DISCOVERY OF HELL

DR. FAZLUL ISLAM

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DISCOVERY OF HELL Dr. Fazlul Islam First Edition: March, 2010

Copyright © 2010 reserved by the author

Published by: Hazrat Shahjalal (Ra.) Foundation Sylhet, Bangladesh.

Cover Design: Md. Anwar Hussain TecBeam 409, Forid Plaza, Zindabazar, Sylhet, Bangladesh.

2 CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION 5

2. ASTRONOMY 8

Modern Astronomy 9

Theoretical Astronomy 19

Observational Astronomy 20

Observation of the Solar System 27

Observation of the Sun 41

Observation of the Earth 60

Observation of the Stars 75

Observation of the Pulsars 87

Observation of the Galaxies 89

Observation of the Quasars 92

Physical Cosmology 93

3. RELIGIOUS COSMOLOGY 102

 Religion and Spirituality 103

 World Religions 105

 Timeline of Religion 109

Messengers of God 119

Hindu Cosmology 128

Buddhist Cosmology 129

Biblical Cosmology 131

3 Islamic Cosmology 133

Spiritual Cosmology 141

Timeline of Cosmology 144

Ideas of Heaven and Hell in Hinduism 150

Concepts of Heaven and Hell in Buddhism 161

The Hebrew Visions of Hell and Paradise 164

The Heaven and Hell in Christianity 196

The Hell and Paradise in Islam 206

4. COMPARATIVE STUDY 255

History of Astronomy 255

Space Exploration 272

Discovery of Hell 299

The Hell Sighting Effect 303

 The Green House Effect 323

Existence of God 330

Second Coming of Jesus 359

The Universal Religion 363

Cosmic Therapy 378

5. REFERENCES 398

6. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 431

7. ABOUT THE AUTHOR 432

4 INTRODUCTION 2009 was declared by the UN to be the international year of astronomy 2009. The focus was on enhancing the public’s engagement with and understanding of astronomy. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) launched the year under the theme ‘The Universe, Yours to Discover’. By scientific exploration of the universe, the astronomers have discovered many celestial bodies in the outer space, which were hidden and unknown to mankind in the ancient periods. The hell and paradise are two hidden or spiritual matters of the universe proposed by the prophets. For long time their existence in the universe was a religious belief. Now, by comparative study of astronomical discoveries with the religious cosmology, the distant celestial bodies the stars, galaxies, quasars, pulsars, and black holes all are identified as the hells of religious cosmology. The location and physical characteristics of all the celestial bodies are almost identical to those of the spiritual hells that had been told in the Holy Scriptures. In the Holy Scriptures of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, it had been stated that at the day of final judgment the earth would be changed to a big field known as the field of resurrection, and it would be surrounded by the hells. A very long bridge will be built over the hells extending from the earth to the paradise. After the judgment believers will pass over the bridge easily and safely. The unbelievers will fall in to the hells. The Hindus and Buddhists compare the Hell to a river of fire — Vaitarani, which will have to pass to reach the gardens of paradise. In the 16th century, Italian astronomer Giordano Bruno proposed that the stars were actually other suns like our own. In 1838, German astronomer Friedrich Bessel measured the parallax of 61 Cygni star as 0.314 arc seconds, which given the diameter of the earth’s orbit indicated that the star was about 9.8 light years away that had proved the stars to be far remote from the earth’s atmosphere and all were suns.

5 In the 20th century with the advent of improved technology, it was proven that other stars were similar to our own sun, and the sun was found to be part of a galaxy made up of more than 10 billion stars. Astronomers estimate that there are at least 70 sextillion (7×1022) suns or stars in the observable universe. Stars are normally grouped into galaxies. A typical galaxy contains hundreds of billions of stars, and there are about 125 billion (1.25x1011) galaxies in the observable universe. Most galaxies are 1000 to 100,000 parsecs in diameter and are usually separated by distances on the order of millions of parsecs or mega parsecs. The majority of galaxies are organized into a hierarchy of associations called clusters, which in turn can form larger groups called super clusters. These larger structures are generally arranged into sheets and filaments, which surround immense voids in the universe. The Jewish Rabbis teach that there is an upper and a lower paradise containing apartments for the residence and reward of righteous. They believe that there is an upper and a lower hell. In the hell there are seven divisions, in each division six thousand house and in each house six thousand chests, and in each chest six thousand barrels of gall. Each of the division of the hell to be as depth as one can walk in three hundred years. According to religious cosmology, the earth is surrounded by the hells. The Ulama and Islamic scholars have been recognizing the Sun as a hell since the seventh century. Today astronomers confirm that all the stars in the galaxies are suns and all the suns are located around the earth. So the Sun and Sun like billions of stars in the galaxies, the quasars, pulsars, and black holes, which are situated around the earth in the regions of hells, all are hells. Thousands of prophets all over the world told their nations about the existence of hell and paradise in the universe. For long time in scientific point of view, the hell and paradise were two religious beliefs proposed by the prophets. By scientific study of the universe, the existence of spiritual hell now has been

