DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 117 224 UD 015 617

AUTHOR Johnson, Howard TITLE The Educational System as a'Reinforcer of Institutionalized . PUB DATE 75 NOTE 27p.; Not available in hard copy due to marginal legibility of original document

EDPS PRICE MF -$C.76 Plus Postage. HC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS' Educational Benefits; Educational ; Educational Equality; Educational Needs; Educational Objectives; Educational ; Educational Planning; *Educational Policy; Educational Practice; Educational Trends; *Equal Education; Racial Attitudes; ; *Racism; *Reinforcers; *Sosi1lization; Social Reinforcement

ABSTRACT The educational complex is se4n,to act as a subsystem of the overall societal system whose main function is said to lie in the socialization of individuals for membership in the larger society. The socialization process, including mastery of norms, beliefs, attitudes, "and behavioral patterns of the society, are seen to be permeated with institutionalized racism. As a vehicle of the socialization process,the educational system is considered to incorporate racist norms, standards, behavioral patterns, morals, an'd sense of social position in such a manner that the socializee is unaware of his absorption of a curriculum that is fundamentally racist. While American institutions contribute to institutionalized racism, the focus on the educational system has particular relevance since minority groups, ethnic minorities, and poverty groups attach high significance to educatibn, particularly as the road to upward mobility. The major conclusion formulated from the evidence presented is that a pervasive and effective institutional racism permeates the entire education system.(Author/AM)

*********************************************************************** Documents acquired by EPIC include many, informal unpublished * materials not available from other sources. ERIC makes every effort * * to obtain the best copy available. Nevertheless, items of marginal * * reproducibility are often encountered and this affects the * * of the microfiche and hardcopy reproductions ERIC makes available * * via the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS) .EDRS is not * responsible for the quality of the original document. Reproductions * * supplied by EDPS are the best that can be made from the original. *********************************************************************** UD 01507 BESTAff

U S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO DuCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN AT !NZ. IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS STATED 00 NOT NECESSARILY RpPRE SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION PS)SiTiON OR POLICY

THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEI4 AS -A REINFORCER

OF INSTITUTIONALIZED RACISM

The recent .CarnegieCommission on Higher Education

final report eritled"Prioritie's for Action""indicates.

that the perspective of the mostinfluential forces in

higher education for the 1980's doesnot include any

majorchanges/Inthe role of the educational system

as a reinforcerofjnstitutionalizedracism in our

society. :This fact is obscured in the reportin a flow of

"liberal rhetor,i6" that promises anAmerican society

"more meritocratic in its searchfor talent," "more

egalitarian in the distribution of income," "more A humane in its concern for the health,the education,

and the chance Ar development of all citizens,"and

"more D,Iuralistic in its acceptanceof diverse culr 1 - turesand:lifestyles." _ ,, , w14-11 it e The pdmmission'report is lessobscure

1 states that "'' institutionsof all types-- c't-5 colleges :and universities--shouldbe protected and in 0 encourag&d as a source of scholarshipand leadership

-

.

1 fCr. Acim: ?inal Report of the Car- McGraw- nerfic! M Miter Education, New Yorkt' Hil; Book 'ompany, 1973.

t- 1 2.

train.;! at the highest levels. 'Phev shoqld note,

nA7=c1 in the name ofehalitari4nj.sm." (Note: my

italics. ) ;4 While elitism is not isomorphic withracism,

elitism, in its hierarchic and stratifyingapproach to

human beings:is the foundation of racism. Racism can

be characterized as elitism in theseconddegree,,2

, . . the hierarchicizing principle .transposedfrom ind:,.v./.-,

duals.tocpeoples. In this context, the Commission report, with its emphasis onthe. and'

Zaint,Aance of elite institutions, projects a: eat

-. . 1.1 to the limited advances thathave-been made in minor- , ity access to higher education and ases a continu-

ation of the institutionalized#41sm that dominates

the educational system.- The educational system, in itsprimary role as

the most important agent of thesocialization process,

establishes the norms,,standards, behavioralpatterns, morality, social position and life chancesof all who

pass through the process. Of ,all the institutions of

society, the educational system isthat.kind of 5,nsti-

tution which the Kerner Commission report-Said, What white Americans have never understood- -but what the Negro can never forget--is thatwhite society is deeply implicated- in the,ghetto.

e, BEST COPY -AVAILABLE 3 4

Wh;te institutions created it, white instit.utions raintain it, and white society condones it,

As a vehicle of the socialization process,the edlicational system incorptrates racist norms,stanth.. aids, behavioralpatterns, morals, .and senseof'social

Tosition as

is fundamentally racist, Beginning with the textbooks, - /I continuing through the faculties andadministrators,'

the designing and administeringof:tests, grading,

selection of students and guidanceand counseling of

students, the grantingofAcholar grants, fellow-

ships and loans and ending with final stamp of.

