www.muohio.edu/InitiativeAnthology/ posted November 26, 2003 first posted on November 23, 2003

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Leaders in African-Centered Education by Kamautu Ashanti (AKA Darryn C. Roberts) Miami University

oday, more African are beginning to search for educational Tmethods that will help them to counter the poor educational conditions that the majority of their children suffer (see Hoskins, 1991; Ladson-Billings, 1994; Hilliard, 1998; Wilson, 1998). Afrocentricity is a critical discourse that is being used to form a critical pedagogy known as African-centered education.2 African-centered pedagogy and curriculum are designed to teach African children in a manner that takes their history, culture, identity, and politics into account for the ultimate purpose of solving their problems (Asante, 1988; 1991; 1992; Hoskins, 1991; Hilliard, 1998; Wilson, 1998; Giddings, 2001). The aim of this article is to discuss the perspectives of leading African- centered thinkers (i.e., professors, teachers, and other intellectuals) on Afrocentricity with respect to education. In order to do this, I will draw from their research and scholarship to address the question of what constitutes an African-centered curriculum for African/ African American children. Ashanti: Leaders in African-Centered Education 2

AFROCENTRICITY r. coined the term Afrocentricity in 1980 (Asante, D1988). In general, Afrocentricity is an epistemology that seeks to re-center/ relocate African people—Black Africans on the continent of and people of Black African descent in the —in their own particular, yet connected, cultures for the ultimate purpose of their social, political, and economic liberation (Asante, 1998; 1999; Hilliard, 1998; Wilson, 1998).3 When discussing Afrocentric consciousness and culture Asante writes, "You must always begin from where you are, … if you are Yoruba, begin with Yoruba history and mythology; if you are Kikuyu, begin with Kikuyu history and mythology; if you are African-American, begin with African-American history and mythology. Irrespective of present locations, the roots of all African people go back to East Africa, the cradle of human history" (Asante, 1988, p. 7). Furthermore, (writing under the name Ani, 1994 & Richards, 1994) asserts that Afrocentric discourse is based in the cultural perspectives, practices, and values of African people. In addition, Amos Wilson (1998) argues that an African-centered consciousness produces culture that works in the best interests of people of African descent, wherever they may be in the Diaspora. Taken together, Asante's (1988), Ani's (writing under the name Ani, 1994 & Richards, 1994), and Wilson's (1998) positions indicate that the cultures Afrocentricity seeks to re-center/ relocate African people in must take their cultural diversity (distinct historical, mythical, and geographical locations) into account, while simultaneously stressing their cultural unity (East African roots). One important tenant of Afrocentric discourse is that the ancient Nile Valley civilizations (e.g., the classical civilizations of , [Sudan], and Kemit []) produced the foundations of African culture, just as the classical civilizations of Greece and Rome produced the foundations of much of Western culture (Diop, 1974; 1987; 1991; Williams, 1974; Asante, 1988; Ani, 1994, Caruthers, 2000). Thus, Afrocentric curriculum researchers and scholars believe that by studying the classical African civilizations, and the various African societies that branched off from them, they can demystify the history of African people (and world history as well), which has been systematically falsified, distorted, segmented, and erased in order to support the interests of foreign invaders (Williams, 1974; Diop, 1974; 1991; Asante, 1988; Akbar, 1991; Hoskins, 1991; Caruthers, 2000).4 For instance, starting with the periods of the 3 Ashanti: Leaders in African-Centered Education

Arab and the European created slave trades and colonial conquests of Africa, African people and their culture were systematically assaulted.5 The foreign slavers and colonizers deprived Africans of their precious resources. With the Africans' knowledge and skills (e.g., writing, math, science, medicine, architecture, metallurgy, and agriculture) the foreigners could advance their own cultures/ societies (Williams, 1974; Diop, 1974; 1991; Clarke, 1993). Furthermore, with the Africans' labor, land, and mineral resources (e.g., forced and exploited labor; fertile soil; gold, silver, and diamonds) the foreigners could expand their own populations and economies (Williams, 1974; Diop, 1991; Jones, 1992; Clarke, 1993). In addition, the foreigners lacked an understanding and appreciation of the mainly communal, matriarchal, and spiritual culture