6 discovered in the outer space that makes the religious belief a scientific fact. The spiritual hell is now visible in the outer space by thousands of telescopes from all around the world. Astronomers confirm the message of the prophets that the hell is awaiting in the outer space for the punishment of unbelievers. Astronomical discovery of spiritual hell in the universe that also suggests the existence of spiritual paradise in the deeper and distant regions of the universe will activate mankind for a normal religious life style and behaviour to remain safe from the hell fire and enter into the eternal paradise. This discovery will also unite all the nations of the world for an effective and integrated effort for salvation from the punishment of hell fire and enjoyment of a happier life in the paradise forever that might restore peace and discipline all over the world. The Holy Scriptures predicted two resurrections in the world. The first resurrection is due to appearance of a fire in the sky and the second, after ending life on the earth. The first resurrection, which is now imminent all over the world for astronomical discovery of spiritual hell in the universe, purifying mankind and sterilizing the world off sins and evil deeds will save billions of people from the hell fire, open the doors of eternal paradise, prevent greenhouse effect and ozone depletion, prolong life on the earth, and change our sick world to a pious, happier, healthier, and prosperous world like a paradise. I have no ability at all to expose any mystery of the universe and change our sick world to a prosperous world by a spiritual renewal, and I claim no originality for what has been compiled from the materials collected from different scientific and religious authorities whose works I have freely consulted and utilized. My grateful thanks are due to them. I hope this discovery will be accepted by the astronomers, scientists, religious specialists and peoples of all walks of life as the most wonderful and biggest scientific discovery in the history of mankind for “Hell Sighting Effect” all over the world. DR. FAZLUL ISLAM

7 ASTRONOMY

Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the Earth’s atmosphere. It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects, such as stars, planets, comets, and galaxies, as well as the formation and development of the universe. Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. Astronomers of early civilizations performed methodical observations of the night sky, and astronomical artifacts have been found from much earlier periods. However, the invention of the telescope was required before the astronomy was able to develop into a modern science. Today, thousands of astronomers are observing the universe using sophisticated ground-based and orbiting telescopes from all around the world.1, 2 Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, mythological, and astrological practices of pre-history. Early astronomy involved observing the regular patterns of the motions of visible celestial objects. In some cultures astronomical data was used for astrological prognostication. Astronomy is not to be confused with astrology, which claims that human affairs are correlated with the positions of celestial objects. Although the two fields share a common origin and a part of their methods (namely, the use of ephemerides), they are distinct.3 Ancient astronomers were able to differentiate between stars and planets, as stars remain relatively fixed over the centuries while planets will move an appreciable amount during a comparatively short time. Historically, astronomy has included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy, the making of calendars, and even astrology, but professional astronomy is nowadays often considered to be synonymous with astrophysics. Astrophysics is the study of physics of the universe, including the physical properties of astronomical objects.4

8 Since the 20th century, the field of professional astronomy split into observational and theoretical branches. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring and analyzing data, mainly using basic principles of physics. Theoretical astronomy is oriented towards the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. The two fields complement each other, with theoretical astronomy seeking to explain the observational results, and observations being used to confirm theoretical results. MODERN ASTRONOMY At the end of the 19th century it was discovered that, when decomposing the light from the Sun, a multitude of spectral lines were observed (regions where there was less or no light). Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding to unique elements. It was proved that the chemical elements found in the Sun were also found on Earth. During the 20th century spectrometry (the study of these lines) advanced, especially because of the advent of quantum physics that was necessary to understand the observations.5 Most of our current knowledge of celestial objects was gained during the 20th century. With the help of the use of photography, fainter objects were observed. Our sun was found to be part of a galaxy made up of more than 1010 stars (10 billion stars). The existence of other galaxies, one of the matters of the great debate, was settled by Edwin Hubble, who identified the Andromeda nebula as a different galaxy, and many others at large distances and receding, moving away from our galaxy. Physical cosmology, a discipline that has a large intersection with astronomy, made huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of the hot big bang heavily supported by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics, such as the redshifts of very distant galaxies and radio sources, the cosmic microwave background radiation, Hubble’s law and cosmological abundances of elements.6