approval for membership in Americansociety-.-the cre-

dential in the form of. -the diploma,the educational

systemfunctions as a relentlesslyefficient stratifies and hierarchicizer Of theAmerican populatidn into

classes and color gradines,effectively barring lower

class, female, ethnic andcolor minorities from full

participation in American,society, Scores 'of studies

and research document this moreoften latent, but some- -

times manifest function ofthe educational system as

reinforcer of institutionalizedracism (see Banks,

Poussaint, Seasholes, Goodman,Sizemol'e an Trambs,

072). ,`

This basic role of the educational system is ig-

nored by the pathogenic theorists who still clutch the

timeworn 19th' century shibboleth that blacks are un-

educable by virtue bf. their deficigcies.at birth (see

Jensen, 1969; Shockley, 1973; Shuey, 1966; Eysenck,

1973) and also by the more sophisticated social

science of the 20th century represented by the socio-

pathologists who advocate the view that blacks .have be-

come inferior as an end-product of social condition-* 2 4 fbrm of -in7reverse (see

1965; Glazer and Moynihan; 1963; Kardiner and

Cvesey, 1951; Moynihan, 1965; Pettigrew, 1964; Rain-

water, 1966),

The exposition .of the socializing function of

the school classby'4,"Talcott Parsons also avoids the ,

negative discriminatory aspect of the allocation of

roles and the racist aspects of the commitment.to the:

implementation 'of the "broad values".of society. How- . ever, iMPlicit in Parsons' description of the role of

'..the school class is unmentioned racism,in

el tion and inculcated values. Parsons states: 19

2 . Social Darwinism-in-revorse is the c ommutation .of the formula "the survival of the fittest4 to. "the survivors are 'the least fit,".,

e N

A 5.

... From the functional point of view- the school lass can be treated as

an agency of socialization. That , is to say, it is an agency through which individual personalities are 4 trained to be motivationally and ) technically adequate to the per- ormance of adult roles. It is

no;, ,the sole such agency, . but, in the period extending from entry into first grade until entry into the labor force or marriage, 7,1-:e school class may be regarded as the focal socializing agency.

In fact, fro; the point of view of results, the school class as the producion arena of the edubational system might be defined as the dominant.sOcializing agency.

Parsons goes on to say,

While. on the'oneNhand, the school class _may be regarded as a pritlary agency by which these different components of commitments and capacities.are generated, on the other hand, it is, from the point of view of" the society,-an agency of 'F,anpower'. allocation. It is well known that an American soci- ety-there is a very high; and prob- ably increasing, correlation betWeen one's status level in society and one's level of'educational attain- vent, '3oth/Social status and edu cational level ai-e obviously re- lated to the occupational status which is attained.

And what are the criteria for the all7important deter- mination of who shall be college-going and non:. coilege-going? Parsons reveals that that decision is made in elementary school. He states,

t) 6.

3y far the most im2ortant criter- ion is. the 2.-ecord of school,Iper- formance in elementary school. These records are evaluated by teachers and principals,, and

. there are few cases of entering The college preparatory course against their advice.

Parsons softensrthe blow bydeclaring theprocess to

/ . be "genuinely assottative" and, asIn all "comparable processes" ascriptive andachieved factors influence

outcome, with theascriptive factor being socio-

economic status of the child's familyand the

achievement factor being ,the individualability of

the child. Parsons deals lightly with the damning evidence that the ascriptive factor'weighs so heavily

That only 29% of laborers' sonshad College intentions

compared to 89% of whitecoilar persons" sons in the

Top quintile ofability. At the same ability level,

in this.Boston studydiscussed by Parsons, the as- criptive factor outweighs The achievement'factor based

on individual.abilityby3to 1, From these data,

Parsons astoundiilgly sums up, Considerations like these lead me To conclude that the main processof differentiation (which from another point of view is selection) that occurs dpring eleplentaryschool' takes place on a single :gain axis of achievement. (

7.

?arsons, with his emphasis on the achievement as- % pacts ofl advanCemett in school, justifiesand ration -

alizes the claim of the educational system's defenders

that: those who finally get to college are doing so on their 7:1ril-s without regard for class, sex, ethnicity

or race. Fortunately, 'a new breed oi' behavioral sci- _, ettists are challenging these unwarrantedassumptions.

Bowles and Levin assemble evidence that is

by far the more potent factor in determining scholastic

achievement (1968); Boyle demonstrates the impact of .

, 1 neizhborhood and college plans (1966); Turner chal-

lenges the assumption that ascension to the elite in

the United StatAs is more democratic through thePrac-.

tice of "contest mobility'' in contrast to the more T ,, ascriptive "sponsored mobility" in the British schOol

system (1960); and Stein outlines the inexorable opera-

tion of racism as the selection agent in the New York

City school system (1971).