that the Africans developed (Williams, 1974; Jones, 1992; Clarke, 1993). Consequently, wherever the foreigners were permitted to exercise corrupt political, social, and economic practices—mainly as a result of superior military technology—they went about the mission of both physically forcing and mentally coercing African people to abandon their own cultural practices (e.g., language, religion, matriarchy, dress, and dance) and adopt foreign cultural practices (Williams, 1974; Jones, 1992; Clarke, 1993).6 Thus, the foreigners appropriated/ incorporated certain elements of African culture (albeit not necessarily without altering them) while destroying others. Moreover, in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries— during the, so called, European era of the Enlightenment— powerful and influential Europeans took the practice of destroying African culture to the cruelest level any people have ever reached in the history of the world by creating the chattel slave system, institutional racism, and . Europeans originally enslaved Africans mainly in order to rebuild (e.g., economically, socially, politically) the nations of Europe.7 To further the building of Europe and the expansion of European power, the Europeans then took Africa from the remaining Africans by converting the chattel slave system into colonialism (and neo- colonialism)—which still pervades our lives today (Williams, 1974; Jones, 1992; Clarke, 1993). In order to justify the European created slave trade and subsequent colonial conquest of Africa some of Europe's (and some of America's) greatest scholars and intellectuals consciously created and sustained institutional racism, which consisted of, but was not limited to, the systematic falsification, distortion, segmentation, and erasure of African history and culture (Williams, 1974; Caruthers, 1990; Jones, 1992; Clarke, Ashanti: Leaders in African-Centered Education 4

1993; Watkins, 2001).8 Africentricity stands as a powerful method of healing and reversing the devastating effects of the great disaster/ holocaust () that has befallen African people.9

AFRICAN-CENTERED EDUCATION frocentric curriculum researchers and scholars attempt to provide a Aframework for the reconstruction of African cultures and identities (most of which have been de-centered/ dislocated and disrupted by the Maafa) around the best morals, values, and cultural practices that both traditional and contemporary African societies have to offer (Williams 1974; Asante, 1988; Ani, 1994; Hilliard, 1998; Richards, 1994).10 However, all cultural practices of African societies are not automatically to be considered "authentic," useful, and/ or positive (Williams, 1974; Jones, 1992; Wilson, 1998, Caruthers, 1990). Furthermore, African-centered curriculum researchers and scholars do not teach children about traditional African societies so that they might relive them (as if they were ever fixed or could ever be fixed). The purpose of teaching about and re-appropriating aspects of traditional African societies is to construct a more correct version of African history and reconstruct culture and identity that help African children to solve their present and future problems (Williams 1974; Wilson, 1998; Caruthers, 2000). In addition, an important part of the achievement process involves the connection of education to students' interests and the development of a positive sense of self (Woodson, 1933). Certainly, one aspect of African-centered curriculum that helps to increase academic achievement is the connection of students with their own historical and cultural traditions. Nevertheless, Afrocentric curriculum is not designed to proselytize the minds of children (whether of African or non-African descent) and/or elevate their egos by normalizing African historical and cultural perspectives and negating the historical and cultural perspectives of "Others." For example, Asante (1998; 1999) argues that Afrocentric educators should teach students that Afrocentricity is one of a number of different ways to view the world (i.e., there are multiple cultural viewpoints within our pluralistic society), whereas the standard curriculum of the public schools, being based on a hegemonic form of , is promoted as universal.11 Furthermore, Afrocentric pedagogy is both compensatory and critical. It is compensatory because it 5 Ashanti: Leaders in African-Centered Education re-centers/ relocates dislocated African people in a centered cultural frame of reference that helps them view the world as agents rather than as mere objects and victims (Asante, 1999). It is critical because it helps African people to realize the consciousness necessary to question and resist the cultural, social, political, and economic domination of non-African people (Asante, 1999). Thus, to