The Role of Microbes in the Nutrition of Detritivorous
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The role of microbes in the nutrition of detritivorous invertebrates: A stoichiometric analysis Thomas Anderson2*, David Pond1, Daniel J. Mayor2 1 2 Natural Environment Research Council, United Kingdom, National Oceanography Centre, United Kingdom Submitted to Journal: Frontiers in Microbiology Specialty Section: Aquatic Microbiology ISSN: 1664-302X Article type: Original Research Article Received on: 07 Nov 2016 Accepted on: 14 Dec 2016 Provisional PDF published on: 14 Dec 2016 Frontiers website link: www.frontiersin.org Citation: Anderson T, Pond D and Mayor DJ(2016) The role of microbes in the nutrition of detritivorous Provisionalinvertebrates: A stoichiometric analysis. Front. Microbiol. 7:2113. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2016.02113 Copyright statement: © 2016 Anderson, Pond and Mayor. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution and reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. This Provisional PDF corresponds to the article as it appeared upon acceptance, after peer-review. Fully formatted PDF and full text (HTML) versions will be made available soon. Frontiers in Microbiology | www.frontiersin.org 1 1 The role of microbes in the nutrition of detritivorous 2 invertebrates: A stoichiometric analysis 3 4 Thomas R. Anderson1*, David W. Pond2 and Daniel J. Mayor1* 5 6 1National Oceanography Centre, Southampton SO14 3ZH, UK 7 8 2Scottish Association for Marine Science, Oban, Argyll PA37 1QA, UK 9 10 * corresponding authors; [email protected]; [email protected] 11 12 Article type: Original research 13 14 Keywords: detritus, microbial loop, stoichiometry, trophic upgrading, polyunsaturated fatty 15 acids, mesopelagic zone 16 17 Article length: 6832 words, 5 Figures 18 19 20 21 Abstract 22 23 Detritus represents an important pool in the global carbon cycle, providing a food source for 24 detritivorous invertebrates that are conspicuous components of almost all ecosystems. Our 25 knowledge of how these organisms meet their nutritional demands on a diet that is typically 26 comprised of refractory, carbon-rich compounds nevertheless remains incomplete. ‘Trophic 27 upgrading’ of detritus by the attached microbial community (enhancement of zooplankton 28 diet by the inclusion of heterotrophic protozoans) represents a potential source of nutrition for 29 detritivores as both bacteria and their flagellated protistan predators are capable of 30 biosynthesizing essential micronutrients such as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). There 31 is however a trade-off because although microbes enhance the substrate in terms of its 32 micronutrient content, the quantity of organic carbon is diminished though metabolic losses 33 as energyProvisional passes through the microbial food web. Here, we develop a simple stoichiometric 34 model to examine this trade-off in the nutrition of detritivorous copepods inhabiting the 35 mesopelagic zone of the ocean, focusing on their requirements for carbon and an essential 36 PUFA, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Results indicate that feeding on microbes may be a 37 highly favourable strategy for these invertebrates, although the potential for carbon to 38 become limiting when consuming a microbial diet exists because of the inefficiencies of 39 trophic transfer within the microbial food web. Our study highlights the need for improved 40 knowledge at the detritus-microbe-metazoan interface, including interactions between the 41 physiology and ecology of the associated organisms. 42 43 2 44 1. Introduction 45 46 The production of dead and decaying particulate organic matter (‘detritus’ hereafter) may 47 account for as much as 56% of primary production when averaged across a range of 48 ecosystems (Cebrián and Duarte, 1995). This flux of detritus thereby constitutes a significant 49 term in the global carbon cycle (Ciais et al., 2013) and is a major conduit through which 50 organic matter is transported both within and between ecosystems (Bartels et al., 2012). It 51 also provides sustenance to countless detritivorous invertebrates, which we loosely interpret 52 as any animal that has a trophic association with dead organic matter, including organismal 53 egesta. Detritus-detritivore interactions influence the potential for carbon sequestration in 54 both terrestrial and aquatic environments. Understanding the interface between living and 55 dead organic matter is therefore a prerequisite to improving predictions of global 56 biogeochemical cycles and climate (Burd et al., 2016; Luo et al., 2016). 