In his introduction to The tirban School: A Fac-

tory for Failure; Ray C. Kist sums 'up and defines the i socializatidh function of the educational system: O. Succinctly, it may be said lthat the system of public education in the United States is specifically designed to aid` in the perpetuation of thd social and economic inequali- ties found within the society.

, 8 e

Or, as Michael Katz suggests(19711,. . iriii),- "Schools . . 4 . ,t are 'not great democratic*engines for identifying talent 1

and matching it with opportunity. The children-9f the

- affluent by and large.take'the bestmarks and the best,

jobs."

, Oras'Katz'states even more penetratingly, y

. . . The schools are fortresses in function as well as form, protected - 'outposts of the city's educational establishment. and the prosperous/ citizens who sustain (sic!) it..1n. their own way, they are imperial institutions.designed to civilize the,natives; they exist to do some- thing to poor children, especially,: 'now,. children who: areblack' or brown. Their main purpose is to make.these. 'childrenorderly, industrious, law- abiding,,and respectful ofauthoritY. Their literature and theirspokesmen proclaim the schools to be symbols of opportunity, but slitted or window--

less walls say clearly what their , -history would reveal as well: they were .designed to reflect,and con -/ firvthe social structure that / T. erected them. 'Rist, 103)

'While all Americjan institutions Contribute their unjust

due- to institutionalizedracismth4/bsiness world, 4 the government, the police, the courts,and the enter- ." tainment world in varying degreesOur focUs onthe

educationaisystelti has a particular poignancy because .

of its significance to.ethnicminorities, blacks, , Puerto Ricans;' Chicanos,Native Americans, lower

.

9 9.

middle-classe; and and even the much- , ,, -,..1 . . 7 4- Maligned WASP, whose. Appalachian cotingent ranks among'

the'poorest populations in the na ion..All of these;

peoples hawfdlt that- the educ ional system was.the

road to. upward social'MObility, if there was one, or,

. , at- least,. to an improvement n one's life chances..It'

Paps6hs' thesis-that the s hool class is the focal .

/ agency of. socializat'on during the crucialyears. from ,

ti

1 five to sixteen or tw y-one 'is valid, most evi-

, , . 1 educktional- * ; "deicei supports that a sumption, then.tlie r

11 system becomesto key factor in determining what as-- / .

pects of the, cult ura l heritage are transmitted to,the iIt

I student and also hcgff these particular aspects,4of the

r . cultural herit /ge are interpreted to the' student.

. :The heavy wei ht of racistinterpretations of our c1.4.-

tural heritage in the educational systemMakes the

/ . 3 - ___ . . "The terms 'education'and 'socialization' should, be consxdered,synonymous in our society, for education . is the primary meantOf socializing all child en after

they ,reach. the age offive. 0 . . ThiS educional system socializes.children by teaching he know-; ledge and .* skills essential totlll'par-: ticipation in society as well as the mores andhabitg---1 of its' members.," In these certain terms, .McNeil aug-- merits .Parsons' evaluation of the prime-importance of the educational system during thesekey years. elton B. ,McNeil, Human Socialization. Belmont, California:

A Brooks/Cole, 1969, /3:43.8. - . . , schooling process the seed -bed for. the ideological j, d- -4 . .1 tific ation o institutional racism. The educationa system authenticated, dbcuments, organizes and raises to the level of "science" the inchoate and' (ragmen' racial attitude's acquired though the family, the ,peer

- group and the mother agencies of socialization.'(See

. t YacRae, 1960; Myrdal, 1943; Baratz and Baratz, in BromT ley, 1972; Harding, 1974; and Sizemore, 19731)Admit- tedly these groups;play an important role,'bUt'the educational *tem as socializer is our main concern,1

_ As Ehrlich (1973 )'Puts it, the educhtion system is the' mechanism through whid1' our social fitage ist trans-

,mitted. Ethnoracial attitudes are transmitted across

I generations as a component of.the a cumulatee'knowledge reflecting our social herit-1 Other studies strikingly indicate white child 'en's acquisition of evaluative man- w

4 "Cultural imperialism is also Dart of the rela- tionsip; ghetto schools traditionally teach the his tory'of the rYlothei-Country' as if blacks had no partk in its .development, blacks,had.no identity' of own, no culture,ndi origins *orthy afimpntIoli in the chronicles.of the world' nations a dpeoples: The.dominant culture is constantly held up as good, desirable, worthy Of emulation:, The'dettr ction of the indiEenous-culture is an important wea an incre- aing,dependence and reinforcing control," 'William K. Tan, " :ace Relations Models and SoCial 011 nge,"

Social Problems,.Vol. 18, Spring 1971, P.;35. .

) 11.

P! ings of white as gOod and black as bad as early asthe

The racial attitudes are almost uni- _ . preschool years..