the extent that Afrocentric curriculum is corrective and critical in its aims, it is counter-hegemonic and transformative. In addition, some curriculum researchers and scholars argue that Afrocentricity (and African-centered pedagogy) is essentialistic (for an example of such a critique see McCarthy, 1997). In other words, some scholars may think Afrocentricity denies the reality that African people exhibit multifarious, as opposed to monolithic, cultural characteristics. However, Asante (1998) sensibly asserts that essentialism is not necessarily a negative quality; therefore, he does not completely deny this criticism. For instance, consider his comments on essentialism: …one must be 'open to the possibilities of dynamism, moving, and flowing, but you have to be moving and flowing from some base. Those who do not from a base are just floating in the air.' It is clear to me from my own study of history that cultures do exist and in fact persist for centuries with many basic characteristics hardly changed. This is the nature of human societies operating on the foundations of , history, and memories. The African American community is no different from others in this regard. There are certain essential characteristics that identify the contours of our African American community. These are not essential characteristics, in the sense of being inborn, but rather the fundamental outlines of what we regard and preserve as characteristic of our society. Thus, while I may answer to being an essentialist, I am not an immutabilist. Asante, 1998, p. 13) I believe Asante's comments suggest many important ideas. First, I think he is suggesting that just because a community chooses to be guided by a particular cultural frame of reference does not necessarily mean that it will develop cultural tunnel vision. Secondly, it appears as if he is suggesting that while there is always room for growth and development with respect to culture and identity people often keep the center or core of their culture and identity in tact—to use as a platform from which they navigate their Ashanti: Leaders in African-Centered Education 6 world. Thus, Afrocentric curriculum should help African children to develop a sense of culture and identity that is necessarily fixed to a degree, but never rigid, stagnant, or complacent. Amos Wilson (1998) seems to express the same type of idea about culture and identity when he discusses African-centered curriculum. For instance, he discusses the importance of recognizing that traditional African culture was not stagnant, but constantly evolving, growing, and changing. Moreover, Wilson warns African people against resisting the appropriation of types of thought that are often considered non- African (e.g., linear thinking)—granted that such thought has the potential to help African people to liberate themselves. Thirdly, I think that by pointing out the fact that all African people possess certain non-biologically determined, yet essential, cultural continuities and constitutions Asante is suggesting that culture is based on common relationships and experiences that arise out of, and may be transmitted through, socialization. Audrey Thompson (1998) argues a similar view as she states that to the extent members of a group (which can be culturally and politically recognized) share common circumstances and a particular set of values transmitted via their community, it is possible to speak of shared assumptions that make up a recognizable cultural perspective.12 There are a variety of other factors that influence African-centered curriculum. For example, African-centered curriculum must be oriented around solving the problems (e.g., , poverty, unemployment, inadequate education, crime, and AIDS) that African American children face. Africentric curriculum scholars and researchers assert that African-centered education should empower African people to deal with their problems not only by reconstructing and preserving African history, culture, and identity but also by employing other strategies (Williams, 1974; Asante, 1998; Wilson, 1998; Caruthers, 2000; Collins 2000). For instance, African-centered education is designed to teach African children to engage in the indispensable process of building institutions (e.g., schools, businesses, banks, political parties, etc.) that support their communities (Williams, 1974; Wilson, 1998, Caruthers, 2000). In addition, Ani (1994b) and Collins (2000) stress the need of African-centered education to address both intra-group and inter-group patriarchy and sexism. Furthermore, positive concepts of African womanhood and manhood should be taught through African-centered education (Akbar, 1991; Ani, 1994b, Collins, 2000). Also, many African-centered 7 Ashanti: Leaders in African-Centered Education