9 Late in the 19th century, scientists began discovering forms of light which were invisible to the naked eye: X-Rays, gamma rays, radio waves, microwaves, ultraviolet radiation, and infrared radiation. This had a major impact on astronomy, spawning the fields of infrared astronomy, radio astronomy, x-ray astronomy and finally gamma-ray astronomy. With the advent of spectroscopy it was proven that other stars were similar to our own sun, but with a range of temperatures, masses and sizes. The existence of our galaxy, the Milky Way, as a separate group of stars was only proven in the 20th century, along with the existence of external galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of the universe seen in the recession of most galaxies from us.7, 8, 9 Solar Astronomy At a distance of about eight light-minutes, the most frequently studied star is the Sun, a typical main-sequence dwarf star of stellar class G2 V, and about 4.6 Gyr in age. The Sun is not considered a variable star, but it does undergo periodic changes in activity known as the sunspot cycle. This is an 11-year fluctuation in sunspot numbers. Sunspots are regions of lower-than-average temperatures that are associated with intense magnetic activity. The Sun has steadily increased in luminosity over the course of its life, increasing by 40% since it first became a main-sequence star. The Sun has also undergone periodic changes in luminosity that can have a significant impact on the Earth. The Maunder minimum, for example, is believed to have caused the Little Ice Age phenomenon during the Middle Ages.10 The visible outer surface of the Sun is called the photosphere. Above this layer is a thin region known as the chromosphere. This is surrounded by a transition region of rapidly increasing temperatures, then by the super-heated corona. At the center of the Sun is the core region, a volume of sufficient temperature and pressure for nuclear fusion to occur. Above the core is the radiation zone, where the plasma conveys the energy flux by means of radiation. The outer layers form a convection zone where the gas material transports energy

10 primarily through physical displacement of the gas. It is believed that this convection zone creates the magnetic activity that generates sun spots. A solar wind of plasma particles constantly streams outward from the Sun until it reaches the heliopause. This solar wind interacts with the magnetosphere of the Earth to create the Van Allen radiation belts, as well as the aurora where the lines of the Earth’s magnetic field descend into the atmosphere.11 Planetary Science Planetary science is the scientific study of planets, moons, and planetary systems, in particular those of the Solar System and the processes that form them. It studies objects ranging in size from micrometeoroids to gas giants, aiming to determine their composition, dynamics, formation, interrelations and history. Planetary science examines the assemblage of planets, moons, dwarf planets, comets, asteroids, and other bodies orbiting the Sun, as well as extrasolar planets. The solar system has been relatively well-studied, initially through telescopes and then later by spacecraft. This has provided a good overall understanding of the formation and evolution of this planetary system, although many new discoveries are still being made.12 The solar system is subdivided into the inner planets, the asteroid belt, and the outer planets. The inner terrestrial planets consist of Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. The outer gas giant planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Beyond Neptune lies the Kuiper Belt, and finally the Oort Cloud, which may extend as far as a light-year.13 The planets were formed by a protoplanetary disk that surrounded the early Sun. Through a process that included gravitational attraction, collision, and accretion, the disk formed clumps of matter that, with time, became protoplanets. The radiation pressure of the solar wind then expelled most of the unaccreted matter, and only those planets with sufficient mass retained their gaseous atmosphere. The planets continued to sweep up, or eject, the remaining matter during a

11 period of intense bombardment, evidenced by the many impact craters on the Moon. During this period, some of the protoplanets may have collided, the leading hypothesis for how the Moon was formed. Once a planet reaches sufficient mass, the materials with different densities segregate within, during planetary differentiation. This process can form a stony or metallic core, surrounded by a mantle and an outer surface. The core may include solid and liquid regions, and some planetary cores generate their own magnetic field, which can protect their atmospheres from solar wind stripping. A planet or moon’s interior heat is produced from the collisions that created the body, radioactive materials or tidal heating. Some planets and moons accumulate enough heat to drive geologic processes such as volcanism and tectonics. Those that accumulate or retain an atmosphere can also undergo surface erosion from wind or water. Smaller bodies, without tidal heating, cool more quickly; and their geological activity ceases with the exception of impact cratering.14 Stellar Astronomy The study of stars and stellar evolution is fundamental to our understanding of the universe. The astrophysics of stars has been determined through observation and theoretical understanding; and from computer simulations of the interior. Star formation occurs in dense regions of dust and gas, known as giant molecular clouds. When destabilized, cloud fragments can collapse under the influence of gravity, to form a protostar. A sufficiently dense, and hot, core region will trigger nuclear fusion, thus creating a main-sequence star. Almost all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were created inside the cores of stars.15 The characteristics of the resulting star depend primarily upon its starting mass. The more massive the star, the greater its luminosity, and the more rapidly it expends the hydrogen fuel in its core. Over time, this hydrogen fuel is completely converted into helium, and the star begins to evolve. The fusion of