, versally stabilized in the socialization process by the

age-Of 16. Most attitude's areacquired by 5: The pri-

!i. many agents in this pre - schoolprocess are .the parents,

with siblings adding additional significant iluence

1, in. the familial social network. (See Hyman, 1959 1!

! Radke and Traget, 195O.) Onelof the-modalities of the socialization process

is observatlonal learning. This has a tremendous impact 4 in, the clas'srobm on both white black youth. A pri=

mart' step in the acquisitionof color-oriented or race- , typed behavior, observationallearning,' labeled "imita-

tiori" in experimental psychology, according toBandura

and Walters (1963), and ilidentification".in'personality

theory. '(Lynn4 1966; Mead, 1934; Parsons,1954; Davis & s , Dollard; 1940)Yen be less ambiguouslyreferred to as

the reproduction by the personof the actions,attitude's

and,'emoiional'responses exhibited 'by real-life or symbolic,.

! . , iiiodels. - t . t

,. 1.,ii A review of 'the literature on sociallearning ob-. , v V 'serves that imitative oridentificatory learning takeS. 4,. ..:blace directly or vicariously and can beinhibited or, .

ellcit4'd*by the controlling agents. The controlling agent

12 12.

41, * I ' Ai far the' educational systemiso in most instances, the

. . teacher. Note here that cross-sex identification is , associated with assumed, power in the cross-sex adUlt or

. . . older peer, and this finding'might te'applicable to

. . cross -color identification, as.inthe case of the

1 I "Orpo" phenom non' the black-adillt or child co,

pleteiy'atsorbs all of the behavior patterns of the lin-.

structing. white, 'tepresenting the dominant oulture:

There is- considerable evidence, according-to:Festinger, ,

, (2957), that cAgnitive.ana value Changes-occur as a re- , suit of partioular behaYioral performance.That is,

values"and cognitions are realigned to make them con-

Sister with behayiox and May-eyen be, used to jUstify

_behavior. "in individual who eats grasshoppers And can

. . :land no exernaf-justfication f.or his.behavior, feeIS

t that-they must be delicious." This,kind'Of rationale

is gen6rally adopted to explain the color- oriented be-

.

haviar.in society. . The.secondary modality.in the socialization propea

.

.4 '

. IA -.

5. . . . 4

1 A cookie tat is chocolate (read "black")on the outside. and whit'on.the inside, hence "Ordo" connotes -a.blackAhersori who has internalized the wtilte value system and successfully extirpated any evidence of

, blackness in hi's consciousness..0 IA : A , 1 6

13

, . is characterized as a reinforcetheht approach,' ,That is,

,learning through a system of rewards and puhiShm6nts

(Yarrovi, Campbell and. Burton, 1968Y. The "shaping" or

"modeling: of ehb.vidi4; thr otigh'the arousal of positive

or negative states in the, subject Gan n-be an influential

determinant in the socialilatian process, though there

. is.orwhelmingevidence,that.cognition,through oBser-' vatioh, of the two modalities,. is the more preponderant

in its impact (Danziger,1973 Thus, both the. obser- , vational imliact as well as reinforcement-technique,

. . . affirm as important verbal and non::.verbai 'behavior. It

. has 'been suzgested (Banith, 1963). thatteachers frequently . . .: a exhibit a good deal of unconscibus discrimination.

against working class and especially lower Working

class children. This against the working class . .

1 child is assumed' to arise from the adherence ta values which characterizes the school teacherby

virtue of his own 'social class /position. The bias is 'f..?

intensified when the child is working, cla.ss and also

. . black. Teachers aret iti can be argued, middle class.

either by virtue of, their social origin, or, in tlie case

of those who have been socially mobile, because they

have addpted middle class values in ther successful

a. passage through-school:and 'college. We might also add

1

4- 4

to this non-verbal communication of antagonism.by ges-

ture, tone of Voice, expression on face, enlarged' body . . .. . 6 in Psychology today movements.- . Arecent Surveystudy .. indicates that there are cultural differences in the 4 amount p.f spate :that whites requireduringthe. course of conversation as contrasted with blacks. ,Dissonance ' : and 'a feeling of rejection in blacks if the white uses-

what is normally considered awhite' amount of space can

_result. Blacks operate _under much 9lOser proximity, to

. . each other .and in the case of "the white -teacher it

. might be regarded as pushiness by the black. student, if e he _attempted to maneuver to closer physical proximity td

the teacher. Thus, on- the non-verbal level, the white,

middle class teacher in a blackmajorit' schoolroom

would sense non-verbal cues signalling "aggression,'"

and "pushiness" in lilack children and, if they moved 'too

close to her, might even signal ?violence."