educators emphasize the necessity of studying both intra-group and inter-group class struggle (Jones, 1992; Wilson, 1998, Caruthers, 1990; 2000). Therefore, the study of asymmetrical power relations (that manifest through racism, sexism, classism, religious dogmatism, and all other forms of oppression) must be a part of any Africentric pedagogy and curriculum. Jeffries (1991) and Johnson (2001) argue that possesses at least three dimensions: (1) a skills function, (2) a morals function, and (3) a spiritual function. That is, African-centered curriculum is about balancing "traditional" disciplines (e.g., math, science, language, writing), morals and values (e.g., MAAT and Nguzo-Saba), and spirituality (e.g., understanding our relationship to the Creator and our ancestors) in order to give African children a complete education. Moreover, African-centered curriculum must be designed to accommodate the various learning styles (e.g., oral, literate, holistic, and linear) that African children are socialized into (Jeffries, 1991; Hoskins, 1991; Asante, 1998; Richardson, 2000; Johnson, 2001). 13 In addition, Jeffries (1991), Hilliard (1992), Asante (1999), and Caruthers (2000) write about pluralizing curricula (especially within public schools) so that the accomplishments of all peoples within all areas of society are both recognized and studied. Lastly, Caruthers (1990), in his lecture entitled "The African-Centered Curriculum and the White Supremacy Control of African American Education" gives us the following seven basic guidelines for the development of African-centered curriculum within various school settings: (1) Africa should be studied through primary data (e.g., its literature, its documents, and its oral tradition), (2) Africa should be presented as a continuous component of world history with cultural, social, political, and economic dimensions, (3) Africa should be presented with balance (e.g., antiquity and contemporary; agricultural, pastoral, and urban; oral and literate; and problems and successes), (4) Africa should be studied from a comparative, multicultural framework (e.g., in comparison to Europe, Asia, etc.), (5) Ancient Africa must be presented in terms of race specificity (e.g., the current sociopolitical constructions of race dictate that the Ancient Egyptians were ), (6) Africa must be studied with respect to all disciplines (e.g., science and mathematics as well as language and art), and (7) Africa Ashanti: Leaders in African-Centered Education 8 must be presented in truth (e.g., Africa must be presented as it is and was without falsification). In conclusion, I have attempted to discuss the educational views of some of the leading African-centered thinkers in Afrocentric discourse. Their perspectives inform us that good African-centered pedagogy and curriculum are built around solving the problems of African people. Therefore, African-centered pedagogy and curriculum involve the following eight processes: (1) the reconstruction and preservation of African history, culture, and identity, (2) the engagement in counter-hegemony, (3) the engagement in transformation, (4) the engagement in the activity of nation-building, (5) the construction of positive concepts of African womanhood and manhood, (6) the study of (asymmetrical) power relations, (7) the integration/ balancing of technical, moral, and spiritual dimensions of education, and (8) the incorporation of the learning styles of African children.14 In addition, as previously mentioned, Caruthers' (1990) seven basic guidelines for the development of African-centered curriculum within various school settings are extremely important. Consequently, by adding his aforementioned guidelines to the latter eight processes, I am suggesting that good African-centered pedagogy and curriculum encompass fifteen guidelines/ processes. However, African- centered pedagogy and curriculum are by no means limited to these fifteen guidelines/ processes, as other people working within African-centered discourse undoubtedly have, and will, suggest others. I believe that African-centered curriculum is necessary for many reasons. One of the most critical reasons for its implementation is that African people are not totally free. They are militarily and economically constrained, mainly by the nations of Europe and the , and far too many are mis-educated to accept and uphold oppression (e.g., the global system of White supremacy and its affects) in various ways. African-centered curriculum has the potential to help African people liberate themselves and exercise the type of self-determination (kujichagulia) that all people are entitled to exercise. Moreover, Afrocentric curriculum helps African children to develop a sense of culture and identity that is flexibly centered (i.e., fixed to a certain extent, but not stagnant) (consequently, the critique of essentialism that some curriculum scholars have leveled against Afrocentric discourse and African-centered pedagogy is unwarranted). 9 Ashanti: Leaders in African-Centered Education