12 helium requires a higher core temperature, so that the star both expands in size, and increases in core density. The resulting red giant enjoys a brief life span, before the helium fuel is in turn consumed. Very massive stars can also undergo a series of decreasing evolutionary phases, as they fuse increasingly heavier elements. The final fate of the star depends on its mass, with stars of mass greater than about eight times the Sun becoming core collapse supernovae; while smaller stars form planetary nebulae, and evolve into white dwarfs. The remnant of a supernova is a dense neutron star, or, if the stellar mass was at least three times that of the Sun, a black hole. Close binary stars can follow more complex evolutionary paths, such as mass transfer onto a white dwarf companion that can potentially cause a supernova. Planetary nebulae and supernovae are necessary for the distribution of metals to the interstellar medium; without them, all new stars (and their planetary systems) would be formed from hydrogen and helium alone.16 Galactic Astronomy Our solar system orbits within the Milky Way, a barred spiral galaxy that is a prominent member of the Local Group of galaxies. It is a rotating mass of gas, dust, stars and other objects, held together by mutual gravitational attraction. As the Earth is located within the dusty outer arms, there are large portions of the Milky Way that are obscured from view. In the center of the Milky Way is the core, a bar-shaped bulge with what is believed to be a supermassive black hole at the center. This is surrounded by four primary arms that spiral from the core. This is a region of active star formation that contains many younger, population I stars. The disk is surrounded by a spheroid halo of older, population II stars, as well as relatively dense concentrations of stars known as globular clusters. Between the stars lies the interstellar medium, a region of sparse matter. In the densest regions, molecular clouds of molecular hydrogen and other elements

13 create star-forming regions. These begin as irregular dark nebulae, which concentrate and collapse to form compact protostars. As the more massive stars appear, they transform the cloud into an H II region of glowing gas and plasma. The stellar wind and supernova explosions from these stars eventually serve to disperse the cloud, often leaving behind one or more young open clusters of stars. These clusters gradually disperse, and the stars join the population of the Milky Way. Kinematic studies of matter in the Milky Way and other galaxies have demonstrated that there is more mass than can be accounted for by visible matter. A dark matter halo appears to dominate the mass, although the nature of this dark matter remains undetermined.17 Extragalactic Astronomy The study of objects outside of our galaxy is a branch of astronomy concerned with the formation and evolution of Galaxies; their morphology and classification; and the examination of active galaxies, and the groups and clusters of galaxies. The latter is important for the understanding of the large- scale structure of the cosmos. Most galaxies are organized into distinct shapes that allow for classification schemes. They are commonly divided into spiral, elliptical and irregular galaxies. As the name suggests, an elliptical galaxy has the cross-sectional shape of an ellipse. The stars move along random orbits with no preferred direction. These galaxies contain little or no interstellar dust; few star-forming regions; and generally older stars. Elliptical galaxies are more commonly found at the core of galactic clusters, and may be formed through mergers of large galaxies.18 A spiral galaxy is organized into a flat, rotating disk, usually with a prominent bulge or bar at the center, and trailing bright arms that spiral outward. The arms are dusty regions of star formation where massive young stars produce a blue

14 tint. Spiral galaxies are typically surrounded by a halo of older stars. Both the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are spiral galaxies. Irregular galaxies are chaotic in appearance, and are neither spiral nor elliptical. About a quarter of all galaxies are irregular, and the peculiar shapes of such galaxies may be the result of gravitational interaction. An active galaxy is a formation that is emitting a significant amount of its energy from a source other than stars, dust and gas; and is powered by a compact region at the core, usually thought to be a super-massive black hole that is emitting radiation from in-falling material. A radio galaxy is an active galaxy that is very luminous in the radio portion of the spectrum, and is emitting immense plumes or lobes of gas. Active galaxies that emit high-energy radiation include Seyfert galaxies, Quasars, and Blazars. Quasars are believed to be the most consistently luminous objects in the known universe. The large-scale structure of the cosmos is represented by groups and clusters of galaxies. This structure is organized in a hierarchy of groupings, with the largest being the superclusters. The collective matter is formed into filaments and walls, leaving large voids in between.19 Space Flight Spaceflight is the use of space technology to achieve the flight of spacecraft into and through outer space. The most commonly used definition of outer space is everything beyond the Kármán line, which is 100 kilometers (62 mi) above the Earth’s surface. The United States sometimes defines outer space as everything beyond 50 miles (80 km) in altitude.20 Space missions are designed to explore the unknown and learn more about the universe around us. Whether it’s a manned space mission to the moon, a robot explorer in the solar system or a probe to the galaxy beyond. Spaceflight is used in space exploration, and also in commercial activities like space tourism and satellite telecommunications. Additional non-commercial

