, (GERD) have been constructed by domestic financial the first of which is the TanaBeles Growth Corridor– sources which air strong message for the downstream a water-centered growth corridor being managed by states that Ethiopia is no more dependent upon foreign the MWR. The current GTPII and plans in preparation financial sources to use its waters. So, this situation, gave highest priority to water sector development as I think, will contribute for the change of unfair and a catalyst to transform the country’s economic unjust utilization and unilateral approach of development from ‘agricultural development-led management and replacement by fair and equitable industrialization’, to industrial development-led utilization and integrated and holistic approach of agriculture’. In addition to the above and other policy management for mutual benefit of all. This also orientations and government plans, huge investment notifies that Ethiopia’s utilization of the shared resource is channeled into the water sector to bring about will not significantly harm the downstream states but economic transformation. Parallel efforts are being rather minimizes the environmental degradation and made to strengthen the country’s water resources plays its share for the sustainable development of the development by boosting human and institutional basin. capacity in order to minimize the country’s dependence on foreign expertise. New universities are providing Conclusion training in various aspects of water resources The study has attempted to assess and analyze the development. Institutions involved in the study, design existing water development and management and construction of water resources and water challenges and opportunities in the Abbay Basin. resource infrastructure have been established and Historically, Ethiopia, as the only independent nation strengthened. The formulation of Integrated in the region during colonial era, was more concerned Development Master Plans to guide development in with maintaining its independence than developing the the Abbay river basins, the establishment of RBOs nation’s water resources. Besides, the power that balance environmental concerns with asymmetry between the colonial power in the development efforts and the institutionalization of an downstream region and the relatively weak position Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Social of Ethiopia in the upstream was one of the obstacles Development Office within the MoWE are clear to develop and manage its water resources during indications of efforts to pursue development and colonial era. environmental protection objectives simultaneously. All types of water scarcities are being Ethiopia’s consistent and longstanding observed in the Abbay basin. Water supply varies rejection of the idea and practice of a country holding seasonally and water shortage is costly and a monopoly( the doctrine of absolute territorial problematic in the Nile basin (FAO, 2000: 1). For integrity) on the shared resources of the Nile waters example, the first order scarcity of water is realized

Water Scarcity and Integrated Water Resource Management in the Abbay River Basin of Ethiopia 41 in the basin due to high rate of population and opportunities and constraints. Thus, environmental economic growth that induced high demand on the degradation and climate variability have been found limited resources, the fluctuation of water both in to be among the critical issues that need to be resolved space and time and sever environmental degradations to harness the country’s immense hydropower and which seriously affect both the quality and quantity irrigation potential.. The Abbay River Basin has been of water. identified as a region for irrigation and hydropower development, which are vital for food security and In light of the responses from the majority of economic growth in Ethiopia. In this regard, the study the informants and information from relevant literature, has found that existing water resources development Ethiopia is characterized by second order scarcity of for hydropower generation and irrigation are sectoral water resources where it has weak administrative, and project based. financial, managerial and technical capacity to manage and develop the Abbay basin’s water The physical and hydrological features of effectively and address the problems. The second Abbay basin are conducive for the implementation order water scarcity is also manifested in absence of of integrated water resources management in the sustainable and integrative development, management basin. However, water scarcity has found to be the and utilization of the scarce resource of the basin, real problem of the basin due to supply, demand and problems of efficiency, inadequate data gathering and structural induced factors. Hence, treating the information exchange, inability to manage demand. resource as an economic good, as market Generally, water scarcity is a real phenomenon in environmentalist rightly argue, is very essential to Ethiopia where there is high demand on the limited overcome inefficient and ineffective utilization of the water resource and the people are suffering from scarce resource of the basin. Water security of the recurrent and deep problems of poverty, famine, and basin is highly dependent on the application of drought. efficient, holistic and integrative water management in the basin. In order to sustainably alleviate poverty, Besides, according to the preceding sources, achieve food security, avoid the degradation of tremendous amount of water is exhausted and not resources, and improve the living condition of the efficiently utilized. Hence, as shallow ecology rightly people of the basin, as deep ecology rightly argues, argues, improving the social, technical and introducing sustainable and integrated development, administrative adaptive capacity is very important to management and utilization of the resources, as deep cope up with the physical scarcity of water and to ecologists rightly argue, is non optional. The realize integrated water management in the sub basin. development of this crucial resource demands strong Though Ethiopia has recognized integrated water and collective national efforts of all stakeholders to resources management, at constitution and policy implement holistic and integrated approach of water levels for both national and transboundary waters, management and development. First of all, as shallow due to second order scarcity of water and other ecologists rightly argue, capacity building is very external influences the country has been unable to critical at all levels if successful implementation of convert its policies into actions. However, IWRM is needed. Thus, in order to effectively and implementing integrated water resources sustainable develop and manage water resource giving management in the Abbay basin is not a matter of due attention for the availability of trained and skilled choice but a matter of necessity, for it can solve the human resources have paramount importance. problems of water scarcity and ensure the sustainable Research is an important instrument giving continuous development and management of the resources. feedback on water resources development interventions and improvement of effectiveness and Ethiopia has recognized the fact that, among efficiency of water use. The contribution of the other sectors, economic progress depends principally academic and research community in generating a in the development of hydropower and irrigation crucial mass of good quality data that ensure all potential of the country. This work has also tried to development efforts are very critical and need to be show the basin’s hydropower and irrigation potential, given special attention.

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44 World Focus October 2018 Paradiplomacy and the Teesta River Water Dispute: Modi Committed to an Early Solution of TeestaWater Sharing Dr. Pitam Ghosh

With no recognized political boundaries for conflict with that of the central government. The international rivers, South Asia is trying hard to cope conundrum on the signing of the Teesta water sharing with the growing tension over trans-boundary water treaty between Bangladesh and India is an example claims and frequently arising water conflicts of the never-ending drift between the interest of the (transboundary as well as domestic). History has it States and the central government in India. that political divisions created between riparian States have been the cause of contention of rights over river The history of the dispute systems. Several country claims (on the right to use The Teesta water-sharing agreement has been in talks the ratio of surface water) are long pending to get since the Hasina-led Awami League government resolved and many old claims have resurfaced. This returned to power in 2009. However, water sharing demands immediate action as a matter of national dispute between the two neighbours is not something security. Looking at the trends, due to economic and of the recent vintage. India and Bangladesh share 54 geo-strategic interests, international transboundary common streams with the Teesta being a major one. water sharing has done more damage to South Asia, The dispute would date back to the time Independent specifically India.A trust deficit, coupled with the strict India was formed which reduced most of it’s northern classification of water as a “sovereign” issue as per rivers into ‘shared water bodies.’ A Joint River the political and bureaucratic setup of different Commission was setup as early as 1976 to resolve all countries, has always paralysed South Asia in framing outstanding water sharing disputes between the two a regional water governance framework. To date, nations. However, no pragmatic and long-term solution the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation could be promulgated, and Teesta especially remaining (SAARC) has not been successful in forming a a vexed issue. While New Delhi can legitimately regional water commission for the efficient sharing move ahead on a bilateral resolution, it may not want and management of international waters. The three to give Bengal, led by the feisty chief minister Mamata mighty river basins of South Asia—the Indus, the Banerjee, a handle to spin yet another round of dance Ganges and the Brahmaputra— support the river and drama just now as she had done earlier over the systems, lakes and aquifers between Bangladesh, Teesta water-sharing issue. As the report Bhutan, India, Nepal and Pakistan. Millions of people in ORF points out those negotiations to take out a in the region depend on the river basins for access to middle path on Teesta river have been on since 1983, water to support agriculture and other socio-economic when a preliminary arrangement had allocated 39 practices Furthermore; the extent to which the percent for India and 36 percent for Bangladesh. A element of transboundary water cooperation is lesser share was put aside for Bangladesh taking into addressed in the national policies is elusive and not account “a groundwater recharge that takes place in-depth. In the case of India, the National Water between the two barrages on the Teesta — at Policy 2012 has made a recommendation on the Gazaldoba in Jalpaiguri on the Indian side and at Dalia formation of adequate institutional arrangements at in Lalmonirhat in Bangladesh. The remaining 25 the central level for implementing international percent was left unallocated for a later decision, agreements. But the task seems overwhelming as especially because the regular flow of a small quantity water is a State subject and States’ interests often of water (in the case of the Teesta, 450 cu secs) is

Paradiplomacy and the Teesta River Water Dispute 45 imperative for the life of a river.”According to a report effort to establish the government’s ‘Neighborhood in Global Voices, till this day the two nations could First Policy. The Dhaka government began reach consensus on only one comprehensive river pressurising Prime Minister Modi,to urgently take pact — a landmark 30-year agreement on sharing of action regarding the Teesta Water agreement shortly water in the Ganges, during Hasina’s previous tenure after the Land Boundary Agreement was settled. It as prime minister in 1997 when Deve Gowda was even expressed aspirations of renewal of the 2011 her Indian counterpart and Jyoti Basu was the West agreement, prior to PM Narendra Modi’s Bangladesh Bengal chief minister. This was set to change in visit. The deal, however, did not meet an optimistic September 2011 when India’s then Prime Minister, response despite the Prime Minister stating that “rivers Manmohan Singh, was due to sign a pact with his should nurture the India-Bangladesh relationship and Bangladeshi counterpart regarding access and use not become a source of discord”. After winning of the Teesta River. This was during Singh’s 2011 elections in 2016, Mamata Banerjee took a more Dhaka visit, but Banerjee, who was newly elected as appeasing tone. She invited the Prime Minister of West Bengal chief minister at the time, had declined Bangladesh to visit the state capital, perhaps with the to endorse the deal fearing the loss of higher volume intention of negotiating the Teesta turmoil. In 2016 of water to the lower riparian would cause scarcity itself, Prime Minister Hasina told M J Akbar, the of water in her state, especially during drier months. Indian Minister of State for External Affairs that even Hasina, on her part, had criticised Banerjee for her though there existed problems between the two “unfortunate” stance against the water sharing neighbouring countries, these would not in the way deal. Buoyed by Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s of the “friendship and cooperation” that they share. maiden visit during which “history” was made by ’The supreme reason behind India making attempts inking the long-pending Land Boundary Agreement, to accept the Teesta claims rests in its ability to Bangladesh now looks forward to resolving the crucial improve bilateral relations with Bangladesh Teesta water-sharing issue soon. During the extensively and pave the path for India to use the Bangladesh visit, Modi had also expressed confidence Chittagong port ,which seems to be a key trading of finding a “fair solution” to the long-pending Teesta port for India. Without the Chittagong port, India has and Feni river water sharing issue. Teesta water is to traverse a comparatively longer route for its trading crucial for Bangladesh, especially in the leanest period activities via Sri Lanka, which becomes both costly from December to March when the water flow often and cumbersome for the country. The Teesta Water temporarily comes down to less than 1,000 cusecs issue has withheld the port issue, which Bangladesh from 5,000 cusecs. Talking about Modi’s reference refuses to deal with until the water dispute is resolved. to India’s support to Bangladesh Liberation War, Ali The Modi government was unable to convince the said that both the countries must “restore the sense Chief Minister of West Bengal regarding the Teesta of togetherness, sense of partnership” which was Treaty because there arose a new turmoil between evident during the country’s “freedom struggle. the state and centre during November 2016, after the implementation of demonetisation. Sheikh Hasina Developments during Modi regime had visited India in the month of April mainly to In the year 2014, India experienced a wave of change negotiate the Teesta Agreement. This visit, however, with the BJP forming a government at the centre. did not bear any fruitful results. Of late, Bangladesh Narendra Modi became the face of this change and seems to be restless regarding the dispute, chiefly soon after taking up office, he proclaimed that due to the fact that the country will be holding the mending relations with India’s neighbours and General Elections in the year 2018.Settlement of this promoting India’s ‘Act East’ policy was the paramount dispute will ensure Sheikh Hasina’s Awami League focus of his foreign policy. In the month of May 2015 to retain the position as the ruling party of the country. both India and Bangladesh were able to settle the The Teesta issue will not only lead to a healthy bilateral long pending 1974 Land Boundary Agreement in an relation between India and Bangladesh, but will also 46 World Focus October 2018 mend the centre-state relations in India. It is developments. First, the visit is a talking point after fascinating to see how natural resources can prove two earlier postponements of December 2016 and to be an obstacle in the path of peaceful relations February 2017 for undisclosed reasons, and second, between neighbouring countries. The need to have the BJP’s resounding victory in Uttar Pradesh the upper hand in power structures globally leads assembly elections has put a seal of public approval countries to wage unnecessary and futile cold wars. on nearly three years of the Narendra Modi For the sake of maintenance of international peace government at the Centre. The Modi government does and security, both nations must promulgate an not find itself in trouble about the uncertain agreement for the resolution of the water dispute that consequences of demonetization and the Goods and has hindered healthy relations between them ever Services Tax (GST) is almost set to roll out by July since the inception of Bangladesh. The lack of last year. At such a time, PM Hasina’s visit will resolution over the sharing of water resources in arguably bring back the Teesta river water dispute in transboundary rivers between India and Bangladesh limelight, which pertains to the Indian foreign policy remains as one of the major obstacles in the domain of which paradiplomacy is an essential relationship between these two neighbouring dimension. Between 1997 and 2005, the efforts of countries. Although Bangladesh and India share 54 the Joint Committee of Experts (founded to examine common rivers, the Ganges Treaty of 1996 is the only the sharing of the waters) and Joint Technical Group agreement on sharing of water during lean season. (JTG) drew a blank. The Committee’s frustration was The lack of an agreement on the Teesta water sharing that the lean season flows of the Teesta could not has become a source of frustration and anger for meet the needs of both India and Bangladesh, “and many people in dealing with the common rivers hence any sharing formula for the lean season flows between India and Bangladesh. The stalemate in should be based on shared sacrifices. The Teesta’s water sharing between the two countries has received water sharing agreement was almost concluded in extensive coverage in electronic and news media. Indian PM Manmohan Singh’s regime in September Several political alliances in Bangladesh, both from 2011, when the deal was being signed between India the left and right spectrum, have organised human and Bangladesh on an equal sharing basis. However, chains, protest rallies, and long marches demanding the deal was shelved when Mamata Banerjee, the a fair and equitable agreement on water sharing in CM of West Bengal refused to accompany PM the Teesta and other transboundary rivers. The Manmohan Singh to Dhaka on the grounds that the possibility of signing a treaty for sharing water in the interests of Bengalis had been overlooked and the Teesta River has been hanging in the limbo for the draft agreement was materially different from the last three decades. The latest attempt to sign such a one that was shown to her. The knee-jerk action of treaty during the visit by the then Indian Prime Mamata Banerjee not only made PM Singh a laughing Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh during his visit to stock in the global community but it also worked to Dhaka in September of 2011 was allegedly foiled by derail the process of bilateral agreements between the Chief Minister of Paschimbanga Mamata Indian and a friendly neighbor, Bangladesh. There is Banerjee. The Prime Minister of Bangladesh Sheikh little reason to disbelieve the then Prime Minister Hasina blamed Banerjee for foiling the possibility of when he asserted that CM Banerjee was duly the Teesta treaty. With the recent change in the power apprised by none other than the National Security in central government of India, the prospect for a Advisor Shiv Shankar Menon more than a month water sharing treaty on Teesta water took yet another before the proposed Dhaka visit. Lamentably CM uncertain turn.(1) Banerjee’s stance on the Teesta remains unchanged. There is no denying the fact that CM Banerjee is Bangladesh premier Sheikh Hasina is set to well intentioned and genuinely concerned about the make her much-awaited state visit to India and her interest of West Bengal. She has her own arguments impending visit assumed importance due to recent regarding Centre-state relations, and promptly Paradiplomacy and the Teesta River Water Dispute 47 recounts the West Bengal government’s cooperation accusation that the Centre did not take her into in the GST, Land Boundary Agreement (LBA) and confidence with regard to the Teesta water pact, enclave transfer. However, her rigid stance over needs immediate redressal. A positive settlement of Teesta places the concept of paradiplomacy into the Teesta water-sharing dispute will work to further question. The main cause of worry, in this case, cement Indo-Bangladesh bilateral relations. remains the worsening relations between Mamata’s Paradiplomacy suffers a jolt when narrow political government in West Bengal and the Modi government interest of constituent states comes as a stumbling at the Centre. The Ministry of External Affairs was block in the smooth conduct of national foreign policy wise to have postponed the scheduled visit of the making. To CM Banerjee charging the Centre of Bangladesh PM in December 2016 in view of destroying India’s federal structure, Gopal Baglay, Mamata’s shrill opposition to the central government the MEA Spokesperson, talks of ‘co-operative on account of demonetization. Against this federalism’ in resolution of the dispute. It is for states background, the proposed visit of PM Hasina is viewed to understand that despite their increased role in with lot of expectations by both the countries and conducting diplomacy, foreign policymaking is and international observers as well. In addition to this remains a highly sensitive issue with the MEA having domestic status quo in India, Sheikh Hasina and her a pre-eminent and specialist role in the formulation ruling Awami League Party face severe criticism of India’s foreign policy. The foreign policy of a from the main opposition Bangladesh National Party country needs a holistic approach that takes into for being over friendly to India. Therefore, it becomes account the prevailing geopolitical situations. Despite imperative for Bangladesh, both politically and PM Modi’s inclination towards and advocacy of economically, to reach an early and respectable paradiplomacy, sub national diplomacy has its solution to the Teesta water distribution with India. limitations. In India’s case, the final call on a nation’s In addition to the Teesta, India and Bangladesh have foreign policy has to be taken by the Centre keeping 53 other river disputes to address and solve. The the interest of the nation in mind. When it comes to Teesta water distribution issue assumes more the Teesta dispute the interest of West Bengal, significance at this time when at the behest of PM although relevant, is subordinate to that of India. It is Modi, the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) is now time CM Banerjee, shunning a regional outlook, giving importance to states in foreign policy acknowledges the same and makes space for a larger formulations. The Indian government is fully aware understanding of foreign policy. (2) that in the formulation of foreign policy relating to bordering countries, the counsel and cooperation of Against the flow bordering Indian states is imperative. For this very New Delhi and Dhaka reached a common-ground reason the relations between India and Bangladesh understanding on the sharing of the Teesta and Feni are bound to affect the states of Assam, Meghalaya, rivers during the September 2011 bilateral summit that Mizoram, Tripura and West Bengal. PM Modi’s would hold until necessary data was collected through endorsement for paradiplomacy is understandable. a joint hydrological study. Both governments signed The prosperity of Gujarat during his tenure as its CM a 15-year interim agreement covering the sharing of was largely achieved through foreign direct investment water during the scarce season between October and as a result of successful paradiplomacy. April. But the UPA government was perplexed by Unfortunately, Indian foreign policy makers did find Banerjee’s last-minute withdrawal from the Indian themselves in a tough spot when, in relation to Indo- delegation. Union government officials pointed out Sri Lanka relations PM Manmohan Singh’s that she had earlier agreed to a deal that would ensure government, under pressure from its ally DMK, was Bangladesh received a 48 percent share of the Teesta forced to vote in favor of US sponsored resolution in waters. Banerjee subsequently changed her stand, the UNHRC against its friendly neighbour, Sri Lanka. saying she believed that Bangladesh would get 33,000 To avoid a similar embarrassment, CM Banerjee’s cubic feet per second (cusec) of water annually, 48 World Focus October 2018 instead of the 25,000 cusecs originally agreed upon. the sluice gates. It is further claimed that a conspiracy The UPA government, however, said that the is being hatched by some quarters to deprive West government of West Bengal was briefed regarding Bengal of its due share of the Ganga’s water.(3) the matter. The Central Water Commission has explored the modalities of a mutually acceptable Multiple benefits formula for sharing the Teesta waters on the basis of In 1996, India rose above petty politics and delivered a report prepared by Kalyan Rudra, the river expert on the sharing of the Ganga waters. This was possible appointed by the Bengal government in late October primarily because of the statesmanship of Jyoti Basu, 2011. Rudra submitted a preliminary report in early the then chief minister of West Bengal. Unlike her December 2012. The committee suggested that the predecessor, Banerjee does not have organic ties to Teesta waters could be shared on a 65 to 35 or 60 to Bangladesh, though she occasionally acknowledges 40 basis at the time of monsoon and on a 70 to 30 the importance of maintaining friendly relations, ratio during the dry season, when both North Bengal particularly in the context of the cultural affinities of and northwestern parts of Bangladesh face a similar the people living on both sides of the international drought-like situation. The Teesta originates in Sikkim border. A successful deal on the Teesta could have a near Panhunri glaciers. A key factor that has restricted positive impact on resolving other longstanding water- the flow of water before it enters Bengal has been sharing issues, including those related to the Feni, the construction of more than ten hydroelectric which flows through Tripura into Bangladesh. During projects over the river in the neighbouring province. the 2011 Dhaka Summit, Bangladesh was optimistic Banerjee’s seemingly irreconcilable position on the that the Teesta accord would lead to a similar Teesta is also related to non-water issues. Some agreement on the Feni river. Like the Teesta political observers in West Bengal maintain that agreement, a separate deal was finalised for sharing serious differences between the Union and State the Feni river water, though was not signed. governments over financial allocations had stood in Commentators in Bangladesh have suggested that the way of finalising a deal on the Teesta. It seems Dhaka lacked enthusiasm after New Delhi’s decision plausible that Banerjee would prefer to continue such to defer the Teesta deal. Following the formation of tactics while dealing with the Modi-led government the National Democratic Alliance government, India at the Centre. The Teesta issue offers Banerjee has consistently engaged with Bangladesh. External leverage in demanding more financial assistance for Affairs Minister Sushma Swaraj visited Dhaka in June the state. It is quite possible that this will be exploited. and held talks with Bangladeshi leaders on all major Statements made by Banerjee concerning the Teesta bilateral issues, including the Teesta. Swaraj assured and other contentious bilateral issues during the 2014 the Bangladesh government that New Delhi is trying Lok Sabha polls are ominous, and may hamper the to build consensus among stakeholders on issues strengthening of friendly relations with Bangladesh. related to the Teesta. Meanwhile, Sheikh Hasina has At present, both countries have only one river sharing attempted to make clear the importance of the Teesta agreement – the Ganga water sharing treaty of 1996 for Bangladesh, especially in the dry season between – and Banerjee has already complained that West December and March, when the flow of water is Bengal is paying the price for the “Centre’s greatly reduced. The most contentious issue in India- generosity”. Banerjee has accused the Union Bangladesh relations is certainly the Teesta. Mamata government of hiding “facts about the two damaged Banerjee is likely to follow a tough line vis-à-vis the sluice gates on the Farakka Barrage resulting in new political dispensation at the Centre, and in the Bangladesh getting more than its share of the Ganga emerging scenario the Teesta question is uncertain. water”, and has alleged that according to existing But it is important for India to strike a deal sooner treaties, Bangladesh is entitled to receive 35,000 rather than later, since Dhaka is not inclined to provide cusecs of water during the lean season, but in practice transit facilities to the landlocked Northeastern states is getting 82,801 cusecs due to the malfunctioning of of India unless New Delhi reciprocates on the Teesta Paradiplomacy and the Teesta River Water Dispute 49 issue. It is high time that the political elites of India development of transit facilities to landlocked states desist from hijacking major foreign policy issues and in India’s north-east, unless India reciprocates by come to terms on the question of sharing common finalising the water sharing agreement. Following Ms rivers. The need of the hour is also to accommodate Banerjee’s visit to Dhaka and a prospective visit by the interests of Bangladesh, which is in a Mr Modi to Bangladesh, there were hopes that the disadvantageous position owing to its lower riparian Teesta Water Sharing Agreement would be concluded status. A change of attitude on the part of political in 2015. While it has been suggested by the Indian parties is earnestly required since most of the bilateral media that the agreement will not conclude before issues are interlinked. Successful hydro-diplomacy the 2016 West Bengal elections, it is in India’s interest could have a multiplier effect on various other to do so sooner rather than later. A lack of consensus unresolved issues. It is imperative that both among Indian stakeholders must be addressed and governments chalk out a long-term plan for the firm central leadership may need to be exerted to harnessing of water resources that they have at their reach a timely and amenable agreement. Doing so disposal. Cooperation, rather than competition, should will be in the best interests of both parties. be the bedrock of future India-Bangladesh relations. Has the issue hit a rock-bottom? During a meeting between Bangladeshi Bangladesh has long been insisting on signing of a Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina and Indian Prime water sharing agreement, which so far failed to yield Minister Narendra Modi in September last year, the the much expected treaty. During her February 2015 water sharing treaty and implementation of the Land Dhaka visit, Banerjee promised to play a “positive Boundary Agreement were the two priority issues to role” in resolving the outstanding issue, protecting be resolved. The Teesta water sharing agreement interests of both Bangladesh and West Bengal as she was postponed in 2011 due to objections by West called on Hasina. In 2015, Banerjee visited Bengal Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee. Resistance Bangladesh with Modi. Add to that the ongoing for- to, and the continued postponement of, a water-sharing day-visit of Hasina amid talks of greater defence agreement has the potential to threaten bilateral ties cooperation and commitment to each other’s between India and Bangladesh. Securing water sustainable development. However, despite the sharing arrangements for the Teesta River are of vital bilateral bonhomie, Bangladesh has been unhappy importance to Bangladesh, which depends on a about the lack of resolution on all the common rivers. regular supply to support irrigators, agriculture and While India did put the river Teesta on the bilateral local communities in the north-east. The river is the discussion table, the federal political dynamics has fourth-largest in the country and current management prevented the Centre from resolving the issue of often leaves Bangladesh with too little water during water-sharing overruling Bengal’s position. the dry season and too much during the wet. Despite Irrespective of the number of outstanding bilateral reassurances from leaders that India will not act issues being resolved, lack of resolution on the unilaterally, hydro-development within India is causing contentious issue of sharing of common river waters growing concerns for Bangladesh. A barrage built at tends to create despair if not suspicion of India’s Gazaldoba in West Bengal diverts 80 per cent of the intention in Bangladesh. This issue has been rankling Teesta River’s water flow through a link-canal to the since 2015 and a recent attempt by the Narendra upper Mahananda River. Within Bangladesh, the Modi government to renegotiate with Bengal over Teesta River Basin is home to approximately 21 million this appears to have drawn a blank. While New Delhi people, who are likely to experience significant can legitimately move ahead on a bilateral resolution, adverse effects from ongoing flow diversions. For it may not want to give Bengal, led by the feisty chief India, a lack of consensus is stalling progress and minister Mamata Banerjee, a handle to spin yet preventing further development in other areas. Dhaka another round of dance and drama just now as she is unlikely to co-operate, for example, over the had done earlier over the Teesta water-sharing issue. 50 World Focus October 2018 Meanwhile, it is also pertinent to note here that im agreement, a resolution to the Teesta issue will the 21st centuary terms like ‘water nationalism’ and significantly bolster the friendship between India and ‘water wars’ are increasingly gaining prominence Bangladesh. Bangladesh remains an important partner hinting that the world at large is grappling with the to India for furthering its Act East policy. India’s reality of swindling fresh water resources. And amicability with her neighbors is important if it wants Bangladesh criss-crossed by over 200 rivers, which to contain the growing assertiveness of China in and largely contribute to its economy and agriculture, is around Indian territories. Bangladesh has also hardly the region with the world’s worst water vehemently criticised Pakistan-sponsored terrorism problems in the near future.”The per-capita water in India, and was one of the first countries to condemn availability in India at present is 1,631 cubic metre; the September 19 attack at Uri. Bangladesh shares the corresponding figures in Pakistan and Bangladesh the values of pluralism, secularism and democracy being 1,000 and 7,320 respectively. It is estimated with India. Furthermore, it shares certain cultural that by 2030, these figures will be 1,240 in India, 877 roots with India, and is equally committed to in Pakistan and 5,700 in Bangladesh. In other words, prospering and advancing at a global level. After all, while all the three countries will have lesser water it is a member of the South Asian Association for than what they have today – a prospect that is Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and The Bay of hardening the negotiating postures of the decision- Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and makers in all the three countries – the interesting Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC). It is also an aspect is that of the three, it is Bangladesh which is important partner in executing the Bangladesh, and will be in a comparatively advantageous Bhutan, India, Nepal (BBIN) transport corridor and position,(4) the Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar (BCIM) economic corridor. With all these similarities and Conclusion strategic benefits, India should continue its quest for South Asia should understand the importance of a more healthy relationship with Bangladesh. A shared benefits as well as shared costs for achieving resolution to the Teesta issue could be a major trans-boundary water cooperation. This can be done inflection point, here. Many think that there is another by bringing together the relevant stakeholders into lesson for Bangladeshi negotiators from Kautillay’s the mainstream discussion on water and making them diplomacy. Indian mindset and zero-sum gain attitude aware of their pay-offs if trans-boundary cooperation in negotiation must change to ensure long and healthy on water is achieved. Institutional determinants play Bangladesh-India relationship. Lastly and most a pivotal role in influencing co-riparian water relations. importantly, India and Bangladesh should recognise A South Asia regional institution on water governance and respect each other’s rights, and efforts should will only become a reality if all the stakeholders come be made to firm up regional cooperation to solve the together and frame a commission/framework that problems of the rivers and the people who depend on covers all the aspects of water governance with a them to avoid a water conflict in future. robust, binding resolution mechanism. The Mekong River Commission and the Nile Basin Initiative can Notes and References be looked into as successful models in this regard. 1 The Hindu, April 8, 2017. One of the best ways of resolving the issue could be 2 GautamSen; “The many imponderables in sharing the by creating a joint water commission, with water Teesta waters”, Institute for Strategic Studies and experts from both nations gauging the needs of people Analysis, April 18, 2017. on either side of the border. Only then should a 3 The Times of India, April 9, 2017. plausible water-sharing mechanism be recommended. 4 “India and Bangladesh need to bring the Teesta out of India, being the ‘big brother’ in this case, should lead muddled waters”. 10 December 2016. Retrieved 7 the charge in solving the issue at the earliest. Like April 2017. the 1996 Ganges treaty and the 2015 land border Paradiplomacy and the Teesta River Water Dispute 51 River Water Disputes and Regional Cooperation Manish Sharma

The problem of river water dispute is a matter of water is so much that three fourth is the water human concern as it involves understanding of resource and the land is small in comparison to water multiple problems such as distribution of water, resources. Everyone wants to make more and more purification of water, stopping the increasing use of river water to meet the supply of drinking water pollution and forming policies in advance to meet and for other purposes like the irrigation and use of the unexpected difficulties and their solutions. The water in industrialization as a whole. The nature of present article is an attempt to highlight the water flow has many challenges and what are the importance of water supply and its use and the available solutions of challenges? growing concern of all resourceful elements on issues of common concern. It is a problem of all Importance of Water human concerns and political interference or Why water is so important? Water is the lifeline of judicious decisions can remain stable only by living human beings and requires special attention to creating an environment of negotiation and transform the water in usable shape. The use of fresh understanding. All decisions on water problem can water from the river can increase with the help of be stable only with cooperation of mutually technology and management to meet the growing concerned states and general satisfaction of the demands of people and other living objects. people. India is a pivotal and pioneering state so Mismanagement of water is the main cause of dispute far as the river chain is considered in Asia. at interstate level and with other countries. People Judicial pronouncements have neither deterred think that it is a privilege to make use of the portable the farmers’ agitation nor created conducive water. History of water resources indicates the growth environment for political leaders to achieve of economic activities with the help of the availability consensus on disputes. Discussions on issues with of water. Most of the important cities are located neighbour countries are equally important that near the water resources and river water was a major will help achieve peace and harmonious navigation source in the past. In the present environment for production on either side. environment economic activities including the industrial, agricultural and technological advancement River Theory accelerated with the help of availability of water Fresh river water is a nature’s gift and because of its resources. At present the demand for water supply natural flow it raises ambitions and suspicion among is increasing not only because of the growth of stakeholders to share more and more water. Disputes population but also the increase in economic activities and misunderstanding are inherent regarding the with the help of technology. This is also the root cause distribution of water as everyone thinks that it is a of rise in water disputes between states in India and natural right to use the river water. The water flows also among neighbouring countries. Considering the and the river passes through many landscapes and a importance of water resources and the distribution river water passes through a particular land raises channels the governments should consider major the rights of riparian. A riparian state is one where approach to create harmonious supply and handle the water flows through its land and it is the oldest theory dispute on water distribution. Modern mechanism to of availability of fresh water. Percentage of river handle the situation as the 1935 Act and 1956 Act water is about one percent out of the total 2.5% of are not sufficient to manage the increasing dispute water available on earth surface. The eminence of on distribution of water resources. 52 World Focus October 2018 Importance of regional cooperation was first taken from banks and other sources. The situation highlighted by Jawaharlal Nehru, the First Prime arises when the crop yield does not match the input Minister of India who made efforts to tap the regional cost and the farmers have to suffer. Cost of water water resources and planned for construction of supply has also to be counted in calculating the crop Bhakra Dam on Sutlej River and sought the yield and profit. Thus it is a complex problem to deal alternatives to augment the agricultural production with the farmers’ demand and save the valuable and make India self-independent in food production. agricultural production machinery. About 80% of the population of India depends on agricultural production and thus the water resources The major dispute on river Cauvery has not are most valuable asset not only to feed the people yet been settled where the contesting parties- the but also increase its per capita income and supporting state of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala are the overall growth of economy. Agriculture contributes involved. Tamil Nadu needs consistent supply of a lot to GDP growth, but above all the most important water whereas Karnataka has the advantage of aspect is the dependence of people on water immediate access to the river water. Similarly other resources to earn their livelihood. In the modern disputes concerning the distribution of water in complex world, it is not just agriculture but even Maharashtra and Kerala needs special attraction. industrial production also depends on the availability What is the solution? The solution is possible with the of water resources. All the important schemes like cooperation of regional authorities- the Southern states NREGA depend on management of water resources and impartial authority like the Supreme Court and through regional cooperation to check the pollution in Central Government. There must be the panel of the use of water resources. experts and observers to look after the distribution of water at the disputed site and the panel should directly How pollution is creating problem in water report to the Supreme Court or the Parliament of management? Pollution has complicated the use of India. Ultimately it is a gain or loss of national water resources and this requires gigantic effort to contenders who depend on their livelihood mostly on tap the regional cooperation breaking the state adequate supply of water. Political spectrum may boundaries and achieve an important goal of getting differ from state to state, but the problem of sharing pure water. Industrial production has spoiled the water remains constant without the cooperative environment to a certain extent and pollution is part attitude of different parties. If South India can resolve of this development. For a healthy generation and the disputed problem including the construction of good cattle bearing there is need for pure fresh water. dams and regular supply of water, this will set an Thus the need of the hour is investment in controlling example of regional cooperation on river water and the pollution as this will be direct investment in health will send a green message to northern states as they care. can come forward to deal with situations arising out of river water. South India Peninsula and Regional Cooperation South India Peninsula is a clear example where Northern States and Solution of their Problems regional cooperation matters to smoothen the process Northern states have different problems than South of water supply from different rivers particularly the Indian states because of geographical location and distribution of Cauvery River water. So what is the necessity of cooperation of neighboring states like major dispute? Karnataka a major riparian state Nepal, China and Bangladesh. In India-Pakistan case, through which the river flows has the advantage of the agreement between two countries on Indus River getting the major share from Cauvery River to irrigate and Jhelum River was done in 1960. Indus and Jhelum farms in Karnataka and satisfy the agitating farmers. flows through the plains of Punjab in India and the Many states in the south are facing the problem of canal system in Pakistan is connected with the suicidal death of farmers due to non- payment of loans distributaries of these rivers. Pakistan is a state of