11. . 6. Reported. by ,Jack Horn in_kewtline on research -conducted by Patrick CCnnolly for dOctorate at Uni- versity of, Iowa.'The same article notes:research% intiCating racialvoultural differences in staring- speaking and looking .away - listening patterns that' . might. lead to generalized disceMfort in interaction between blacks and whited. These findings by Mari- anne La .Prance and Clar.4 Mayo in theDepartment of Psychology at Boston University could-have signifi- cant bearing on teacher-studentcognitive .dissonancd. What Are the results of these aspects-of:the so- I,

eUlization'Procesi in talp.schp.ol systeM?-Whatis the

educational output? According .to Annie Stein in"the

Harvard.Educational'RevieW,,, -the'average child in 8 per

a cent' pf the black and Puerto Rican schools in New York . City is.funotionallr illiterate after eight ,years o.J;

schooling in the.richest .city in the world, Steiri---, a

ironically: maintains; , "- . is.a,massive accompli shment. It took the effort of ..63,600. fi teachers; thouSands more- admin-! istrators, scholars ancrtlocial scientists, and billiong',ef. .- dolaars.to 'achieve. Afore, ever, the professional educators could not have done it.; They. needed the active suipport of ,all of the forces of business, real estate interests; trade unions, politicians,.'city-offi- Cials: the police and the court. Perhaps an bven'grater achieve. Ant-of-the school bedh their,'ability to place there - *dponsitnity for this extra- ordinary record of failmre7upon theehAIdren themselves, their_ °families and their\Communities.'

Stein describes the mechaniSm through which this is . a developed as !'strategies for failure " -3 first, control*

. thtough containment, the system of segregation. Since

. 1954, Vthen the Supreme Court tssued its desegregation

. . deetee,s?gregation has 'increased inthe, school systems / in the major .Northern' cities, .and the average ghetto

/Is

1 G :x his mother or youth has lesscontact with whites than objective bale's father. did.. This isprobably one of the that .we find, forthi-intensified hostility to whites among the black-yOunger generation..Secondly, adopting the strategy of trainingteachers to tail.by , the desideratum foreduca- middle class value system as .

'culture of . 'tional values anddefining- the values of the 11 ii working'class white -Puerto Riean, blacklower Class and II V

ii youth as "deficit Culture,".as"differeht, culture," .fi

1$ giving , 11 "lower class., culture t " as'"'undesirable culture"

14 teachers. to justifytheir inability the rationale for '1 $ , . i! J.. toeducate these.youngsters. ft' medhaniim- !: The third'mechanism is the institutional

it arranged throughtracking,. the watering down li of failure , If , . .the drop-out andpush-out programs; .. of the curricUlum, ... f. , -: non-accountability on thepirt of the teachers asthe . , .), .il from union grows in its strength;-In the five ,years ,, t, - New York 1963 to 1968,. out of60,000 teachers in 'the

from their ,jobs,, '1 City school 'system,only 12 were fired .while at the seinetime for failure .toperform thpir duty,

IZ to read.. The thousands '41 children .werenot being taught failUre is' the' final method ofinstitutionalization of wh eh have network of compensatoryeducational progra . , i , .. , 'organized withguidelines. that tig'anted been set up and :- .

17 maxiir.a.1 salariesfor,educators andminimallearning Tor

students.iThas is true of bilingual education, migra- , tOryworkers' r,education, correctional education,, and 8t her compensatory .education programs with bUilt-in

-."Self-destruct" outlooks. # . . / ,What's. -happeningin secondary education? In the

fallof 1972,the: darnegie Con-Commission .states ,"Black$* . . were repreented among, the new enrollees in almost the ,

same proportion as they wererepresented among high _ 1. . i:

. school graduates." ,And itthenobseryes that the pro-k. ,. ir

portion ten-wears ago was or3 to1 rather,than 1 to 1. I:

,.. . . . This observation fails _to ntion that highschooldtoilt-

ut figures are increasing absolutelxwherethe per- .1

.- centage4gtfcvo-uts-outs declines..,In.1967 the number of . , bladks whS v'terehighschool drOp-o4ts:of the ages of 18 . . "and 19,big.0males,,was..-30.6%;this has been reduced to / 1. A. ' i T. 'f27:170in. 1 w2 , Among white -males in the same years, .15.4%wera.d.roy.-oxits and13.0:'Thdales from 20 to 24, blackmales 42.,,5% in 1.967,black males in 1072 rOdticed to27,1per cent droppingout. White, 18.8%in 1967,

15.370in 1972. Among females the figures are more equal, Black .I'maleS had36.1%drop-outs in1967;White

feniCles 1.9 Per cent, )31ack female! in1972had27.3% o drop-outs-.;

18 1-8, f

Id higher education the- following statistics would

indicate the situation. .Lra.mps Bryant, -in a study of . black dipotorateS in, education(073),states that there

are outside- of,14.11. is, and. D.V.M.'se 2280

ti blak Ph.D.'sir. the;UnitedStates, While, in, the. past 50 year's; the e.ducational system has produced only 2280

Ph.t.''s who are black, there are 50,-000 Ph,,p.'s produced

annually: i n our- country,and- 360,000 A.. S We have 336,000.full-time teacheiss, 'of which only fourand_a - I half per cent are black in -the entire. edUcational system.'