15 uses of spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites and other earth observation satellites. A spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft—both when unpropelled and when under propulsion—is covered by the area of study called astrodynamics. Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact. The first rocket to reach space was the German V-2 Rocket, on a test flight in June, 1944, although sub-orbital flight is not considered a spaceflight in Russia. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, which became the first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth. The first human spaceflight was Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, aboard which Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin made one orbit around the Earth. The lead architects behind the Soviet space program’s Vostok 1 mission were the rocket scientists Sergey Korolyov and Kerim Kerimov.21 Rockets remain the only currently practical means of reaching space. Other non- rocket spacelaunch technologies such as scramjets still fall far short of orbital speed. Spacecraft are vehicles capable of controlling their trajectory through space. The first ‘true spacecraft’ is sometimes said to be Apollo Lunar Module, since this was the only manned vehicle to have been designed for, and operated only in space; and is notable for its non aerodynamic shape.22 Human Space Flight The first human spaceflight was Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, on which cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin of the USSR made one orbit around the Earth. In official Soviet documents, there is no mention of the fact that Gagarin parachuted the final seven miles. The international rules for aviation records

16 stated that “The pilot remains in his craft from launch to landing”. This rule, if applied, would have disqualified Gagarin’s space-flight. Currently the only spacecraft regularly used for human spaceflight are Russian Soyuz spacecraft and the U.S. Space Shuttle fleet. Each of those space programs has used other spacecraft in the past. Recently, the Shenzhou spacecraft has been used twice for human spaceflight, as has SpaceshipOne. In a microgravity environment such as that provided by a spacecraft in orbit around the Earth, humans experience a sense of weightlessness. Short-term exposure to microgravity causes space adaptation syndrome, a self-limiting nausea caused by derangement of the vestibular system. Long-term exposure causes multiple health issues. The most significant is bone loss, some of which is permanent, but microgravity also leads to significant deconditioning of muscular and cardiovascular tissues. Once above the atmosphere, radiation due to the Van Allen belts, solar radiation and cosmic radiation issues occur and increase. Further away from the Earth, solar flares can give a fatal radiation dose in minutes, and cosmic radiation would significantly increase the chances of cancer over a decade exposure or more.23, 24 In human spaceflight, the life support system is a group of devices that allow a human being to survive in outer space. NASA often uses the phrase Environmental Control and Life Support System or the acronym ECLSS when describing these systems for its human spaceflight missions. The life support system may supply: air, water and food. It must also maintain the correct body temperature, an acceptable pressure on the body and deal with the body’s waste products. Shielding against harmful external influences such as radiation and micro-meteorites may also be necessary. Components of the life support system are life-critical, and are designed and constructed using safety engineering techniques.23 Five spacecraft are currently leaving the Solar System on escape trajectories. The one farthest from the Sun is Voyager 1, which is more than 100 AU distant

17 and is moving at 3.6 AU per year. In comparison Proxima Centauri, the closest star other than the Sun, is 267,000 AU distant. It will take Voyager 1 over 74,000 years to reach this distance. Vehicle designs using other techniques, such as nuclear pulse propulsion are likely to be able to reach the nearest star significantly faster. Another possibility that could allow for human interstellar spaceflight is to make use of time dilation, as this would make it possible for passengers in a fast-moving vehicle to travel further into the future while aging very little, in that their great speed slows down the rate of passage of on-board time. However, attaining such high speeds would still require the use of some new, advanced method of propulsion.24 Intergalactic travel involves spaceflight between galaxies, and is considered much more technologically demanding than even interstellar travel and, by current engineering terms, is considered science fiction. Current spaceflights are frequently, but not invariably paid for by governments. But there are strong launch markets such as satellite television that is purely commercial, although the launchers themselves are often at least partly funded by governments. Uses for spaceflight include earth observation satellites, space exploration, space tourism, communication satellites and satellite navigation. There is growing interest in spacecraft and flights paid for by commercial companies and even private individuals. It is thought that some of the high cost of access to space is due to governmental inefficiencies; and certainly the costs of the governmental paperwork surrounding NASA is legendary. If a commercial company were able to be more efficient, costs could come down significantly. Space launch vehicles such as Falcon I have been wholly developed with private finance and the quoted costs for launch are lower.24