River Water Disputes and Regional Cooperation 53 scarcity and its water needs are met by flowing rivers conception of new dams on the border with India. from India. India’s geographical situation is so that it Acute shortage of water creates problems to develop has advantage in increasing the trade with close the industrial complex in China. Modern technology neighbours but at the same time it throws challenge depends on the easy availability of water resources to extend its relations with neighbour states in a and the power sector can make use of the falling guarded way so that it can extract advantage of water by developing hydropower energy Therefore continuity. Take the case of Nepal which is a small the management of water resources involves the country and it does not have capacity to absorb the development of technology to stop the flood like great flowing rivers from Tibet and Himalayas. It has situation and save the human energy for other to open its gates to stop flooding the streets of Nepal productive work. and India is a possible exit to balance the water flow. Bihar and UP are close to Nepal and India will have Brahmaputra River is a fast flowing river and to keep agreement to sustain its relations with Nepal it is a problem to tap the water of this river. The to stop flooding Bihar and other adjacent areas. overflow of this river directly affects the living in many areas of Bihar and UP and it becomes necessary to Northern India is full of opportunities and have interregional cooperation on the use of water of challenges and the concerned governments will have this river. India has to see that its interests are not to understand the compromising situation and pave affected by construction of the proposed dam near the way for growth. Growth sustenance of these the Indian border. China is trying to tap the water states depends on cooperation of India and neighbour resources for a Tibetan region and therefore they states like Nepal, Afghanistan, Pakistan and resort to construction of dams in its area that will Bangladesh. How far digital India can extend its curve have direct impact on India. of friendship to achieve cooperation on various issues? The key thing is that relationship with Nepal and Similarly the creative agreement is inevitable Pakistan has to be carried out on the premises that between India and Bangladesh on the distribution of neighbouring China has also considerable influence river flowing to Bangladesh. Agreement with in this region. Bangladesh has significance considering the security of the country. Displacement of the people in this Inter- State Matters, Myanmar and China region is of serious concern as it is a difficult situation International complexion changes dramatically with to resolve the settlement of migrants from the passage of time and new development in Bangladesh. technology and human behavior. At present China stands on a new platform that reminds the role of a India has to take care of eastern border and super power in neighbouring countries. So far as the connection with Myanmar. The security problems natural resources are concerned China is exploring posed by these eastern states require specific regional the Tibetan region for its advantage to build a new cooperation to handle the settlement of population Asian complexion where China can exploit the and a harmonious relationship with different groups. situation according to its designed strategy. China is Solution of water problem depends on meeting the thirsty of water resources and as such trying to build security concern and China is a major factor that has dam near Indian border to make use of the flowing to be counted in the settlement of peace in this area. water coming from Tibet and China. Mansarover in There are enormous resources in the region but there Himalayan region is great source of water resources are cultural and other factors that are posing problems and China has physical control on these resources to to device well negotiated settlement. Myanmar and make use of water in different sectors of economy. Bangladesh have lack of resources and they must China is in need of more energy to develop its cooperate with other big states like China and India industrial complex and therefore may resort to to tap the water resources and solve the lingering

54 World Focus October 2018 problem of needs for water for agricultural production, 3.The Narmada Water Dispute Tribunal cattle bearing and to quench the thirst of millions of 4.The Ravi-Beas Water Dispute Tribunal people. Desire for cooperation must continue between 5.The Cauvery Water Dispute Tribunal India and Myanmar without any obstacle of political interference in the process of growth. Bangladesh At the same time the negotiations and judicial help has close proximity with India and the river Ganges solved some of the disputes in the past such as- provides answer to many problems lingering this 1.Dispute over utilization of waters of Ravi-Beas region. There is big delta of Ganges that inspires rivers among the Punjab, Rajasthan and J&K (settled confidence in this tributary. in 1965) 2.Palar water dispute between Tamil Nadu and Resolving the Inter- state and Inter-national Karnataka ( settled in 1956) Issues 3.Problem of sharing of costs and benefits of Jamni Cooperation and investment together with skill for Dam Project between UP and MP (settled in 1965) management are considered inevitable tool for 4.Exploitation of the water of Mahi river between resolving the mutual dispute on sharing of river water. Gujarat and Rajasthan (settled in 1966) The theory of Riparian and Property rights are considered obsolete in the present complexion of Standing disputes requires utmost caution and growing needs for water and the sharing of water on negotiation to satisfy different parties. Judicious unprecedented level not witnessed in the past. Riparian process has its limitations as it does not represent theory that stands for rights of a particular land willing cooperation of different political leaders and through which the river flows is sticky and non- their parties. Similarly the central interference by the conversant with the problems. Natural tendency of central government and its agencies is a mixture of water is the continuous flow of river and this natural political and cultural dimension that adds to the tendency itself provides answer to the lingering concerned dispute. The long lingering disputes problem of dispute. The disputing states must agree between Karnataka and other Southern states on to the sharing of water with the available quantity Cauvery River and are examples of and depending on the judgement of independent panels political color where central government is not in a that can be of great help. Both India and China have position to resolve the crisis to the satisfaction of all potential to invest in tapping the water resources and concerned parties. Political interest handicaps the making a reasonable use of water for seemingly fertile process of negotiation and the timing of negotiation is land. India is one of the best productive centers of also considered important as elections are held from crop and can supply the food products to other states time to time to judge the interest of the people. on the basis of its technological advance theories of production and distribution. Inter-state matter is of Socio-Cultural Complex and Negotiations local importance but it goes a long way to instill the Indian society is plural in nature but at the same time confidence of users and fill the gap in political has some common cultural values found from North understanding. India is a federal state and it must be to South. The country has deeply rooted religious understood in principle and practice that give and take convention and is federal in nature. In order to reach theory will only provide answer to many lingering a solution in disputed matters the need is felt for extra problems. ordinary negotiation to resolve the dispute. At many times judicial decisions or control and decision by The standing disputes which have not been solved Central Government may not satisfy the people of are difficult but possible to be solved with the help of plurality confidence. Therefore negotiations are the negotiations. Some of these disputes are- most important way out to resolve the dispute and 1.The Godavari Water Dispute Tribunal satisfy groups of variant interest. Water dispute has 2.The Krishna Water Dispute Tribunal social and economic content that has to be dealt

River Water Disputes and Regional Cooperation 55 cautiously to resolve the feelings of people with some Pollution of river waters is also a serious matter of of the sacred rivers. River Ganga has a special place concern as the proper use of water depends on the in Indian history and its origin from Himalayas is of quality of purity of the water. Production of crops great significance as the people worship the river also depends on the availability of qualitative water water. Every corner of the country desires to have and irrigation projects can deliver its objects on the Ganga or its tributaries to achieve satisfaction. basis of proper availability of water. There is need Bangladesh is equally concerned about the use of for heavy investment to keep the purity of water but Ganga water and agreement between India and the investment is worth consideration as it involves Bangladesh will stabilize the relations between two not only production of food material but also equally countries to make adequate use of Ganga water. important for public consumption to keep health hazards in mind. Many new types of diseases are Importance of negotiation on river water borne out of the use of water and therefore valid dispute has gained priority after the role of judiciary tests should be conducted and equipments should be and the control of Central authority. In the case of used to refine the available water. Investment in dispute of distribution of river water in South India, technology also plays importance in this matter and the main dispute is on the use of Cauvery River in this makes it more important and urgent to get regional Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and every summer faces cooperation as efforts of all concerned parties are the problem of adequate supply of river water. In needed to achieve success on matters of equal spite of the judicial interference in the matter the concern such as health hazard and production. dispute is not resolved according to the satisfaction of concerned parties and ultimately judiciary also Broad vision for equitable distribution has to points out the role of negotiation to have satisfaction be cultivated to solve the political and administrative on the use of river water. The political climate should hurdles to achieve success on any formula of be created in favour of the negotiation so that all agreement. Matters such as the delivery of judgement parties get involved and the settlement remains stable. by tribunals depend on the proper political climate Survey of all river water should be conducted to make and the tribunal should function to achieve solution factual calculations on the economic advantage of within the specified period. The judgement of tribunals river water. Economic interest is paramount and should be available in the short possible period to cultivation of crop attains significance as some of the achieve the game of success and satisfaction. crops need more water where as some crops need Responsibilities and fixed period determined for justice less water. The cycle of less water and more water can deliver success to the whole experiment of the can be circulated among the concerned states on the resolution of crisis. Socio economic factors will play basis of expert committees designed for this purpose. considerable importance in the calculation of the entire Political administrative machinery should be used to game of negotiation. Difference in socio economic protect the concerns of all concerned parties. The background should not prove as hurdle in the resolution of the dispute or crisis on distribution of economic process considered important for the water should be based on equitable justice without resolution of water problem. considering more powers given to riparian states. This requires that the basin of the river should be considered Climatic Change and Regional Cooperation as a whole unit and there cannot be different Necessity for adjustment and regional cooperation apartments of river as the justice achieved through will arise from the rancours of climatic change that is negotiations is possible only on the basis of equitable taking place at global and national level. Destruction principle. It is all the more important to consider the in Kerala because of heavy rains and floods is mostly economic aspect of the standing dispute as the solution due to climatic change that resulted heavy rains in achieved on the basis of negotiation will get stability the state where it was difficult to control the rain on the basis of all considerations of economic matter. water through dams. Such changes will occur again

56 World Focus October 2018 and again in different parts of the country and dam on this river provides distribution of water for cooperation not only for inter-state cooperation but irrigation purpose. It provides irrigation to 9.22 lakh also cooperation from neighbours will be very much hectares of land in North Bengal districts. Therefore needed to handle the global change. Rivers are it is important for India as well as Bangladesh irrigation flooding in different parts of the country that may projects are also feeded with the help of Teesta River. cause heavy damage to crops and farmers may have Therefore the sharing of water at Teesta River is of to face the consequences of this catastrophic change. great significance for India and Bangladesh. In pact Daily living existence will require cooperation at the South Asian River management system should be state level as well as national level. The governments designed to solve the problem of distribution of water of the day will have to take notice of the situation and in the entire region. An agreement was made on use take necessary action and arrange for investment to of Teesta River water between India and Bangladesh handle this outrageous situation caused by change of in 2011 but still negotiations are going on to further nature. Global temperature is also on the rise and this improve ties between two countries. Similarly may have serious effect on the national planning. agreement on Farakka Dam barrage is considered India’s socio-political climate permits the adjustment important for use of water by India and Bangladesh and cooperation at different levels without much has expressed its concern over the construction of sacrifice and this is the favourable element that may Farakka Dam. Hence both the countries have to be of great advantage to adjustment process. settle their water distribution system to improve the production in both countries that will stimulate the India and Neighbour States trade between two sides. Collaborative attitude is necessary to keep harmonious relations with neighbour states as India is surrounded Nepal which is a small country but has many by river systems in neighbouring countries. Indus projects on rivers such as Mahakali and Kosi Rivers. River is one of the largest in the world and its base is India is concerned about the barrage or dam at based in India whereas it terminates in the Arabian Tanakpur and the flow of water from Nepal to some Sea near the famous sea corner city of Pakistan of the states in Eastern India such as Bihar. Kosi Karachi. All the five rivers such as Sutlej, Beas and River has caused lot of destruction on account of Ravi all pass through India and terminate in Arabian floods created by releasing the water of Kosi River Sea. It is the largest head point of canal system to Indian states. Nepal used to be thoroughly under famous in the world. The boundaries of Pakistan were the influence of India in early days after Independence devised on the basis of the canal system into East but the influence of China is increasing tremendously and West Punjab. Punjab province in Pakistan is the on Nepal that ultimately strengthens independent most productive state and Pakistan needs water for attitude of Nepal. An agreement was signed between irrigation which these rivers supply. Therefore it is in Nepal and India on Kosi River in 1954 and after that the interest of Pakistan to keep harmonious relations there have been disturbing sentiments from both the with India and improve its trade and food production sides. Nepal needs hydal power for its energy with the help of India. consumption and therefore some of the projects have been designed to create energy or power. India and Bangladesh is another beneficiary of Ganges Nepal can have mutual advantage of generating River water flowing from India. The most prominent energy for the benefit of the millions of population issues confronting the two countries are distribution from both the sides. It has to be seen how far Nepal of water from Farakka dam and the distribution of can work independently without much interference Teesta river water. Teesta River originates and flows by China for the development of this region. from Sikkim to join the Brahmaputra as a tributary before ending in Bangladesh. Teesta River is very China is a major world power and water important for irrigation purpose in North Bengal and problems are associated with its development strategy.

River Water Disputes and Regional Cooperation 57 It is for this region that it wants to have reasonable 1.Judicious interference to resolve the differences. agreement with India on the use of Brahmaputra 2.Setting of tribunals to understand the needs of River which is the fastest river in this region. The concerned parties and to deliver the judgement within river originates from Kailash Mountains and it flows the specified period. through Bangladesh and Nepal through India. Taming 3.Extensive survey should be made on possible floods of this river is very essential to make free the Eastern and saving the lives of people from destruction with India from destructions caused by floods. China has the help of advance information. shown that it has no intention to divert the water of 4.To stay in administration should be geared to meet Brahmaputra at the cost of India. But at the same the growing threat on account of the climatic change. time it has a perennial problem to discover the sources 5.All states should try to evolve policies to keep in of water to quench its thirst. The relations with China control global warming and increasing pollution due have to improve to keep the freshness on water to industrialization and disposal of waste products. distribution and keep the momentum of growth alive 6.More and more efforts should be made to increase for the population of both the countries. Chinese afforestation and plantation to control the warming diplomacy has grown recently with the eclipse of other of atmosphere and controlling the increasing threat powers as its competitor. China is in no mood to create of floods due to desertion. tension in issues concerning the neighbour states and 7.All the policies should be made in advance and wants to invest to increase its trade in Asia and other immediate implementation of policies to thwart any places. misunderstanding on projects of development. 8.The central help is necessary to formulate the River water is considered quite useful for policies and their implementation and the political production and human resources can be utilized to differences should not be generated in policy increase production and employment. China is mainly implementation. concerned on trade prospects and therefore India and 9.Human development is concern of all parties and China should work together to resolve any dispute of political interference in any form as well mutual concern. discriminatory policies are to be abandoned. 10.The economic flow to states must be taken into Suggestions and Conclusions consideration. The basic point on use of water and its transformation 11.In case no agreement can be reached water for production and generating employment requires distribution between states must be done on the basis enormous understanding of each other and policies of fair allocation so that all the states can get their should be framed on this hypothesis. Regional share of water. Geographical factors are very cooperation is possible by understanding the mutual important in this allocation. needs and investing according to the requirement. An environment of peace and harmony is connected The common theme running through all with the understanding of mutual needs and tapping discussion is importance of negotiation and settlement the natural resources for human use. Production in of dispute with the help of understanding of concerned any part of the state inside the country or outside will parties. Judicial decision will not remain stable unless only stimulate use of human resources for creative the decisions are taken in cooperative spirit and needs task. of various parties. Supremacy element can thwart the whole discussion and should be avoided to achieve To encourage the investment and use of common understanding on all issues of human concern resources fixed time table has to be made to solve such as the water problem and use of water with the the impending disputes. There are various revenues help of natural resources. Nature has given sufficient to resolve the crisis with the help of- opportunities to adjust and cooperate with each other to find a mutually accepted solution.

58 World Focus October 2018 Indus Water Treaty: An Example of India-Pakistan Cooperation Rudra Prasad Sahoo

Indus Water Treaty of 1960 is both strategic as This is the strength of Indus water treaty. well as historic because it resolved the long The treaty states that all future disputes and conflicts standing dispute between India and Pakistan on are to be resolve within the term and condition codified the use of water of Indus river system. Analysts in the treaty document. The Indus water treaty is an and intellectual who were involved in framing the important international agreement that provides a treaty said, both India and Pakistan were on the cooperative framework to address the present and verge of war over water. This serious water future challenges of effective water management that conflict was overcome by amicably signing to lies between India and Pakistan. In the chequered Indus water treaty. Hence, this paper has two history of India-Pakistan relations, treaty serves as a objectives: First it explains the nature of Indus model of cooperation. Therefore, it is pertinent to know water dispute. Second it examines how both state how this treaty has been signed and what efforts were mange the conflict and enforce cooperation. Both made in the past to make the treaty a success. India and Pakistan not only managed to comprise on their stand but also cooperated for successful To know the aforesaid issues, this paper is conclusion of water treaty. Therefore, it is very divided into four sections. The first sections included pertinent to analyze why they interested to an historical analysis of India-Pakistan conflict on cooperate despite have long animosity towards Indus water. The second section assesses the each others. cooperative effort that led to signing of Indus water treaty. The Third section studies objection or Introduction controversy that arose in the past and its experience The Indus water conundrum was resolved when India in resolving such dispute in the light of Indus water and Pakistan along with World Bank concluded a treaty. Fourth section focuses on critical analysis treaty in 1960. On August 29,2018 India and Pakistan which is followed by conclusion. initiated talks on various aspects of Indus water treaty, the first bilateral engagement since Prime History of Conflict on Indus River Water Minister Imran Khan took office in Pakistan. This is The Indus water system comprises the main river business as usual because this is a procedural aspect Indus and its major tributaries. It is considered as of Indus water treaty agreement. India and Pakistan one of the greatest river systems of the world.2. The signed the treaty in 1960, after nine years of main river Indus is about 2000 miles long.3 The Kabul, negotiation where World Bank also a signatory. In the Swat, the Kurram are the major or principal recent time, Pakistan has raised an objection on 1000 tributaries of Indus system from the west side and MW Pakal Dul and 48MW lower Kalnai the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the hydroelectric project on River Chenab. Pakistani Sutlej are the five main tributaries from the East.4 government rise objection over the design of the two Indus originates in the northern slopes of the Kailash Indian projects. By showing displeasure Pakistan has Ranges near Lake Mansorvour in Tibet. It passes made it clear that it will appoint neutral experts and through Tibet, India, and Pakistan over a distance of take the case to the International Court of Arbitration 3180 Kilometers and finally drains into Arabian Sea.5 in case India failed to address the Pakistan concern.1 The governing principle of Indus water Treaty of 1960 was signed to cover the water of Indus and its five Indus Water Treaty: An Example of India-Pakistan Cooperation 59 main tributaries and it does not refer to the Kabul still agreement to resolve this legal ambiguity, which River. It flows in different direction, which goes into was in force up to 31st March 1948.8 The Arbitral Pakistan through Afghanistan. Tribunal (AT) that was set up by the India Independence Act to look into differences over matter Indus water dispute was a very old problem of division of assets between the two countries also during British rule in India but the situation was expired on the same day.9 But the problem started deteriorated only after partition of India into two when authorities in Pakistan side of Punjab refused independent nations namely India and Pakistan. It to renew the agreement after its expiry. On April 1, was aftermath of the partition; this dispute got the 1948 India halted the supply of water to several canal recognition and the status of international conflict on falls in Pakistan territory. The real reason for this water. halting is not known but, West Pakistan did not take any advance interest in negotiating any further Partition and Indus Water Dispute agreement. Form this aforesaid date India When the India Independent Act was passed by the discontinued the delivery of water from the Ferozepur British Parliament on July 18, 1947 the boundary of headwork to Dipalpur canal and to the main branches two nations was not demarcated. In the aftermath of the Upper Bari Doab Canal. The Indian action of partition, the Punjab Boundary Commission (PBC) and subsequent reaction by Pakistan is known was set up under the Chairmanship of Sir Cyril commonly as the ‘canal water dispute’. Radcliffe to divide the Punjab province into East Punjab and West Punjab. But the Punjab Boundary On April 15, 1948, Liaquat Ali khan, the then Commission found it very difficult to draw a boundary Prime Minister of Pakistan in a telegram message because water allocation and canal irrigation issues requested the Prime Minister of India to intervene in were also attached along with this. Therefore, the the matter and urged him to take immediate action Chairman of PBC contacted the leader of India and and restore the water supply to Pakistan. He also Pakistan, Nehru and Jinnah respectively and said that added that when we had time to settle the existing Punjab water system should be guided by a joint problem, the government of East Punjab has thought control mechanism and run by both the countries.6 it fit to create a new one.10 In April 1948 negotiation The PBC found it very difficult to handle the irrigation between chief engineer of East Punjab and West system of the Upper Bari Doab Canal (UBDC) Punjab was reached and resulted in the signing of because its upper portion was falling in Indian side two temporary agreements on 18 April 1948 at Simla. and Lower side in the Pakistan area. And there are On 30 April 1948, the Prime Minister of India as many as 133 canals found in Pakistan side and intervened in the matter and ordered to release water only 12 canals found on the Indian side.7 In the mean to those canals which were blocked by India earlier.11 time post partition problem was so tensed and volatile However, this intervention by Indian Prime minister that it was really problematic to handle the Upper and subsequent release of water to Pakistan did not Bari Doab canal irrigation issue through joint solve the water conflict between these new states. mechanism between India and Pakistan. Partition had disturbed the irrigation of water to different canals, A discussion was held in Inter – Dominion particularly the canals which were located in the conference in New Delhi on May 3-4, 1948. On 4 Pakistan (western part of Punjab). The problem May 1948 the Indian Prime Minister and Pakistani was more exacerbated due to the fact that the Indus Finance Minister signed a new agreement which is originated from the disputed territory of Jammu and also known as the Delhi Agreement. This Inter- Kashmir. dominion Agreement on Canal Water Dispute between, East and West Punjab recognized the On December 10, 1947, the chief engineers necessity to resolve this issue in the spirit of goodwill of both the sides of Punjab signed a temporary stand- and friendship. The wording of this agreement was 60 World Focus October 2018 that India would continue water supply to most of the irrigation system located in West Punjab with an India-Pakistan Cooperative efforts, World Bank exception of a few canals. In return, Pakistan would Intervention and Signing of treaty in 1960 pay royalty or seigniorage charge to India for David Lilienthal,15 former Chairman of the Tennessee maintenance of the headwork’s and canals; which Valley Authority and of the United States Atomic were supplying water to Pakistan. The issue of energy Commission visited India and Pakistan in seigniorage charge by India was a matter of hot debate February, 1951. After his visit, he wrote an article between India and Pakistan. captioned “Another Korea in the Making” published by Collier’s magazine,16 on 4 August 1951 in which Pakistan threatened by saying that this matter he made series of recommendations to resolve the will be taken to the International Court of Justice for Indus water dispute. His recommendations are arbitration. Pakistan later criticized India’s move and mentioned below. People in Pakistan were advocating declaring war 1. In his article, he addresses the issue not just as a against India.12 After thoroughly studying all options, religious or a political problem but as an engineering Pakistan opted for negotiation. It sent its delegation and technical problem. to New Delhi to negotiate for restoration of canal 2. Indus system should be developed as a unit waters. India was firm and wanted recognition of 3. Working separately by both parties will not achieve their rights to all of the water in the Eastern rivers( their desired objective Sutlej, Beas, Ravi) and they wanted Pakistan to pay 4. The technical solution to this requires new work for such water supplied by the Indians until the time to be constructed and these could be jointly financed Pakistan could find a replacement. India claimed or this could be managed with the help from the that Pakistan’s agreement to pay water dues in the World Bank.17 standstill agreement would tantamount to recognition by Pakistan of India’s proprietary rights. Pakistan on Before providing any recommendation, the other hand, insisted that these payments had been Lilienthal grasped the trend of international cold war for the costs of operating and maintaining the irrigation politics and India-Pakistan confrontation over works, and not for the payment for water that Kashmir dispute. He realized that Kashmir would belonged to Pakistan by right of prior allocation. But pose a threat to American Interest because US was this agreement could not last long. The dispute the key player in resolving Kashmir dispute at UNO. between India and Pakistan continued in relation to Therefore, he sidelined the political involvement and interpretation of the agreement. On 16 June 1949, recommended resolution of such dispute only on Pakistan sent a note to India indicating to organize a technical ground.18 conference to resolve the water issue which existed between India and Pakistan.13 It was mentioned that He believed that the waters from the basin in case the issue is not resolve between India and were sufficient to support the needs of the two Pakistan, then Pakistan would refer the case to countries. However this belief would not confirm in International court of Justice for settlement of this the later studies. Eugene R. Black the President of dispute. India assured Pakistan to hold a discussion World Bank19 decided to react positively to Lilienthal’s at the inter dominion conference in August 1949.14 In recommendation. Based on Lilienthal’s this conference representatives of both countries recommendation, in September 1951, the World Bank discussed the issue of creation of a Joint Technical President, Eugene R. Black offered its good office Commission. At the same time India also proposed to both Prime Minister of India and Pakistan for three members team to be nominated by both discussion of the dispute and negotiation of governments to settle the issue in a Joint technical settlement.20 commission. But none of the efforts led to resolution of this water dispute. Indus Water Treaty: An Example of India-Pakistan Cooperation 61 Both India and Pakistan accepted the World contradiction while dealing with India-Pakistan Bank offer. On 7 May 1952 a joint party meeting of relations during that period. The three most important engineers (India-Pakistan and World Bank) held in issues that were grappling America in relation to India- Washington to find out the technical detail under the Pakistan were – a)Kashmir dispute, b)Indus water guidance of World Bank engineer, General Raymond dispute and 3)India’s objection to US‘s arms supply A. Wheeler. In this meeting parties to the conflicts to Pakistan.22 To deal with three plans American state exchange data, information and map in relation to department made a strategy and presented before allocation and utilization of water for their respective the president. These were states. Both countries submitted their plan to World 1.Settlement of Kashmir in India’s favor- turning the Bank on 6 October 1953. India and Pakistan plan ceasefire line into an internationally recognized border were very much contrast towards each others. Indian 2.A resolution of the Indus Water in favor of Pakistan plan explained that it would use all eastern river and and requesting India to support for Pakistani 7 percent from the western river and would provide infrastructure improvements non from eastern river. It would give right to Pakistan 3. Mutual arms reduction to resolve all outstanding to use 93 percent from western rivers only. On the dispute other hand Pakistan similarly favored its own water use and neglected to India. American president agreed and asked the leaders of India and Pakistan about their opinion on To resolve the discrepancy between two this American strategy. But this plan was a failure plans, World Bank offered its own plan on 5 February because India did not subscribe to this proposal laid 1954. This plan divided the rivers and allocates the down by the US state department.23 After failure of water accordingly to two states. Eastern River (Ravi, this plan, US promised financial assistance to achieve Beas and Sutlaj) and their water right were given to a settlement. By early 1959, the US government India. Similarly rivers such as Indus, Jhelum and informed the British that they were helping India and Chenab and their water rights allocated to Pakistan. Pakistan to resolve the dispute by providing huge India accepted the World Bank Plan but Pakistan financial assistance. was reluctant to accept World Bank proposal. The negotiation process took a temporary halt at that Circumstances from 1958 to 1959 were also juncture. On 21 May 1956, World Bank come out favorable for settlement of Indus water dispute on with a new plan by providing financial help in the two accounts. First, India’s ambitious second five form of aide-memoir to construct storage facility to year plan’s focused on industry which required more meet its water shortage. In the meantime there is a foreign investment. During this period, India faced lot of change took place in the political landscape of drought in 1957 which had forced her to import wheat Pakistan. General Ayub Khan clinched the power in from Canada and USA.24 80% of the second five a coup datet rule in Pakistan. The acute water year plan’s foreign exchange was initially intended to shortage had impacted heavily on agricultural come from the UK but it could not meet its promise. production of Pakistan. Therefore, the strong Pakistani This situation forced India to rely more on loan from leader took a decisive action to guide its national USA. The US in such situation, put a condition on interest by agreed to sign the Indus water treaty. After loan to make Nehru more amenable to a settlement a prolong negotiation and discussion the treaty finally with Pakistan. signed on 19 September 1960. President Dwight D. Eisenhower in his US Role September 9, 1960 press conference stated that, The most reveling research came out in the recent “ In a very depressing world picture that we so time, which explained the US’s role in signing of Indus often see there is one bright spot that seems to Water Treaty.21 US president found a structural me worthy of mention and that is the settling of 62 World Focus October 2018 the Indus Water River problem between India and to World Bank to appoint a neutral expert to resolve Pakistan.25 the difference under the provision Article IX(2) of the Indus water treaty. Accordingly World Bank After ten days of this press statement both India appointed a neutral expert which declared its verdicts and Pakistan agreed to settle the dispute. After this on 27 February 200729. This time also both state treaty, Pakistan began an extensive and rapid respected the verdict. The third such controversy irrigation and construction programme, partly financed aroused on Kishenganga project. In the year 2011 by the Indus basin development fund. This fund Pakistan objected to India’s construction of hydro generated an amount of US $800 million contributed project on the tributary of Jhelum River. The matter by various nations including US and the fund was was referred to court of Arbitration. On 20 December managed and administered by World Bank.26 2013 Judge Stephen Schwebel (former President of Successful completion of treaty International Court of Justice) announced his verdict30 1. The World Bank’s role as a facilitator and its which was later implemented by both India and contribution especially in the monetary sense provided Pakistan in latter and spirit. an impetus which lead to successful conclusion of Indus water treaty. Critical Analysis 2. Enlightened leadership contributed a lot in resolving The Delhi agreement was signed on 4 May 1948 and this crisis. it was regarding one of the tributaries of Indus Water 3. The timing of the signing of the treaty was most system that is on the Sutlej River. This agreement conducive. was signed to address the canal dispute between East Punjab and West Punjab. But the Indus Water Treaty The Indus water treaty consists of 12 articles of 1960 was permanent and comprehensive in nature and 8 annexure. The best part of treaty is it facilitates and it was considered a referring point for all disputes the provision of appointment of permanent relating to water between India and Pakistan in future. commissioner who has the power to monitor the It is widely recognized as a model of exemplary implementation of treaty by holding regular meeting cooperation between two hostile neighbors.31 and inspection tour. At the same time the treaty also provided the comprehensives provision of dispute This study has made a thorough analysis and settlement through bilateral and international examines the efforts of India and Pakistan to resolve arbitration.27 their water crisis. The series of negotiations from 1948 and then 1951-60, the active mediation by the Controversy in Post- implementation Period third party (World Bank) provided some impetus to The Salal Dam dispute between India and Pakistan conclude the treaty successfully. All controversy that aroused in 1970s because India initiated hydro had been arising from time to time between India electricity project on the Chenab River near and Pakistan was resolved within the framework of Udhampur districted in Pakistan occupied Kashmir. this treaty.32 It has explained how two rival states Pakistan objected to the design and capacity of the made mutual cooperation at bilateral level or through dam. But on April 14, 1978 Salal Dam agreement28 active mediation by the World Bank and as a result, was signed between India and Pakistan and they they reached a substantial conclusion in resolving resolved the issue bilaterally. Another Issue is Baglihar these water dispute. Scholars like Ramaswamy R. Hydro power project. This controversy was erupted Iyer argued that, this is not a treaty between two when India initiated construction of Baglihar project governments but between two sets of engineers.33 A work the river Chenab. After much deliberation number of times, India was thinking of stopping between India and Pakistan at bilateral level, they water to Pakistan such as after Parliament attack in could not reach a solution. On January18,2005 2001 and Mumbai attack in 2008 and likewise in Pakistan raised objection and made a formal request the year 2010, when Pakistan terrorist organization Indus Water Treaty: An Example of India-Pakistan Cooperation 63 Jamed-ud- Dawa led by Hafiz Saeed had made an resources. The role of the Independent agency (World appeal for water or war in a rally at Muzaffarabad Bank) backed by a super power was an integral to and Lahore in 2010.34 But no such thing took place the very success of this treaty. This paper has made and IWT is still respected by both the states. There a comprehensive and careful study of all (political, was US role too highlighted here. But above all, the legal, economic and technical dimensions) and lastly whole thorny and complicated negotiation process and concludes that the adhering to the mandate of treaty willingness of party to conflict witness to this hard and willingness to cooperate by both India and reality of security and development approach which Pakistan has contributed to the lasting solution to the both states had adhered to during that period. complex water issue. Therefore, India-Pakistan need to follow the precedence set of in Indus water treaty, Conclusion as a model to replicate it in resolving other problematic The biggest advantage of this treaty is that it issues that they are confronting at this juncture. prevented war35 and set an example or model for genuine India-Pakistan cooperation on water between End Notes 1 two rival states. During the 1965 war, the flow of India rejects Pakistan’s objections on hydro projects as Indus Water Treaty talks end: Official, Hindustan Times, water and financial obligation of India to Pakistan August 30,2018. was not violated. The structure and legal framework 2 By the staff of the World Bank, Indus Water Treaty, of IWT has the potential to resolve all future disputes. World Affair, Vol.123, No.4 , Winter , 1960,pp.99-101 Scholar like Hamir K. Sahni stressed that such 3 Salman M.A Salman, Kishor Uprety, Conflict and cooperative engagement has positive externalities.36 Cooperation on South Asia’s International Rivers: A Legal Perspective , Kluwer Law International, This means it can leads to resolving more difficult Netherland,2002, P.37 issue in future. This treaty is a reference point to 4 Salman M.A Salman, Kishor Uprety, Conflict and deal with controversy such as Salal dam, Balighar Cooperation on South Asia’s International Rivers: A and Kishangaga project which were erupted due to Legal Perspective , Kluwer Law International, Netherland,2002, P.37 the technical nature of the treaty.37 But later these 5 A.K.Chaturvedi, Water : A sources for future Conflict, issues were resolved. It is not just the law but the ViJ Books India Pvt Ltd , New Delhi, 2013 ,P.109 will of two nations to manage the security which 6 Asit K. Biswas, Indus Water Treaty: The Negotiating provided the right impetus for its survival and Process, Water International, Vol.17 ,, No.4 , 1992,P.203, continuity. The serious limitation of the treaty is that access at http://www.thirdworldcentre.org/wp-content/ uploads/2015/05/induswattreaty.pdf on 4.4.2016 it does not provide the space for incorporation of latest 7 ibid knowledge on harnessing ground water and in relation 8Rudlof Bernhardt, Regional Cooperation, to climate change etc.38 Despite this shortcoming it Organizations and Problem , Encyclopedia of Public provided the ground for resolving all disputes which International Law, ,Elsevier science publisher, Netherland, are emerging in the recent time. The recent 1983, P.215( There is a different of opinion in relation to Date of Signing of standstill agreement; author like , Salman controversy will also hopefully resolve with in the M.A Salman, Kishor Uprety mentioned December 20, 1947 treaty framework. but Scholar Asit K. Biswas mentioned agreement reached on 10 December 1947) 9 The strength, effectiveness and resilience of Seema Sridhar, “ Kashmir and Water: Conflict and Cooperation”, Swords and Ploughshares, Vol.XVI, No.1( the IWT of 1960 are lies on respecting to its provision. Winter 2007-8),pp.26-2 Water is a resource but it has a security dimension 9. Program in Arms control, Disarmament, and International both narrow (military) and bigger (non-military) also. Security, University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign. But this security issue was handled with a cooperative 10 Uttam Kumar Sinha, Arvind Gupta and Ashok Behuria, institutional mechanism. Indus Water Treaty is the Will the Indus Water Survive?, Strategic Analysis, Vol.36, Issue,5, 2012 p.735-752, negotiation between two mutually antagonistic and 11 Umesh Parajuli, Water sharing Conflicts between conflicting parties over natural resources. At the same countries and approaches to resolving them, WASSA time it is also a testament to the negotiation on natural Project Reports , Vol.3, Global Environment and Energy 64 World Focus October 2018 in the 21st century, Hawaii, USA,P.45 accessed at https:// 22 ibid web.archive.org/web/20070821023229/http://www.gee- 23 Dr David R. Stone, The United States and the Negotiation 21.org/publications/pdf%20files/Conflicts between of the Indus Water Treaty, USI Journal, Vol. countriesvol.3Jan.2004.pdf CXL,No.579.,January 2010,pp.75-87, access at. http:// 12 Daniel Haines, (Inter) Nationalist rivers? Cooperative usiofindia.org/Article/ Development in David Lilienthal’s Plan for the Indus ?pub=Journal&pubno=579&ano=709 on 9.12.2016 Basin,1951, Water Hisrory,Vol.6,Issue.2,June 2014,pp.131- 24 Dr David R. Stone, The United States and the Negotiation 151. Access at. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007% of the Indus Water Treaty, access at. http://usiofindia.org/ 2Fs 12685-013-0084-0 on 10.12.2016 Article/?pub=Journal & pubno =579&ano=709 on 13 Manish Vaid & Tridivesh Singh Maini, Indo-Pak Water 9.12.2016 Disputes: Time for Fresh Approaches,South Asia Journal 25 Dennis Kux, India-Pakistan Negotiations: Is past still of Peace Building , Vol.4, No.2, Winter 2012, P.3 access at prologue?, United states Institute of peace press, http://wiscomp.org/pubn/wiscomp-peace-prints/4-2/Indo- Washington D.C, 2006, P.22 Pak_Water_Disputes.pdf on Date.18.03.2016 26 Peter R.Blood, Pakistan: A Country Study, Federal 14 A. Mishra, India-Pakistan: Coming to terms , Palgrave Research Division, Library of Congress, US,1995,P.173 Mac Milan, New York,2010,P.59 27 Indus Water Treaty, September 19,1960, Ministry of 15 David Lilienthal involvement in the water dispute and External Affairs, Government of India, accessed athttp:// his visit to India has been narrated in detail. His first mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/6439/Indus published article after his return from South Asia was, 28 Huma Baqai, Water-related Issue in South Asia: Conflict “Are we Loosing India” for detail sees, Daniel Haines, in the Making , Pakistan Horizon, Vol.58, No.3 (July,2005), (Inter) Nationalist Rivers? Cooperative Development in P.81 David Lilienthal’s Plan for the Indus Basin,1951, Water 29 Arshad H. Abbasi, Indus Water Treaty between Pakistan Hisrory,Vol.6,Issue.2,June 2014,pp.131-151. Access at. and India, Position Paper, Pakistan Institute of Legislative http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12685-013- Development and Transparency 0084-0 on 10.12.2016 (PILDAT),Islambad,2012,p.12 16 Shafqat Kakakhel, The Indus Water Treaty: Negotiation, 30Majed Akhter, Geopolitics of Dam Design on the Indus, Implementation, New Challenges and Future Prospects Economic and Political Weekly,Vol.48,No.19, May 11, 2013 ,Criterion Quarterly,Vol.9,No.2, April/June ,2014 , 31 Robert G. Wirsing , Christopher Jasparro and Daniel C. available at , http://www.criterion-quarterly.com/the- Stoll, International Conflict over Water resources in indus-waters-treaty-negotiation-implementation-new- Himalayan Asia, Palgrave Macmillan, UK, 2013,p.46 challenges-and-future-prospects/ ( access on 17.06.2016) 32 Ramaswamy R Iyer, Was the Indus Waters Treaty in 17 Tufail Jawed, The World Bank and the Indus basin Trouble?, Economic and Political Weekly, Vo.37,Issue.25, Dispute: Mediation by World Bank-II, Pakistan Horizon, June 22, 2002,pp.2401-02 Vol.19, No.1,1966,Pakistan Institute of International 33 Ramaswamy R Iyer, Indus Water Treaty: A Different Affairs,p.34 View, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.40, No.29, 18 Daniel Haines, (Inter) Nationalist Rivers? Cooperative July16-22,2005,pp.3140-3144 Development in David Lilienthal’s Plan for the Indus Basin, 34 Amit Ranjan, Disputed Water: India, Pakistan and the 1951 , Water Hisrory, Vol.6, Issue.2, June 2014, pp.131-151. Tran boundary Rivers, Studies in Indian Politics,, Sage Access at. http://link.springer.com/article/ Publication, Vol.4 ,Issue 2,2016,pp191-205 10.1007%2Fs12685-013-0084-0 on 10.12.2016 35 Ankur Rai, India’s strategy about Indus Waters Treaty, 19 World Bank and International Monetary Fund are the Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.LI, No.40,October 1, twin institution conceived at Bretton Woods in 1944. The 2016,p.5 main function of World Bank was to provide soft loan to 36 Hamir K. Sahni, The Politics of Water in South Asia: The European countries to rebuild their damage infrastructure Case of Indus Waters Treaty, SAIS Review of International and later it entrusted with the task of supporting and Affair, Vol.26, No.2, Summer- Fall 2006,pp.153-165 developing resources and productive capacity of the 37 For example term like “run of the river”. This means world particularly focusing to the less developing absence of storage. There is a difference of opinion persist countries. among engineer on this issue. 20 Uttam Kumar Sinha, Arvind Gupta and Ashok Behuria, 38 This treaty did not say how to address issue like water Will the Indus Water Survive?, Strategic Analysis, Vol.36, quality or pollution. See detail in David Michel, Ricky Issue,5, 2012,p.735-752 Passarelli, Conflict Basins: Powder kegs to Peace pipes, 21 Dr David R. Stone, The United States and the Negotiation The SAIS Review of International Affairs, Vol.35,No.1, of the Indus Water Treaty, USI Journal, Vol. Winter-Spring 2015,pp.145-157. Access at. http:// CXL,No.579.,January 2010,pp.75-87, access at. http:// muse.jhu.edu.bbau.remotexs.in/article/582534/pdf o 8.2.17 usiofindia.org/Article/ ?pub=Journal&pubno=579&ano=709 on 9.12.2016 Indus Water Treaty: An Example of India-Pakistan Cooperation 65 Rivalry over Water Resources: A Potential Cause of Conflict in South Asian Region Dr. Ghulam Qadir Bhat