Also, unlike the mainstream curriculum of public schools, Africentric curriculum is not constructed as universal. On the contrary, it is multicultural/ pluralistic in its emphasis on respecting other non-hegemonic ways of viewing the world. Indeed, the fact that African-centered educators often write about pluralizing the curriculum reflects the non-oppressive and counter-hegemonic nature of Africentric education. Furthermore, the transformative and counter-hegemonic nature of African-centered curriculum is reflected in its ability to help African children to view the world as agents and to question and resist foreign domination. In addition, Afrocentric curriculum is therapeutic. For instance, therapists often help their patients understand the nature of an assault and develop strategies for moving beyond its deleterious effects by guiding them through a reflective process (Akbar, 1991).15 Such a process takes into account the types of attitudes, behaviors, and achievements their patients exhibited before (and even during) the assault. Just as an individual who has been victimized/ assaulted (e.g., raped, robbed, tortured) may need to reflect on her/ his experiences in order to heal there is a need for all Africans to examine their history and culture, both prior to and during the Maafa, in order to heal as a people. The importance of reflecting on past experiences is not for the victim to become the same person that sh/e was before the assault (this is not possible), but rather to allow the victim to overcome the assault and move forward.16 Africentric curriculum provides the critical consciousness necessary for African people to overcome past (and present) oppression. It does so in a myriad of ways (e.g., by helping them to regain a more correct and positive sense of self, unite with one another to solve their problems, reengage in nation building, and resist all types of foreign hegemony). Yet, the critics of Afrocentric discourse often deny the right of African people to utilize their great history and past cultural practices to repair the damage that they have suffered (and continue to suffer). No one other than the assailant, and possibly his/ her accomplice, denies the victim the right to heal. Having used the preceding patient—therapist analogy, it is imperative for me to acknowledge that I agree with Molefi Asante's (1999) position that Africans should not be viewed and/ or presented as perpetual victims. Indeed, African people have always fought domination (see Diop, 1974; Williams, 1974; and Browder, 1992). They continue to exercise agency, resistance, and kujichagulia to address their problems on local, Ashanti: Leaders in African-Centered Education 10 national, and global levels. Afrocentricity, and African-centered curriculum, are present demonstrations of such actions and should be respected as such. I believe that for the overwhelming majority of their existence African people have been completely free and self-determining (see Diop, 1974; 1991; Williams, 1974; and Clarke, 1993). With the implementation of African-centered curriculum, they will become so again. Because the depth and scope of Afrocentric thinkers' work is so great, and because my understanding of Afrocentric discourse is still developing, I have undoubtedly only managed to scratch the surface of research and scholarship that these individuals have amassed. Furthermore, as is the case with many forms of dialogue, I have also left certain voices out of this discussion. I did so partly to avoid redundancy and partly to avoid exceeding the focus of this essay, which was not to debate different views that Africentric scholars might have with respect to the direction of Africentric discourse and/ or education. For instance, I did not present differing perspectives on whether or not African consciousness should be based solely on nonlinear, circular, and holistic forms of thinking. Thus, my essay is by no means representative of the entire spectrum of Afrocentric thought. Rather, my essay reflects the fact that I have represented/ conceptualized African-centered curriculum in a manner that is consistent with my beliefs in the need for people of African descent to present a united front (e.g., engage in Afrocentric Pan-Africanism and kujichagulia), while at the same time maintain a centered culture and identity that is somewhat flexible, and the need for all people (especially educators) to work for social justice. Having acknowledged this, I believe that my discussion of leaders in African-centered education is quite consistent with the direction that Africentric curriculum is taking in many places around the nation. 11 Ashanti: Leaders in African-Centered Education