18 THEORETICAL ASTRONOMY Theoretical astronomers use a wide variety of tools, which include analytical models (for example, polytropes to approximate the behaviors of a star) and computational numerical simulations. Each has some advantages. Analytical models of a process are generally better for giving insight into the heart of what is going on. Numerical models can reveal the existence of phenomena and effects that would otherwise not be seen. Theorists in astronomy endeavor to create theoretical models and figure out the observational consequences of those models. This helps observer’s look for data that can refute a model or help in choosing between several alternate or conflicting models. Theorists also try to generate or modify models to take into account new data. In the case of an inconsistency, the general tendency is to try to make minimal modifications to the model to fit the data. In some cases, a large amount of inconsistent data over time may lead to total abandonment of a model. Topics studied by theoretical astronomers include: stellar dynamics and evolution; galaxy formation; large-scale structure of matter in the Universe; origin of cosmic rays; general relativity and physical cosmology, including string cosmology and astroparticle physics. Astrophysical relativity serves as a tool to gauge the properties of large scale structures for which gravitation plays a significant role in physical phenomena investigated and as the basis for black hole (astro)physics and the study of gravitational waves.25 Some widely accepted and studied theories and models in astronomy, now included in the Lambda-CDM model are the Big Bang, Cosmic inflation, dark matter, and fundamental theories of physics. Dark matter and dark energy are the current leading topics in astronomy, as their discovery and controversy originated during the study of the galaxies.

19 OBSERVATIONAL ASTRONOMY Observational astronomy is a division of the astronomical science that is concerned with getting data, in contrast with theoretical astrophysics which is mainly concerned with finding out the measurable implications of physical models. It is the practice of observing celestial objects by using telescopes and other astronomical apparatus.25 As a science, astronomy is somewhat hindered in that direct experiments with the properties of the distant universe are not possible. However, this is partly compensated by the fact that astronomers have a vast number of visible examples of stellar phenomena that can be examined. This allows for observational data to be plotted on graphs, and general trends recorded. Nearby examples of specific phenomena, such as variable stars, can then be used to infer the behavior of more distant representatives. Those distant yardsticks can then be employed to measure other phenomena in that neighborhood, including the distance to a galaxy. A telescope is an instrument designed for the observation of remote objects by the collection of electromagnetic radiation. The first known practically functioning telescopes were invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 17th century. Telescopes can refer to a whole range of instruments operating in most regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.26 The word telescope from the Greek tele = far and skopein = to look or see; teleskopos = far-seeing, was coined in 1611 by the Greek mathematician Giovanni Demisiani for one of Galileo Galilei’s instruments presented at a banquet at the Accademia dei Lincei. In the Starry Messenger Galileo had used the term Perspicillum. The earliest evidence of working telescopes was the refracting telescopes that appeared in the Netherlands in 1608. Their development is credited to three individuals: Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen, who were spectacle makers in Middelburg, and Jacob Metius of Alkmaar. Galileo greatly improved upon these designs the following year.

20 OPTICS AND TELESCOPE Optical science is relevant to and studied in many related disciplines including astronomy, various engineering fields, photography, ophthalmology and optometry. Practical applications of optics are found in a variety of technologies and everyday objects, including mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, lasers, and fiber optics. Optics is the study of the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behavior of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared light. Because light is an electromagnetic wave, other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves exhibit similar properties. 27 Most optical phenomena can be accounted for using the classical electromagnetic description of light. Complete electromagnetic descriptions of light are, however, often difficult to apply in practice. Practical optics is usually done using simplified models. The most common of these, geometric optics, treats light as a collection of rays that travel in straight lines and bend when they pass through or reflect from surfaces. Physical optics is a more comprehensive model of light, which includes wave effects such as diffraction and interference that cannot be accounted for in geometric optics. Historically, the ray-based model of light was developed first, followed by the wave model of light. Progress in electromagnetic theory in the 19th century led to the discovery that light waves were in fact electromagnetic radiation.28, 29 Optics began with the development of lenses by the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians. The earliest known lenses were made from polished crystal, and have been dated as early as 700 BC for Assyrian lenses such as the Nimrud lens. The ancient Romans and Greeks filled glass spheres with water to make lenses. These practical developments were followed by the development of theories of light and vision by ancient Greek and Indian philosophers, and the