Introduction Indus River System and the Water Sharing Water, being the lifeline for the entire humanity, has between India-Pakistan been considered one of the most important sources The Indus water dispute is one of the most serious of human life. Over exploitation of such precious problems of the partition. This division even did not resource, human beings have been encountering spare the water resources, which emerged as a conflicts. Recently the United Nations (UN) has potential threat to the peace and security of South cautioned that water conflicts among nations have Asia. The new political boundary cut across the Indus been increasing in number and therefore, efforts have River system, divides the canals with irrigation head- to be made to resolve them amicably. South Asia, works in one country and the rest of the canal as with its highest percentage of population dependent well as irrigation land in another country, like the Upper on agriculture is facing such conflicts. Bari Doab Canal and the Dipalpur Canal. Punjab province, the heart of the Indus River basin was the South Asian landmass is endowed with well worst affected (Gulhati, 1973, p.52).Cyril Radcliff, river systems. Despite its diversity, the rivers the chairman of the Punjab Boundary Commission geographically unite the region into a composite whole (PBC), proposed a joint management of the Punjab (Singh, 2008, p.13). However, most of the countries irrigation system to which Jinnah responded that: in the region are facing the problem of water scarcity He would rather have Pakistan deserted than as the irrigation sector is the main water consumer fertile fields watered by the courtesy of the Hindus. of the region, irrigating about 39 per cent of the total cropland and consuming about 86 per cent of the total Nehru response to the offer was that: water supply (Tripathi, 2011, p.68). Therefore, the What India did with India’s rivers was India’s major share of the water being utilised by the affairs (Stone, 2010, p.77-88) agriculture sector, gives rise to water scarcity that in turn lays impacts on the regional stability (Ramshoo, In brief, this internationalised the issue. 2012, p.14). During the demarcation of borders between India and Pakistan, water resources were hardly discussed. There are about 20 International river basins Nevertheless, soon after the partition, a Standstill in South Asian region, among them the four major Agreement was signed between the Chief Engineers river basins are the Indus, the Ganga or Ganges, the of the East Punjab (India) and West Punjab (Pakistan) Brahmaputra and the Meghna or Barak (Yaqoob, on 20 December 1947. This was valid up to 31 March 2004, p.113). These river basins are shared by India, 1948 with the purpose to maintain status-quo in water Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and China as allocations in the basin. Two days before the well. There are many intractable disputes among superannuation of the Standstill agreement, Pakistan the countries of this region, mainly the trans-boundary requested India for the extension accord which it water sharing conflicts, which in turn has posed major declined (Baxer, 1967, p.450). Subsequently, the East threat to the peace and security of entire subcontinent. Punjab stopped water to the West Punjab on the This paper analyses the water sharing problems and expiry of the Standstill Agreement on 1 April 1948. the agreements reached between the countries of South Asian countries 66 World Focus October 2018 The Government of Pakistan described the move as disputable part of the amount specified at the Delhi “Machiavellian duplicity” on the part of East Punjab. Agreement (Alam, 1998, p.96-97). Pakistan argued that the Delhi Agreement was signed under Meanwhile, the Pakistani Prime Minister compulsion from India and was, therefore, Liaquat Ali Khan, in a telegram to the Indian Prime continuously emphasising for adjudication by an Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, while showing his impartial body. It soon became apparent that Pakistan displeasure over the Shimla Agreement held on 15 despite India’s apprehension could not be satisfied April 1948, said: unless and until a third party would be brought into the impasse. The terms of the Shimla Agreement “have far reaching consequences and it will be necessary David E. Lilienthal the US Atomic Energy to hold inter-Dominion conference to discuss Commission visited the subcontinent in February 1951. them. Will you very kindly suggest a suitable place During his visit he met the leaders of both the countries and date for such conference as early as possible? of India and Pakistan and discussed in detail the pros (Gulhati, 1973, p.67-68) and cons of the water conflict. Lilienthal inspected the works on the Indus basin and had a detailed Nehru accepted request of Liaquat and New discussion with the engineers of both the sides Delhi was selected as the venue for talks. The regarding the dispute and the uses of the Indus water representatives of the two countries met on 3 May flow. Accordingly Lilienthal proposed an Indo-Pak 1948, but could not break much ice on the very first joint management of the Indus basin. He also day. With the personal involvement of Nehru and the suggested that the World Bank (WB) might use its Finance Minister of Pakistan Ghulam Mohammad, good offices to bring both the parties to agreement the two parties successfully signed an agreement on and provide financial assistance for the programme May 4, which came to be known as “Delhi (Salman and Uprety, p.44-45). Agreement.” Hence, India on April 30 resumed the water supplies to the Sutlej Valley and the Central As the proposal of Lilienthal invited the Bari Doab Canals four days before the Delhi attention of the WB towards the Indus basin conflict, Agreement was made on the terms of the Shimla Eugene R. Black, then the President of the WB met Pact. The Indian delegation in the meeting asserted Lilienthal on 8 August 1951and deliberated the matter that the proprietary rights of the waters of these rivers threadbare (Michel, 1967, p.224). As a result, on lie with the East Punjab wholly and the West Punjab September 6, 1951, Black took the initiative to write cannot claim any share as a matter of right. While to the Prime Ministers of both India and Pakistan for enforcing the charges for the waters utilised, the Delhi offering good offices of the Bank. The WB President Agreement emphasised that Pakistan should exploit suggested for selecting two highly qualified engineers alternative water resources for its future uses. each by the two parties and an engineer from the However, Pakistan considered the present modus WB who would help them in jointly preparing a vivendi as unsatisfactory and demanded an equitable comprehensive plan for the most efficient utilisation share from all the common water resources of the of the water resources. It was also highlighted that two countries. the working party would devise a broader outline of the basic framework and would set targets for Hence, the correspondence sustained and the completing various steps for working out the deadlock also continued without any resolution. plan(Gulhati, 94-98). Therefore, both India and Meanwhile, the water supply continued in accordance Pakistan accepted the Lilienthal’s proposal and the with the Delhi Agreement and Pakistan was regularly WB’s initiative. paying the seigniorage charges to India. From July 1950 onwards, Pakistan stopped depositing the Rivalry over Water Resources: A Potential Cause of Conflict in South Asian Region 67 The WB proposed its own plan for the Eventually, after over a decade of long development of the Indus basin on 5 February 1954. intense debate, the Prime Minister of India, The proposal advocated the territorial division of the Jawaharlal Nehru, the President of Pakistan, Ayub Indus basin between the two riparians. Accordingly, Khan and the Vice- President of the WB, William B. the Eastern Rivers¯Ravi, Beas and Sutlej¯would be lliff signed an agreement on the Indus basin on exclusively given to India. The Western Rivers¯Indus, September 19, 1960 in Karachi which came to be Jhelum and Chenab¯would be available for the use known as the ‘Indus Water Treaty’ (IWT).Therefore, of Pakistan, except for the insignificant volume of the treaty divided the Indus basin into the Eastern the Jhelum flow used in Kashmir at that time (Michel, and the Western Rivers. India got exclusive rights on 1967, p. 235). But Pakistan did not accept the the former, whereas, Pakistan was given the latter proposal, citing historical uses from the Eastern with some insignificant uses for India in Kashmir. Rivers as one of the reasons. They were of the opinion that the link canals from the Western River, as However, the recent issues between these suggested by the Bank proposal to replace the supplies two countries over the hydropower power projects of the Eastern Rivers, could not provide adequate on the western rivers have posed a serious challenge supplies to the country. Pakistan, therefore, demanded to the sustainability of IWT. Pakistan has questioned storage projects in order to meet its requirement 27 projects undertaken by India in the Indus in Jammu (Salman and Uprety, p.47). Subsequently WB and Kashmir. Pakistan argues that ‘almost all Indian accepted the Pakistan’s position after the former’s projects on the western rivers are classified as run- consultant engineers duly studied and substantiated of-the -river project. They will entail serious the storages as necessity. Finally, both India and consequence for downstream areas both individually Pakistan accepted the WB’s proposal in September and collectively, if the treaty would not be followed in 1956 and further held a series of meetings and letter and spirit’ (Abbasi, 2012, p.15). Since the signing consultations in India, Pakistan, Washington, Rome of IWT, there has been constant friction over the and London to deliberate the issues pending. However, Indian Projects on the western rivers, Baglihar on the major breakthrough came after the General Ayub Chenab and Kishenganga on Jhelum, were the first Khan took over as the President of Pakistan in 1958 disputes to be subjected to international arbitration. (Alam, 1998, 146-47). Therefore, new bitter conflicts crop up between these two countries are acting as stumbling block in their The water allocation over the Western Rivers cooperation. was still a challenge for both India and Pakistan that was hitherto unresolved. The Government of Pakistan India Bangladesh River Water Sharing was apprehensive about the excessive Indian Water sharing is a major issue between India and interference in case the latter was allowed Bangladesh, particularly from the Bangladeshi construction rights on the Western Rivers. perspective because it is a lower riparian on almost Nevertheless, after considerable time and energy, 54 rivers flowing from India, an upper riparian, to Pakistan finally agreed to the Indian rights over the Bangladesh. The major rivers such as the Ganges, Western Rivers. The Government of Pakistan agreed the Brahmaputra and the Meghna are crossing to that India would be allowed to irrigate those areas Bangladesh through Indian boarders. Therefore, these from these rivers that it was irrigating on April 1, rivers make water sharing between these two 1960. Finally, on 13 May 1960, after hectic countries a major issue. deliberations, both the parties reached an agreement regarding additional irrigation, water storages and the The India¯Bangladesh water sharing dispute new developments on the Western Rivers within on the Ganges dates back to1951, when Bangladesh Indian side of Kashmir before these rivers crosses was the eastern part of Pakistan and was known as over to Pakistan (Gulhati, 1973, p.287-288) the East Pakistan. With the independence of 68 World Focus October 2018 Bangladesh in 1971, the Joint River Commission was months. The Bangladeshi government, on the other set up by the two countries in 1972, to invest collective side, altogether rejected the Indian proposal and efforts in maximising the benefits from the trans- instead proposed that the storage facilities should be boundary rivers (Tripathi, 2011, p.70). In earlier 1971, constructed in the upper reaches of the Ganges in India completed the construction of the disputed India and Nepal. However, this offer was not Farakka Barrage (FB) which is on the Ganges River. approved by India (Iyer, 2003, p.234). When the term Bangladesh objected to the FB reasoning that India of 1977 Agreement expired, India and Bangladesh could not unilaterally divert the waters of the Ganges signed the two Memoranda of Understandings (Iyer, 2003, p.231). India, on the other side, argued (MOU) in 1982 and 1985, and the former agreed to the main purposes in building the FB was to flush discharge 63 per cent of the Ganges flow to the latter sediments from the Calcutta port by diverting the i.e. 34,500 cubic feet per second (cusecs) out of Ganges waters through the Bhagirati-Hoogly River 55,000 cusecs and retained 37 per cent i.e. 20,500 channel and to preserve the irrigation, domestic and cusecs for its own use (Yaqoob, 2004 p.127). industrial water supplies of the Calcutta city against the incursion of salinity (Iyer, 2003, p.231). However, The MOU of 1985 came to an end by 1988, as the FB had become a reality, the main contention and there was no initiative from either of the two between these two countries was the allocation and parties to extend it further or to go for a new the augmentation of the lean season flow of the river arrangement. Subsequently, after a gap of several Ganga (Salman & Uprety, 2002, p.139). years, with extensive deliberations, India and Bangladesh finally reached an understanding over the In 1975, India and Bangladesh signed an sharing of the water flow of the river Ganges by agreement for the trial run of the FB. This agreement signing the Ganges Treaty on December 12, 1996. was valid for 40 days with limited water diversion to The treaty was signed for a period of 30 years, and it the Hoogly River for clearing silt of the Calcutta Port. could be extended further by mutual consent (Salman India, knowing that the accord was provisional, and Uprety, 2002 p.171). continued to divert the Ganges waters even after the expiry of the interim agreement. This created deep The water sharing formula under the treaty resentment within Bangladesh. As a result, is that at the flow level of 75,000 cusecs or above, Bangladesh took the issue to the United Nations India’s share would be 40,000 cusecs and the General Assembly (UNGA) in 1977 (Yaqoob, 2004, remaining would flow to Bangladesh. When the flow p.126). However, the involvement of the UNGA in is between 70,000-75,000 cusecs, Bangladesh’s share the Farakka dispute does not brought many dividends would be 35,000 cusecs and balance would be to Bangladesh except the wider publicity of the issue. available for India’s use. At the flow level of70, 000 After the impasse of more than one year, bilateral cusecs or less, both countries would get equal (50- negotiations between the two countries restarted, 50) share. Nevertheless, it was maintained that during which culminated with the signing of a five-year the leanest of the lean season- from March 11 to agreement in 1977. This Agreement distributed the May 10- the distribution pattern will be 35,000 cusecs lean season flow between the two countries (Salam for each party on alternate basis for ten days each. and Uprety, 2002, p.151-152). If the river supply decreases below 50,000 cusecs, the situation would be considered as an emergency Another issue was the augmentation of the situation and the treaty provides immediate Ganges flow as the water supply of the river was not consultations between the two countries (Iyer, 2003, sufficient to meet the demands of both India and p. 237-238). However, the treaty has not adequately Bangladesh. The Government of Indian proposed resolved the issue of the extreme drought situations diversion of water from the Brahmaputra River to arising due to the lowest river flow, making the water the Ganges for augmenting river flow for the lean sharing a difficult task (Malhotra, 2010). Rivalry over Water Resources: A Potential Cause of Conflict in South Asian Region 69 The Teesta River is another issue between (Dhungel, 2009, p.11). It is estimated that the country India and Bangladesh. India constructed the Teesta possesses vast potential for hydropower generation. River barrage at Gazoldoba in the state of West Some studies have placed the potential beyond 80,000 Bengal in 1976, which controls the water flow to megawatt (MW). Because of the economic Bangladesh (Suryanarayanan, 2010). Bangladesh, on constraints and lack of technical expertise, Nepal is the other side, also completed the construction of a unable to utilize this natural resource to its advantage. barrage on the Teesta River at Dalia in 1990. Its main It has, therefore, signed a number of bilateral purpose was to provide irrigation water from the river agreements with India for the joint development of to the north-western areas of the country, particularly the river water projects. The first bilateral agreement during the dry season. But the Gazoldoba barrage between the two countries dates back to the British upstream has left the Dalia barrage almost defunct. period, when in 1920 the construction of a barrage Bangladesh demands an equal share of the Teesta on the Mahakali River was started. This Agreement flow in order to increase the irrigation potential of its was known as Sharda Agreement, which finally came northwest region in dry season. The Indian state of to end with the signing of the Mahakali Treaty in 1996, West Bengalis against any such agreement with between the two riparian countries (Yaqoob, 2004, Bangladesh that would affect its interests (Malhotra, p.117). 2010). Furthermore, sudden upstream release of the excessive water from India during the rainy season On the Kosi River, the first such agreement causes floods and damages crops downstream in was signed in April 1954 and a barrage was Bangladesh (Sarker, 2011, p.75). Therefore, the need constructed on the Indo-Nepal border. The Kosi River, is to examine the water flow at both Gozaldoba in also known as ‘Bihar’s River of Sorrow’, was tamed India and Dalia barrage sites in Bangladesh, in order by India with the major purpose to safe guard both to manage high and low season water flows and the countries from the devastating floods (Pun, 2009, minimize the economic losses. p.154). This project is also used for irrigation in both the countries with India irrigating more than 9, 69,110 On September 6, 2011, Prime Minister hectares and Nepal more than 11,000 hectares of Manmohan Singh’s visit to Bangladesh was primarily agriculture land. The hydropower generation of the intended to forge an agreement over the Teesta water project was 20,000 Kilowatt (KW) which India sharing. But the West Bengal Chief Minister Mamta brought down to 13,600 KW. The agreement binds Banerjee retreated from the scheduled visit at the India to share the energy generated from the project last minute, as she showed her reservations over any on equal basis with Nepal, on concessional tariff by agreement with Bangladesh as against West Bengal’s mutual agreement (Salman and Uprety, 2002, p.69- interest. This virtually forestalled the Union 70). government’s initiative (Wirsing, 2011, p.24). The opposition parties of Nepal while India - Nepal Water Sharing Relations criticising the project as being Indian centric claimed India has also water sharing conflicts with another that the latter was reaping the major benefits from neighbouring country, Nepal. On the Ganges River the scheme in all respects, whether it was irrigation, system, Nepal is an upper riparian and India a lower flood protection or hydropower generation, whereas riparian. The main rivers flowing through Nepal are Nepal has lost its fertile land without getting a fair the Kosi, Gandaki, Karnali, Mahakali and their deal. Following intense criticisms, the agreement was tributaries. It is important to note that the country modified in 1966 to accommodate some of the holds only about 13 per cent of the river basin area, apprehensions of the Nepalese government. However, but contributes almost46 per cent to its average annual there have been diverse conflicts over this flow. Nepal’s contribution to the Ganges water flow arrangement, fuelled by the floods in the Kosi region. during the lean months increases up to 71 per cent The devastating flood of 2008 shattered the normal 70 World Focus October 2018 life of more than 3,000,000 people on the Indian side, unilateral construction of the Tanakpur project in 1983. particularly in Bihar and around 50,000 people in The construction of the Tanakpur barrage strained Nepal. The leaders of both sides blamed each other the relations between these two countries when the for failing to prevent this calamity. The then Prime Government of Nepal objected its design. On the other Minister of Nepal Pushpa Kamal Dahal, blamed and side, India imposed sanctions on Nepal in 1989 criticised the Kosi Agreement for the disaster (Bisht, because of the latter’s arms import from China, that 2008). further widened the gap in the relationship (Gyawali and Dixit, 1999, p.554). However, the relations began The Gandaki Irrigation and Power Project is to improve with the signing of the Mahakali Treaty in another agreement signed by the governments of both February 1996, in New Delhi. The treaty was India and Nepal in 1959. According to the agreement, applauded in both the countries, with the Nepalese a barrage and a canal system was built for irrigation Parliament passing it by two-thirds majority (Yaqoob, and power generation. The barrage was also designed 2004, p.120-121). for flood moderation. Through this agreement, Nepal was able to irrigate the gross command area estimated The Mahakali Treaty lays emphasis on the about 63,000 hectares, whereas India’s irrigation area integrated development of the Mahakali River, from the project was determined to be about 1,850,520 including the Sarada Barrage, Tanakpur Barrage and hectares in the states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh(Jha, the Pancheshwar Project. The treaty also directs that 2013, p.222). not less than 350 cusec of the river waters should flow downstream of a barrage to preserve the As Nepal was not happy with this ecosystem of the river (Iyer, 2003, p.225). The treaty agreement, it was revised in 1964, with the main provides for the construction and use of a giant purpose to safeguard its interests. The revised multipurpose project on the Mahakali River known agreement consists of a power house with generation as Pancheshwar Project with 6,800 MW power capacity of about 15 MW which was transferred to generation capacity. Nepal in 1981. However, there are some concerns in Nepal regarding the lean season flows as the trans- Despite the fact that the Mahakali Treaty valley uses of the Gandaki waters during the dry was highly commended by all the stake holders in months of February to April, are not allowed (Jha, India and Nepal, both the parties have certain 2013, p.223-225). apprehensions about the credibility of the treaty. In Nepal, a number of sections including the politicians The Mahakali River Treaty and intellectuals consider this landmark agreement The Mahakali River, also called Sarada in India, is an as ineffective reasoning that water sharing with India important tributary of the Ghagra basin. The Sarada is a one side affair, wherein the major portion of the barrage was constructed during the British period in pie is taken by India and thereby treating Nepal 1920 and Nepal’s share was determined from 400 to unevenly. In short, the level of suspicion and mistrust 1000 cusecs in the Kharif season and 150 cusecs is very high at both the official as well as the public during Rabi season(Yaqoob,2004, p.119-120). In order level, in both the countries. Further, there is also a big to construct Sarada barrage, it was decided that Nepal brother small brother syndrome which is working would transfer 4,000 acres of the eastern banks of against the interests of the two countries and hence the Mahakali to India and in exchange Nepal would spoiling the spirit of cooperation. Therefore, the lack receive 4,000 acres of the forest land as well as rupees of cooperation and efforts combined with the lacking 50,000 from India (Tabasum and Idris,2004,p.53). political will hampers the achieved progress and limits the scope for the future deliberations (Jha, 2013, The relations between India and Nepal began p.227). to deteriorate and one of the main reasons was India’s Rivalry over Water Resources: A Potential Cause of Conflict in South Asian Region 71 India - Bhutan Water Sharing electricity from Bhutan by 2020. It is without any Bhutan is the only country with which India has good doubt that the decision to cooperate over the trans- water sharing relations. The Himalayan Kingdom is boundary rivers has proved bliss in disguise for both situated in the Himalayan mountain belt. Its four major the countries. Their relationship has, therefore, river systems are the Wang Chu, the Amo Chu or established a good example for other countries to Torsa, the Drangme Chu and the Puna Tsang Chu or follow to enhance mutual benefits in collaboration with Sankosh. These rivers flow from the Himalayas into each other. Bhutan, join the Brahmaputra in India, cross to Bangladesh and finally immerse into the Bay of Water Issues in India - China Relations Bengal. The hilly terrain provides the great Although China is not considered to be a part of the opportunities for the hydropower generation to South Asia landmass, but the way it shares the rivers, Bhutan. Its’ hydropower potential has been estimated being an upper riparian, with almost all of the South to be about 20,000 MW. Asian countries makes it an important player in the water relations in subcontinent. Traditionally, the Indo- The India-Bhutan relationship has been Chinese relations are complex and hostile. Due to largely smooth. The association between them have the growing economic needs of both the countries, been the only success story in the entire South Asia there is definitely resource aggressiveness. The water as both have moved ahead and cooperated in the resource is not an exception. The Tibetan Plateau development of the hydropower sector. The serves as a principal watershed in Asia, and a common cooperation between the two countries over three water source for almost all of the South Asian decades has borne significant dividends to both the countries. The important rivers such as the Indus, neighbours (Biswas, 2011, p.665-666). Sutlej, Brahmaputra, Yamuna, Gandki, and the Kosi are originating from Tibet (Report, 2011, p.20). The two countries for the first time came closer during 1970’s when they collaborated for the The Brahmaputra River, known as Yarlung construction of the Chhukha hydropower project Tsangpoin Tibet, flows through China, India and (HPP) ,located on the Wang chu basin. Because of Bangladesh. However, all these countries face acute Bhutan’s fragile economy, India completely funded water scarcity and are almost energy starved. The the project on the basis of 60 per cent grant and 40 Chinese plan is to divert the water from the water per cent loan. The project was fully commissioned in rich south to the water deficient northern region. 1988 and within the first five years of its operation, it China’s worry is that its north and northwest is home had covered the construction costs. This project to nearly 35 per cent of its population, but has only provided the necessary flip to the hydropower sector seven per cent of the country’s water resources. As that in turn reformed the Bhutanese economy. The the northern areas are experiencing droughts quite surplus energy generated from the project is exported often, irrigation has become a priority for which to India at a mutually agreed price which is an Beijing requires alternatives. Consequently, the important source of revenue to the Himalayan Government of China has initiated the process of Kingdom. In fact, among all the South Asian countries, damming of rivers, not only to build HPPs to satisfy Bhutan has the higher per capita (Biswas, 2011, its growing energy needs, but also to divert water p.666-667). supplies to these areas (Bolton, 2010, p.71). It has already built 10 dams, on the tributaries of the The success of the Chhukha project has Brahmaputra River, with an equal number at different encouraged both the countries to expand their levels of construction, and about 8 more at the proposal cooperation to new schemes. The Government of level. This would certainly reduce the flows to the India is assisting in the construction of ten new HPPs, downstream river which is a matter of concern for and it has set a target to purchase 10,000 MW of the lower riparians, particularly for India and 72 World Focus October 2018 Bangladesh as there is not a single water sharing the two countries in Karachi which came to be known agreement between China and any of the lower as the Indus Water Treaty. However, the recent issues riparian countries on the Brahmaputra River basin over the hydropower power projects on the western (Krishnan, 2010). rivers have posed a serious challenge to the sustainability of IWT. However, the India and In brief, China has maintained the utmost Bangladesh good relations also did not last long. The secrecy, and it is believed that the first phase of the good will that India gained after Bangladesh’s South-North Water Transfer Project (SNWTP) has independence was lost with the construction of been completed and the country would be able to Farraka barrage which developed cracks in their divert water to the North by 2014. In this context, a relationship. Even after concluding an agreement over renowned scholar, Kenneth Pomeranz argues that: the Gangas could not setlle the conflict as there occasional skirmishes between them during lean With water and energy pressures mounting while seasons. Moreover, India-Nepal relationship is not it’s engineering and financing capabilities grow, much different from India-Bangladesh relations. The it is not surprising that China is undertaking major apprehension in Nepal is that all the agreements numerous water projects in Tibet and adjacent signed between the two countries, are benefitting India provinces: these include recent or on-going only. Although with the signing of Mahakali treaty in projects on the Chinese portions of the Indus, 1966, normalised their relations but still there are Sutlej, Brahmaputra, Salween, Irrawaddy, and certain apprehensions between them. The level of Mekong (Pomeraz, 2013, p.5). suspicion and mistrust is high at both the official as well as the public in both the countries. The India- Moreover, Beijing has maintained that all its China relations have largely been antagonistic. China’s ventures in the Brahmaputra basin are strictly run- construction of hydropower projects and diverting of-the-river HPPs and does not involve any diversion. water supplies to its drought prone areas is matter of This stand was reiterated by the Chinese President grave concern for lower riparians including India. Xi Jinping to his Indian counterpart Prime Minister Manmohan Singh when the latter raised his country’s These developments would certainly diminish apprehensions over the “Three Gorge Dam,” on the water supplies to downstream rivers. In contrast Indo- side lines of the fifth Brazil, Russia, India China and Bhutanese water relations had been exemplary in the South Africa (BRICs) Summit in March 2013(Hukil, history of trans-boundary river cooperation in South 2013) . The Chinese official statement is that the Asia. Needless to say, the Indo-Bhutanese success country would not do anything that may harm the story in the trans-boundary cooperation has proved interests of the downstream countries including India. lucrative and thus setting a milestone for other However, the level of uncertainty is high over Chinese countries to follow. policies, and under the existing situations, the lower riparians fear continue to grow. South Asia being one of the world’s most populous and poverty stricken region needs to Conclusion: cooperate to address all its problems including those The Indo-Pak water sharing relations have been related to water conflicts. In this context the role of belligerent since their independence in 1947. The regional organisations like South Asia Association for partition of the subcontinent give birth to a number of regional cooperation SAARC would be instrumental disputes including the Indus water conflict. The Shimla to facilitate the process of negotiations over several and Delhi agreement did not completely settle the political issues, whether water related or not. dispute Pakistan demanded an equal share from all Although the SAARC charter does not contain any the water resources. After over a decade of long specific reference to cooperation over shared water intense debate an agreement was signed between Rivalry over Water Resources: A Potential Cause of Conflict in South Asian Region 73 resources, it does stress the need for joint action and 12. Malhotra, p. (2012). Indo-Bangladesh JRC: Time for enhance cooperation among its members. Teesta, Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies-IPSC. Online Available: www.ipcs.org/article/india/ indo- Reference bangladesh-jrc-time-for-teesta-3073.html (10 December 1. Alam, U.Z. (1998). Water rationality: Mediating the 2012) Indus water treaty, PhD disst. University of Durham. 13. Mehrotra, L. L. (2009). South Asia’s Cultural Mosaic 2. Bisht, M. (2008). Revisiting the Kosa Agreement: Prologue, RITES Journal 11(1), 131-132. Lessions for Indo-Nepal Water Diplomacy, Institute for 14. Michel, A.A. (1967). The Indus Rivers: A study of the Defence Studies and Analyses- IDSA. Online effects of partition, New Haven and London: Yale Available:www.idsa.in/idsastrategiccomments/ University Press. RevisitingtheKosi Agreement_Medha Bisht_220908 (11 15. Pomeranz, K. (2013). Asia’s unstable water tower: The February 2013). politics, economic and ecology of Himalayan water 3. Biswas, A.K. (2011). Cooperation or Conflict in projects, Asian Policy, 16, 5. transboundary water management: case study of south 16. Pun. S.B. (2009). Power trading. In D. N. Dhungal and Asia, Hydrological Sciences Journal 56 (4), 665. Santa B.P (Ed.), The Nepal-India water relationship: 4. Bolton.K.R. (2010). Water wars: Rivalry over water Challenges, Kathmandu: Springer. resources: A potential cause of regional conflict in South 17. Ramshoo, S.A. (2012). Indus River Basin: Common Asia and the geopolitical implications, World Affairs 14, Concerns and Roadmap to Resolution, Project Study, New (1), 71. Delhi Centre for Dialogue and Reconciliation. 5. Dhungal, D. N. (2009). Historical Eye View. In D. N. 18. Salman, A. S. and Uprety K. (2002). Conflict and Dhungal and Santa B. P (Ed.), The Nepal-India Water Cooperation in South Asia’s International Rivers: A Legal Relationship: Challenges, Kathmandu: Springer. Perspective, Washington, D. C: The World Bank. 6. Gulhati, N.D. (1973). Indus water treaty: An exercise in 19. Singh, R. (2008). Trans-boundary Water Politics and international mediation, New Delhi: Allied Publishers. Conflicts in South Asia: Towards Water for Peace, New 7. Gyawali, D and Dixit. A. (1999). Mahanadi impasse and Delhi: Centre for Democracy and Social Action. Indo-Nepal water conflict, Economic and Political Weekly 20. Stone, D.R. The United States and the negotiation of 34 (9), 554. the Indus water treaty, U.S.I Journal 140(579), 77-78. 8. Hukil, R. (2013). India, China and the Brahmaputra: 21. Symposium on Inter- State water conflicts in Southern riparian rivalry, Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies- Asia, Report- 2011, http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/ IPCS, online Available: http://www.ipcs.org/article/ india/ files/resources/Full_Report_1115.pd22. Tabassum, S and india-china-the-brahmaputra-riparian-rivalry-3864.html Idris N. (2004). India-Nepal treaty on Mahakali River, (March 2013). Pakistan Horizon 37 (20), 53. 9. Iyer, R.R. (2003). Water: Perspectives, Issues, Concerns, 23. Trpathi, N.K (2011). Scarcity Dilemma as Security New Delhi: Sage Publication. Dilemma: Geopolitics of Water Governance in South Asia, 10. Jha, H.B. (2013). Nepal-India cooperation in river water Economic and Politic Weekly 46 (7), 68. management, Strategic Analysis 37 (2), 217. 24. Wirsing, R.G. (2013). Melting the Geopolitical Ice in 11. Krishanan, A. (2010). China begins damming South Asia, Asian Policy, 16, 24. Brahmaputra river for hydropower project, The Hindu, 25. Yaqoob, A. (2004). International River Waters in South Online Available: http://www.thehindu.com/news/ Asia: Sources of Conflict or Cooperation, Journal of international/china-begins-damming-brahmaputra-river- regional Studies, 22 (4), 113. for-hydropowerproject/article888387.ece 74 World Focus October 2018 Water Resources in Karnataka-Special Reference to Mahadayai Water Dispute: A Geographical Appraisal Dr. Basavaraj R. Bagade