57 58 Detritus is mainly composed of refractory compounds such as structural polysaccharides 59 (Mann, 1988; Kiem and Kögel-Knabner, 2003), but is depleted in micronutrients such as 60 amino acids and fatty acids (Cowie and Hedges, 1996; Pokarzhevskii et al., 1997; Mayor et 61 al., 2011) that are considered essential for the growth of metazoan animals (Müller-Navarra 62 et al., 2000; Anderson et al., 2004; Sampedro et al., 2006; Larsen et al., 2016). The nutritional 63 challenge facing detritivores may, however, be mitigated by the presence of microorganisms 64 that colonize the detrital substrate (Moran and Hodson, 1989; Turley and Mackie, 1994). 65 Detritivores actively ingest this detritus-associated microbial community which, unlike the 66 basal substrate, is readily absorbed and provides a rich source of micronutrients (Bärlocher 67 and Kendrick, 1975; Phillips, 1984; Lawrence et al., 1993; Koski et al., 2005). Indeed, a key 68 functional characteristic of many detritivorous invertebrates is their propensity to shred or 69 fragment detritus (Anderson and Sedell, 1979; Iversen and Poulsen, 2007), an activity that 70 has been proposed to stimulate the production of microbial biomass by increasing the surface 71 area of the substrate, so-called “microbial gardening” (Fenchel, 1970; Mayor et al., 2014). 72 The resulting uplift in the nutritional content of detritus represents a form of “trophic 73 upgrading”, a term which originates from the marine literature and refers to the enhancement 74 of zooplankton growth by the inclusion of micronutrient-rich heterotrophic protozoans in an 75 otherwise herbivorous diet (Klein Breteler et al., 1999). Relying on microbes as a primary 76 source of nutrition does, however come at an energetic cost because their gross growth 77 efficienciesProvisional are typically <30 % (Del Giorgio and Cole, 1988) and the majority of organic 78 carbon in the detrital substrate is therefore lost during the trophic upgrading process. 79 Detritivorous invertebrates thus face a trade-off between consuming a high quality, low 80 quantity diet that is rich in microbes versus the low quality, high quantity detritus (Mayor et 81 al., 2014). 82 83 Here, we use a simple stoichiometric model to examine the extent to which invertebrates 84 maximize growth by incorporating microbes into their diet, using detritivorous zooplankton 85 in the mesopelagic zone (MPZ) of the ocean as a case study. The MPZ extends from the base 86 of the sunlit (euphotic) zone down to ~1000 m and many of the resident organisms are 87 primarily sustained by an estimated global detrital flux of 5-12 Gt C yr-1 (Henson et al., 88 2011). The depth at which organic matter is remineralized within the MPZ influences the 89 residence time of carbon in the oceans and hence global climate (Kwon et al., 2009). Sinking 90 detrital particles in the MPZ exhibit the characteristic poor nutritional status described above, 91 having undergone stripping of the most desirable compounds by bacteria and/or multiple 92 ingestion events by zooplankton (Podgorska and Mundryk, 2003; Wilson et al., 2008). The 93 resulting substrate is thus largely devoid of essential micronutrients such as amino or fatty 3 94 acids (Wakeham et al., 1997; Fileman et al., 1998; Schneider et al., 2003). We suggest that 95 the problem of obtaining sufficient nutrition may be felt acutely by detritivorous zooplankton 96 that permanently reside in the MPZ, e.g. copepods of the genus Oithona that are ubiquitous 97 throughout the world ocean (Gallienne and Robins, 2001; Dahms et al., 2015). Members of 98 this genus are well known to interact with detrital particles (González and Smetacek, 1994; 99 Iversen and Poulsen, 2007), particularly in the mesopelagic (Suzuki et al., 2003). Organisms 100 inhabiting the MPZ experience high hydrostatic pressure and low temperatures, both of 101 which negatively affect the functioning of cellular membranes (Hazel and Williams, 1990). 102 Zooplankton overcome these difficulties by increasing the relative abundance of the essential 103 polyunsaturated fatty acid, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), in their membranes (Pond et al., 104 2014). Copepods and other highly motile zooplankton also possess myelin-like sheathes 105 around their nerve axons to facilitate rapid escape responses (Raymont et al., 1974; Davis et 106 al., 1999) and DHA has been suggested to be an important component of the associated 107 sphingomyelin lipid pool (Scott et al., 2002). The model presented herein has C and DHA as 108 currencies and is used to examine the trade-off for detritivorous zooplankton when 109 consuming a high quantity, low DHA:C diet (detritus) versus a nutritionally-upgraded diet of 110 microbial biomass present in low quantity, but