A. Bryant figures that at the 1940 to 1960 rate it will take530years togainproportiOnal representation on the part of minorities in profeisional, -technical and a. kindred professi9ns; or from 1960 to 2490.: In the.mana-' genial, 'officials and-proprietary ranks,. it will take

450 years,o'blacks will reach'equity by 2375. Blauner, e in his article on white professors, gives estimates that , r e ,in universities of high and medium quality, less than':::

.005 pel- cent are black. In four. -year colleges of high or medium quality, less' than 1 per cent are black. In uniwkrsities, of low quality,' 1.8 per cent are black.

And thehighestratio of black profesSors are in-the cora- raunity colleges, -where the figureis- 5.4per aent. An examination ()if twoorthe disciplines most attract-

1Q 19.

ive to blacks is even .more revealing. In _psychology, in

the tenleading departments that produced 376? 4 only 8 were black; 7iarvard, Stanford, Yale, Illinois,

BrownIowa, V.C.L..A. and CornellCornell produced none. I am,

reminded of a' bitter story that eih Clark, theonly

black member of-the StateBoard.o Regents, once told.

W:eieri he applied for graduate school. at Cornell for his -

doctoral training he was refused with'a lengthy letter

froth the Dean of Admissions stating that' they-felt that

he would not be comfOrtable on the Cornell Campus. -ThiS;,:-

was standard operational procedure for most ofthe'ivy

A'leagUe-universiiies, to which blacks had the temerity to

apply. "1

ItshAld be obvious that the issueis not incat-

pacity or lack of desire on the part pf blacks to get

higher ,education, but racist refusal on the part of most- .

institutions of higher learning to admit blackS:When

they are adthitted, standards are Imposed, that result in

i pPh.,D.ts) the majority .of'black' taking from, .5 to ;4 years " 1 / to getethetdoctorate, Whereas the averagewhiteloh.D. . _ ..

tales from 4 to,s6 years. ,

In ,, th4 entiresocioiogy,industry*has

produ 'ced less than 200 black sociologists, or a rate'

since 196Q of about 1.0 per year. There were just a

2( r

r. 4.-"'" - r.

f 20.'

handful before i960e_ I± wouldtake, at that rate of10'-"

per year, until theyear 2075,'tc get oneblack. socio- . logist with a Ph.D.in each sociologydepartment nation- .

-ally; assuming that there areabotit 1500 sociology de-

.partments in, thexiniversitysystem;II;ts on .thisbasis

that the Caucus of BlackSoeioloisis, at the .1971 Ameri-

cam complained that black = Scholarg are substantiallyexcluded fiom the life of

their professional societies. This exclusion includes'

\t : publisliing.# sociological journalsr researCh% .

funds, and consultantships, positionsofYleadershipland

positions,on convention programs,:"TheexenItie was given

\ that the convention paneloll'race at the 1971 A.S.k.,con-

venti was com, etely .did not.00nL-

sider it desira e to invite oneblack sociologist on a

panel that was discussing race.

The major conclusionfrom this evidence is that ...... from childhood throughthe elementary educationsysteM,- ...... through' secondary education,-and- post - secondary educa- . - . . - , tion, we 'have an institutionalracism thatis pervasiVe, effective and permeates the entire system. It is some- ' what irOn5,o that in the face ofthis situation, whites

are accusinguniverSitiesof "racism in the reverse."

In the .Biblical phrase,theses Whites are "strain-

. trig at gnats and swallowingcamels" if,they are naive. 21;

-24ore likely, thesewhites are engaged in theiophisti- cated Watergate techniqueof trivializing the .extent of racism and exaggerating.the extent of injustice

that might take place whenracism is challenged., Such

a "racism reverse" Situationis an improbable hypo thesis for a future that seemshighly unlikely. from

the realities' ofinstitutional racism inAMericin

cation today,

.0 ;

-a

e

r

e-'

22

MOW ///./.1,...111 low e IS' St 090. 40 ..., 22.

,Bandura, A. and R. H. Walters, Adolescent Aggression. New 'York: Donald Press, 1960,.

. . Banfdeel.d, Edgard C., The Unheavenly City. Boston:

- Little, Brown 4 Company, .1970. - Banks, James/./ A. and Jean Grambs,,Black Self-Concerti.' Nevi otk: McGraw-Hill, 1972. / Barat;z,.'"teverg S. and Joan C. Bartz "T:;arly-ChildfilOod Tnt rv#ntion; The Social Science°Base of Institu-. ti nal Racism,"inBromley, David G. and Charles F. L ..gino, Jr. '(eds.), White Racism,.and'Black Ampri- c ns. Cambridge: Schehkman Publishing Company, c., 1972. -

Baxt , Paul and Basil. Sansom, Race and Social-Difference.