Introduction of Goa made a request under Section 3 of the Inter- Water resources are sources of water that are useful State River Water Disputes Act, 1956 (as amended) or potentially useful to humans. It is important because for a constitution of the Tribunal under the said Act it is needed for life to exist. Many uses of water and refers the matter for adjudication and decision of include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational dispute relating to Mandovi River. The issues and environmental activities. Virtually all of these mentioned in the request included the assessment of human uses require fresh water. Only 2.5% of water available utilizable water resources in the basin at on the Earth is fresh water, and over two-thirds of various points and allocation of this water to the 3 this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. Water basin States keeping in view priority of the use of demand already exceeds supply in many parts of the water within the basin as also to decide the machinery world, and many more areas are expected to to implement the decision of the tribunal etc. The experience this imbalance in the near future. It is Act requires that Central Government shall constitute estimated that 70% of worldwide water use is for a tribunal if it is of the opinion that water dispute cannot irrigation in agriculture. Climate change will have be settled by negotiation. significant impacts on water resources around the world because of the close connections between the Water resource:Water resources are natural climate and hydrologic cycle. Due to the expanding resources of water that are potentially useful. Uses human population competition for water is growing of water include agricultural, industrial, household, such that many of the world’s major aquifers are recreational and environmental activities. All living becoming depleted. Many pollutants threaten water things require water to grow and reproduce. 97% of supplies, but the most widespread, especially in the water on the Earth is salt water and only three underdeveloped countries, is the discharge of raw percent is fresh water; slightly over two-thirds of this sewage into natural waters. Karnataka, the 7th largest is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining state in terms of area in India. It is situated on the unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, western edge of Deccan plateau and with with only a small fraction present above ground or in Maharashtra and Goa to its north, Kerala and Tamil the air. Freshwater is a renewable resource, yet the Nadu to its south, Andhra Pradesh to its east and the world’s supply of groundwater is steadily decreasing, Arabian Sea to its west. Karnataka is the parts and with depletion occurring most prominently in Asia, parcel of southern Indian and partly link between the South America and North America, although it is still south and the rest of India. The Mandovi River unclear how much natural renewal balances this originates from a cluster of 30 springs at Bhimgat usage, and whether ecosystems are threatened. The located in the of the Belgaum district framework for allocating water resources to water in Karnataka. The Mandovi River has an area of users (where such a framework exists) is known as 2032 square kilometres in Karnataka and 1580 square water rights. kilometres area in Goa. The Mandovi river basin in Goa comprises of approximately 42% of Goa’s total Location of study region: Karnataka is located in geographical area. the Deccan Peninsular region of India and covers an area of 191,791 square km. Water resources of The Mandovi River is also known as Karnataka primarily constitute surface and Mahadayi or Mhadei River and is often described as groundwater. Rainfall is the basic source of water in the lifeline to the State of Goa. In July 2002, the State the state.

Water Resources in Karnataka-Special Reference to Mahadayai Water Dispute 75 Availability of water resources in Karnataka: millimetres. More than 73 per cent of this rainfall is Surface water is available in Karnataka in the form received due to the South-West monsoon. of rivers, lakes, waterfalls, reservoirs, etc. Karnataka has surface water potential of around 102 km. being The state can be earmarked into three the seventh largest state in India (area-wise), meteorological zones, namely, North Interior Karnataka possesses about six per cent of the Karnataka, South Interior Karnataka and Coastal country’s total surface water resources of about 17 Karnataka. The occurrence and distribution of rainfall lakh million cubic metres (Mcum). in the state are not uniform. The region that receives the maximum rainfall is Coastal Karnataka. It gets Karnataka is blessed with seven river basins. an average annual rainfall of 3,456 mm. South Interior There are 36,753 tanks in the state and they have a Karnataka receives only 1286 mm average rainfall capacity of about 684518 hectares. The rivers, along while North Interior Karnataka receives the least with their tributaries, account for much of Karnataka’s rainfall with 731 mm average figure annually. surface water resources. About 60 per cent of the state’s surface water is provided by the west flowing The stressful situation of water resources in rivers while the east-flowing rivers account for the Karnataka: Though Karnataka enjoys a substantial remaining portion. The annual average yield in the amount of rainfall and has a significant quantity of seven river basins of the state is estimated to be water resources, it is not enough to meet the ever- around 3,475 TMC. The yield in the six basins, increasing water requirement of the state. Karnataka excluding the west flowing rivers is estimated to be suffers repetitive droughts. In spite of the availability 1,440 TMC. of water from the river systems and tanks, Karnataka faces the serious issue of 67 per cent of its landmarked The seven river basins in Karnataka are: for irrigation falling under dry tracts. With a rapidly Krishna increasing population and improved living standards, Cauvery the pressure on the water resources is constantly on Godavari the rise. The per capita availability of water resources West flowing rivers is reducing day by day. The erratic behaviour of North Pennar rainfall and the Inter-State River Water disputes South Pennar aggravate the problem. The impact of climate change Palar on the water resources also cannot be ignored. Siltation of water bodies, misuse of resources, poor Karnataka has groundwater resources management of catchment area, all adds to the estimated to be around 485 TMC. Groundwater stressful water resource situation in the state. resources have not been exploited evenly across the state. In areas where adequate surface water is Agriculture: Agriculture is the main economic available, exploitation of groundwater resources is activity of the state. About 69 percent of the minimized. Exploitation of ground water in the dry population live in the villages and 71 percent of the taluks of North and South interior Karnataka is higher working population engaged in it. The main crops are as compared to Coastal, Malnad and irrigation rice, ragi, jowar, bajra, maize, wheat and pulses. The command areas of the state. state occupied 7th position in the production of oilseeds in India. The important cash crops of this state are Rainfall in Karnataka: Karnataka primarily enjoys coffee (60% of the country’s output comes from this a tropical climate that is largely dependent on its state), tobacco, cashew, coconut, areca nut, physiographic and geographic location with respect cardamom, chilly, sunflower and sugarcane. to the Arabian Sea and the . The state Karnataka also has a considerable horticulture receives the benefit of two monsoons: the North-East production. There are 21 wildlife sanctuaries to monsoon and the South-West monsoon. Karnataka conserve wildlife in general and endangered species. receives mean annual rainfall of around 1,355 The state stands second in total income from forests.

76 World Focus October 2018 Sandalwood, teakwood, rubber, bamboo, rosewood, Power: Electricity generation goes back to 1887 when etc. are the major forest products. the unit started working. Major hydel power projects are Shivasamudra (1901), Sharavathi, Industry: The industrial point of view Karnataka is Gerusoppa and Kali Stage I & Stage II. The state’s one of the leading industrial states. It produced about major thermal power projects are at Raichur and 4% of the total national industrial output and accounts Yelahanka. There is an atomic power plant at Kaiga for about 20% of the income. Karnataka stands first near . in the production of electronic equipment and raw silk. Bharat Earth Movers, Bharat Electronics, Bharat Transport Heavy Electricals, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, Aviation: Bangalore, Belgaum, Mangalore and Hubli Hindustan Machine Tools, Indian Telephone are the main airports. Direct flight facilities to major Industries, Wheel and Axle, New Government cities of India are available from Bangalore. Electric Factory and Mangalore Chemicals and Fertiliser are among the major public sector Ports: New Mangalore is the main all-weather undertakings. There is a number of factories under seaport of the state. This port mainly handles cargo the joint sector, the private sector and also small-scale vessels. Special facilities for export of industries. Industrial output from the state aircraft, iron ore and to handle crude, oil, coal, LPG, etc., were rail coaches, telephone instruments, electronic and developed with Sea Bird Project of the Indian Navy telecom instruments, glass, batteries, spark plugs, coming up near . electric motors, textiles, silk sandal oil, electrical goods, porcelain, sugar, caustic soda, paper, newsprint, Tourism: Major tourist attractions of the state are capacitors, mining metal tools, cement, motorcycles, Bangalore, famous for various parks (Cubbon Park fertilizer etc. and Lalbhag for instance) and industries, former princely capital Mysore with the Brindavan Gardens Mines & Minerals: The mineral base of this state and Srirangapattana (the capital of Tipu Sultan) is very rich. There are very high-quality iron ore nearby, Sharavanabelgola, famous pilgrimage centre reserves in the state. Besides this, there are copper of Jainism (Here is the monolithic 57 feet high statue ore, manganese, chromite, china clay, limestone and of Gomateshwara), Belur, Halebidu and Somnathpura magnesite. The country’s main gold production comes with famous Hoysala monuments, Badami, Aihole and from this state. Kolar is a very old gold mine in this Pattadkal for the 1,300 year old rock-cut and structural state. It is the sole producer of Felsite and leading temples; Hampi, the famous open-air museum producer of moulding sand and fuchsite quartzite. (ancient Vijaynagar), Gulbarga, Bidar and Bijapur, There is enough granite reserve in this state. renowned for their Indo-Saracenic monuments, Mangalore and Karwar for ports and beaches; Infrastructure Gokarna, Udupi, , Melkote, Gangapura Irrigation and Saundatti are famous for pilgrimage centre’s. Power Transport Mandovi River Health River course: The river has a length of 77 kilometres Education (48 miles), 29 kilometres (18 miles) in Karnataka and Telecommunication 52 kilometres (32 miles) in Goa. It originates from a cluster of 30 springs at Bhimgad in the Western Ghats Irrigation: Krishna, Cauvery and their tributaries are in the Belagavi district of Karnataka. The river has the main base of state’s irrigation. Karnataka has the total 2,032 km2 catchment area of which 1,580 km2, basins of the east-flowing rivers like Krishna, Cauvery, 375 km2 and 77 km2 catchment area are in Goa, Godavari, North Pennar, South Pennar, Palar and west Karnataka and Maharashtra respectively. With its flowing rivers. cerulean waters, and Varapoha Falls, it is also known as the Gomati in a few places. The Mandovi enters Goa from the north via the Sattari

Water Resources in Karnataka-Special Reference to Mahadayai Water Dispute 77 Taluka and from Uttara Kannada District of The Mandovi River has been facing many Karnataka near the Castle Rock Rly. Stn. The threats in recent times due to illegal felling of trees Mandovi flows through Belagavi, Uttara Kannada in as well as illegal mining which have been happening Karnataka and Cumbarjua, Divadi and Chodné in Goa, for a very long time in the area. In addition, water eventually pouring into the Arabian Sea. The river diversion and hydroelectric projects mean that this Mapusa is a tributary of the Mandovi. The lifeline of Goa faces a threat of choking due to the Cumbarjuem Canal, which links both rivers, has made reduction in water flow, water pollution and disruption the interiors of the Mandovi accessible to ships in ecology due to change in water profile. carrying iron ore. Iron ore is Goa’s prime mineral and it is mined in the eastern hills. Three large Mahadayi/Mandovi River Dispute freshwater isles — Divar, Chorao and Vashee are In July 2002, the State of Goa made a request under present in the Mandovi near the town of Old Goa. Section 3 of the Inter-State River Water Disputes The island of Chorão is home to the Salim Ali Bird Act, 1956 (as amended) for the constitution of the Sanctuary, named after the renowned ornithologist Tribunal under the said Act and refer the matter for Salim Ali. A regular ferry transports the inhabitants adjudication and decision of dispute relating to between the isles and the mainland. Mandovi River. The issues mentioned in the request included the assessment of available utilisable water The Mandovi river basin in Goa comprises resources in the basin at various points and allocation of approximately 42% of Goa’s total geographical of this water to the 3 basin States keeping in view area. The Mandovi River is also known as Mahadayi priority of the use of water within the basin as also to or Mhadei River and is often described as the lifeline decide the machinery to implement the decision of to the State of Goa. Along with Mandovi River, the the tribunal etc. The Act requires that Central Zuari River is also a primary river in Goa. This sharing Government shall constitute a tribunal if it is of the of the river water between Goa and Karnataka has opinion that water dispute cannot be settled by caused problems between the governments of these negotiation. two states. This is because, in recent times, the Karnataka government has proposed diverting Therefore, the actions and efforts of Central portions of the water from the Mandovi River to the Government in MoWR since July 2002 were basically basin as part of the -Banduri guided by the aforesaid provision of the Act. In Nala project. Panaji, the former capital of Goa, is continuation of this process, Hon’ble Union Minister situated on the left bank of the river Mandovi. The for Water Resources convened an inter-State meeting Canal of Cumbarjuem links the Mandovi river to the on 4.4.2006 at the level of Chief Ministers of the Mapusa river and this canal has made the inner parts States of Goa, Karnataka and Maharashtra. of the Mandovi open to ships that carry Iron Ore. Subsequent actions of Government of Goa with regard Iron Ore is Goa’s prime mineral that is mined in to following up action on decisions taken in the inter- Eastern Hills. State meeting gave an impression that the State of Goa is not ready to pursue the negotiation process The Mandovi river also carries in it three further and wants constitution of tribunal and freshwater isles: The Divar, Chorao and Vashee. All reference of the dispute to the Tribunal immediately. three are present in the Mandovi River near the town Accordingly, the Central Government in the MOWR of Old Goa. The Mandovi is also known for the concluded that the dispute contained in the request beautiful Mandovi bridge situated across the river near of State of Goa of July 2002 cannot be resolved by Panjim. It was famous due to its collapse in the 1980s. negotiation and initiated further action in the matter A new bridge now stands where it used to be. The as per the provisions of Inter-State River Water winter months are peak tourist months and so the Disputes Act, 1956 and rules made thereunder. Mandovi River sees special cruises with live musical Meanwhile, the Govt. of Goa filed a suit in the Hon’ble bands, which only adds to the popularity of this river. Supreme court on Sept, 06 for setting up of a water dispute tribunal for the adjudication of the above river

78 World Focus October 2018 water dispute and an interlocutory Application (IA) Interstate water sharing for a stay in construction activities. The sharing of the waters of this river is a cause of dispute between the governments of Karnataka and The Writ Petition with the application has Goa. The Karnataka government proposes to divert been listed on a number of occasions before the some water from the Mahadayi river to the Hon’ble Supreme Court. Meanwhile, the Cabinet Malaprabha River basin as part of the Kalasa-Banduri considered in its meeting held on 10.12.2009 and Nala project, as approximately 188 tmcft of water at approved the proposal of the constitution of Mahadayi 75% dependability is available in the river. Mahadayi Tribunal. Cabinet Committee on Accommodation in Water Tribunal under Interstate River Water Disputes its meeting dated 06.10.2010 approved proposal of Act has been constituted to decide the sharing of the locating Tribunal in New Delhi. The central river waters by the riparian states. In August 2018, government has constituted the Mahadayi Water Mahadayi Water Tribunal verdict permitted Goa to Disputes Tribunal (MWDT) vide notification dated use 24 tmcft (excluding the 9.395 tmcft prevailing 16th November 2010. uses), Karnataka to use 5.4 tmcft (including 3.9 tmcft for export outside the basin) and Maharashtra to use The central Govt. vide notification dt. 13th 1.33 tmcft for consumptive purposes. The tribunal November 2014 decided that the effective date. of assessed the water generated in the river catchment the constitution of MWDT shall be 21st August 2013 area of Karnataka and Maharashtra as 32.11 tmcft instead of 16th November 2010. Accordingly, the and 7.21 tmcft respectively at 75% dependability. The Tribunal shall forward its report under sub-section tribunal has apportioned only 40.125 tmcft of Mandovi (2) of section 5 of the said Act to the Central Govt. river water for consumptive uses among the three within a period of 3 years w.e.f. 21st August 2013, riparian states. The dispute over Mahadayi river has i.e. on or before 20th August, 2016. As per proviso to resurfaced over the past few weeks and tensions Section 5(2) of the said Act, the Tribunal has been have been rife between Goa and Karnataka. So, what given two extensions of one year each viz. extension is the dispute all about? given for a period of one year w.e.f. 21st August 2016 vide Notification dated 11th August, 2016and The dispute over the Mahadayi river began extension given for a period of one-year w.e.f. 21st in the 80s and grew stronger in the subsequent August 2017 vide Notification dated 24th July 2017. decades. The trigger was Karnataka’s move to design The Tribunal shall forward its report under Section a number of dams, canals and barrages to route the 5(2) of the ISRWD Act, 1956 on or before 20th Mahadayi river water to the Malaprabha basin. The August 2018. state claimed that channelling the river water into the basin of Malaprabha, a tributary of the Krishna, would Bridges: The Mandovi River near Panjim are three meet the requirements of water-scarce districts of parallel Mandovi Bridges. The older bridge collapsed Bagalkot, Gadag, Dharwad and Belagavi. Goa, in the 1980s before a new bridge was constructed to seeking redressal to the dispute in 2002, sought the accommodate heavy transport vehicles. The Mandovi constitution of a water disputes tribunal. The state Bridge links the towns of Panjim to Porvorim. On 14 also moved the apex court in 2006 with its demand. June 2014, the foundation stone for the third bridge, After sustained efforts by the Goan government, the which would be the largest bridge in Goa, was laid by Mahadayi Water Disputes Tribunal was set up on Prime Minister Narendra Modi. It will span 3 November 16, 2010. kilometres (1.9 miles) and will be 15 metres (49 feet) higher than the existing bridges and will be spaced in Goa contends that its population is dependent between the two. During the winter months, the peak on the river’s natural path and any move to divert it tourist season, special dusk cruises on the Mandovi - would affect its fragile ecosystem. It claimed that complete with serenading bands - add to the charm the ingress of saltwater in the river, which is of the river. dependent on monsoons, will ultimately end up killing the state’s mangroves and green belt, disturb the

Water Resources in Karnataka-Special Reference to Mahadayai Water Dispute 79 relationship between the people and the land, as well The over 2,000-page judgment—the product as the ecological balance. of 109 sittings of the tribunal since September 2012 comes at a time when north Karnataka, the second- The dispute is also around the amount of most arid region in the country, has been demanding water that Goa receives. Karnataka claims that the for water for drinking and for developmental projects surplus from Mahadayi drains into the sea and that it from the Mahadayi river. should be diverted into the deficit basin in Malaprabha to meet the state’s drinking, irrigation, agriculture and The verdict also directs the central power generation needs. Goa has, meanwhile, denied government to constitute a body called ‘Mahadayi Karnataka’s claims saying it is a water deficient state Water Management Authority’ to implement the and limiting the water supply would adversely impact report and final decision. its agriculture production. The verdict granted 1.5tmc of water for in- Supreme Court has, for now, stayed the basin consumptive use for drinking and irrigation construction of dams and canals by Karnataka on within the Mahadayi river basin, along with the Mahadayi. Karnataka claims it requires 7.56 evaporation losses from the reservoir(s) through thousand million cubic feet (tmc ft) of water from proposed Mahadayi hydroelectric project. Mahadayi to meet the requirement of farmers of Karnataka was also granted 2.18tmc of North Karnataka. Goa, nonetheless, has expressed Mahadayi water at the proposed Bhandura Dam and reservations claiming Karnataka may stock excess 1.72tmc of water at the proposed Kalasa Dam. water in its reservoirs so that it can be used for irrigation in other parts of the state. Karnataka has also been asked to modify the detailed project report (DPR) of the proposed Mahadayi The Mahadayi river, also spelt Mhadei or hydroelectric project, adopting water availability at Mahadeyi, stretches 111-km. Over two-thirds of the 75% dependability at the proposed project site limiting river’s stretch lies in Goa (76km). The Mandovi is to a maximum of 8.02tmc. important for Goa also because it is one of the few sweet-water sources at the state’s disposal. Most of A demand to divert 5.527tmcft of water to Goa’s 11 rivers contain salt water and Mandovi ensures the Supa reservoir of the Kali hydroelectric power water security as well as being an important place to project and 7tmc of surplus water to the proposed source fish for the state. Kotni reservoir was rejected.

Conclusion References Karnataka has been allocated around 13.5 thousand 1.Kumar, Rakesh; Singh, R.D.; Sharma, K.D. (2005-09-10). “Water Resources of India” (PDF). Current Science. Bengaluru: Current Science million cubic feet (tmcft) of water from the Mahadayi Association. 89 (5): 794–811. Retrieved 2013-10-13. River also known as Mandovi according to the final 2.“Mahadayi River”. India.com. Retrieved 16 December 2014. report of the tribunal set up to settle the nearly four- 3.“Mahadayi water dispute tribunal report (pages 2693 to 2706, Volume XII)”. Retrieved 17 August 2018. decade-old dispute between the state and its 4.“Turmoil over Mhadei River”. Daijiworld. Retrieved 27 July 2013. neighbours, Goa and Maharashtra. 5.“Oh!Mandovi”. Navhind Times. Retrieved 2008-10-1

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80 World Focus October 2018 Irrigation, Agricultural Sustainability and Water Management in Rajasthan Rajesh Kumar Abhay

Introduction demand for food has put enormous pressure on Water is vital input for the development of agriculture, agriculture. The reckless use of water for irrigation, industry and service sectors. As the population has effected soil fertility, salinity, water availability increases, the stress is more on water utilisation. and also groundwater quality. Irrigation has severely Surface water and groundwater are the two affected the land quality. Increasing demand for food components of hydrological cycle which are available has compelled the farmers to increase their farm yield. to man. Water, a biological necessity, is of great Consequently, it leads to start of unsustainable economic significance. It is supreme economic wealth agricultural practices. These unstainable practices even more than coal or gold (Karennavar and have led to changes in land use and land cover. It Hiremath, 1982). Surface water has been a pivotal leads to degradation of cultivated landscape like point in the development of civilization. It is an nutrition depletion, salinity, water scarcity, soil erosion, essential element in the evolution of the overall groundwater pollution and decrease in agricultural availability of groundwater (Arogyaswamy, 1971). productivity. It poises danger for sustainability of The quantum of surface water resources in a region agriculture particularly in a drought region like depends on its storage capacity in the form of tanks, Rajasthan. ponds, lakes and the courses of rivers. Storage of surface run-off water influences the improvement in The problem of overuse of water in groundwater level and expansion of water table and agriculture for irrigation and its sustainability is a major has a direct impact on the development of agriculture challenge in the state. Also, it is different from region and allied activities, particularly, in rainfed areas. to region depending on natural processes and way of using water resources by farmers (Birkenholtz, 2009). Water is also an essential ingredient for The largest state of India, Rajasthan is also facing sustainability of living beings. Its availability in terms acute problem of water scarcity mainly due to faulty of quantity and quality for diverse purposes is scarce irrigation practices by farmers. If we look into the and nearly constant. From the ancient times, India fact that state encompasses 18.349 m ha and out of has been a country whose economy is primarily this only 25 per cent of the land is irrigated. depends on agriculture. Increased agricultural Groundwater level is available only at a depth of 30 production is needed to feed its ever-growing to 61m. Approximately three-fourth irrigation is done population, however, presently it is increasing with by groundwater through wells and tube-wells. It is decreasing growth rate. The dependency of leading to unstainable use of groundwater and agriculture on rainwater limits cultivation process. As consequently, it will result into the unsustainable we all know that the water is a key factor in condition of the state in the near future. agriculture, therefore, a number of steps have been taken to augment irrigation facilities in the past. As a Rajasthan is the largest state in India with result, irrigation has changed the agricultural the population of 68.5 million spread over 33 districts landscape with greater impact on productivity. and 248 blocks (Census of India, 2011) with one-fourth However, it has questioned the sustainability of those urban population. It covers about 11 per cent of land regions where agriculture is dominantly through mass of the country and only 1 per cent of total surface irrigation methods. The level of sustainability depends water of country. Of the 14 river basins, Chambal upon the optimum and rational utilization of water in river is perennial. Rajasthan is known as the desert irrigation. But exponential increase of population and state of India. Its length is 826 km from north to south

Irrigation, Agricultural Sustainability and Water Management in Rajasthan 81 and 869 km from west to east. It is chronically a landscape. Over the last half century, this groundwater drought prone area as it faces the drought situation irrigation became more prominent and it resulted in due to geographical conditions that are not favourable change in irrigated landscape from surface irrigation for good monsoon. About 61 per cent of the state to groundwater irrigated landscape (Moench, 2002). area consists of sandy plain which lies to the west In the US for example, groundwater withdrawals, as and north of Aravalli hills. The Aravalli hill ranges, a percentage of total water withdrawals for irrigation, the oldest mountains of India, constitute the most climbed from 23 per cent in 1950 to 42 per cent in dominant hilly area of the state. The ranges run 2000 (Maupin, 2014). In Rajasthan, this technology diagonally across the state from north-east Delhi to was like miracle which helped in fighting water south-west upto the plains of Gujarat, covering a scarcity and also helped in increasing agricultural distance of about 692 km. In the last 50 years there productivity. Between 2001 and 2013, farmers has been 40 years of drought leading to scarcity of adopted over 3.2 million agricultural tubewells water in Rajasthan (Sharma and Sharma, 2003). (Government of Rajasthan, 2013). Irrigated area has Therefore, it is important to study the problem of use also risen from 7.49 million ha to 7.88 million ha of water for agriculture purpose and its future between 2012 and 2015. This proliferation of tubewell sustainability in the region. To this end, the Rajasthan changed the nature of landscape. It is mainly based State has been chosen as the study area. The paper upon electric tubewells and with engine oil. It is highlights the issues related with irrigation, cropping dominant in the districts of Alwar, Jaipur, Jodhpur, and irrigation intensity, status of groundwater Bikane, Chittorgarh, Hanumangarh, Sikar, Bharatpur development, sustainable agriculture and water and Ganganagar (Agricultural Statistics, 2014-15). management in Rajasthan. Well-Water Irrigation System Irrigation in Rajasthan There are various types of wells- shallow wells, deep Agricultural landscape is highly dynamic. It changes wells, tubewells, artesian wells, etc. From the shallow according to change in soil quality, available water, wells water is not always available as the level of use of technologies, human labour etc. Major water goes down during the dry months. Deep wells agricultural crops of Rajasthan are cereals, pulses, are more suitable for the purpose of irrigation as water foodgrains, oilseeds etc. When land is cultivated by from them is available throughout the year. Tubewells irrigation methods, that land will be known as irrigated are also used for irrigation purposes. At places where landscape. Irrigated landscape provides groundwater is available, a tubewell can be installed environmental, economic and social benefits to near the agricultural area. A deep tubewell worked cultivator. by electricity, can irrigate a much larger area (about 400 ha) than a surface well (0.50 ha). Wells with This landscape has higher productivity pumpsets are mostly used in Bhilwara, Jaipur, Alwar, compare to unirrigated landscape. This productivity Jhalawar, Udaipur, Sikar, Jalore, Chittorgarh and Ajmer can be increased if efficient use of irrigation districts of Rajasthan. technologies is used. Agricultural land is irrigated by different types of irrigation methods in Rajasthan. Canal Water Irrigation System Now, there are various types of systems of irrigation Canal irrigation is playing a vital role in Rajasthan’s practices in different parts of India. Irrigation system agriculture sector. They irrigates nearly about 24 per in Rajasthan is carried on in the 4 ways mainly in the cent of total irrigated land in Rajasthan. The canals form of tubewells (45.13 per cent), open wells (27.61 are constructed in the form of Indira Gandhi canal, per cent), canals (24.47 per cent), tanks (0.88 per and from Chambal, Gang and Bhankhara dams. cent). These canals irrigates the agricultural landscape in the districts of Bikaner, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Tubewell Irrigation Jaiseslmer, Kota, Bundi, Baran, Banswara, Jalore and Farmers adopted this technology and this led to Tonk districts. Their supply of water is only when increased agricultural production, and indeed this has there is sufficient water in the rivers. been the case worldwide. This has led to change in

82 World Focus October 2018 Tank Water Irrigation System for groundwater abstraction structures mainly dug This system is very much adopted in the state of wells, dug wells with pump, dug-cum-bore wells and Rajasthan. The tanks are constructed for storing tube wells considering per unit draft in an average water. From all these tanks, water is carried to the period of operation. The units of assessment are fields through canals. In many places, rainwater categorized for groundwater development based on harvesting systems are installed and water is stored two criteria: (a) stage of groundwater development, in large artificial reservoirs to be used for agricultural and (b) long-term trend of pre-and post-monsoon purposes. The percentage of irrigated area through water levels. On the basis of these two criteria, all tanks is very less. All four sources of irrigation are of blocks of 33 districts of Rajasthan have been immense importance for the agriculture in Rajasthan. categorised in four categories. They are: safe areas which have groundwater potential for development; Cropping and Irrigation Intensity in Rajasthan semi-critical areas where cautious groundwater Cropping intensity and irrigation intensity are major development is recommended; critical areas; and indicators for assessing the efficiency in agricultural overexploited areas where there should be intensive sector. The cropping intensity is the ratio of gross monitoring and evaluation and future groundwater area sown to net area sown. On the other hand, development linked with water conservation irrigation intensity is the ratio of gross irrigated area measures. According to the Report of Central to net irrigated area. Intensity of irrigation is governed Groundwater Board (2004-2011), in the year 2011, by various factors such as sources of irrigation, types 71 per cent blocks of 33 districts are in the state of of crops grown, cropping season, quantity and quality over-exploited and 10 per cent blocks are in the critical of water supply, density of network of water channels, condition. Only 10 per cent blocks have safe etc. Cropping intensity in Rajasthan was 138.32 in groundwater condition while 1 per cent blocks have 2014-15 compared to 142.98 in 2013-14 showing a saline water availability. It shows that situation is decrease of 3.26 percent. In an agricultural region, worse with respect to groundwater availability for other things being equal, the intensity of irrigation will agriculture in the Rajasthan. Whatever, the amount increase with decrease of rainfall and vice-versa. It was available, it is now overexploited. This puts was 129.04 in 2014-15 compared to 128.96 in 2013- agriculture sector under threat and increases its 14 showing an increase of 0.06 percent. Both, dependence on canal irrigation and through natural indicators suggests that agricultural system, in rain. Rajasthan, is under tremendous pressure due to higher demands and less support from natural factors. The Sustainable Agriculture land requires efforts from the farmer’s perspective The sources of irrigation, cropping as well as irrigation approach to increase the resilience of land which can intensity, overexploited groundwater puts immense increase the farms capacity to produce maximum pressure on the limited agricultural land resource of (Abhay and Patra, 2018). Rajasthan. This pressure ultimately threaten the sustainability of agriculture in the state. Sustainability of agriculture is the part of economic dimensions of Status of Groundwater Development the broader concept called sustainable development The status of groundwater development is assessed derived from the Brundtland Report of WCED using the following formula and also as defined by (1987). Sustainable development is the organising CGWB (2005) as: principle for meeting human development goals while Stage of Groundwater= Existing Gross Groundwater Draft for All Uses X 100 at the same time sustaining the ability of natural Development (per cent) Net Annual Groundwater Availability systems to provide the natural resources for future generations also. It has shifted to focus more on The gross yearly groundwater draft is economic development, social development, and calculated for irrigation, domestic and industrial uses. environmental protection for future generations. This The gross groundwater draft includes groundwater sustainable word has been become meaningful for extraction from all existing groundwater structures agriculture sector. As the population is rising, demand during monsoon as well as non-monsoon period. for food is also rising, as a result more natural Groundwater draft has been calculated differently Irrigation, Agricultural Sustainability and Water Management in Rajasthan 83 resources (land and water) are under stress. the water endowments in healthy status. The present Consequently, these higher demands are endangering generation has to maintain these endowments as the natural resources and also compromising the future trustees and pass the same to the future generation needs. There is need to focus on sustainable in a more healthy and enriched form. Some of the agriculture practices with suitable irrigation management practices have been discussed below techniques. for water sustainability in the State.