References Akbar, N. (1991). Chains and images of psychological . Jersey City, NJ, New Mind Productions. Akbar, N. (1991). Visions for black men. Nashville, TN, Winston-Derek Publishers, Inc. Ani, M. (1994). Yurugu: An African-centered critique of European cultural thought and behavior. Trenton, NJ, Africa World Press, Inc. Asante, M. (1988). Afrocentricity. Trenton, NJ, Africa World Press, Inc. Asante, M. (1992). Afrocentric Curriculum. In Rousmaniere, K. & Abowitz, K. (1998). Readings in sociocultural studies in education (pp. 393-395). New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Asante, M. (1991). The Afrocentric idea in education. Journal of Negro Education, 60(2), 170- 180. Asante, M. (1998). The Afrocentric idea: Revised and expanded edition. Philadelphia, PA, Temple University Press. Asante, M. (1999). The painful demise of Eurocentrism. Trenton, NJ, Africa World Press, Inc. Browder, A. T. (1992). Nile Valley contributions to civilization: Exploding the myths volume 1. Washington, DC, Institute of Karmic Guidance. Caruthers, J. H. (2000). Intellectual warfare. , IL, Third World Press. Caruthers, J. H. (1990). The African-Centered Curriculum and the White Supremacy Control of African American Education. Lecture/ speech given at the Fulton School in Philadelphia. Clarke, J. (1993). Christopher Columbus and the Afrikan holocaust: Slavery and the rise of European capitalism. New York, A&B Publishers Group. Collins, P. H. (2000). Black Feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. New York, NY, Routledge. Diop, C. (1987). Black Africa: The economic and cultural basis for a federated state. Chicago, IL and Trenton, NJ, Jointly published by Lawrence Hill Books and African World Press, Inc. Diop, C. (1991). Civilization or barbarism: An authentic anthropology. New York, Lawrence Hill Books. Diop, C. (1974). The African origin of civilization: or reality. Chicago, IL, Lawrence Hill Books. Giddings, G. J. (2001). Infusion of Afrocentric content into the school curriculum: Toward an effective movement. Journal of Black Studies, 31(4), 462-482. Hilliard, A. G. III. (1998). SBA: The reawakening of the African mind. Gainesville, Florida, Makare Publishing. Hilliard, A. G. III. (1992). Why We Must Pluralize the Curriculum. In Rousmaniere, K. & Abowitz, K. (1998). Readings in sociocultural studies in education (pp. 291-293). New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Hoskins, L. A. (1991). Proceedings of the public policy forum: vs. Eurocentrism: The national debate. Kent, OH, Linus A. Hoskins and the Institute for African American Affairs. Ashanti: Leaders in African-Centered Education 12

Jeffries, L. (1991). Keynote Address presented to the Institute for African American Affairs at Kent State University. In Hoskins L. A., Proceedings of the public policy forum: Afrocentrism vs. Eurocentrism: The national debate. Kent, OH, Linus A. Hoskins and the Institute for African American Affairs. Johnson, V. D. (2001). The Nguzo Saba as foundation for African American college student development theory. Journal of Black Studies, 31(4), 406-422. Jones, D. (1992). The Black Holocaust: (Global genocide). Philadelphia, PA, Eye of the Storm Communications, Inc. Jones, W. (2001). New teachers for a new millennium. The black collegian, Second Semester (February), 72-78. Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers: Successful teachers of African American children. San Francisco, CA, Jossey-Bass Inc. McCarthy, C. (1997). The Problem with Origins: Race and the Contrapuntal Nature of the Education Experience. In Giroux, H. A., & Shannon, P. Education and cultural studies: Toward a performative practice. Part Three: Race Matters (pp. 119-138). New York, NY, Routledge. Richards, D. M. (AKA Marimba Ani). (1994). Let the circle be unbroken: The implications of African spirituality in the Diaspora. Trenton, Red Sea Press. Richardson, E. (2000). Critique on the problematic of implementing Afrocentricity into traditional curriculum: "The powers that be." Journal of Black Studies, 31(2), 193-213. Thompson, A. (1998). Not the color purple: Black feminist lessons for educational care. Harvard Educational Review, 68(4), 522-554. Watkins, W. H. (2001). The White architects of Black education: Ideology and power in America, 1865-1954. New York: Teachers College Press. Wilson, A. (1998). A blueprint for : A moral, political and economic imperative for the twenty-first century. Brooklyn, NY, Afrikan World Infosystems. Williams, C. (1974). The destruction of Black civilization: Great issues of a race from 4500 B.C. to 2000 A.D. Chicago, Third World Press.