21 development of geometrical optics in the Greco-Roman world. The word optics comes from the ancient Greek word meaning appearance or look. Plato first articulated his emission theory, the idea that visual perception is accomplished by rays of light emitted by the eyes and commented on the parity reversal of mirrors in Timaeus. Some hundred years later, Euclid wrote a treatise entitled Optics wherein he describes the mathematical rules of perspective and describes the effects of refraction qualitatively. Ptolemy, in his treatise Optics, summarizes much of Euclid and goes on to describe a way to measure the angle of refraction, though he failed to notice the empirical relationship between it and the angle of incidence.28 Al-Kindi (c. 801–73) was one of the earliest important writers on optics in the Islamic world. In a work known in the West as De radiis stellarum, al-Kindi resurrected Plato’s emission theory, which had an influence on later Western scholars such as Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon. In 984, the Persian mathematician, Ibn Sahl wrote a treatise “On Burning Mirrors and Lenses”, correctly describing a law of refraction mathematically equivalent to Snell’s law. He used his law of refraction to compute the shapes of lenses and mirrors that focus light at a single point on the axis. In the early 11th century, Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham) wrote his Book of Optics, which extensively documented the then-current Islamic understanding of optics and revolutionized the field. It included the first descriptions of optical phenomena associated with pinholes and concave lenses, provided the first correct explanation of vision, described various experiments using an early scientific method, and greatly influenced the later development of the modern telescope.29, 30 In the 13th century, Roger Bacon, inspired by Ibn al-Haytham, used parts of glass spheres as magnifying glasses, and discovered that light reflects from objects rather than being released from them. In Italy, around 1284, Salvino D’Armate invented the first wearable eyeglasses. The first rudimentary

22 telescopes were developed independently in the 1570s and 1580s by Leonard Digges, Taqi al-Din and Giambattista Della Porta. The earliest known working telescopes were refracting telescopes, a type which relies entirely on lenses for magnification. Their development in the Netherlands in 1608 was by three individuals: Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen, who were spectacle makers in Middelburg, Holland, and Jacob Metius of Alkmaar. In Italy, Galileo greatly improved upon these designs the following year. In 1668, Isaac Newton constructed the first practical reflecting telescope, which bears his name, the Newtonian reflector. Optical theory progressed in the mid-17th century with treatises written by philosopher René Descartes, which explained a variety of optical phenomena including reflection and refraction by assuming that light was emitted by objects which produced it. This differed substantively from ancient Greek notions that light emanated from the eye. In the late 1660s and early 1670s, Newton expanded Descartes’ ideas into a corpuscle theory of light, famously showing that white light, instead of being a unique color, was really a composite of different colors that can be separated into a spectrum with a prism. In 1690, Christian Huygens proposed a wave theory for light based on suggestions that had been made by Robert Hooke in 1664. Hooke himself publicly criticized Newton’s theories of light and the feud between the two lasted until Hooke’s death. In 1704, Newton published Opticks and, at the time, partly because of his success in other areas of physics, he was generally considered to be the victor in the debate over the nature of light.30-32 Newtonian optics and emission theory was generally accepted until the early 19th century when Thomas Young and Augustin-Jean Fresnel conducted experiments on the interference of light that firmly established light’s wave- nature. Young’s famous double slit experiment showed that light followed the law of superposition, something normal particles do not follow. This work led to a theory of diffraction for light and opened an entire area of study in physical

23 optics. Wave optics was successfully unified with electromagnetic theory by James Clerk Maxwell in the 1860s.32-33 The next development in optical theory came in 1899 when Max Planck correctly modeled blackbody radiation by assuming that the exchange of energy between light and matter only occurred in discrete amounts he called quanta. In 1905, Albert Einstein published the theory of the photoelectric effect that firmly established the quantization of light itself. In 1913, Niels Bohr showed that atoms could only emit discrete amounts of energy, thus explaining the discrete lines seen in emission and absorption spectra. The understanding of the interaction between light and matter, which followed from these developments, not only formed the basis of quantum optics but also was crucial for the development of quantum mechanics as a whole. The ultimate culmination was the theory of quantum electrodynamics, which explains all optics and electromagnetic processes in general as being the result of the exchange of real and virtual photons.33, 34 Quantum optics gained practical importance with the invention of the maser in 1953 and the laser in 1960. Following the work of Paul Dirac in quantum field theory, George Sudarshan, Roy J. Glauber, and Leonard Mandel applied quantum theory to the electromagnetic field in the 1950s and 1960s to gain a more detailed understanding of photodetection and the statistics of light.35 Optical Telescopes The name ‘telescope’ covers a wide range of instruments and is difficult to define. They all have the attribute of collecting electromagnetic radiation. The most common type is the optical telescope. An optical telescope gathers and focuses light mainly from the visible part of the electromagnetic. Optical telescopes increase the apparent angular size of distant objects as well as their apparent brightness. In order for the image to be observed, photographed, studied, and sent to a computer, telescopes work by employing one or more curved optical elements—usually made from glass—