Sustainable agriculture is a time and space The availability of water and its maximum specific concept. In the long term, equal emphasis use is important aspects for the sustainability of the will be put on economic, environmental and socio- region. It is important that rational measures should institutional development at national, regional and local be adopted to augment the amount of water with the levels (Zhen and Routray, 2003). In simplest terms, help of various techniques. These techniques will help sustainable agriculture is the production of food, fibre, to increase the amount of water to fulfill various or other plant or animal products using farming requirements of the people particularly in the arid and techniques that protect the environment, public health, semi-arid areas of the country. It requires the efforts human communities, and animal welfare. This form from government as well as from the local community. of agriculture enables us to produce healthy food without compromising the ability of future generations Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is a small-scale to do the same. catchment development tool with a long tradition in many countries, including India (Agarwal and Narain, Today, concerns about sustainability in 1997). ‘Water harvesting’ is usually used as an agricultural systems centre on the need to develop umbrella term covering a range of methods of technologies and practices that do not have adverse collecting and conserving various forms of runoff from effects on environmental resources and it should lead different sources. In particular, for dryland agriculture to improvement in food productivity. To maintain the it denotes the collection of excess runoff in a storage agricultural sustainability in the state like Rajasthan, tank and using it for the betterment of crop production it is important to keep two resources into their best in the collected or other areas. There are three types forms which are land and water. However, the people of collector tanks, namely, farm ponds, percolation are habitual of using less water due to its scarcity, ponds and silt detention tanks. The water collected in but the people should be made aware about the various the farm pond is directly used for protective irrigation. modern water management techniques which not only The water stored in other structures will recharge will help in increasing the groundwater condition but the groundwater and is used for protective or it will also help in improving the land condition for supplementary irrigation by digging wells. The continuous agricultural production in longer term. capacity of the farm pond or percolation pond required Therefore, a set of water management techniques is depends upon the rainfall, intensity of rainfall, soil, discussed in the next paragraphs to look after this slope, terrain condition, etc. (Sivanappan, 1995). At one of the biggest challenge in Rajasthan and its future present, we all know about the significance of this sustainability. technique but still ignoring. As it has been said that, ‘the art and science of “collecting water where it Water Management and Sustainability of falls”, is an ancient but dying wisdom which needs to Rajasthan be revived to meet modern freshwater needs Water has been sustaining most of the species and adequately, equitably and sustainably, and modernized the food chain on the planet, since the beginning of with inputs from science and technology’ (Agarwal creation. This unique gift, exclusive probably to this and Narain, 1999). Its role is immense for achieving planet should be sustained through pragmatism and the sustainability of water and agriculture in the arid made best use of, without either polluting or wasting regions of India. or overdrawing it. Rain and underground and surface water sources should be enriched using human Groundwater recharge can be improved by ingenuity. The past generations have handed down water conservation and management. Proper

84 World Focus October 2018 monitoring of village ponds and johads can help in The role of various institutions like government, PRIs improving the groundwater level. It has been seen (Panchyati Raaj Institutions), NGOs, and women in that within a year of construction of johads, things making decisions to manage water resources is have changed with respect to water availability for significant. The decision of the governments may not drinking and irrigation is concerned in Alwar district be obligatory on the locals at any stage. Role of of Rajasthan (Singh and Gandhi, 2003). The wells planners and researchers should be of advisory in were recharged and ample water supply was ensured nature. Final decisions on all development activities to meet the needs of people and livestock for the should come from farmers. Beneficiaries should get entire year. Irrigation bore wells have created more convinced that this is their work, not of a department. havoc due to overexploitation of groundwater. In some Thus, decision-making should not be a one way affair. regions bore wells are dug beyond 700 feet, which It will benefit the local people and will help in the affect water structure/aquifers, perennial character success of the implemented plans related to water of streams and reduce surface moisture content. management. The PRIs, namely, the gram Banning on bore wells requires serious research on panchayats, panchayat samities and zillah their need and functioning. This monitoring will help parishads can play a facilitating as well as in the sustainable utilisation of water, ultimately, managerial role in choosing, providing, managing and leading water resources towards its sustainability. maintaining drinking water and sanitation facility in villages. Unless the local self-governments are In order to ensure sustainable irrigated motivated, involved and trained, the scheme would farming it is necessary to take suitable measures to not succeed the scarce resources like water in a tackle location-specific problems, adopt proper village. Therefore, it is the responsibility of PRIs to cropping pattern, adopt suitable soil and water provide basic services to their own community. The management practices like rainfed cropping, dryland role of non-governmental organisations is also agriculture should be promoted by the government important which is established by a group of individuals and practiced by farmers. With their policy and and not set up by either governmental or inter- execution by farmers, the objectives to achieve governmental body. Their role as voluntary agencies sustainability will remain and suspicious situation. proved to be also beneficial in water conservation All possible moisture conserving agronomic activities, particularly, in implementation of various techniques and crop rotations should be utilised to water conservation programmes. In generating minimize water intensity in crop production. Adoption dynamic interfaces between the processes of planning of water-saving technologies can help in cutting down and people’s institutions, non-governmental the groundwater draft and will also help in improving organisations can play important roles. It needs to be the physical efficiency of water use in agriculture. In made clear that non-governmental organisation the study area, various methods of irrigation are in cannot replace governmental organisations and practice, therefore, it is suggested that modern people’s institutions at large. However, they can act irrigation techniques, such as sprinkler and drip as catalysers and stimulators at less cost and with irrigation should be promoted in much bigger way, greater acceptance (Dhar, 2001). Contribution of where the topographic and soil conditions do not permit women in agriculture is substantial in India. Right from efficient irrigation by conventional methods. collection of fuel for cooking to collection of fodder for cattle, ploughing and other operations, sowing, Every drop of water should be used and weeding, fertiliser application, pesticide application reused (wherever permissible) most judiciously both and all operations upto harvesting women either work at off-farm and on-farm activities. Increasing independently or alongwith men. The principal scientific research is developing new technologies and collectors of water in the Indian household are women, methods, whereby domestic, commercial and usually, between the age of 15 to 35 years, this could industrial functions can be served with the use of be for purpose of drinking, cooking, washing, bathing lesser amounts of water. Therefore, multiple use of and for cattle. Women have better and close water will definitely contribute in water management knowledge of water sources in their area and have and its sustainability. an exact idea regarding the time series behavior of

Irrigation, Agricultural Sustainability and Water Management in Rajasthan 85 water availability of the source. With such a repository Birkenholtz, T. (2009) “Irrigated landscapes, produced of knowledge, women in the area are best suited to scarcity and adaptive social institutions in Rajasthan, act as representatives of the community in planning, India”, Annals of the Association of American the implementation and management of water supply Geographers, 99(1): 118-137. programme (Mahajan, 2007). The important need is Census of India (2011) Final Population Totals- to concretise empowerment of women and enable Rajasthan, Registrar General of India, New Delhi. them to acquire adequate capabilities of knowledge, Central Ground Water Board (2005) Report on skill and decision-making power so that they can play Dynamic Groundwater Resources of Rajasthan, a decisive role in the environment-friendly Western Region, Jaipur. development of the area. Therefore, in totality, it can Dhar, T.N.(2001) “Land and water resources in the be said the above discussed methods of water Indian Himalayas: Issues of development, uses, management will help in augmenting the water sustainability and people’s participation”, in J.P. Mishra availability in the study area and will contribute in and B.K. Bajpai (eds) Community Participation and keeping the natural resources in their best shape. Natural Resource Management, Jaipur and New Delhi: Rawat, 61-96. Conclusions Government of Rajasthan (2013) Central Groundwater The present paper looks into the issues of irrigation, Board Report, Rajasthan, Jaipur. its intensity, cropping intensity, groundwater Karennavar, M.F. and Hiremath, S.S. (1982) “Water exploitation. These issues have kept the sustainability resource of Karnatak” Transactions of the Institute of the arid and semi-arid regions in question in front of Indian Geographers, 4(2): 175:184. of the planners. This paper addresses this question Mahajan, N. (2007) “Women in water management”, that the path of sustainable development for Rajasthan Kurukshetra, 55(11): 20-21. will not be with these issues. The planners needs to Maupin, M.A., Kenny, J.F., Hutson, S.S., Lovelace, come up with solutions and strategies which can J.K., Barber, N.L., and Linsey, K.S. (2014) Estimated address not only these issues but also the alternatives Use of Water in the United States in 2010, U.S. which can bring Rajasthan’s development path on Geological Survey Circular 1405, http://dx.doi.org/ the track. A small attempt is made to give suggestions 10.3133/cir1405 related to water management as the land and water Moench, M. (2002), “Water and the Potential for resources are the basic resource for the sustainability Social Instability: Livelihoods, Migration and the of any region. Therefore, it is recommended that from Building of Society”, Natural Resource Forum, 26(3): the top to bottom, efforts are required from all sides 195-204. to keep the sustainable development at the priority in Sharma H. S. and Sharma, G. (2003) “Drought and Rajasthan. depletion of water resources in Rajasthan: A strategy for sustainable development”, in D. N. Singh et al. Bibliography (eds) Water Crises and Sustainable Management, Abhay, R.K. and Patra, P. (2018) “Measuring Varanasi: Tara Book Agency, 122-23. resilience of land against degradation from a farmer’s Singh, R.B. and Gandhi, N, (2003) “Community based perspective approach in Kendujhar Plateau, Odisha water resource management through johads in Alwar (India)”, European Journal of Geography, 9(1): 23- district”, in D. N. Singh et al. (eds) Water Crises 37. and Sustainable Management, Varanasi: Tara Book Agarwal, A. and Narain, S. (1997) Dying Wisdom, Agency, 228-241. New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment, p. World Commission on Environment and Development 404. (WCED) (1987) Our Common Future. Oxford: Agricultural Statistics (2014-15) Directorate of Oxford University Press. Economics and Statistics, Department of Planning, Zhen, L. and Routray, J.K. (2003) “Operational Rajasthan, Rajasthan. indicators for measuring agricultural sustainability in Arogyaswamy, R.N.P. (1971) “The evaluation and developing countries”, Environmental Management, utilisation of water resources”, in V. Dagrli, (ed) 32(1): 34–46. Natural Resources in the Indian Economy, Bombay, p. 69 86 World Focus October 2018 Challenges in Decentralized Water Supply Management: Lessons from West Bengal Dr. Debasri Mukherjee & Dr. M. N. Roy

Background The Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation Access to safe water is critical for healthy living. (MDWS) of the Government of India (GOI), in its Yet, large number of people across the developing ‘Strategic Plan 2011-22 for rural drinking water in countries including India have limited access to safe India’, had set the goal to ‘Ensure that at least 55% drinking water. In order to ensure access to safe of rural households are provided with piped water drinking water to everyone and for ever the supply; at least 35% of rural households have piped Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG-6) has clearly water supply with a household connection; less than laid targets to be achieved by 20301. The major goals 20% use public taps and less than 45% use hand in this respect are (i) to achieve universal and pumps or other safe and adequate private water equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water sources by 2017’. The goal set for the year 2022 in for all (Goal 6.1), (ii) to improve water quality by the said strategic plan was that every rural person in reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing the country will have access to 70 lpcd (litre per capita release of hazardous chemical waste and materials, per day) water, against the current norm of 40 lpcd, having the proportion of untreated wastewater and within their household premises or at a horizontal or substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse of vertical distance of not more than 50 meters from water (Goal 6.3) and (iii) to support and strengthen their household without barriers of social or financial the participation of local communities in improving discrimination. Although there has been substantial water and sanitation management, as stated in Goal progress in the recent past, the goal has far from 6.6 (b). being fulfilled. As per the World Bank Report, like In India, drinking water supply has been a many other developing countries, the rural dwellers national flagship programme for many years and in in India are less likely than their urban counterparts 2009 National Rural Drinking Water Programme to have access to at least basic water and the poorer (NRDWP) was launched by modifying the people are less likely to have the convenience of safe Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme water being piped to their homes2. Sustainable access withmajor emphasis on ensuring sustainability of water of adequate quantity of water as well as quality are availability in terms of potability, adequacy, important challenges for the country as well as the convenience, affordability and equity. Water quality state of West Bengal. being a serious public health concern in India, the NRDWP Guidelines has given due priority on Water Access to Drinking Water in West Bengal Quality Monitoring & Surveillance (WQMS) towards The Government of West Bengal, in its ‘Vision 2020’ ensuring that drinking water used by everyone is safe. for drinking water, had set the goal to “Provide Safe, A Revised Guidelines for the same has been issued Sustainable and Adequate Water Supply to All under the Water Quality Sub Mission in July 2017 Humans and Livestock in West Bengal by 2020” with considering the criticality and urgency of the matter. objectives of providing 70 lpcd in rural areas ensuring As per ‘National Rural Drinking Water Quality drinking water security through complete shift from Monitoring and Surveillance Programme’ hand pumps to Piped Water Supply Schemes (PWSS) (NRDWQMSP), a community-based water quality in a phased manner and provision for house monitoring and surveillance system through training connection etc. Against the goals mentioned above, and equipping people at the Gram Panchayat (GP) the data uploaded in the Integrated Management level to test water quality parameters in the laboratory Information System (IMIS) of the MDWS shows that is a prioritized activity. access to piped water by the rural dwellers were

Challenges in Decentralized Water Supply Management: Lessons from West Bengal 87 around 57.95% for West Bengal against 44.09% for dissolution of arsenic-rich iron oxyhydroxides the country as on 10th May 20183. However, for West increases the arsenic concentration in water. Bengal such access was available predominantly from Consumption of drinking water contaminated with stand posts and not individual connection in the Arsenic for long results in arsenicosis. It is proved premises. As far as coverage of the habitations is geologically that high fluoride concentrations may be concerned, out of total 1,05,905 habitations of West expected in groundwater from calcium poor aquifers Bengal, 53,313 (50.34%) habitations were having and fluoride bearing mineral areas. West Bengal has covered thorough PWS, predominantly through stand the highest number of habitations with Arsenic posts. Out of all those 53,313 habitations, 31,056 contamination affecting 93.4 lakh population, which (29.32%) habitations were fully covered, 11,578 is a serious challenge for the state5. Fluoride has a (10.93%) habitations were partially covered and significant mitigating effect against dental decay if 10,679 (10.08%) habitations were quality affected its concentration is about 1 mg/l while consumption as on 31.03.20184. water with high fluoride content (>1.5 mg/l) for a longer period causes dental or skeletal Bureau of Indian Standards has set fluorosis.Presence of coliform and particularly E. coli specifications (IS-10500-2012) for drinking water. poses serious health hazard and there are many However, this standard is only voluntary in nature outbreaks of diarrhoeal diseases because of and not supported by any legal framework. Drinking consumption of such contaminated water. With water in many areas of West Bengal is not safe as increased generation of human waste both in solid per the set standard and water quality has emerged and liquid form as well as poor sewerage and septage as a major issue in the State despite fair achievements management the chance of contamination of water in coverage of rural population with drinking water with both bacteriological as well as chemical supply. The ground water, in many parts of the state, contaminant has been on the increase6. Apart from is severely affected by Arsenic (0.01 mg/l or more), human sufferings, the huge economic loss due to ill Fluoride (1.5 mg/l or more), and Iron (0.03 mg/l or health caused by unsafe water warrants taking up more), which is alarming. Water drawn from shallow measures to provide safe water to everyone on a level, which is the source of drinking water for sustainable basis, which is one of the goals under the majority of the rural population as per Census 2011, SDG. has more chance of bacteriological contamination (TC/ FC/E.coli). Along with improving access to piped The above narration shows substantial gaps water supply, there is a need to ensure proper quality in infrastructure in drinking water supply arrangement of water from public sources and putting in place a in the state. However, another rather neglected proper system of Water Quality Monitoring & aspect is the Operation and Maintenance (O&M) of Surveillance System (WQMS) as per Uniform the existing facilities and governance of the water Drinking Water Quality Monitoring Protocol, GOI. supply systems. There are several barriers which need The state government has put in place a good system to be overcome for deriving due benefit from the of WQMS. At least 218 water quality testing existing PWSS. More investments in establishing new laboratories (both PHE & NGO managed) are water supply schemes and addressing quality issues seriously engaged for drinking water quality checking will become infructuous if the schemes are not on a regular basis. properly maintained.

Health Effects Challenges of Proper O&M of the PWSS It has been observed that the alluvial sediment of The World Bank in 2008 conducted a study of more West Bengal is the oxidized or ferric form of iron, than 600 water supply schemes covering more than which generally is not dissolved in water and create 40,000 HHs over 10 states of India including West reddish or brown colour in the drinking water. Though Bengal7. The study found that the effectiveness of iron is not hazardous to health, but it is considered a rural water supply schemes is mostly moderate to secondary or aesthetic contaminant in drinking water. low based on a set of indicators aimed at measuring On the other hand, releases of arsenic by reductive reliability, affordability, financial and environmental

88 World Focus October 2018 sustainability. The study also found that the O&M guidelines vide Memo No. 490/PN/O/1/4A 01/2015 cost being incurred was around half of what is needed dated the 10th June 2016, to assign responsibility of for proper maintenance resulting in performance providing drinking water supply on the GPs. below design and shorter life of the schemes. The analysis in the report shows that efficient functioning Panchayat & Rural Development of the PWSSs and quality of delivery of services need Department (PRDD) Government of West Bengal proper attention for efficient utilization of funds and (GOWB) in consultation with the Public Health natural resources as well as ensuring sustained Engineering Department (PHED) of the State access to safe water as per GOI norms. Government, ordered that the GP will remain responsible to supply safe drinking water to the people Inadequate funding of O&M of the PWSSs living within its jurisdiction8. The order further directed is becoming a growing problem.An order dated 17th that overall management and maintenance of all November 2017 of the MDWS has communicated PWSSs which provide water supply to only one GP that funding from NRDWP will henceforth be focused will lie on the GP and in case of multi-GP schemes on providing access to water in uncovered habitations the GP concerned will remain responsible for through PWSSs and addressing the problem of water managing only the water distribution network within quality and that cannot be used for sustainability of the GP. It was suggested that funds available as grants the schemes implying that the state government has from the 14th Finance Commission would be used to to bear all the O&M related responsibility. With operate the scheme. The order did not clearly mention decline in financial support from GOI through the source of funds that would be devolved. NRDWP and at the same time with increase in number of PWSSs, funding of O&M activities by the Handing Over Process of Piped Water Supply state government is going to be a growing challenge System (PWSS) to GP and a burden on the state exchequer, which is already The said order of the PRDD prescribed a format for under stress. agreement between the PHED and the GP for O&M of the PWSSs. The agreement mentions of certain Decentralization of Management of PWSS responsibilities of the GP and some specific One of the strategies for efficient supply of drinking responsibilities of the PHED. Some of the PWSSs water on a sustained basis is to move away from the have been handed over to the GPs over time. A quick current system of centralized supply driven schemes study was conducted by SIGMA Foundation, to the decentralized and demand driven community Kolkatawith support of the PHED to assess the status owned schemes. The said study by the World Bank of O&M of the schemes handed over to the GPs also confirmed that the demand driven schemes were with the objective of improving management of the found to be functioning more efficiently. The 73rd schemes for better delivery of the services. Some of Amendment of the Constitution of India in 1993 gave the PHED run schemes were also studied. There opportunity for involvement of the Panchayats, as were several lessons which emerged from the study the local government, in management of drinking which have important policy implication in water supply. However, in absence of proper strengthening O&M of the PWSSs, particularly in devolution of power as well as lack of capacity of strengthening management of the PWSSs by the GPs. the Panchayats, particularly the Gram Panchayats (GPs), they continued to remain engaged mostly with Process of handing over of the O&M installation and management of hand pumps only. In responsibilities to the GPs the year 2013, the MDWS initiated the process of The process followed in handing over of the schemes decentralization of drinking water supply to the to the GPs had several deficiencies which had created community under the general supervision of the difficulties for the GPs. It appeared that the schemes Panchayats for improving delivery of drinking water were rather handed over and not simultaneously taken services. In pursuance of that, the Panchayat & Rural over by the GPs. The GP functionaries were not Development Department (PRDD) of the briefed adequately what responsibilities and assets Government of West Bengal (GOWB) has issued were being handed over. Even the people were not

Challenges in Decentralized Water Supply Management: Lessons from West Bengal 89 aware that the PWSSs were handed over so that through spot sources. Since the State Government they could approach the GP for any problem. The was already bearing the expenses for maintaining the study found that only 4.9% of the HHs were aware PWSSs, the same amount is required to be of the handing over of the schemes to the GP. The transferred to the GPs through budgetary provision GP should have been instructed to give publicity after and in a time bound manner. If that is not done, the taking over of the scheme and this should be discussed GPs should be allowed to generate revenue as water as a prior agenda in the Gram Sansad meeting to be charges and the potential revenue that can be held after the taking over. collected can be deducted from the amount payable to the GP through the budget of the PHED. The GPs The effort to build capacity of the GP was were not clearly communicated about who will take confined to a general briefing on the government policy care of the financial responsibilities. PHED did in a meeting. The managerial, technical and financial transfer some funds much later and the communication competency required to run the schemes efficiently was inadequate to decide how the funds would be was not worked and no specific capacity building was used. The operators were working without any done although the GP has a permanent employee with remuneration and were de-motivated. It is necessary diploma in Civil Engineering, who could be trained that whatever fund is transferred from the budget of properly. It was possible to build the capacity of the the PHED, the same should appear in an exclusive GPs to run the schemes smoothly after taking over budget head of the department earmarked for of the schemes. However, in absence of any transferring funds to the GPs which have taken over organized effort there was huge gap capacity of the the responsibility to run the PWSS, so that there is GP functionaries which led to several teething transparency and predictability of the amounts problems. earmarked for management of the handed over schemes. The fund that would be available after the Proper management of the PWSSs, which budget is passed in the Assembly should be are generally large schemes covering around 20,000 communicated to all the GPs and higher level of population on average, required lot of institutional Panchayats, so that everyone is aware of the amount strengthening. Those include procurement of services to be transferred to the GPs. The fund should be of the operators, management of contract, released quarterly so that the GPs can pay maintenance of records, clear assignment of remuneration to the outsourced employees on time. responsibilities among various employees, Collection of water charges is an important way for accountability mechanism, watching on performances financing the O&M cost. The State Government was and involvement of the community for improving yet to come out with a policy on collection of water delivery of the services etc. Those were not addressed charges and the government order on handing over and the GPs had to learn the processes with much of the PWSSs merely mentioned that donations might difficulty. The government policy mentioned of be taken from the people by the Village Water and providing required support from the PHED so that Sanitation Committee (VWSCs), to be constituted by the GPs could overcome their problems. Neither all the States at every GP for more community PHED nor PRDD extended necessary supports to engagement in the water & sanitation sector as per the extent required. There was no system of NRDWP guidelines. monitoring in place to know if the schemes were being managed properly. There has been also confusion as to whether the GP or VWSCs should bear the financial burden. Adequate provisioning of funds VWSCs have no income and ultimately it was the Devolution of funds has to follow devolution of GP which were spending money from their own fund functions. It was not wise to presume that the GPs for maintenance of the PWSSs. However, funds were would spend their untied funds such as the awards of transferred by the PHED to the VWSCs although the Union Finance Commission on maintenance of the schemes were handed over to the GPs. There the PWSS, since they face many competing demands was no operational problem since the key office and have other commitments including water supply bearers of the GP are also the key functionaries of

90 World Focus October 2018 the VWSC. However, this arrangement has led to goal under the SDG. After exploring the capacity of extra work without any operational gain. the supply system, the GP should provide house connection to the willing households, which should Water Supply Services be a part of the perspective plan in the water sector Services being delivered by both PHED and GP as mentioned below. This being a new exercise for managed PWSSs raises lot of issues. The areas the GPs there will be need for handholding by the covered under the schemes have good access to PHED/ professional agencies for developing suitable water from spot sources. At the same time, water pilots. PHED may consider to develop a few pilot from PWSSs being supplied from Stand Posts the projects for subsequent replication. quality of access is no better than the hand pumps, from which water is available round the clock against Planning for water security and safety and supply for around 6 hours per day from the Stand universal coverage Posts. Water is extracted from a deeper aquifer and It is important that adequate priority is given on the water is also treated in most cases by the PWSSs. drinking water for safe and sustainable delivery of Therefore, people only collect water for drinking and potable water, which is a basic service to be provided cooking from the Stand Posts of the PWSSs. Average by the GP as the civic body, as per norms fixed by per capita collection of water was found to be merely the MDWS, GOI to all the rural dwellers. There is 26.3 litre per capita per day while as per design the need for proper orientation of the GPs on universal PWSSs were to supply water varying from 40 lpcd access to safe water, preferably piped through the to 70 lpcd. Thus, much of the water being extracted premises as the goal set under the SDG and is being wasted since the Stand Posts remained mostly sustainability of the services. 92% of the HHs had open.Most of the households except those living close opted for house connection during the study and to the Stand Posts were collecting water only for 96.3% of them were willing to pay for the same. It is drinking and cooking and the quantum was found to necessary to work out the most optimum arrangement be around 5 litres per capita per day. At the same to avoid duplication of public expenditure on water time 2.9% to 32.0% of the HHs, receiving supply of supply for the same household as well as to provide water from the PWSSs managed by GPs as well as water to institutions like schools and Anganwadis PHED mentioned that there is unmet demand of water (AWCs). At present many HHs enjoy multiplicity of due to several reasons like distance of the Stand Posts, access to public water sources, which should be kept crowding of the sources, poor flow of water etc. The limited to providing water for drinking and cooking in solution to improve quality of services is to provide case the primary source fails. It should also be kept house connection. in mind that most HHs were collecting water for drinking and cooking from the PWSSs and not from Providing house connections and improving the spot sources maintained by the GP. The existing service delivery coverage and access to potable water, the quality of More than 90% households were willing to take house access, dependence on spot sources and the gap to connections. The older schemes have been designed be bridged in reaching the SDG on water supply is with 40 lpcd (to be provided through Stand Posts only) expected to be unique for each GP. The current status but it was found possible to provide house connection needs to be documented, analysed and a holistic plan since much of the water was getting wasted. The should be made for each GP to reach a certain newer schemes were designed with capacity to supply standard of access for each HH/institution and there 61 lpcd to 70 lpcd of water, which permits providing is a clear vision as to how much should be invested house connections. However, no house connections for piped water connection and to what extent the were provided and where the GP had taken supply will be through spot sources and minimizing responsibility they were willing to provide such duplicity. connections on receiving cost of connections from the households. Appropriate policy and support from As mentioned above, the GPs should be the PHED will be required for improving quality of empowered to provide desired level of access to supply by providing house connection, which is the water to all the HHs and the institutions in a most

Challenges in Decentralized Water Supply Management: Lessons from West Bengal 91 cost-effective manner using the existing spot sources the community for better management of the PWSS. and the taken over PWSS. This will require proper Any GP should be handed over any PWSS only after understanding of the requirement of services, current the said trainings are over. availability and the gap to be bridged for proper visioning and planning for the potable water sector Water safety and related issues as a whole. At present planning following the Gram In West Bengal, all GPs are engaged in testing of Panchayat Development Plan (GPDP) guidelines water samples from the sources they own. However, issued by the PRDD does not take a holistic view the GPs were not testing water from the Stand Posts, mostly because the GPs do not have the capacity to which shows poor orientation and lack proper plan for entire water need of the people. The understanding. That is corroborated by the fact that investments are made as individual schemes, mostly although test results of samples from spot sources sinking tube wells through adhoc planning and not which are adverse to informed to the GP functionaries against a perspective plan for universal access to but not much follow up actions were taken by them. water supply as per norm. The GPs need to be There is need for sensitization of the GP functionaries oriented on how to assess the current status including on water quality, particularly the preventive aspects the possible coverage of the PWSSs, the most of source protection.As far as the PWSSs were optimum way of providing access to water for all concerned although there was arrangement for their dwellers from the existing sources (tube wells, chlorination but either there was no chlorination or Stand Posts and possible house connections) and to that was not effective since residual chlorine was develop a perspective plan for bridging the gaps with either zero or below the required level in all but one new schemes for achieving the SDG within the year schemes. There was little monitoring either by the 2030. The GPs should also be strengthened to prepare PHED or the GPs. There is need for generation of their plan for drinking water supply keeping in mind awareness on water safety among the GP the water safety and security as well as equity for functionaries, particularly in areas affected with ensuring that safe water is accessible to all the rural Arsenic or Fluoride. Each GP should also prepare dwellers as per norm. their water safety plan for which they need to be oriented. In fact, as a follow up of the Swachh Bharat Capacity building of the GP functionaries Mission there is to be drive on improving drinking The GPs in West Bengal has high capacity in civil water quality as an ODF (Open Defecation Free) construction works and there is also a Junior Engineer plus activity. Management of solid and liquid waste (called NirmanSahayak) to provide technical including faecal sludge is an important area in which support. They do not have much training on water the GPs are to be oriented. Further, appropriate supply system and there is need for providing training technology should be disseminated to properly to them for technical soundness related to O&M as handling waste by the GPs for preventing well as establishment of new water supply schemes, contamination of soil and water. in line with Swajal, for which guidelines has been issued by the MDWS recently. There is also need Improving delivery of services for development of Manual to prescribe the procedures The quality of water supplies wasfound to be poor in to be followed in O&M of the schemes, which was certain pockets in terms of flow of water and in a missing. Based on the responsibilities assigned and few cases, there was visibly turbid water coming out the practices to be followed in maintaining the PWSS, of the stand posts. Also, in many households had to as is proposed to be included in the Manual, all the travel more than 500 meters to collect water. Further, functionaries concerned are to be trained. Apart from some of the Stand Posts were very crowded since technical training, the Executive Assistants, who is large number of households depended on those Stand the key functionary of the GP in West Bengal, should Posts. The hours of supply were also less than the also be given special training on water supply designed hours in most cases. Further, there was management, particularly on aspects of procurement, occasional disruption of services due to electrical financial management, record keeping and delivery problem or distribution failures. The GPs were found of services, grievance redressal and engagement of to be not so sensitive to various aspects of service