1 This Adinkra symbol, called Adinkrahene, stands for greatness, charisma, and leadership. 2 I use the terms Afrocentric(ity), African-centered, and Africentric(ity) in a synonymous fashion throughout this document. 3 I should note here that although race is a socially constructed category and Asante (1998) has argued that the term "Black African" should not be used when referring to the African, other respected African- centered scholars such as Diop (1987), Jones (1992), and Wilson (1998) have seen fit to do so. 4 Such a process serves not only the interests of African people but also the interests of all non-African people, who are also damaged by the teaching of a distorted and falsified and the world. 5 Preceding Western Asian, Greek, and Roman invasions also disrupted and assaulted African culture; however, I tend to believe that the following Arab and European invasions were the most systematic with respect to the destruction of African culture. Others may disagree. 6 My statement here is not meant to indicate that cultural appropriation only occurred during times of foreign domination; nor is it meant to assert that cultural appropriation is a one-way process. 13 Ashanti: Leaders in African-Centered Education

7 Later, European Americans would keep the institution of slavery alive in order to further develop and expand American economic, social, political and military power. 8 Although he is not considered an African-centered scholar, William Watkins (2001) presents an excellent discussion of the European's (and the European American's) creation of scientific and institutional racism and colonial education. 9 However, due to the many sociocultural, political, and economic benefits of Afrocentricity I agree with Amos Wilson's (1998) argument that African people should engage in Afrocentric discourse whether or not Arab and/ or European/ European American hegemony and oppression exist. 10 By traditional African societies I am referring to the classical African civilizations and the multitudes of ancient societies that were created when Africans branched off from them and spread over the rest of the African continent. The civilizations of Carthage, Mali, , Songhay, Zululand, and Zimbabwe are but a few examples. Saving Carthage (which was destroyed by the Romans), these societies remained free and un-dominated by non-African people until the periods of the Arab and the European created slave trades and colonial conquests of Africa. And, through armed resistance, some of these societies even extended their freedom well beyond the onset of these periods. For more information on traditional African societies see Diop (1974), Williams (1974), and Clarke (1993). 11 Hegemonic Eurocentrism is a worldview that is based on normalizing the historical and cultural perspectives of European peoples and negating the historical and cultural perspectives of non-European peoples. Thus, hegemonic Eurocentrism works to maintain White supremacy. 12 I must note that even though Thompson is not considered an African-centered scholar, her definition of culture would appeal to many thinkers engaged in African-centered discourse. 13 While some of these educators recommend a curriculum that matches a variety of learning styles, some of them argue that the traditional disciplines must be totally changed to reflect an integrated curriculum that matches a holistic type of learning style. 14 Not all of these processes are mutually exclusive. 15 Akbar is a clinical psychologist and even though he does not directly state that he is partly using a therapist—patient type of framework, I believe that he does in fact demonstrate the reflective process that I am referring to. 16 The Maafa should never be forgotten. Thus, I do not mean to suggest that victims forget about the assault and/ or simply get over it. On the contrary, victims must understand the nature of the assault so that they are not consumed and immobilized by it. ------Kamau Ashanti (Darryn Roberts) is currently studying curriculum development in the Department of Educational Leadership, Miami University, Ohio. His current research interests include African-centered curriculum, critical pedagogy, and cultural studies. He may be contacted at [email protected] ------The Initiative Anthology: An Electronic Publication about Leadership, Culture, & Schooling www.muohio.edu/InitiativeAnthology/