Baltimore: Penguin BooksA.,Jr,c.., 1972. . : / BlaUner, Robeyt,-Racia,1 Oppreision in-America. New Yoi4k: iarper 4'Row', 1972.

, . 4 / i '"The White Profes in Rose, Peter, Stanley ' -..--,------rs," 4 Rothman' and William J. Wilson,eeds., Through Dif. forent Eyes, New-York: Oxford University Press, 1973. . . t 4 Bowles, Samuel and Henry M. Leyin," }he Dqerminants of

L Scholastic Achievement--an appraisal of some recent evidence," in'The-Journal of Humanesources; 1968; ) colilterY: 3.- 24.

, oyle, Richb.rd P.., ,"On Neighborhood context and college z1.. , _ plans (III ).." American Sociological Review-1968,. 31.(October): 706 - 707,. ,

,. . Bryant,JamesW., A Survey of Bla4k,American Dociois-ate. New York: Ford foundation, 1973..

Cliriman, Robert and Nathan Hare (eds..). Contemporary Black -Thought. Indianapolis: The BobbS4Nerrill Company, Inc., 1973 ., .

. _ . 7 Clark, Kenneth, Dark Ghetto: Dilemma.e. of -Social Power. New Yorks. Harper & 40w, 1965,

. ?..

. . :;...

23 33.

e

Clausen, J6hn (ed. Stialization and SOciety.. Boston: Little, ,Broran'& Company,1968.' , and'Society, A Sociological Cosin, 3, .3. et. al., Schoe.1 -earTer; Cambridto:-The S. T. Press,' 1'971. - . Danziver;.Kvr, Socialization.'Baltimore: Pen,rt,Tin

Books,. 19731 . *

Davis, Allison and John-Dollax'd,Children of Bondage. Washington; D. C.: Atherican Council -cm Bducation. . . 194o. arlich, Howard J., The Social-Psydholoyof Prejudide. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 19731,

Elkin, 1.7rederick and Gerald Handel,The Child andSoci-' ety: The Process'of Socialization. New York: Random House, 2nd edition, 1972.

. , Eysenck, H. J., I.-0. Argument: Race, 'Individual and ducation.-Iew YOrk: Library Press, 1971. estlnger,,toon, A Theory of CognitiveDissonance. Evanston,Illinoisi .Row, Peterson w Co.,1957.

Glazer, Nathan and Daniel iloynihan,Beyond the i,.elting .., Pnt: The Yegroas, Puerto Ricans,Jews Italians Cambridge: ..1.T:. ) -and Irish q New York City, : and Harvard, 1963.' of the Goff, _Regina "Some Educational Implications' Influence .of Rejection onAspiratidn uevels of Mnority Group Children," inJournal of Experi- mental Education, 23, 1954 -pp.179.=.183.

Groff, Patrick J. "Dissatisfaction in_Teaohing the Culturally Disadvantaged 'Child," phi. Beta Kappan, XIV, No. 2, .November,1963, pp. 45-76.

Harding4 Vincent, "TheVocation of the Black Scholar and theStruggles of the BlackCommunity," in MonograPh No. 2, 1974. "r::arvard Educational 'Review

JiM and ,Hugh'?., Butts, M. D.,The PsycholoPyof slack Language, .New York: BarAes. a Noble, 1,973.

2 /i

P.. 24,

% .:-iyinan, 'Herbert, Political Spc3a3.5.zatir-n.,'-New York:

!me Press, 1959. 1 Jenkins, is.:artin D..,"The Upper Limit of Ability .Ainong.. -American -Negroes, " in Scientific bionthly,' 194$, LXVI, pp. 399-14'01. ..,_ . 'Jensen,: Arthut R ;.,"How Kuch 'Can We Boost* IQand 'Soho"- lastic kchieveraelit?" 5.n Harvard Educational Review reprint, series #2, 1969. aardincr, Abram And Lionel OVesey, The !;:arkof- 95,pres,- s ion. New York rNorton, 1951. Katz, Irwin et. al. ,"The Influence of Of. the Ex- nerimenter and Instructions Upon the,the,pression Of ,r.ostility by Negro BOys,'-intlie .JournaV of :Social . sstles, 1964,XX, 2,pp. 54-59. The, Katz, :+ich4el, ClassBureaucracy .end' Schools: .4 Illusion. of :.:;(lucationalk,ha-i,--ze in America. New York:Praeger, 1971..