92 World Focus October 2018 quality. The GP functionaries are to be sensitized to Way Forward various performance parameters based on which they The quick study in West Bengal indicates lot of should monitor their performances and keep on institutional issues in decentralized management of improving the same water supply. GOI has been promoting demand driven PWSs for which Swajal guidelines have been issued Redressing grievances recently. However, the country has a huge stock of One of the rationales for decentralization of water PWSSs which have been established in a supply driven supply schemes is more ownership and engagement mode and now the responsibility of running those of the community. Involvement of the community will schemes are being handed over to the GPs. require the GP to be responsive to the need of the people and prompt action on redressing their There are many issues covering both policy grievances. SIGMA’s study found that the complaints and operational aspects, which need to be addressed were not systematically documented in any register for efficient management of the existing PWSS. Sub- for proper handling in a time bound manner and optimal functioning of these schemes will deprive necessary follow up. There is need to develop large section of the people from proper services and appropriate forum for the citizen in expressing their at the same time inefficient use of infrastructure will grievances for faster redressal. Direct hearing of have high financial implication. There is need to pay grievances not only keeps the citizen satisfied but due attention on efficient functioning of the existing that helps to understand the problem and seek PWSSs and effective decentralization of their participation of the people for improvement where management. possible. That will also improve the accountability of the GP when they start collecting payment for Footnotes providing house connections. 1www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/ 2World Bank Group (2018): Atlas of Sustainable Monitoring Performance and Coordination with the PHED Development Goals, http://blogs.worldbank.org/open The system of monitoring was found to be poor. data/2018-atlas-sustainable development goals-guide data PRDD may come out with a list of monitorable and development indicators and educate the GP functionaries to not only capture relevant data but monitor their own 3www.wbphed.gov.inaccessed 30th June on 2018 performance based on those indicators. There is need 4Ibid for building capacity of the relevant officials and the 5National Water Quality Submission Guidelines circulated members of the Standing Committee concerned of th the GP (Shiksha O JanaswasthyaUpaSamity) for on 11 July 2017 being able to successfully monitor performance of 6Water Quality Monitoring - A Practical Guide to the Design the PWSSs, quality of service delivery, financial and Implementation of Freshwater Quality Studies and performance of the schemes and to take corrective measures. A suitable web-based MIS should be Monitoring Programmes: Edited by Jamie Bartram and developed to report the status from each GP on how Richard Balance, UNEP & WHO, 1996 the PWSS are functioning. 7World Bank Group (2018):Atlas of Sustainable Development Goals, http://blogs.worldbank.org/open There has to be a review every quarter at the block level to assess the difficulties and the ways data/2018-atlas-sustainable development goals-guide data out as well as how to improve service delivery. There and development is also need for improving coordination with the 8PRDD GOWBMemo No. 490/PN/O/1/4A 01/2015 dated PHED since the GPs are to be provided with technical support for years to come. the 10th June 2016

Challenges in Decentralized Water Supply Management: Lessons from West Bengal 93 India and Bangladesh Relations from the Prism of Muhari River Dipikanta Chakraborty

India and Bangladesh are two countries the veil of various regional and sub-regional initiatives. in South Asia which share 4156 km. international The leading schools like Structural Realism and Liberal border. Both these countries are riverine and Institutionalism are in a great debate which policy sometimes connected by the rivers. They have should be pursued by a state to protect its national many transboundary rivers. Muhari is one of them. interest. The ever prominent realism is in favour of The Muhari River from Tripura has its origin in relative gain and argued that the very nature of power Lushai hills. The river enters into Bangladesh is relative hence the state should prefer relative gain through Feni district and after dividing Feni and as the pre-eminent condition of their foreign policy. Chittagong district, it merged with the Bay of On the contrary, the liberal institutionalism says that Bengal. Now it has become a zone of tension a number of factors are to be considered before which has boiled the relations between India and framing foreign policy. With an inclination to the Bangladesh. Muhari is a riverine border between absolute gain, they viewed the foreign policy of a India and Bangladesh. But due to a natural nation not solely a power seeking manifesto and hence change in the course of the river, it created a protecting self-interest but also an instrument which char’(islet) or surfaced area. A large portion of considers economic and cultural issues. Social this char landfall in Indian side but Bangladesh constructivism is another dominant theory of has a claim over this land. It has created conflict International relations, which develops recently. The between two countries. Through the Land constructivists have favoured absolute gain concept. Boundary Agreement (LBA) 2015, the Indian Without discarding the realist’s notion of relative gain government tried to solve the disputed issues they just preferred the absolute gain over the relative between two countries. Under this agreement, the one. The India – Bangladesh relations is an exemplary enclaves from both sides are exchanged. But which defines the dynamic nature of national interest. Muhari char remains unsolved. The folks from India and Bangladesh are two vital parts of South Belonia, bordering Bangladesh find it problematic Asia. In the ambit of South Asia, all the countries are as they have firming lands in Muhari char. And it connected to each other by socio-cultural relations. is uncertain to get right over those lands. The lack India and Bangladesh are known for their close of consentient between the local, State government culturallineages. In the neighbourhood, India needs and the Central government created a hassle in Bangladesh to reiterate its regional superpower claim. the successful implementation of exchange of Bangladesh is a country with an embryonic economic enclaves. Eventually, Muhari River has inscribed structure but due to its geostrategic location, it is itself in the international water dispute. This paper considered important by both China and India. India will throw light on the adverse position of the river. needs a supportive Bangladesh to check China’s And also describe the role of community in foreign ascendancy in South Asia. Bangladesh’s well- policymaking. developed port can be accessed by India to open trade-gate for its North East. Both China and India Introduction are hoping to access the seaport of Bangladesh. China The concept of ‘national interest’ is as old as is planning to access Bangladesh’s Sonodia Island civilisation but it always demands vitality in the edifice and to make it a deep sea port and also want an access of International relations. Morgenthau’s notion of to Chittagong port, although in the last visit of Prime ‘dynamic nature of national interest’ is spontaneous Minister NarendraModi in Dhaka ensured India’s and axiomatic in this post-structural era also. The access to Chittagong port and Mongla port of nation states are seeking their national interest under Bangladesh1. In this context, it is necessary for India 94 World Focus October 2018 to mould its relations with Bangladesh. Apart from by untidy land borders, border conflicts, skirmishes, this, connectivity, development, regional cooperation betrayal, illegal migration, border crimes, trespassing, is the top priority sectors which influence the foreign unsettled riverine borders. The paper seeks to explain policy making of a nation. In South Asia, India is an the untold realities regarding river Muhari which is a emerging power whereas Bangladesh is fledgeling in trans-boundary river between Bangladesh and Indian case of economic and military deliberation which is state Tripura. Out of few others transboundary rivers not even comparable to India. But due to its relative in Tripura, the papers choose Muhari and explained proximity with regional power from time to time, the the nature of the dispute from a historical and country became an important player in South Asian analytical perspective. The information provided here politics. on Muhari, are mostly primary sources. This paper highlights the linkages between local politics and The concept of national interest itself is regional politics. The unresolved dispute of diversified and manipulated. The national interest of Muhaririver is a long lasting issue between India and a country is the fulfilment of its domestic Bangladesh but it was hardly raised by any of these requirements. In fact, it is the conglomeration of sides. Hence it remains a benighted part of the entire diversified national issues. Based on the requirements discussion. of those domiciliary agendas, a state formulates its foreign policy. For example, Tamil community and Role of Local Politics in Foreign Policymaking related politics are one of the determinant factors in The vital role of the community cannot be discarded India-Srilanka relations. Arunachal Pradesh is in the practically broadened field of foreign policy. controversial in India-China relations. Northeast India The prevalence of community interest is a significant is connected with mainland only by narrow 22 km study in the changing nature of international relations. corridor which is considered to be inadequate The discussion of Muhari char involves the interest by Indian defence experts. This narrow strip of land of a particular community in the policy-making of both is threatened. If Bangladesh permits, a strategic India and Bangladesh and the role of the State corridor can be set up and this will secure North East Governments is not negligible in the foreign policy- from any external aggression and can also ensure making of a country. In India, the present Government cost-effective transit facilities. A strong military base has necessitated the crucial role of the states who can be set up there to fight with insurgent groups share international border especially through the from North East. So due to the heterogeneous nature ‘Make in India Policy’. Tripura is one of such states of its domestic politics, India, like any other nations, which shares almost 856 Sq. Kilometres long border pursued different foreign policies in the with Bangladesh. The Indian government, in order to neighbourhood which will not only meet India’s own frame any policy for Bangladesh, has to consider the infrastructural development but will solve its domestic importance of Tripura. Muhari char is an important problems. Muhari char is one of such issues which factor for the local politics of Tripura. are important for the security of Tripura. The adverse position of river Muhari created polemic between This assertion fits accurately for the natives India and its counterpart Bangladesh. The anonymous of Belonia2 (Tripura) who are claiming for their right Muhari River is the beholder of the common history to the ‘char’ islet of the riverine border Muhari. The of Tripura and Bangladesh. It not only involves two human civilisation depends upon the flow of the river. nations of South Asia but also highlighted the role of River develops and flourishes human life. The community in foreign policymaking. It portrays the necessity of a river is neither limited to the interest of the community in the foreign policy-making construction of dams nor a sine qua non of agriculture. of India and Bangladesh. A river is sometimes a border which demarcates two political entities. Never bounded within the domestic Rationale of the paper level, it’s found as an essential determining factor in India and Bangladesh are knitted in the same thread a country’s foreign policymaking. A river has always for a number of reasons. Unlike Bangladesh – China been a source of cooperation and connectivity relations, India-Bangladesh relations are determined between India and Bangladesh as both these South

India and Bangladesh Relations from the Prism of Muhari River 95 Asian countries have 54 trans-boundary rivers economy of the state was dependent on it. Jute and between them. Mesta were the main products which were transported from Tripura to Kolkata by using Belonia Trans-boundary River Dispute between India – Feni railway. From Chittagong port, these and Bangladesh commercial products were sent to Kolkata. But after Border not only demarcates two sovereign entities, it 1965, the route had been stopped due to the regular assimilates two socially, culturally and historically skirmishes between the arm forces of India and connected societies. It has an economic aspect too. erstwhile East Pakistan. Muhari is a trans-boundary river between India and Bangladesh. Out of 54 officially recognised Muhari has become a line of demarcation transboundary rivers between India and Bangladesh, when it crosses Belonia and enters into Feni district Muhari is one. In 1982 Bangladesh Government of Bangladesh. River Muhari has changed its course. raised the issue of giving the status of Transboundary Hence the river bed has been shifted towards River to Muhari. It connects India and Bangladesh Bangladesh side thereby created the char land by passing through Tripura. It originated in Lushai (surface) to the Indian side. That char land is arable hills and through Belonia (Tripura) and Feni district and it is used by the natives of both Bangladesh and of Bangladesh; it has been poured into the Bay of India for cultivation. Now the folks are claiming for Bengal. The river Muhari is one of the controversial their rights over the surface of Muhari. The issue of issues which affect India – Bangladesh relations. cultivation in Muhari char has been instigating Having originated from remote Northeast, the river numerous problems in the local areas and hence is mostly anonymous and secluded. But the location affecting the relationship between two countries. of the river itself is of utmost importance. But the river has always been a part of the bilateral talk The dispute over Muhari char is identified as between two countries. The adverse position of this an international water dispute. The river flows river between India and Bangladesh made it between India and Bangladesh hence the controversial. Apart from river Muhari, there are few Transboundary River Muhari is a part of the bilateral others transboundary rivers in Tripura like – Gomati, relations between India and Bangladesh. A number Khowai, Feni. of eminent scholars have contributed to this talking point of international water dispute. Followings are Tripura is a tiny state from Northeast India. the most notable one - The state is surrounded by Bangladesh from three sides and connected to mainland India only through The Helsinki Rules on the Uses of the Waters Mizoram. The tiny state Tripura shares not only of International Rivers (1967)considered the international border with Bangladesh but also shares hydrology 3of the basin as one of the determining culture, history and tradition. A river has always been factors in making foreign policy between the basin a source of politics especially when it demarcates states4. Article IV and V of the same convention two political entities. Muhari is also serving the same highlighted that the socio-economic needs of the basin purpose as it is levelled as Transboundary River states should be considered. The past utilisation of between India and Bangladesh. Muhari had two the basin was also firmly addressed. tributaries Selonia and Gutiya. Muhari isolated the estates (Zamindari) of the Maharajas in Hill Tripura The Convention on the Law of Non- from other Zamindari estates. It was a navigable river Navigational Uses of Watercourse (1997) stressed as it receives water from the hills (Cumming, 1997). using the water of Transboundary Rivers. Article 6 After the partition, the river which flows in the plain of the same convention says that the utilisation of part of Tripura fell in erstwhile East Pakistan side watercourse must consider the interest of the and eventually has become the riverine border population leaving nearby and hence dependent on it. between India and Bangladesh. Till 1965 Belonia It should also consider the socio-economic condition was one of the nerve centres of trade. The railway of the concerned state. The folks of a particular place between Belonia and Feni was the lifeline as the Tribal nearby a river depend upon it. Any sort of change

96 World Focus October 2018 either in the course of a river or the decision making Muhari. The western past has already been of the respective state can hamper the source of embanked. The case of Muhari shows how the livelihood of the natives. So the respective states, adverse satiation of a river raises contradictions while taking any decision regarding the Transboundary between India and Bangladesh, on the one hand, and River will have to consider the interest of the folks the state India and its citizens on the other hand. who are dependent on the river otherwise it would destabilize the socio-economic and political structure. Contentious Muhari in India Bangladesh Conflict and cooperation concerning Transboundary Border.The main dispute between India –Bangladesh Rivers are very common all over the world. Most of concerning Muhari is mainly centred on the fact that the conventions- national and international level is Bangladesh wanted to settle the problem of concerned mostly with the water sharing, the quantity demarcation on the basis of ChaklaRoshnabad5 Map of shared water, dam construction (Salman M. A. of 1893. But India stressed on the map of 1854 and Salman, 2006). But Muhari has a unique tale to 1892 as well for the amicable solution of the boundary narrate. The conflict over river Muhari is not like the issue. But neither erstwhile Pakistan nor independent others. In 1973 Muhari was declared as ‘disputed Bangladesh accepted this. As a result, the demarcation land’. It may not give the profitable outcome to both was stopped. According to Agreement between India and Bangladesh relations. But the dispute Governments of India and Pakistan Regarding concerning Muhari must be solved as it depicts the Procedure to End Disputes and Incidents along the importance of community regime in foreign policy. Indo-East Pakistan Border Areas(1959)both the Muhari being a transboundary river, not only involved parties took initiatives to stop the border disputes. India and Bangladesh, the dissention between Muhari For that, the parties i.e., representatives of both India has also included the citizens of both the nations. At and Bangladesh agreed to meet frequently. This the same time, there was a divergence between the agreement opened a place for firing also. It is said in Government of India and citizens regarding the land the same agreement issue which is to be swiped with Bangladesh. So the case of Muhari char is global, local and political. It is ‘Where the boundary in the riverine area is criss- global as it is enlisted as an international water dispute. cross and portion of land on the home side of the It is a river which due to its adverse position has river are owned by the other country, fire is connected India and Bangladesh. The river Muhari opened when these lands are cultivated or attempts involves two important nations of South Asia hence it are made to dispose of their rightful owners’. is political in nature. It also stated, Dispute over Muhari Char Muhari is Trans-boundary River between India and ‘When a char land is formed after the floods, Bangladesh but the conflict which is stated here whether in the bed of the river or as an accretion discusses the issue concerning the conflict between of the mainland, an attempt is made by nationals the Government of India i.e., both the Central of both countries to seize the newly formed char Government and the State Government and the citizen lands. This leads to claims and counter-claims as who are economically dependent on Muhari. The to which side owns the char lands. Firing is Muhari char was actually hereditament of the resorted to supporting claims of the respective residents of Belonia. According to the local people of sides’. Belonia, slowly and gradually populace started coming closer to the town as the river was fierce sometimes. After the agreement of 1974, the river The more the river expands its edge, the less the eventually changed its course. India is in favour of community found nearby the river. Now the river has following the new course whereas Bangladesh stuck changed its course and it has shifted to Bangladesh to its argument of going with the old course. If Indian side by creating a surface to the Indian side. Now government follows it, a major portion of the char the folks of Belonia are claiming to fix this issue. land will fall in Bangladesh’s side which will hamper Muhari has two parts – Northern Muhari and Western the interest of Indian cultivators who have their

India and Bangladesh Relations from the Prism of Muhari River 97 cultivated land there in disputed Muhari char. This Dispute between the Citizen and State agreement marks the gross violation of human rights Government on Muhari of those people who have their cultivated land there In the edifice of foreign policy making of a country, a in disputed Muhari char. They are using this land for number of issues arise. In making a country’s foreign years. Now folks of both the sides are restricted to policy the interest of a specific community must be cultivate even. Hence any cultivation or harvesting taken into account. At the same time, the domestic was stopped for both the sides to this disputed land. states which share an international border give a The populace is also denied of their livelihood. But legitimate and strong claim for their own interest. In nationals from both the sides did not stop farming. this regard, the case of West Bengal can be raised. The incidents of firing afterwards proved the Mamta Banerjee, the Chief Minister of West Bengal callousness of this agreement. denied any sort of agreement with Bangladesh regarding the water sharing of river Teesta in 2011. Muhari char is a disputed land. Before 1971 In spite of an overwhelming approach of the Central the place was found to have donnybrooks. The awful Government towards Hasina Government, West incident of firing can be identified in 1964 when a Bengal has become the elemental figure. In the number of farmers went to their tenancy and the foreign policy making of a country, vie is between armed forces of Erstwhile East Pakistan fired upon the nation-state, domestic states and the community. them(Chatterjee, 2012). According to the report of a The decision makers while considering the role of local, in 1996 when the farmers went to their land for these three elements must specify the order of farming, they were confronted by BDR. But the preference. Three players are involved here in India’s farmers refused and continued their farming. As a decision making towards Bangladesh, –the nation- result, the BDR started firing on those Indian farmers state i.e., India, Government of Tripura and the (Choudhury, 2018). Due to the unfulfillment of specific community involved in cultivation in the char Boundary agreement (1974), both the countries had land. The bargain is between the state and its citizens. a further altercation in 1979 resulted in armed conflict In 1973 when this islet was declared disputed, the due to the unfulfillment of Boundary agreement people were thrown into an acute crisis. It was very (Jacques, 2000). Very recently, in 2005 there was an uncertain for the poor farmers as that land was a open confrontation between both the sides on the issue source of earning to them. It was their ancestral land of cremating a local at Belonia crematory. The BDR too. For a long period, they were settled alongside confronted the locals and the BSF as the crematory Muhari. Now the possessors of the land were asked was controversial and falls on Muhari char. The river to leave their entitlement as this char land is to be shifted its course several times. The gradual siltation substituted with Bangladesh. The people from Indian and erosion of the river mounted the grievances of side want an amicable solution to this problem as they the nations of both sides. As due to this shift their full-heartedly supported the Land Boundary interests have been jeopardized. Agreement of 2015 but they don’t want to swipe their land which will fall in Bangladesh side. They need Muhari itself is one of the important factors proper compensation from Government for the lands in India – Bangladesh relations. The Fulgazi falls in Muhari char. Before partition, Muhari had been subdivision under Feni district of Bangladesh is next used as a means of transport and communication to Muhari. It is the residential area of Khaleda Zia. between the integrated Tripura. The local also claim Moreover, the area of Muhari char land is the that the kingdom of Tripura had covered the present constituent assembly of Khaleda Zia. This is the place Muhari char. Moreover, 2 kilometres of land towards from where she gets elected. During her reign, she Bangladesh after crossing Muhari, was within the did not initiate for Muhari. Now in the reign of Hasina territorial purview of Tripura. But the Maharaja Government, this Muhari char land is one of the donated these 2kilometres of land to a Zamindar of determining factors for increasing the vote bank in Kalikapur. The locals still pay tax to the State favour of Hasina from this area. And Government of government for this specific char land. The problem India will definitely take an acquiescing policy for the of 65 acres areas of char land is to be solved. Out of preferred Hasina Government. the total land41 acres are Khas (fallow) which fall in

98 World Focus October 2018 the northern part of Muhari and rest 25 acres be considered. But in actual the demands of the local (approximately) are jote land (tillage). Now the locals people are grossly violated. Under the Land Boundary are blaming the State Government for not taking any Agreement (LBA) 2015, 111 Indian enclaves to concrete initiatives for saving their inherent land. The Bangladesh and 51 Bangladeshi enclaves were locals who are mostly farmers using the char land decided to be exchanged. Till 2018, all the Bangladeshi for cultivation accused the State Government of enclaves were settled down along with another increasing the value of that land. The locals who are disputed area- Chandannagar on Sonaicherrariver having their land to this Muhari char are not even from Dhalai district of Tripura. But Muhari is still consulted or asked by the Central Government and pending and both the governments remain silent on the Government of Tripura before pillaring. The local this topic. accused that the former Left Government has raised the rate of the land which falls in Indian side i.e., The Tripura Government’s Outlook before the dam. But the same government has reduced Tripura, the tiny state of Northeastern India, is the rate of the land which is to be substituted with increasingly coming into the foreign policy-making of Bangladesh. They first raised question against India towards Bangladesh. Before 2011 when the pillaring in 2013 when the Joint Survey team came Protocol was signed between Sheikh Hasina and for inspection to Muhari char. Manmohan Singh, the Government of Tripura tried to take a concrete decision on Muhari. The Left Before the Land Agreement Act 2015, a joint Government called up a meeting with the leader of survey team came at Muhari char to demarcate the the opposition and the leaders of other political parties border. When the delegation from Bangladesh came to reach into an amiable solution to the long-running to visit the place of Muhari, the folks raised questions. demarcation of Muhari. The main concern was to People raised a protest against the demarcation. That secure Belonia in particular and Tripura in general. protest was widespread. The locals highlighted that Such demarcation may be harmful to Belonia as a such demarcation is unjust. Because it will give major whole. So the security of Belonia was the main agenda portions of the fertile Muhari to Bangladesh and the of the concerned State Government. Belonia town local farmers who are having their cultivated land in is very close to Bangladesh and almost at the verge the char area, will get almost nothing. The farmers of Bangladesh border. The Government of Tripura also accused their government as the Central refused to follow the ChaklaRoshnabad Estate Government and the state government didn’t consult Map,1893. A unanimous decision was made to with the farmers whereas they have an entitlement compensate the locals who have their land in Muhari to the jote land in Muhari char. char. BadalChaudhury, the former Revenue Minister of Tripura says(Choudhury B., 2018) when the joint Article 1 clause 5 of India – Bangladesh Land Survey Team visited Muhari Char, they started border Border Agreement, 1974 clearly states that the border demarcation by placing pillars. This has mounted in this area will run along the mid-stream of the dissatisfaction among the farmers, locals and the Muhari River. Both the parties agreed to accept it as concerned State Government. Based on the demand a permanent border. But neither India nor Bangladesh of Bangladesh; India agreed to give the coveted char could conceptualise the agreement. Hence it could land to Bangladesh. Under this proposed bill, the not stop the dispute over Muhari. crematorium will also come. It has raised a great resentment among the people of Belonia. This step A protocol was signed between Smt Sheikh was opposed by the State Government as this decision Hasina and former Prime Minister on 2011 on the of both the Indian government and Bangladesh settlement of enclaves6. PM Modi after coming to government will not only spread indignation but also power rushed to Bangladesh and both the countries bring Belonia under threat. came to this conclusion to solve this long stretching problem of demarcation. It has been stated in LBA The Muhari is a debated land. For the last 2015 that while initialising the Protocol 2011, the few decades, it has become one of the major concerns ground reality and the consent of the local people will between India Bangladesh relations. In spite of many

India and Bangladesh Relations from the Prism of Muhari River 99 bilateral talks and agreements, Muhari issue has not as the Chittagong port is 3 km (approx.) away from been solved and it has been penetrating the relations. Feni district of Bangladesh. The trade of Indian If the present demarcation which is to be done under Northeast will boost up as the route provides an LBA 2015, is biased or if it does not fulfil the aspiration alternative fortuity to development of this region. The of both the nationals, the eventual outcome will be dispute over Muhari char is a long-lasting issue. harmful to both the countries. Border crimes will be Muhari char is a unique tale of local politics which proliferated. In addition to that, the scrimmages involves two important nations of South Asia – India between the arm forces will mushroom. A secured and Bangladesh. Muhari is of utmost importance for Tripura as a whole. Because Tripura is more exposed to India and Bangladesh are the members of Bangladesh than to its own India as it is bordered by many regional and sub-regional groupings. Regional Bangladesh from three sides. So an amicable and peace and stability are high-priority agendas of neighbourly solution to this problem of Muhari char is SSARC. The SAARC Convention on Mutual expected. Assistance in Criminal Matters was signed at the Fifteenth Summit (Colombo, 02-03 August 2008)7 Conclusion which stressed on the criminal activities affecting the Muhari is a river which not only connects India and peace of the region. BBIN has stressed people to Bangladesh; it also poses a great threat to Tripura. people contact as indispensable for regional The River is especially known for its adverse situation. development. The Muhari char is not only a It is a riverine border and any permanent solution to transboundary river and disputed issue between India this problem cannot be expected as a river changes and Bangladesh, but it has some hereditary its course anytime. Muhaririver has had economic connectivity and cultural bonding as river Muhari was aspect too. But whenever it is declared disputed, it used as a riverine route in integrated Tripura. If all of engendered a great uncertainty to the folks. The fate these links are to be connected, the transboundary of the people is unsettled yet. This is because both river Muhari can emerge as a harbinger of regional India and Bangladesh are not giving any serious effort cooperation. It may contribute towards attaining a to resolve the issue. The Indian government is willing peaceful neighbourhood thereby ensuring regional to give the char land as Bangladesh is craving for development. this. But they could not find a unanimous demarcation policy. Due to the lackadaisical move of India and Notes and References Bangladesh on the decision making on Muhari has State Tribal Research Institute & Museum. resulted in bloodshed. The politics among two Dodge, R. V. (2012). Schelling’s Game Theory: How to important nations of South Asia have involved the Make Decisions. USA: Oxford University Press. local politics of Tripura. Due to the tedious Dutta, S. (2000). Security of India’s North East: External proceedings, people are suffering. Under the Land Linkage. Strategic Analysis, 1495-1516. Boundary Agreement Act (LBA) 2015, India is Hedge, V. (2018). National and International Legal Aspects of River Water Sharing: The South Asian Experience. South willingly surrendering the projected lands to Asian Rivers: A framework for Cooperation, 7, 11-43. Bangladesh but it sets a great dissention among the Jacques, k. (2000). Bangladesh, India and Pakistan local people. The locals are demanding high International Relations and Regional Tensions in South compensation. The State Government is in quandary Asia. USA: MACMILLAN PRESS LTD as in spite of its direct involvement into this issue, it is Jamwal, N. S. (2004, January - March). Border Management: heeding the Central Government. The peaceful Dilemma of Guarding the India-Bangladesh Border. settlement of this issue of Muhari char will not only Strategic Analysis, 28. stop border conflict and thereby ensuring a viable Linklater, A. (1990). The Problem of Community in relation between India and Bangladesh, it will also International Relations. Alternatives: Global, Local, accentuate greater connectivity between India and Political, 135-153. Bangladesh. The Belonia (Bangladesh) – Feni railway Paul, M. (2018, March 11). The contribution of Tripura in is only 3km far from Belonia (India). If it is Bangladesh Liberation War. (D. Chakraborty, Interviewer) Salman M. A. Salman. (2006). International Water Disputes: recommencing again, the trade will get a further spur A New Breed of Claims, Claimants and Settlement 100 World Focus October 2018 Institutions. Water International (pp. 2-11). Washington 4 Helsinki Rules on the Uses of the Waters of International Dc: the world bank. Rivers defines Water Basin as the territory of which includes a portion of an international drainage basin. 5ChaklaRoshnabad is the plain part of integrated Tripura. 1See http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/joint-task- See http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/ force-to-discuss--access-to-chittagong-port/ text.html? objectid= DS405.1.I34_ V10_ 130.gif article8184920.ece 6 Enclave is a part of a territory which is surrounded by 2Belonia is a small town in the state of Tripura. It is the other states. southernmost border of Tripura which borders Address for communication, DipikantaChakraborty, Bangladesh. It was the main city of undivided Tripura, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Humanities and Social consisting of ChaklaRoshnabad Estate. Science, ICFAI University, Tripura—-799210 3 Hydrology, as a term denotes the study concerning the 7 See http://saarc-sec.org/areas_of_cooperation/ movement of a water body in relation to its bed. area_detail/education-security-and-culture/click-for- details_11

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India and Bangladesh Relations from the Prism of Muhari River 101 Transboundary Water Co-operation over the Brahmaputra River: India must refrain from a water war with China Dr. Pitam Ghosh

Water related conflicts have a long history McMahan Line agreement signed in 1914 between and will continue to be a global and regional problem. British India and Tibet, demarcating the boundary As water scarcity in both China and India worsens between India and China. China rejects the notion on with rapid economic development and population the pretext that Tibet was not sovereign at the time, expansion, the competition over shared water hence didn’t have the authority to conclude such resources in Transboundary Rivers, particularly the treaties. The region also acts as a buffer for India, Brahmaputra will intensify. Without an effective providing it Strategic depth, especially in terms of its working mechanism between the two countries and volatile North-East region. The border disputes have with lingering border disputes, water conflicts could further fueled misgivings between the two neighbors, potentially become a serious challenge to Sino Indian especially India’s threat perceptions regarding China’s relations. The water wars narrative, however, is being leverage as the upper riparian, a position it feels can overblown. The Brahmaputra River meandering potentially be utilised as an instrument of aggression through China and India, eventually emptying into the both politically and strategically against India Bay of Bengal in Bangladesh, is one such river causing downstream. Added to this are dynamics such as friction amongst all three recipients, especially India Climate Change, melting glaciers – one of the fastest and China. At the heart of the conflict lie strategic in the world, depleting aquifers, fluctuating and Security considerations, including food and precipitation patterns, heat waves and excessive livelihood security, in a region riddled with tenuous flooding which have aggravated existing hydro- fault lines. What exacerbates the calculus further is political fault-lines. Expanding economies, water- the border disputes between the two countries, intensive irrigation practices and a burgeoning middle- especially the region in the vicinity of the Brahmaputra class with increased domestic demand have also River – referred to as ‘South Tibet’ by China and accelerated the region’s progression towards one of Arunachal Pradesh by India. The two countries have the most water-stressed hence water-antagonist already been to regions in the world. The Trans-border rivers flowing from China to India fall into two main groups. The War over the region in 1962.China’s claims Brahmaputra river system on the Eastern side, which over the region stem from the desire to put an end to consist of river Siang (main stream of river Tibetan nationalism, more so as the dissident spiritual Brahmaputra) and its tributaries, namely Subansiri and leader Dalai Lama is based in India. The present Visit Lohit. The river Brahmaputra is called Yaluzangbu of the Dalai Lama was vehemently opposed by China or Tsangpo in China. The Indus river system on the in a departure from the former’s previous visit in 2009, Western side consists of river Indus and the river precisely because the Dalai Lama, due to advancing Sutlej. In the year 2002, the Government of India had age, was expected to anoint a successor. If the entered into a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) reincarnation of the next Dalai Lama were to take with China for five years upon provision of place from a traditionally Tibetan region falling beyond Hydrological information on Yaluzangbu / the direct control of China such as Tawang, it would Brahmaputra River during flood season by China to entail yet another generation of Tibetan dissent against India. In accordance with the provisions contained in China. The region being located at the cusp of four the MoU, the Chinese side is providing hydrological international borders also provides strategic vantage. information (Water Level, Discharge and Rainfall) India on the other hand claims to be heir to the to Indian authorities on regular basis. MoUs in this

102 World Focus October 2018 connection are being extended from time to time. manufactured goods. China and India are arguably During the visit of Hon’ble Prime Minister of India to the largest powers in the region and, in China’s case, China in October 2013, both the countries also signed a rising global power. The potential for conflict could a separate “Memorandum of Understanding on be seen as relatively low, given their interdependence. Strengthening Cooperation on Trans-Border Rivers” on 23rd October 2013, in which inter alia the scope China’s Race to Choke the River System of provision of hydrological information of three China’s dam building and diversion ambitions on the hydrological stations has also been enhanced. Brahmaputra River have also piqued India. A dam burst in May 2000 in Tibet triggered a flash flood The Potential for Conflict downstream in Arunachal Pradesh causing Established and planned hydropower and water widespread loss of life and key infrastructure. India diversion projects along the Brahmaputra are a was infuriated. A lack of hydrological data meant India security concern that has the potential to impact on was unaware of the approaching floods. The event Sino-Indian relations. China has not yet signed any further raised the specter of frequent flash floods multilateral treaties, nor did it sign the 1997 UN and additional silting in the river downstream, while Watercourses Convention that set the legal also providing credence to Indian fears regarding framework for rules and co-operation between more China’s capacity to create droughts at will, by storing than 100 nations and their relevant international water upstream in dams, during key harvesting season watercourses. Given its control over the source of downstream in India. The commencement of the most of Asia’s rivers, Beijing is in a unique position to Zangmo hydro-electric dam by China in the middle unilaterally secure its water supply and future needs. reaches of the Yarlung Tsangpo (Brahmaputra’s From the Chinese perspective, India’s national name in China) in 2008 further generated security fears over the perceived threat of this shared apprehensions within India. India perceived it to be a water source, is an overreaction. China claims that it step towards the eventual diversion and drying up of is only concerned with peaceful development and the Brahmaputra River. China’s withholding of “win-win” scenarios. The Chinese media has accused hydrological data, which it deemed its internal matter, India of trying to gain the support of the international only intensified speculation of the coming water community and has also highlighted that India itself conflict between the two states. The recent blocking uses the Brahmaputra without concern for lower of a tributary of the Brahmaputra amidst India’s revisit riparians. India’s damming of the Ganges has reduced of the Indus Water Treaty (IWT) with Pakistan river flow in Bangladesh. The damming has increased seemed to have confirmed Indian misgivings. Within soil salinity and affected agriculture, forcing many the milieu of China’s envisaged China-Pakistan- Bangladeshis to relocate to north-east India. The Economic-Corridor (CPEC) which links its North- influx of Bangladeshis has triggered ethnic conflicts West Province of Xinjiang with Pakistan’s strategic in India’s Assam State. If upstream damming were southern deep-sea port of Gwadar, any tinkering with to have an effect on the flow of the Brahmaputra, the IWT could result in serious consequences for the potential for ethnic tension in India and Bangladesh CPEC with many of its constituent schemes could increase. Chinese activity upstream has the dependent on the rivers covered by the treaty. This potential to exacerbate water scarcity downstream, new dynamic has realigned the strategic calculus of which, in turn, could lead to mass migration that will the region in general and its hydro-politics in particular, affect the entire region. China maintains an enabling china a steady encroach upon significant advantageous position as the upstream riparian of the stakeholder positioning within the region. In the wake Brahmaputra. It can, theoretically, choose to withhold of Indian reservations, China continues to defend its hydrological information and can build infrastructure position by contending that it only plans to build run- to intentionally prevent water from flowing of-the-river dams for electricity generating purposes downstream. In practice, however, China is one of with little impact on India’s water security India’s primary trading partners. India exports raw downstream. While not a direct threat to Indian materials and imports Chinese electronics and security, run-of-the-river dams can however cause Transboundary Water Co-operation over the Brahmaputra River 103 grave ecological disturbances in the long term and earthquake, without providing any seismic data to back compound the impact of floods such as the one in the statement. Indian observers thought it was due to Uttarakhand in 2013 which was triggered by a a railway tunnel being built under the bed of the cloudburst. The ‘Grand Western Water Diversion Yarlung Zangbo. This is the kind of mutual mistrust Plan’ by China aimed at diverting water at the Great that has bedeviled the relationship between China and Bend towards China’s arid northern region is yet India. The stated purpose of the Modi-Xi summit was another cause of concern for India. The Brahmaputra to remove such mistrust, in the hope that more River makes up 30 per cent of India’s water supply. concrete cooperation would follow. The strategic If China proceeds with the project, it could fraternity in India believes that following the last party significantly decrease both the quantity and quality congress in October, President Xi has the power to of water flowing into India. China fears this will enable push this through, something that was in question India greater foothold in the region and complicate earlier, at least in India. During a goodwill visit of Xi already complex mechanisms of conflict resolution to New Delhi in 2014, there was a confrontation on over their disputed borders. In this regard, the PLA’s the border – widely ascribed by Indian observers to (People’s Liberation Army of China) earlier incursions hawks in the Peoples’ Liberation Army (PLA). The across the LAC (Line of Actual Control) into PLA will no longer be in a position to embarrass Xi in Arunachal Pradesh were aimed at deterring India this manner, the strat frat in India believes. It is known and asserting its claims over the region. It’s pursuit that the Indian army has always been under much of the strategic Doklam Plateau in neighboring Bhutan tighter control of the civilian government. So, if Xi is also part of its larger scheme to acquire critical and Modi want, the relationship can improve advantage over India especially in terms of territories significantly. it claims as part of “South Tibet”.(1) Desecuritizing the water issue When India’s Prime Minister Narendra Modi To meet its surging energy demand, China itself seeks and China’s President Xi Jinping held an informal to utilize its huge hydropower potential of the summit on April 27-28, involving a cruise on Wuhan Brahmaputra but on other hand, China has to maintain lake in Hubei province, did they talk about water? a stable relation with India and Bangladesh. There’s no mention of it in the separate communiqués Therefore, China follows the desecuritization policy issued by the two governments, but one of the Indian to deal with the water sharing conflicts. diplomats familiar with the summit agenda says that Desecuritization refers to the process of “moving it was part of the discussion on de-escalating tension issues off the security agenda and back into the realm along the India-China border. There was definitely a of political discourse and normal political dispute and lot of talk about the disputed sections of the 4,000- accommodation. Desecuritization is therefore about kilometre-long border. The diplomat was confident ‘turning threats into challenges and security into that China will resume giving information about the politics’.China’s desecuritization moves have primarily water flow in the Brahmaputra (called the Yarlung been of a reactive and short-term nature. Whenever Zangbo in China) this monsoon, a process interrupted there is concerns raised about the Chinese activities in 2017 as the armies of the two countries went on the upstream of the river, Beijing resorts to a volley eyeball to eyeball over a disputed stretch of the border of rhetorical comments. The main tool used by the in an area called Doklam where the borders of Chinese is the signing of Memorandum of Bhutan, China and India meet. The Chinese Understanding (MoU) regarding sharing hydrological government said the interruption had nothing to do data with India and Bangladesh, not leaving any space with that long-running incident, that it was due to for downstream to point finger to China for being water measuring stations being upgraded, but there uncooperative upper riparian country. But, whenever were few believers of that statement south of the the circumstances arise, China uses Tibet’s river to Himalayas. It also did not help that there was a sudden achieve its foreign policy goal. During the Doklam rush of silt in the Brahmaputra last November, which conflict, the issue of Brahmaputra also came into play, China ascribed to a landslide caused by an this is because of the lack of cooperation or 104 World Focus October 2018 agreement between the two countries. Since there is moves over water conflicts, Chinese foreign ministry no water sharing agreement or any dispute settling spokesman Geng Shuang told media in Beijing that mechanism between the two countries, the issue of “for a long time we have cooperated on the river water is often mixed with border conflicts. Existing data with the Indian side. But to upgrade and renovate apparatus between the countries on water is mostly the relevant station on the Chinese side, we do not a series of MoU on hydrological data sharing and a have the conditions now to collect the relevant body of experts-level mechanism. However, these statistics of the river.” But the question of upgrading MoUs are non-binding and there is no overseeing and reconstruction comes to light when Bangladesh, organizational body that can ensure a fair downstream to India received same hydrological data implementation of the agreement. With the recent from China about the same river. Bangladesh’s water Chinese policy of not sharing hydrological data with resources minister, Anisul Islam Mohammad India, China has actually violated the bilateral MoUs. confirmed to the BBC that his country was receiving According to the MoUs, China is obliged to share a hydrological data from China.[viii]Although, Beijing hydrological data from three upstream monitoring claimed the alleged paucity in data sharing is because stations of the Brahmaputra River in Tibet during the of renovation, but Chinese observers have pointed to monsoon season from May 15 to October 15 and the escalating tensions in Doklam.Hu Zhiyong, a India on other side has to pay for the hydrological research fellow at the Institute of International data. While China sells hydrological data to Relations of the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences downstream countries, India provides such data said that although China is a responsible country, they without charging fee to both of its downstream couldn’t fulfill their obligations to India when it shows neighbors- Pakistan and Bangladesh. Will the existing no respect to their sovereignty. He further added that MoUs and the expert level mechanism between the China wouldn’t not agree to carry out normal two countries ensure future cooperation? Will there cooperation on hydrological data with India, unless it be any war between the two countries as predicted agrees to withdraw troops from Doklam. So, from in case of any physical change in the flow of the this it clearly indicates that Beijing is using the river? Until now, the existing MoU and the expert Brahmaputra as leverage against India to achieve its level mechanism worked for both countries. Beijing political goal. Since the problem of border conflict is assured continuous flow of river despite damming of unlikely to be solved in the near future, so does the the river and the Indian government on the other hand problem of Brahmaputra River. If China continues also maintain a cordial relation with China over water with the lack of transparency over its project, and issues, while simultaneously raising Brahmaputra not adheres to the MoUs, the mistrust between the River as an issue of concern with Chinese leaders. countries will continue to increase and it could lead to conflicts in the future. Therefore, it is necessary Due to rising demand, extensive use and for both countries to set up a joint institutional climate change have all aggravated water security mechanism to encourage further cooperation on problems in the region. According to a Mckinsey report disaster management, climate change and (2009) it suggests that by 2030, water demand in India environmental protection. If the current situation will grow by almost 1.5 trillion m3, against this demand, remains the same, then this is likely lead to a war India’s current water supply is approximately 740 over water as predicted by some of the experts. With billion. As a result, most of India’s river basin could more than 32 million people hit by floods in four Indian face severe deficit by 2030, unless concerted action states so far this year, New Delhi is growing is taken. For whatever reason, either because of increasingly frustrated over China’s refusal to share Doklam conflict or because of some technical reasons current river data despite bilateral agreements as China claimed, Beijing didn’t provide the requiring Beijing to pass on the information for hydrological data to India for this year. This downstream flood control. The data from upper hydrological data is of great importance to the Indian riparian China to lower riparian India is essential to side to predict or prepare for flood and to mitigate allow anticipation of the flow of the water from the flood damage. With the usual China desecuritization mighty Brahmaputra and the Sutlej, two major trans- Transboundary Water Co-operation over the Brahmaputra River 105 border rivers that enter India directly from China. the crest of the Himalayas. This disputed area is How India and China manage their shared water called South Tibet in China and Arunachal Pradesh resources has profound implications for the entire State in India which now controls the area. This region, not to mention for the economic and disputed area occupies about an area of 90,000 environmental stability of the world’s two most km2 and has a population of over 1 million people. populous nations, which constitute a whopping 37 percent of global population. In a world characterized Co-operation along the Brahmaputra: Steps to by rapidly shrinking natural resources, where water Avoid Dispute is a finite resource for growing numbers of people, it It is not as if China and India don’t cooperate despite is a game the world will be watching.(2) their differences. For example, for over a dozen years now, the two countries have coordinated their The Shared Rivers between Two Countries positions in global climate negotiations. That has had India and China share four major rivers, but not a major positive impact for the entire developing world, exclusively between them as seen in Table .The since the joint voice of China and India carries Indus/Shiquan River is shared by China, India, and considerable weight. At the ongoing mid-year climate Pakistan. The Brahmaputra River is shared by India, meeting in Bonn, the two countries are together again China, Bangladesh, and Bhutan. The Kosi and demanding more action from the industrialised world Ghaghara rivers are shared by China, Nepal, and between now and 2020, before the Paris climate India. Clearly, India and China do not share any rivers agreement comes into effect. There is a passing uniquely: all transboundary rivers of India and China reference to this in the Indian government’s are also shared with other neighbours. For all such communiqué after the Modi-Xi summit. It says the rivers, China happens to be the upper riparian state. two countries “agreed to jointly contribute in a positive India is the middle riparian state in the Brahmaputra, and constructive way in facilitating sustainable Indus, and Sutlej rivers, but a lower riparian state in solutions for global challenges including climate the other two river systems. Among the shared rivers, change, sustainable development, food security etc. most tensions exist along the Brahmaputra River. This Both leaders agreed that as major emerging is due to three major reasons. First, while China is economies, India and China, given their vast the upper riparian state for all the four transboundary developmental experiences and national capacities, rivers, it only occupies significant parts of the should join hands to take lead in offering innovative Brahmaputra River. China has over 50% of the and sustainable solutions to challenges faced by Brahmaputra River basin area. As a result, the humankind in the 21st century. These include potential impact of China’s activities on the combating diseases, coordinating action for disaster Brahmaputra River is much bigger as compared to risk reduction and mitigation, addressing climate other rivers. Second, Brahmaputra River is a great change and ushering digital empowerment.”On the importance to both India and China. For India, it same subject, the Chinese government communiqué accounts for nearly 30% of the freshwater resources says the two countries “agree to join hands in offering and about 40% of total hydropower potential of the innovative and sustainable solutions to global country. In the case of China, while at national level, challenges such as epidemics, natural disasters, the Brahmaputra River’s role in the country’s total climate change and terrorism.”The informal summit freshwater supply is quite limited, it is of great in Wuhan may not have led to any concrete outcome, importance to Tibet. The Brahmaputra River is but it provided some hope. The two leaders are set to considered the birthplace of the Tibetan civilization meet again in June, when Modi visits China for a and it plays a critical role in Tibet’s agricultural and summit of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, a energy sectors. Third, the Brahmaputra River is linked security bloc led by China and Russia. to Sino Indian border disputes. The two countries have contested claims in the Eastern Himalayas, the triple Beijing and New Delhi signed a junction between India, China, and Bhutan from the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) in 2013, west to Brahmaputra River in the east, largely along recognising that trans-boundary rivers are an 106 World Focus October 2018 important asset to the development of all riparians. “preventive diplomacy”, where it must be responsible Both countries agreed to strengthen communication for proactively engaging with riparians so as to prevent and strategic trust. China agreed to provide more disputes. Only a combination of bilateral co-operation hydrological information to India at the start of the and strong leadership with demand- and supply-side flood season. Despite the most recent MoU (there management can influence the future and reduce the have been earlier ones) information sharing must potential for a Sino-Indian water conflict. A lack of improve further if Indian apprehension over Chinese communication and consultation between China and activity on the Brahmaputra is to be reduced. India India has fuelled Indian concerns about Chinese dam- and Bangladesh may find strength by jointly acting to building. The absence of an international treaty achieve multilateral co-operation with China, however, between China and India does not mean that conflict China’s preference for bilateral agreements does not is inevitable. A treaty would, however, help to reduce lend much support to this strategy. Fear has been the potential for conflict. Although subject to greater created in India because of previous tendencies volatility and political willingness, genuine where the Chinese Government has been unwilling communication and administrative agreements can to provide details of its hydro-projects, and when it better ensure peaceful water relations. Such an did, gave contradictory information. There is a need outcome would benefit all of the Brahmaputra’s for both countries to develop mutual goodwill. riparian states.(3) Undertaking joint research projects in the region and sharing water data more extensively could foster It was after five decades of negotiations that stronger bilateral relations. Developing an the UN Convention on the Law of the Non- understanding of shared water resource challenges Navigational Uses of International Watercourses will, therefore, help limit the potential for conflict. came into force on 17 August 2014, marking an Implementing efficient water management policies important milestone in international political and will further reduce the severity of future food and legal cooperation in the sustainable use and sharing water crises and reduce the risk of conflict. Poor of trans-boundary freshwater courses. Interestingly, water management and underdeveloped China and the South Asian countries, with their infrastructure undermine Indian food and water complex, hydro-geographical features fed by shared security. Water must be conceptualized as a scarce Himalayan waters, chose to remain outside the and strategic resource. For China, pollution and Convention. China voted against, and India and unequal natural water allocations threaten this Pakistan abstained from voting. India has international security. Efficient water management is essential to water sharing concerns with Pakistan, Nepal and food security, economic growth, population health and Bangladesh. A relatively newer concern is that social stability. Managing water as a scarce resource between India and China over the water resources with holistic ramifications is essential to reducing the of the Tsangpo Basin and the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra potential for future water wars. China’s role as a rivers. These issues figure high on Indian Prime water hegemon must involve soft power as the Minister Narendra Modi’s agenda during his first primary use of negotiation and diplomatic actions if it official visit to China this month (14—16 May). In is to avoid destabilizing the region. Communication 2013, China and India had agreed on sharing with India, as well as lower riparians, to reach hydrological data, which would allow India to monitor agreements favourable to all parties will dramatically flows. In the same year, an agreement on trans-border reduce the potential for water disputes. Chinese rivers was signed when former prime minister communication is essential to reassure riparians of Manmohan Singh visited Beijing. The question is its hydro-intentions and reduce the potential for whether the Convention’s adoption will help address conflict caused by mistrust. In the interest of regional water sharing in the region. The strength of the stability, it is crucial that no country feel it is under Convention lies in its nature. Designed as a threat of acute water insecurity as a result of framework convention, it provides riparian states with upstream damming or diversion projects. China must different geographies a forum for negotiating water change its strategy from “responsive diplomacy” to sharing arrangements. To stress the point that it is Transboundary Water Co-operation over the Brahmaputra River 107 hydrogeology which matters in planning, the request mediation or conciliation by a third party, or Convention defines ‘watercourse’ as a system of make use of institutions established by them, or agree surface waters and ground waters constituting, by to submit the dispute to arbitration or to the virtue of their physical relationship, a unitary whole International Court of Justice. The Convention further normally flowing into a common terminus. This articulates that in case the dispute cannot be resolved concept emphasises the shared responsibility between in six months through any of the above measures, riparian states. India’s National Water Policy of 2012 there will be a compulsory, impartial fact finding refers to resource planning at a hydrological level commission, which will have members from each and captures the continuing concern that party to dispute. International disputes on resources ‘groundwater, though part of hydrological cycle and sharing may gain from the wide-ranging options a community resource, is still perceived as an available for parties under the Convention. For China individual property and is exploited inequitably and and India, the Convention provides a good opening without any consideration to its sustainability leading for dialogue. to its over-exploitation in several areas ‘The Convention gives a legal basis to consider the basic Conclusion hydrological unit for planning. India’s draft water laws So from this discussion it clearly indicates that rather categorically state that water in all its forms than covertly acting to divert water resources from constitutes a hydrological unity and that water and one country to another, the protection of the shared water resources include both surface and ground resource of water supply might be a focal point of water resources. A tribunal set up in India to cooperation rather than conflict. China and India could adjudicate interstate water disputes has also referred work together to protect surrounding communities to such a combined understanding of water resources. from increased flood hazard due to climate change A significant influence of the Convention is by strengthening flood management policies and codification of customary international law principles adaptation measures. The current scenario can only such as ‘equitable and reasonable utilisation’ and ‘the see a logical end provided an institutionalised obligation not to cause significant harm’. It also mechanism of dispute management is adopted defines ‘equitable and reasonable utilisation principle’ between both the Asian giants. The immediate short that urges the ‘states to participate in the use, term solution to the growing dissent could be by means development and protection of an international water of improving diplomatic communication, more course in an equitable and reasonable manner’. On transparency by way of all-year hydrological sharing the other hand, the principle of ‘obligation not to cause of data and exchange of information regarding significant harm’ requires the states to ‘take all infrastructural development in the area. In the long appropriate measures to prevent the causing of run, however, both the countries along with significant harm’ to other states harnessing an Bangladesh need to develop effective and innovative international watercourse. Domestically, India’s frameworks of resource management. Supreme Court and tribunals while deciding water sharing and pollution disputes have used these Notes and References principles, though there is no legislation in this regard. (1) J.Bandyopdhyay, , N. Ghosh, and C. Mahanta (2016): IRBM for Brahmaputra Sub-basin: Water Governance, Environmental In respect to dispute settlement, state parties under Security, and Human Well-Being (New Delhi: Observer Research this Convention can opt for negotiation, or jointly seek Foundation). (2) The Shillong Times, September 21, 2017. (3) The Times of India, November 29, 2016.

ANALYSIS OF INDIAN DIPLOMACY, FOREIGN POLICY AND STRATEGIC AFFAIRS CONVERGE AT WORLD FOCUS.

108 World Focus October 2018 Sustainable Water Management Subhash Anand, Vidhi Malhotra and Usha Rani

Introduction A State of Water Crisis UN has passed resolution to implement Sustainable Water is a renewable resource still, it’s a limited Development Goals on 25 September, 2015 adopted resource. The amount of water available around the by 193 countries of the UN General Assembly (Singh world is equal to one thousand years ago. Over the and Khetwani, 2017).The 17 new Sustainable time the demand for water has increased manifold Development Goals, also known as global goals aim due to rising population, growth in standards of living, to end poverty, take actions on climate change and expanding industrial development and increased use environment, hunger and inequality, clean water and of water for irrigation purposes in the farming sector. sanitation, improve access to health and education Agriculture consumes the maximum share of and build strong institutions and partnerships. Water biosphere’s fresh water, i.e. 70 per cent, and is one of the most dynamic resources with significant industries consume 22 per cent and remaining 8 per global reach. It can contribute in achieving SDGs by cent by the domestic sector (National Geographic, promoting sustainable consumption and conservation 2017). Besides knowing the importance of water in of water resource. Water is very essential in life. our life, people around the world is not leaving any Pure water has no taste, odour and colour. About stones unturned to pollute ground and surface water. 97.5 per cent of the earth is covered with water mostly Evaluations put India’s groundwater usage at in seas and oceans, but only 2.5 per cent of water is approximately one-quarter of the world’s usage with fresh water and 1.6 per cent of the fresh water is complete utility surpassing that of China and the contained in glaciers and polar ice caps (Khullar, United States together. Farmers are given electricity 2017). Pure water is the source of drinking water. subsidizations to support groundwater There are two sources of fresh water; surface and pumping.Thelevel of water table has dropped up to 4 underground water. Rivers, lakes and ocean are the meters in certain parts of the nation. This unrestricted sources of surface water on the earth. Precipitation draining of groundwater has accelerated over the past is also one practice of water that falls from clouds in two decades (Hawthorne, 2018). the sky. It can fall as rain, snow or any other type of precipitation. Ice constitutes the frozen form of water. It can be foreseen that in the long run the Anindividual can live without food for a month but problem of water supply will become more acute in only a week without water. Dehydration occurs if South Asian countries. With the second largest human beings do not consume enough water.Life population at 1.3 billion, India finds itself unable to exists on the earth as it is the only planet in our solar serve the vast majority of that populace with safe, system where water is accessible. Every aspect of clean water.China with 50 million more people uses the industry agriculture, tourism, mining, a quarter less fresh water (Hawthorne,2018).India is petrochemical, tanneries etc. has a key water suffering from worst water crisis where around 600 requirement.Water helps in producing electricity. A million people face a severe water shortage. large amount of water is involved in the agricultural Approximately 200,000 people die every year due to sector to water fruits, vegetables and food grains. inadequate access to clean water and the situation Water is essential for domestic and industrial activities will further deteriorate as 21 cities will run out of for heating and cooling purposes. Much water is groundwater by 2020. The expected degree of water used for cooking and washing purpose in the household scarcity will lead to 6 per cent loss in India’s gross sector. It serves as an excellent chemical solvent in domestic product (Busby, 2018).The situation has many industrial processes. It also supports many grown to the point that regional disputes have risen recreational activities like boating, swimming, scuba over access to rivers in the country’s interior. Those diving; fishing etc. Sustainable Water Management 109 disputes take on a global scale in conflicts with and capacity building on water and sanitation Pakistan over the River Indus and River Sutlej in the associatedevents and also to involve local population west and north and with China to the east with the in refining water and sanitation management. river Brahmaputra (Hawthorne, 2018).The fresh Worldwide all the countries joined their hands through water available to us isseverelyadulterated by waste SDG 6 to achieve universal access of adequate frommanufacturing, domestic and agricultural sector. sanitation and clean drinking water to everyone in In India sweet shops, halwais and marriage halls throw next 15 years. The number of Indian schools with away sugar syrup and used cooking oil in drains that drinking water has increased from 0.9 million in 2005- causes severe water pollution. The maximum 06 to 1.36 million in 2012-2013. Thetotalpercentage SulabhSochalayas, farm houses, community toilets of Indian families with access to better quality of water etc. are not connected to efficient sewage network sources augmented from 68 per cent in 1992-93 to as a result the waste is discarded into open nala that 90.6 per cent in 2011-12 (United Nations, 2018). results in severe contamination of water (Jindal, The Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission 2018). The tanneries located on the banks of river (RGNDWM) potable water is provided in the villages. Ganga in Kanpur discard their waste in the river. From Almost 98 per cent of rural habitation have access to Cape Town to Cairo and Bangalore to Beijing, the safe water (Jindal, 2018). The Swachh Bharat paucity of water, the elixir of life, is the most disturbing Abhiyan,NamamiGange and the National Rural moment of the environmental destruction of the earth Drinking Water Program are flagship programs (Jindal, 2018). In 2011, 41 countries experienced water launched by Government of India for improving water shortages, 10 among these countries are close to and sanitation facilities in India. The NamamiGange depleting there supply of pure water and should now is a river action plan that is designed to combat water switch on alternative sources (United Nations pollution and reestablish the quality of water. The Development Program, 2018). SDGs further aim to provide equal access to safe From 1990-2015 the percentage of worldwide drinking water to all, improving quality of water by population using an improved drinking water has reducing pollution, integrated water resource increased from 76- 91 per cent. Still millions of people management at all levels through international die every year specifically children caused by lack of cooperation, protection and restoration of water safe drinking water and sanitation facilities. They associated ecosystems including forest, mangroves, suffer from diseases like dysentery, diarrhea and mountains, wetlands, rivers and lakes by 2030. cholera due to contaminated water.In India, 500 children under the age of five die each day and 21 Sustainable Water Management in Different per cent of communicable diseases are linked to Sectors unsafe water in India (World Bank, 2018). It is The term sustainable means cautiousconsumption of estimated that by 2025 around 1.8 billion people will water resources to meet the demands of the current live in regions water plagued by water scarcity with as well as future generations. Water sustainability two third of world population living in water-strained means ensuring a continuous supply of clean water areas due to the excess ofconsumption, growth and for human utilization and other living organisms. In climate change (National Geographic, 2017). The the era of water scarcity, the sustainable water water scarcity will be more severe in arid, semi-arid management is very necessary. The sustainable regions, coastal areas and rapidly growing cities. development goal also puts water security under the Many cities are currently orin the near future will not international agenda to overcome the problem of the be able to provide sanitation facilities and safe drinking water crisis. As it is mentioned earlier that water water to its population. Thus, there is acrucial need resource is finite, so the supply of water will not to save water. increase, we have to rectify our consumption patterns to address the problem of growing scarcity. Sustainable Development Goals Number 6: Conservation of water saves energy and energy is Clean Water in India aprerequisite for the heating of water, transport etc. The Sustainable Development Goals have engaged Therefore, controlled consumption of water for the global communities to enlarge international support municipal uses and a strictly drafted national policy

110 World Focus October 2018 on water conservation would serve as a viable solution Agriculturalpractices like stubble mulching, residue to ensure regular supply of fresh water to the world management in crop fields, etc. are supportive in population.The most successful technique to save holding soil dampness for crop production. water is to switch to competent fittings. There are e. Revolving Grazing- It is a method in which ways to reduce the amount of water usage in different wildlife ismovedin the middle of fields to sectors. encouragegrass regrowth. Decent grazing management upsurges the ground’s water immersion 3.1 Water Management in theAgricultural Sector and shrinks the water runoff, making pastures further Since water is needed to produce food, a situation of drought-resistant. Better soil organic material and famine can pose maindifficulties for agronomy. enhancedfodder cover are also water-saving profits Thusgrowers often face adangerousshortage in of rotational grazing. drought-prone areas. Effectivepractices of using f. Mulch and Compost- Compost used as fertilizer water are necessaryforthecontext of climate change. has been established to boost the water- Irrigation is puttingaccumulative burden on limited retainingcapability and expand soil configuration. freshwater assets. To shift to a more ecological use Mulch is spread on topmost soil to maintain soil of water in farming without damaging the food safety moistness. It further improves the soil’s water-holding and livings of hundredsof smallholders, ability. Compost and mulch can help to hold more extensiveupgrading in water use productivity is water in the mudin dry time of the year. Black plastic essential. Here are some methods to do it- mulch can be used by farmers as soil cover to a. Effective Irrigation Scheme- Drip and sprinkler destroyunwanted plant and lessen the rate of irrigation schemes are the best water competent evaporation. irrigation methods. They convey water straight to g. Cover Crops- Cover crops shrink weeds and also the roots of theseedlings.Clocks are used to upsurge soil richness and organic matter and help to programirrigation during the cooler parts of the day stop erosion. Cover crops permit water to enter the which additionallydiminishes water damage. Drip soil without difficulty which advances its water- irrigation is successful in places like Maharashtra, retainingability. Usually, these crops are selected Haryana, Meghalaya and Rajasthan where water is byseason and agro-climatic situation. Most frequently limited. Appropriatelyfitted drip irrigation can save used cover crops are lentils, field peas, cowpea and up to 80 percent extra water and can lead to soybeanin India. augmentedyield. h. Conservation Tillage- This technique uses b.Expansion of Watersheds - Ecological deprivation specialized ploughs and other apparatus that can be undertaken successfullythrough development moderately till the soil but leave at least 30 percent of the watershed. Watershed development can of vegetative crop residue on the surface (CUESA, diminish the opposing effects of water scarcity on 2015). These practices help inescalationof water harvests and livestockregulates expansion of deserts, concentration and reduce evaporation, erosion, and boostrenewal of environmentalequilibrium and compaction. Reduced or no tillage is a rightdecision encouragemonetaryexpansion of communities in the for ecologicalwell-being as it facilitates no burning of village. crop residue and augmentssoil fertility by c. Drought-Tolerant Crops- In the drought-prone decomposing. zones where water shortage is a permanent problem, crops such as bajra, ragi, jowar, pulses and lentils, 3.3 Water Management Strategies in Industrial black pepper and other millets etc. Can give very Sector decent revenues with a smaller amountof water Water can be preserved in industries through a requirement. Several researchers found that corn combination of altering consumerbehaviour, modifying grown in organic fields had 30 per cent greater yield and replacing tools with water reduction equipment than conventional fields in years of drought. to decreaseby and large water utilization and augment d. Dry Agriculture- Planters who are involved in internal reuse. Optimization of water use by industries dry agriculture depend upon the existing soil moistness is central because it can lessen water withdrawals to harvest crops during the dry period. from local water sources therebyescalating water

Sustainable Water Management 111 accessibility and improving community relations, for creating the methods necessary for less water reducing wastewater discharges and their pollutant consumption at home. Here are a few ways to reduce load, dropping thermal energy utilization and, your consumption of water today- potentially, processing cost. Thebulk of all industrial a. Toilet User Modification- We should notuse water use is from the cooling of the power plants. the toilet as a trash bin. Tissues and other stuff are The shortage of water will negatively influence the often flushed in the pot instead of disposing the waste industrial health of the country. Here are some into appropriate bins.Reduce the number of times methods of how to save and use water more you flush your toilet. Unnecessary flushing of the toilet efficiently in industries. can waste up to 1,000 litres of water per year (Forbes, 2018).We shall not putbricks or plastic a. Altering Consumer Behavior- Creating bottles in a toilet tank to decrease the volume. This economic incentives, command and control tools can disrupt the gush of the water in the toilet and can iscentralto hold the creation of a cordial environment lead toleaking. There should be a strict watch if your for water use optimization in industries.Demand toilet leaks. If it seeps into the toilet bowl without creation is amain aspect of the changing flushing, you have a leak. Fixing it can save up to user’sbehavior. Training programs can be evaluated 1,000 gallons a month. to decideefficiency and must improve the b. Water Tap User Changes-Households should protocolcontinuously. use foaming soap to wash hands. This allows users b. Modify Equipment- Fix trigger-operated guns to use water for rinsing as an alternative for on hoses so that the users can draw less water for soaping and rinsing. cleanup. Changing nozzles taps and shower fixtures c. Consider a High Efficiency Washing to high pressure, low volume alternatives. Add timers Machine- The most efficient washing machines use or pedals to guarantee water is used proficiently. as little as seven gallons per load. A high efficiency Regulate the flows to the minimum required level to (HE) washer should easily pay for itself over its maintain performance. Regulatecooling pumps and lifetime in water and energy savings. New Energy water flushing to least amountmandatory for Star rated washers use 35 – 50 per cent less water operations. and 50 per cent less energy per load (Eartheasy, c. Explore the Viability of common options in 2018). your operations- Reduce the stream of water, d. Turn off the taps while brushing-The water modify the gear or introducing water sparing gadgets, savings would be tremendous if we start keeping Replace existing gear with more water effective this habit. This is one of the easiestways to avoid hardware, water treatment, reusing, and reuse and water wastage. change to a waterless procedure. e. Take Shorter Showers - Another way to reduce d. Instructstaff about using less water- Its water consumption is to close the shower after soaping effectiveness can be an extremely beneficial segment up, and then turn them on to rinse. A shower of four for a water protection plan. Expanded mindfulness minutes uses approximately 20 to 40 gallons of water will guarantee more staff individuals observing water (Eartheasy, 2018). use in a balanced way. f. Fix Low-flow tap aerators-They are very cheap, e. Use non-potable water for industrial process only about $10. They work by mixing air into the water use- Consumable water is frequently not required stream and can reduce our domestic water intake by for some modern purposes and can be substituted 50 per cent (Networx, 2011). with non-consumable or reused water. g. Rainwater Harvesting- Using rainwater can trim down your water bills. Itoffersamedium of alternative 3.3 Water Management Strategies at Home supply of water during scarcity and helps in Households are the negligiblecustomers of water but maintaining a green and healthy garden. It can also have a huge potential effect. Users at the household help to conserve water resources and reduce overall level can experiment with strategies to develop water environmental impacts. Rainwater collected from a saving habits. Household consumption of water is the well planned and operated structure can be suitable largest growing segment. Thus, it is a testing floor for all household uses.