Ladner, Joyce A. ,), The Death of. White Sociolo:.4y. New York:V' tagie Books ,1 973. I 4., Poverty: Leacock, Eleanor Burke (ecl.),2 The. Culture:, of 41. A Orit4due;New York:Sitrion'.a Schuster,, 1971, Leacock, Eleanor Burke, Teaching_ and Learning 'in City Schools.New York:Basic shook, Inc., 190. L'evy, ,Gerald 3., The Ghetto School:Class 1,,Tarfare in an .1:::lernntary Srs.hook.Indianapolis:The Pegasus Pre-ss, 1970. 4. 0 Lynn, David B. ,"The Process of Learning Parental And ,Sex-role Identification," Jovrnal of Y.a.rria-ge and the r.arnily, 1966, 28.:.466-470.

If.a."cRae, ponald G., "Race and .Sociology in Historyand .. Theory," in i%:ason, Philip. (ed. ), Man, Race and ,-- Darwin.London:Oxford' University Press,. 1960, 'p. 80. , :read, George Herbert, Snifand Society.Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1934.

25

< t 7

-2

rf.

. - Kent S. Ralph Dr.ason Dreger (eds.).ComP4'a- tive Studig2s of Blacks and Whites in the United' .' New York; Seminar' Press, 1973.

ii:difnihan, Daniel, The' Case for Mational'Action: The Nearo 2amilx. 'United States Department' of Labor, Washinn, D. C.; USGPO, 196$.'

GunnaT, An American Dilemma. New'York: 'Harper & BrOthers, 1N4.

Parse:1,A, Walcott,"The Social Cl'a.ss as a Social System: " S,me.of Its.2unbtions in-Ameridan Society," in H*rvard Educational Revie, 1.959, XXIX, Palls

297 -318. .

,

?ettigrevr, Thoma6 7.,A Profile of the'VegroAmericeal . Princeton, New Jersey: Van_Eostrand cc Co.,

... frl':" Action: Yinal Renort of the Carnegie- "- Go=i.ssion on Hicr.her Education. New york:2.: R.cGraw-*. , Book company, 1973.

Radke, J; and Helen G.-,Trageri "Children's Per- captions o:f the Social Aoles of Negroes and:,Whites." ::he Jonal of'Psychology, 29 (January), 3-b, 1950.

14,ainwater, Lee, "Crucible;of idendty: The Negro Lowtr- Class 2amily,".in Daedalus, Journal of'the American . of and Sciences (Boston, 11,,ass.), ainter,-:966,

. :!ational Advisory Commission on Civil Dis- cn-ors, New York: Bantam Books, 1966, 1.

Fist, RaY C:, The Urban School': Factory for Failure..

Cambridge: Press; 1973. ,

Shock]*, William, "Dysgenics, Genetics and Raceology: A' Challenge to the Intellectual Responsibility of -Educators," Phi Delta: Kaman, Vol.53,'January and ,iVarch, 1972. 7 ,0 Shuey, JJudrey M., The Te'stins' A f New York: Social Sciences Press, 1966. N .`!"!

2 0 26.

si4eltora; Barbaro A., "3ducationfor Liberation,-" in T'ne,University. of ChicaF,oSchool Review, Vol. 81, No.. 3, :ay 1973, 'ID.389. Snyder, Louis L., The-Ideaof Racialism. New Yorks Yam- Nostrand, Re* inhoW Company,1962. , . tv. Staples, Robert (ed.) "TheBlack Family. Belmont, C.44- fbrnia: Wadsworth 'Publishing Company,Znc.

Stein, Annie, "Strategiesfor Failure," in H yardEdu- cationalReview, Vol. 41, No. -2, May1971

Szwed, John F. (ed.), Black America. New York: :asic

BookS, Inc., 1970. '.,., .1 Tabb, ailliam "Race Relations Yodel's andSoci Change," in Social Problems,Vol. 18; Spring 1971. I; Trager, Helen G. and MarianRadke Yarrow, They Learn nat They rave, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1952.

Turner, Ralph H.', '.'Sponsoredand Contest Mobility and the. Sahool Systelt" inAtherican Sociologidal Rey f; view-, '1960, 25, No. 5.

Willims, Thomas RhYi,Introduction to Socialization./, St. Louis: tehe C. V. MOsby,Company, 1972. "The Relation Bette Ien .Wilson, C. and G. W. Goethals, Teachers' B ckgrounds andTheir Educational Val es," Journal of- ducationalPsycholort, 1960, 51, 29-298,

aright, Nathan, Ji..., (ed.), What Black Educators Are Sayinq. N w York; Hawthorn- Books, Inc, & 3. -970.

. , . Burton, Chi d- :'arrow, M. R., 1U. D. Campbell and R. V. -Rearimr: An In uiry into Researchand Methods. San Frand sco: Jossey-Bass, 19.8.

Zigler, E. and I..n. Child,"Socialization," in G, 1,i4d- zey and E. 4ronson(eds.), Ha.000k" of Social Zucholo vol. 3, Addisbn-esley, 2ndediti

I 3

;. 2