112 World Focus October 2018 h. Car wash. If you want to wash your car, take it References to a car wash that recycles the water, instead of  Busby, M., (2018). India’s Worst Water Crisis in washing at home with the pipe. its History’ is only going to get worse. Www- i. Choose and use Appliances properly- Always use star appliances. Choose economy settings and independent-co-uk.cdn.amproject.orgaccessed on 12/ never run the dishwasher in half load. 10/2018. j. Never throw water- If some water is left in your  Hawthorne, J., (2018). The Water Crisis In India: glass pour the extra water in plants, dogs dish or put it in water kettle. Everything You Need To Know. https:// k. Covering Swimming pools - Cover swimming businessconnectworld.com/2018/01/11/water-crisis- pools when not in use to prevent evaporation. Also in- india/ accessed on 12/10/2018. place water filter plant in the pool.  Jindal, R.N., (2018). Water Pollution in India: Thus apart from the above- mentioned Issues and Options. Pragun Publications. ISBN: methods of water conservation, there are many other 978-93-80397-79-5. means to save water at household level. The  Khullar, D.R., (2011). Geography. government of India has to create a strict policy and Educational Publishers, Delhi. programs to regulate the consumption and discarding of polluted water in open rivers. Government should  Singh, R. B. and Khetwani, S., (2017) Climate work out for viable solution to check the practice of Change, Energy Security and Sustainable discarding used oil in the drains. Non- Government Development, World Focus, June, pp 5-11. Organizations (NGOs) can be encouraged to collect sugar syrup and used cooking oil which can be recycled and used for some other purposes. Reuse Websites in tannery segment should be addressed immediately.  https://cuesa.org/article/10-ways-farmers-are- saving-water accessed on 7/9/2018. Conclusion Freshwater is fundamental to human beingsurvival,  https://learn.eartheasy.com/guides/45-ways-to- and to the functioning of the ecosystems that supports conserve-water-in-the-home-and-yard/ accessed on life. As our population expands, so does the pressure 1/9/2018. on water consumption. To guarantee future supplies  https://www.networx.com/article/water- of fresh and clean water, we need to use it more cautiously. Conserving water resources is increasingly conservation-tips accessed on 11/8/2018. important for giving secure future to coming  https://www.forbes.com/sites/houzz/2015/03/31/ generations. We should save water even in areas with 11-ways-to-save-water-at-home/#739335d9166c no shortages. Access to safe, resilient water supplies accessed on 7/9/2018. is essential to economic prosperity, health and sustainable development.  https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/ sustainable-earth/water/ accessed on 2/9/2018. Thus, the need of the hour is to bring focus  http://in.one.un.org/page/sustainable- to the areas that have heavy water consumption and development-goals/sdg-6/accessed on 9/9/2018. make easy ways to prevent and control water pollution through changes in policy, change in behavior,  http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/ effective policies and “Bhagidari” between industry, sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water- citizens and government. It should be responsibility and-sanitation.htmlaccessed on 9/9/2018. of civil society, community based organizations, government, academic and scientific community to  https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/wateaccessed conserve and manage the water for sustainable future on 12/8/2018. earth in coordinated manner.

Sustainable Water Management 113 Chinese Hydro-hegemony and Regional Security Complexes in the Mekong River Basin Bhaskar Jyoti Deka

Introduction Basin, known as Mekong Committee, under the The Mekong River is a critical shared resource auspices of the United Nations Economic Commission between China and five Southeast Asian countries for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE)1. The Committee as millions of people depend on the river for their members included Thailand, Cambodia and South livelihoods. As the largest river in South-East Asia Vietnam. The Mekong Committee was entrusted with and the eighth-largest in the world (Gerlak&Haefner the responsibility of resolving the major problems stem 2017: 894), the Mekong River holds enormous from poverty and political instability (Weatherbee potential for economic prosperity as well as political 1997: 170; Molle et al. 2009: 5). It envisaged to harness significance, extending to all six countries namely water resources for hydropower generation, irrigation China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and and control of flood situations. This was basically a Vietnam through which it traverses. Having seen the United States-led initiative (a result of Lyndon downstream riparians dependence on the Mekong Johnson’s Mekong Initiative 1965), for Mekong basin for their basic needs, the uneven distribution of its development that aimed at peacefully settle the water resources and potentials, power asymmetry Indochina War (Weatherbee 1997: 170). After the between the riparian nations, the urge for harnessing unification of Vietnam, the Mekong Committee was development and security in the Mekong basin reorganised to exclude Cambodia and include Socialist becomes a regional challenge in the East Asian region. Vietnam and renamed as Interim Mekong The Mekong River has strategic importance in the Committee. At this stage, the United Nations upper catchments for providing a suitable place of Development Programme (UNDP) joined ESCAP hydropower generation and small-scale irrigation in in supporting the Committee’s efforts. the highlands and the larger plains as a provider of food and employment, transportation, etc. This article A consultation process took place in 1995 in argues that the future development of the the Ho Chi Minh City, under the aegis of the UNDP, downstream riparian countries highly depends on the resulting in the Agreement on Cooperation for the equitable management of the Mekong waters. This Sustainable Development of the Mekong River Basin, article aims to understand the critical hydro-political which had a new implementing agency called Mekong stand of upstream China as well as the counteractive River Commission (MRC). It was signed by Thailand, diplomatic steps initiated by the downstream riparians. Lao PDR, Cambodia and Vietnam and MRC were It portrays the existing ‘insecurities’ in the responsible for ‘promoting basin level cooperation in downstream of the Mekong region and concludes by the fields of sustainable development, utilisation, arguing that the small and economically fragile management and conservation of water resources’. countries must collectively act to secure their rights The MRC has a high-level ministerial decision-making over this transboundary river. council, a Secretariat, a technical operationalisation body, i.e., Joint Committee and national coordinating Diplomatic Engagement for Regional entities, often called National Mekong Committees Cooperation in the Lower Mekong Basin (NMCs) (Gerlak&Haefner 2017:894). Historically, It was in 1957 when the first Mekong Development the MRC was seen as a successful organisation that Project was inaugurated by the Committee for brought about cooperation in the South East Asian Coordination of Investigations of the Lower Mekong 114 World Focus October 2018 region (Heikkila et al. 2013). It provided a platform mechanism; many observers are sceptical about the for negotiation in various water-related issues from MRC role in the basin (Sajor et al. 2013). They pointed developmental projects, collective actions in protecting out that the MRC was rejected by the member transboundary water resources and the environment. countries putting emphasis on enjoying absolute Its efforts were targeting to mitigating conflicts and national sovereignty, which resulted in mutual mistrust, maintaining cooperation to ensure regional security miscommunication and scepticism. Backer (2006: 38) at a larger level. Similarly, the MRC was successful pointed out that “riparian member states prefer the in developing the notion of international cooperation MRC to be a rather toothless organization that in the line of regional security. Also, the MRC initiated identifies development projects and attracts external programmes like flood management and mitigation funds, while control of the development remains with programme and initiatives for sustainable hydropower the states themselves”. It is not very keen to protect generation, linked with adaptive capacity building the rights of the weaker states or communities of measures reduced uncertainly to some extent. To society vulnerable to the possible consequences of achieve the larger goals of MRC, it initiated a development. Similarly, it is also considered as a distant restructuring process in 2006. The restructuring organization and not easily accessible by communities process highlighted the overuse of international staff and other NGOs. The most important drawback of and the need to attract and appoint the brightest staff the MRC is the non-inclusion of the very powerful from the Mekong member countries (MRC 2008). upstream state China Vis a Vis Myanmar. These Similarly, the reform process acknowledged the need upstream countries are not obliged to respect the for frequent reports and evaluations in the fields of decisions of MRC. Moreover, it is also evidenced organisation, financial and institutional mechanisms. that in comparison to the previous agreement of 1975 In 2014, the formal restructuring process began which and a Joint Declaration of the Mekong Commission is characterised by process of ‘riparianisation’. The in 1975, the 1995 Agreement is less binding (Schmeier changes under this initiative include downsizing of 2009: 44). The former mechanisms provided for veto external donors and make the MRC self-sustaining rights and provision of prior notification to the riparian by 2030 (Hunt 2016). Also, it suggested that the states before accomplishing any developmental decisions on mainstream dams should be deferred project. The adoption of the Agreement on Data and for ten years (Gerlak&Haefner 2017: 896). The Information Sharing in 2001 and the 2003 Agreement riparianisation process acknowledged the need for and the regulations on Supervision of the Use of the identifying the core river basin management functions Mekong River Water provided guidelines for effective and bracketed the twelve core programmes into four management of Mekong waters in the line of divisions, viz. “environment, basin development, international river basin management principles. fisheries, navigation and hydropower programmes” Nevertheless, they were also no binding provisions and four core functions, viz. administrative, planning, and hence remain ineffective. environmental management and technical support divisions (MRC 2016). The changes are made to However, China regularly participates in the fostering national plans, achieve the basin-wide goals, Dialogue meetings of the MRC and has agreed to strengthening regional cooperation, establish proper share hydrological data and information of the monitoring and communication mechanism and augmentation of the river flow and construction of achieve a larger Mekong River basin organisation in other infrastructural projects on the river. In 2002, the region (MRC 2016). China and MRC caged themselves in an agreement on technical cooperation, which came into effect in Although, the MRC reforms raise important 2004. It provided hydrological data from two stations concerns about self-reliance, reducing external only in the dry season. Moreover, China reserved its support or viewing the development processes rights to restrict data for strategic reasons, and it through using a broader regional water governance practiced it in a more frequent manner. Schmeier Chinese Hydro-hegemony and Regional Security Complexes in the Mekong River Basin 115 noted that “although China increasingly cooperates like energy, drought, and flood. Dosch (2007: 134) on minor issues, such as data sharing, or navigation, opined that “the GMS framework performed an it remains unwilling to commit to more than its observer important role in fostering sub-regional peace and status” (Schmeier 2009: 45-46). stability”. It was particularly because of the integration of China into the GMS framework which furthered In 1992, the Asian Development Bank the Mekong related cooperation a step further. (ADB) supported the all the Mekong riparian countries However, despite significant infrastructural to establish the Greater Mekong Sub-Region (GMS) development and trade booms, it was not very at the Conference of Mekong Riparian States. It successful in bringing about economic cooperation envisaged to utilise the geographic links among the as it could not make the less developed countries such Mekong riparians to foster economic cooperation and as Cambodia and Lao PDR satisfied with the real thereby foster regional integration. The major outcomes. Moreover, the governments are not open difference between MRC and GMS is that the former for healthy discussion on water-related issues, social put more emphasis on sustainable development of change and development mainly because of the the river by assuming the river to be an important prevailing military regime or narrow national interests variable for cooperation, the latter sought to achieve (Molle 2009: 12; Campbell 2016: 261). Similarly, the economic development and intended to harness external investors significantly affect the economic market opportunities through infrastructure governance, undermine environmental and social development. The GMS focuses on trade liberalisation impacts underlined in the ADB or World Commission and foreign direct investments (FDI) and loosening on Dam (WDC’s) recommendations, or not followed of physical barriers among the member states under the corporate social responsibility norms (Molle 2009: the theme of ‘enhancing competitiveness through 47). Campbell (2016) noted that “water resource connectivity’. It sought to develop economic corridors management within the GMS is no longer identified such as ‘North-South Corridor, linking China, Thailand, as a priority by the ADB,” and there is a lack of and Vietnam; East-West Corridor, linking Myanmar, competition between the MRC and GMS as planning, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam and Southern Corridor developmental and environmental management that links Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam are of agency in the region, which has diminished the particular importance for achieving economic cooperative mood as well as regional cooperation integration’. It has a very flexible institutional structure (Campbell 2016: 259). Limited technological capacity, (Schmeier 2009: 47).The cooperation projects are limited access to hydrological data, little research, lack managed through the frequent meetings of the Head of transparency and accountability undermined the of the States in every three years, annual Ministerial effective water governance in the region. Conferences, and meetings of otherWorking Groups. Simultaneously, the organisation of the MRC has On the other hand, the ADB plays a strong role within changed when the recruitment of its Secretariat staff the GMS framework by providing financial assistance, have been selected from the member countries and technical and administrative support to the GMS in 2016 when for the first time it recruits a CEO from Secretariat. its member country. Most importantly, “there is very little capacity within the Mekong riparian countries The 10th GMS summit of Phnom Penh in 2002 to improve the level of understanding, and therefore reemphasised on its commitment to the development of a culture of public debate and strengtheningregional integration and made the participation in water resource development and proposition for Greater Mekong Sub-region Strategic management is still a distant goal” (Campbell 2016: Framework 2002-2012. The GMS turned its head 261). Notwithstanding the fact that the relationship towards non-traditional security threats and covered between the Mekong Riparian countries has been issues such as health, biodiversity, and transnational improving, despite the power imbalances and narrow crime, human resource development apart from others understanding of national sovereignty vis-à-vis 116 World Focus October 2018 interests, the Chinese stand could undermine the development using water resources of the region. greater cooperation at the basin level. However, since the 1990s, multilateral interactions between Indochinese countries, especially in respect China’s Hydro Diplomacy in the Mekong River to international water increased with great variations Basin and limitations. The Article 78 of the 2002 Water Law Ho (2014: 1) noted that “to China, the South East that deals with international waters says that “where Asian States ate part of a hierarchical system where any international treaty or agreement relating to it stands at the apex” and thus “its rising power is international or border rivers or lakes, concluded or most keenly felt by its neighbours, particularly those acceded to by the People’s Republic of China, with which it shares common borders and scarce contains provisions differing from those in the laws resources”. China, on the other hand, lacks of the People’s Republic of China, the provisions of comprehensive policy guidelines for better the international treaty or agreement shall apply, management of itstransboundary rivers, and its actions unless the provisions are the ones on which the cause significant economic and ecological hardships People’s Republic of China has declared in the downstream neighbours. China adopts different reservation”3. The Department of Ocean Affairs set diplomatic tactics for different actors. For example, up in 2009 under the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Goldstein noted that it has two different diplomatic Affairs does not include river disputes within the stands- strategic partnerships with major powers to framework of its territorial and maritime dispute seeks to resolve matters by adopting the bilateral settlement mechanism. Less than one percent of the approach and with the smaller powers it prefers source of Chinese water originates in foreign multilateralism (Ho 2014: 2). In the South East Asian countries, and therefore it gains the powers to act region, there are no powerful states to challenge unilaterally. Nickum(2008: 230) used the term China. It traditionally showcases benevolence and ‘upstream superpower’ to depict China.Lack of tolerance towards the weaker and smaller neighbours. goodwill of the Chinses officials compel the It thereby respects the joint development framework neighbouring policymakers to act cautiously because in the Mekong river basin, although it has limited of the increased misunderstandings and effectiveness in many areas. Unlike the South Asian miscalculations about the possible Chinese behaviour. neighbours2, the South East Asian States are also Chinese water management strategy regarding willing to include China in the multilateral forums that Mekong have been divided into three broad categories aim at building confidence, goodwill, and trust. Chinese (Ho 2014: 7). First, limited multilateral cooperation, Policies, regarding the Mekong basin, are principally under which it shows more cooperative behaviour in formulated in order to develop the Yunnan Province. the field of navigation and trade facilitation. China The leaders of the Yunnan Province frequently gets cajoled by Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand, to sign represent China in the GMS meetings and engage in the Lancang-Upper Mekong River Commercial other diplomatic and commercial activities when it Navigation Agreement, intends to facilitate trade, seems necessary. However, as it is mentioned above navigation, and tourism. To promote commerce in the that China rejected the Watercourse Convention of region, China signed a GMS agreement with 1997 and also portrayed a lackadaisical attitude Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand in 2006. The Mekong towards World Commission on Dams(WCD’s) is a ‘safe alternative to the Malacca Strait’ (Goh 2007: guidelines by withdrawing its Commissioner in 1998 30), which is cheaper and connect the entire South and disrespected the WCD’s final report. China is East Asian region. Therefore, the ‘great giant’ joined also ‘suspicious about the multilateral framework of hands to putting a joint patrol on the Mekong along cooperation’ (Chellaney 2011: 152). China is not a with Thailand and Myanmar, from which China took member of the MRC. In the case of Mekong, China advantage of establishing its military presence around is frightened of losing its national sovereignty over Myanmar and Laos (Cronin 2012). China also natural resources and the huge potential of economic showed its interest to join hands with the GMS Chinese Hydro-hegemony and Regional Security Complexes in the Mekong River Basin 117 network initiated by the ADB in 1992, which is the it is more concerned about economic maturation and only regional network that connects all the six riparian energy security for the Yunnan Province. In the recent nations. It is mainly an infrastructure development past, the large-scale projects, primarily hydropower programme that seeks to geographically and generation ones pose severe problems within the economically connect the regional actors by focusing riparian countries. Lee (2015: 140) noted that “since on power creation, and development of transport and the 1990s, tensions are prevailing in the Mekong basin communication networks.The advantage for China concerning hydropower development at the upper to involve in this network is not exactly guided by the reaches of the river”. The dream to bolster economic principles of river conservation or other aquatic and development was growing in the minds of Chinese environmental issues, but to fulfil its dream of politicians since the late 1950s, and then the economic and infrastructural development in the downstream countries also adopted similar policies region (Ho 2014: 8). However, China refused to join to bolster economic development (Biba 2012). the Mekong River Commission as a full-fledged However, the downstream countries were not member, which is the key agency of regulating the informed about those ambitious projects until the early Mekong River Basin, citing the reason that it is not 1990s (Goh 2004: 3). Upstream China is a interested toendorse the provisions of environmental geographically larger and ‘one of the fastest growing and dam building restrictions. economies in the world’. It could push forward such an ambitious project which is likely to be detrimental Secondly, China has preferred bilateral cooperation to the downstream neighbours. China developed the in the Mekong Basin as it acts in the South Asian large scale hydropower development project known region with India and Bangladesh. The most important as Lancang Jiang in China has been a critical issue in reason behind it to support development process of the region since 1993. China’s dam construction Yunnan Province. The bilateral engagement with the practices in the upstream resulted in objections by Mekong basin states gives it an opportunity to import many people in the other five countries downstream. mineral resources and export Chinese manufactured There are four dams on the mainstream of Mekong goods to the enamouring nations. To maintain and now (Liao &Hannam 2013: 2612), and they were all strengthen bilateral relations, China provides built by China, viz. “Manwan Dam (1996); considerable amount of aid the neighbouring nations Dachaoshan Dam (2002); Xiaowan Dam (2009) and without any tangible material preconditions.it also Jinhong Dam (2009). Moreover, China is planning or supports the transport, communication, health, building other four dams on the mainstream of education and other human development sectors in Mekong, viz. “Gongguoqiao, Nuozhadu, Ganlanba, its fellow riparian countries. Mansong”.The proponents of the Lancang project argued that it will benefit the downstream countries Thirdly, the third incentive for Chinese involvement to control flood in the wet season and increase water in the Mekong regional cooperative framework lies supply during the dry season for irrigation and another in the interest of hydropower development. China is purpose, apart from the generation of renewable concerned with many small and medium-size energy for economic development. It has enormous hydropower projects in the Mekong region. China negative impacts on the livelihoods of the downstream embraces a unilateral position in respect of dam countries (Goh 2004; McIntyre 2015). building on the Mekong River. The Mekong riparian nations frequently complain that China acts as an China argued that dam construction should ‘evasive superpower’ and maintains secrecy to such not be a serious matter for the downstream countries an extent that it becomes difficult to building trust. as it helps increase the amount of water in the dry The Chinese decisions to construct hydropower dams season, and control flood in the wet season. are not concerns with the possible impacts on the livelihoods of the downstream countries; preferably 118 World Focus October 2018 Regional Security Complexes is seen from a holistic point of view, the hydro-boom The potential negative consequences on the is tantamount to the loss of livelihoods, destruction of downstream neighbours are characterised ecological, fisheries and crops; simultaneously a threat to human political and economic implications for the Southeast security and destabilising whodunit in the political Asian riparian nations. It affected the downstream environment. Baker (2012: 1) pointed out that the dwellers by the threat of traditional national security hydro-development projects could result in non- concerns stem out of environmental degradation, traditional security disaster by creating situations like which potentially contributes to inter-state conflict food shortages, water contamination and irregular (Starr 1991). The most critical political consequence movements led by downstream people. Moreover, it of the upstream hegemony in the Mekong Basin will needs time to fill the large dams with water, and during be a manifestation of Chinese control of waters, which this filling period, the limited flow of water affects is a cause of tension in the downstream countries. the downstream countries especially in the dry season. The absence of strong and binding agreement, apart In case of the dams on the Mekong River, the matter from the Mekong Agreement which obliges the of flood and drought control capacity of the Chinese riparian countries, could not ensure security for the authority is highly disputable as it solely concentrates extremely downstream countries like Vietnam and on storing water for hydropower generation and Cambodia. There is also little efforts have been made releases or holds them as per of their convenience. to assess the environmental impacts of the Chinese On the other hand, fewer seasonal flood also hits the projects upstream. The 1995 Agreement on the farmers in the downstream with sediments and Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the nutrients onto the flood plains. Reduction of these Mekong River Basin, signed by the Thailand, Lao due to reduced water flow cause a decline in soil PDR, Cambodia and Vietnam established Mekong fertility. Consequently, use of more fertilisers and new River Commission (MRC) to promote cooperation strains of crops or ‘chemicalisation’ create additional of sustainable development, wise utilisation of water, problems for the cultivators in the downstream effective management and conservation of water and countries. Moreover, as a result of stringent flow related resources. However, this agreement remains regulation, saltwater intrusion happens, and high level to be ineffective (Lee 2015). Being a non-participant of salinity thus affects agriculture in the lower Mekong in the 1995 Agreement as well as the Watercourse basin. It also causes harm to the biodiversity of the Convention of 1997, China shows its reluctance to Mekong region and thereby harming the aquatic adopt the principle of equitable utilisation of ecosystem and fisheries. It is estimated that the half transboundary watercourses and preserve its strategic of the annual sedimentation in the region originates in interests by opting for unilateral development of the upstream Chinese territory (Blake 2004: 4). The hydropower projects (Chen et al. 2013). Lee (2015: Lancang Jiang project potentially decreases the 139), in this regard, retorted that “it is very unlikely sediment carrying capacity of the river. It is a prime that China would alter its hegemonic attitude towards cause of soil erosion and saltwater intrusion in the the lower riparian countries for transboundary water lower Mekong basin. management.” Conclusion Also, the non-traditional security threats It is imperative to analyse the Chinese hydro-political emerge out of the process of environmental behaviour in a manner that can clearly reflect the degradation which spontaneously transforms into downstream concerns, so that the riparian nations human insecurity degrading the standards of well- manage and prevent the adverse impacts of being of downstream communities (Goh 2004: 4). development occurringin the upstream. The political, Large dams are dangerous because it increases the economic and human security concerns are to be possibility of landslides, flood and become extremely included in the existing hydro-political framework by dangerous during the time of an earthquake. When it adopting wider diplomatic solutions. This diplomatic Chinese Hydro-hegemony and Regional Security Complexes in the Mekong River Basin 119 cooperation has also to address the nexus between Campbell, Ian C. (2016), “Integrated management in the economic development, environment and human Mekong River Basin”, Ecohydrology and Hydrobiology, security in the downstream countries in the greater 16: 255-262. Chellaney, B. (2011), Water: Asia’s New Battleground, Mekong region. The Mekong River is increasingly Georgetown University Press. becoming subject to conflict of interests regarding Chen, H. et al. (2013), “Exploring China’s Transboundary arbitrary abstraction or forceful impoundment, Water Treaty Practice Through the Prism of the UN hydropower dams or other riverine developmental Watercourses Convention”, Water International, 38 (2): projects that frighten the less powerful downstream 217–230. riparians about the quality and uninterrupted Cronin, R. (2012), “China and the geopolitics of the Mekong River Basin: Part II”, World Politics Review, 23 March. augmentation of the river waters (Liao &Hannam Dosch, J. (2007), “Crossing Cold War Divides: Cooperation 2013: 2612). The Cambodian Prime Minister, in the Mekong Valley”, in J. Dosch (Ed.), The changing SamdechTecho once reiterated that the “management dynamics of Southeast Asian politics, Boulder, CO & of the Mekong River is a matter of life and death” London: Lynne Rienner, pp. 117-138. (Vannarith 2012). Vannarith opined that the “Mekong Gerlak, A. K. & Andrea H. (2017), “Riparianization of the River development has to be inclusive, meaning Mekong River Commission”, Water International, 42 (7): 893-902. equitably taking into consideration the voices of the Goh, E. (2004), China in the Mekong River Basin: the majority of the key stakeholders, especially the people regional security implications of resource development who continue to rely on the river and its tributary on the Lancang Jiang, Working Paper No. 69, Singapore: system for their food security and livelihoods…it Rajaratnam School of International Studies (RSIS) for the needs harmonisation among the environment- Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies. development-people nexus”. Now, it is important to Heikkila, T. et al. (2013), “Adaptation in a Transboundary River Basin: Linking Stressors and Adaptive Capacity understand the current pace of Chinese ‘hydro within the Mekong River Commission”, Environmental 4 hegemony’ in the Mekong River Basin. Then it Science and Policy, 25: 73-82. necessitates widerlevel of basin wide diplomatic Ho, S. 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120 World Focus October 2018 Nickum, J. E. (2008), “The Upstream Superpower: China’s Weatherbee, D. E. (1997), “Cooperation and Conflict in International Rivers’, in Olli Varis et al. (Eds.), Management the Mekong River Basin”, Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, of Transboundary Rivers and Lakes Berlin: Springer. 20 (2): 167-184. Sajor, E. E. et al. (2013), Challenges in Developing A Basin- Wide Management Approach in the Lower Mekong, Footnotes Mekong Project 4 on water governance, challenge program 1ECAFE for water and food Mekong. Pathumthani: Asian Institute was later renamed as the Economic and Social Commission of Technology. for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP). Schmeier, S. (2009), Regional Cooperation Efforts in the 2The South Asian Geopolitics is described as Mekong River Basin: Mitigating River-Related Security ‘Hobbesian Threats and Promoting Regional Development, ASES 2 ’ in nature where politics is characterized by interstate (2):28-52. conflicts and security dilemmas, which appear to have Starr, J. R. (1991), “Water Wars”, Foreign Policy, Spring, impeded the regional cooperation and the process of No. 82: 17-36. robust multilateral institutions. Vannarith, C. (2012), “A Cambodian Perspective on 3 Retrieved at the URL: Mekong River Water Security”, STIMSON IICW, Blog http://www.china.org.cn/english/government/207454.htm Post. 4 Hydro-hegemony usually describes hegemonic Renaud F. G. & Claudia K. (2012), The Mekong Delta interaction over transboundary water resources in river System: Interdisciplinary Analyses of a River Delta, basins shared by two or more nations; however, it can be Springer. utilised for the exertion of power and control within a state Urban, F. (2013), “An analysis of China’s investment in as well the hydropower sector in the Greater Mekong Sub- ’ (Wegerich and Warner 2010: 254). Region”, Environ Dev.&Sustain, 15: 301-324. Special Discount For World Focus Readers HARD COPY Now, you can directly buy World Focus hard copy through online or through our office on a special Discount. If you order old issues from 1980 to 2017, then you will get maximum Discount on bulk order. SOFT COPY You can directly read World Focus digital copy after making the online payment through our website: www.worldfocus.in If you have any query, kindly let us know through Email: [email protected] (M) 8130754555, (Landline) 011-22246905

Chinese Hydro-hegemony and Regional Security Complexes in the Mekong River Basin 121 Contributor’s Profile

Prof. R.B Singh Secretary General and Treasurer- International Geographical (GUEST EDITOR) Union (IGU) and Professor, Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi Dr. Dilip Kumar Shaheed Bhagat Singh Evening College, University of Delhi Dr. Ranjeet Kaur Kalindi College, University of Delhi Sanjiv Krishan Sood Additional Director General (Retd), BSF Rajendra Singh Leading Water- conservationist and Environmentalist, Known as Waterman of India Prof. Snehalata Panda Former Emeritus Professor, Deptt. of Political Science, Berhampur University, Berhampur, Odisha Dr. Aslam Khan Associate Professor, Department of Political Science and International Studies, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia Embiale Beyene Lecturer, Department of Political Science and International Studies, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia Dr. Pitam Ghosh Associate Professor, Department of Political Sciences, Bangabasi Evening College, University of Calcutta Manish Sharma A well- known Analyst based in New Delhi Rudra Prasad Sahoo Assistant Professor, CSSEIP, BBAU, Lucknow, U.P. Dr. Ghulam Qadir Bhat ICSSR Post-Doctoral Fellow, Centre of Central Asian Studies, University of Kashmir Dr. Basavaraj R.Bagade Assistant Professor, Department Studies in Geography, Rani Channamma University, Vidyasangam, Belgaum, Karnataka Rajesh Kumar Abhay Assistant Professor in Geography, Dyal Singh College University of Delhi, New Delhi Dr. Debasri Mukherjee Senior Research Officer, SIGMA Foundation Dr. M. N. Roy, IAS (Retd.) President, SIGMA Foundation Dipikanta Chakraborty Assistant Professor, Faculty of Humanities and Social Science, ICFAI University, Tripura Subhash Anand Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi Vidhi Malhotra Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi Usha Rani Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi Bhaskar Jyoti Deka Ph.D. Scholar, Centre for International Politics, Organization and Disarmament, School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

122 World Focus October 2018 World Focus: 2011-2018

·January 2011 Rabindranath Tagore* ·February 2011 Buddhism in the Contemporary World* ·March 2011 Disaster Management in India* ·April 2011 South China Sea Dispute: Emerging Developments* ·May 2011 India & Neighbours (Series One) ·June 2011 India’s Neighbourhood Policy: Harmony & Development (SeriesTwo) ·July 2011 US Policy Responses to Developments in the Arab World* ·August 2011 Mahatma Gandhi & Gandhism* ·September 2011 Contemporary China* ·October 2011 Re-emergence of Russia in the horizon?* ·Nov-Dec.2011 (Annual Number) India’s foreign Policy: Perspectives & Prospects* ·January 2012 Pakistan at Crossroads* ·February 2012 Growing Indo-Bangladesh Relations* ·March 2012 SAARC & India* ·April 2012 Re-energizing India - Nepal Relations* (Series I) ·May 2012 Nepal in Transition* (Series II) ·June 2012 Changing Equations in Asia-Pacific & ASEAN Region ·July 2012 Contemporary Korean Peninsula ·August 2012 Swami Vivekananda’s Vision: Lessons for the 21st Century* ·September 2012 China Today ·October 2012 A Glance at India’s Economic Growth* ·November 2012 (Annual Number) UPA & India’s Foreign Policy (Series-1)* ·December 2012 (Annual Number) UPA & India’s Foreign Policy (Series-2)* ·January 2013 Asian Maritime Diplomacy* ·February 2013 India & European Union* ·March 2013 Energy Security: Indian Perspectives* ·April 2013 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar & Social Justice: A National & Global Perspective* ·May 2013 Environment and Sustainable Development* ·June 2013 India & West Asia* ·July 2013 India & Neighbours* ·August 2013 M.N. Roy: The Veteran Indian Internationalist* ·September 2013 India and Afghanistan * ·October 2013 India & Myanmar Relations* ·November 2013 Global Governance & Decentralization* ·December 2013 (Annual Number) India’s Foreign Policy* ·January 2014 Indian Diaspora* ·February 2014 Climate Change* ·March 2014 China in a changing * ·April 2014 Philosophical Thoughts of Buddha, Gandhi & Dr. Ambedkar: Contemporary Relevance* ·May 2014 Ethics & Indian Civilizational Thought: Global Implication* ·June 2014 India & ASEAN* ·July 2014 Disaster Management in India* ·August 2014 India’s Economic Growth* ·September 2014 India & Neighbours * ·October 2014 India’s Quest for Energy Security* ·November 2014 (Annual Number) India’s New Foreign Policy (Series-1)* ·December 2014 (Annual Number) India’s New Foreign Policy (Series-2)* ·January 2015 Oil Diplomacy in Central Asia & West Asia* ·February 2015 Environmental Diplomacy and Sustainable Development* ·March 2015 Makers of Modern India* ·April 2015 India’s Economic Diplomacy* ·May 2015 Energy Security Needs of Rising India* ·June 2015 India & China Relations* ·July 2015 Conflict Zones of the World* ·August 2015 India & Neighbours* ·September 2015 Regional Diplomacy: SAARC, ASEAN & BRICS* ·October 2015 Climate Change* ·November 2015 India’s Foreign Policy - Series 1* ·December 2015 India’s Foreign Policy - Series 2* ·January 2016 Global Politics of Oil in West & Central Asia* ·February 2016 Terrorism and Geopolitics* ·March 2016 India and East Asia* ·April 2016 India’s Economic Diplomacy * ·May 2016 Disaster Management & Mitigation* ·June 2016 Global Turmoils: Peace & Conflict Management* ·July 2016 Ethics in the Contemporary World* ·August 2016 India & Neighbours* ·September 2016 India’s Maritime Diplomacy and China Silk Road* ·October 2016 Climate Change* ·November 2016 India’s Foreign Policy: Series -1* ·December 2016 India’s Foreign Policy: Series -2* ·January 2017 Russia and the World* ·February 2017 Redical Islam & Terrorism* ·March 2017 From Pacific Atlantic to Indo-Pacific Region: Shifts in Global Politics* ·April 2017 One China Principle and Trump’s U.S. Strategy* ·May 2017 Gandhi, Bose & Dr. Ambedkar* ·June 2017 Environment & Sustainable Development: Emerging Challenges* ·July 2017 Unresolved Kashmir Question & Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (PoK)* ·August 2017 Turmoil in Europe & India-EU Ties* ·September 2017 Complexities in Pakistan, Afghanistan & Balochistan* ·October 2017 Geopolitics of Energy in Central Asia* ·November 2017 India’s Foreign Policy: Series-1* ·December 2017 India’s Foreign Policy: Series-2* ·January 2018 Emerging Dynamics of Indo-Pacific* ·February 2018 India & Neighbours* ·March 2018 Shifting Equations in India’s Neighbourhood* ·April 2018 Global Power Rivalry & South China Sea Dispute* ·May 2018 India-Japan Relations* ·June 2018 Iligal Cross-Border Terrorism* ·July 2018 India and Global Centres of Power: US, EU, Japan China & Russia* ·August 2018 Environment and Sustainable Development: Our Common Future* ·September 2018 Developments in Korean Peninsula*

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