24 lenses, or mirrors to gather light and other electromagnetic radiation to bring that light or radiation to a focal point. Optical telescopes are used for astronomy and in many non-astronomical instruments including spotting scopes, binoculars, camera lenses, and spyglasses. Optical Telescopes come in three basic designs; Refractor, Reflector, and Catadioptric.36 The refracting telescope which uses lenses to form an image. The reflecting telescope which uses an arrangement of mirrors to form an image. The Catadioptric telescope which uses mirrors combined with lenses to form an image. A refractor uses two lenses. At one end (the end farther away from the viewer), is the larger lens, called the objective lens or object glass. On the other end is the lens for look through. It is called the ocular or eyepiece. The objective collects light and focuses it as a sharp image. This image is magnified and seen through the ocular. The eyepiece is adjusted by sliding it in and out of the telescope body to focus the image. A reflector works a bit differently. Light is gathered at the bottom of the scope by a concave mirror, called the Primary. The primary has a parabolic shape. There are several ways the primary can focus the light, and how it is done determines the type of reflecting telescope. Many observatory Telescopes use a photographic plate to focus the image. Called the Prime Focus Position, the plate is located near the top of the scope. Other scopes use a secondary mirror, placed in a similar position as the photographic plate, to reflect the image back down the body of the scope, where it is viewed through a hole in the primary mirror. This is known as a Cassegrain focus. The Newtonian telescope, a kind of reflector. So named because Sir Isaac Newton created the basic design. In a Newtonian, a flat mirror is placed at an angle in the same position as the secondary mirror in a Cassegrain. This secondary mirror focuses the image into an eyepiece located in the side of the tube, near the top of the scope.37

25 The Catadioptric telescopes combine elements of refractors and reflectors in their design. The first such telescope was created by German astronomer Bernhard Schmidt in 1930. It used a primary mirror at the back of the telescope with a glass corrector plate in the front of the telescope, which was designed to remove spherical aberration. In the original telescope, photographic film was placed at the prime focus. There were no secondary mirrors or eyepieces. The descendant of that original design, called the Schmidt-Cassegrain design, is the most popular type of telescope. Invented in the 1960s, it has a secondary mirror that bounces light through a hole in the primary mirror to an eyepiece. Radio Telescopes Radio telescopes are directional radio antennas that often have a parabolic shape. The dishes are sometimes constructed of a conductive wire mesh whose openings are smaller than the wavelength being observed. Multi-element Radio telescopes are constructed from pairs or larger groups of these dishes to synthesize large ‘virtual’ apertures that are similar in size to the separation between the telescopes; this process is known as aperture synthesis. As of 2005, the current record array size is many times the width of the Earth—utilizing space-based Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) telescopes such as the Japanese HALCA (Highly Advanced Laboratory for Communications and Astronomy) VSOP (VLBI Space Observatory Program) satellite. Aperture synthesis is now also being applied to optical telescopes using optical interferometers (arrays of optical telescopes) and aperture masking interferometry at single reflecting telescopes. Radio telescopes are also used to collect microwave radiation, which is used to collect radiation when any visible light is obstructed or faint, such as from quasars. Some radio telescopes are used by programs such as SETI and the Arecibo Observatory to search for exterrestrial life. One particularly exciting example is the Wow! Signal, recorded in 1977.38, 39

26 High Energy Particle Telescopes High-energy astronomy requires specialized telescopes to make observations since most of these particles go through most metals and glasses. X-ray telescopes use Wolter telescopes composed of ring-shaped ‘glancing’ mirrors made of heavy metals that are able to reflect the rays just a few degrees. The mirrors are usually a section of a rotated parabola and a hyperbola, or ellipse. In 1952, Hans Wolter outlined 3 ways a telescope could be built using only this kind of mirror. Gamma-ray telescopes refrain from focusing completely and use coded aperture masks: the patterns of the shadow the mask creates can be reconstructed to form an image.40 X-ray and Gamma-ray telescopes are usually on Earth-orbiting satellites or high-flying balloons since the Earth’s atmosphere is opaque to this part of the electromagnetic spectrum. In other types of high energy particle telescopes there is no image-forming optical system. Cosmic-ray telescopes usually consist of an array of different detector types spread out over a large area. A Neutrino telescope consists of a large mass of water or ice, surrounded by an array of sensitive light detectors known as photomultiplier tubes.41 OBSERVATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by gravity, all of which formed from the collapse of a giant molecular cloud approximately 4.6 billion years ago. The Sun’s retinue of objects circle it in a nearly flat disc called the ecliptic plane, most of the mass of which is contained within eight relatively solitary planets whose orbits are almost circular. The four smaller inner planets; Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, also called the terrestrial planets, are primarily composed of rock and metal. The four outer planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, also called the gas giants, are composed largely of hydrogen and helium and are far more massive than the terrestrials.42, 43

27 The Solar System is also home to two main belts of small bodies. The asteroid belt, which lies between Mars and Jupiter, is similar to the terrestrial planets as it is composed mainly of rock and metal. The Kuiper belt (and its subpopulation, the scattered disc), which lies beyond Neptune’s orbit, is composed mostly of ices such as water, ammonia and methane. Within these belts, five individual objects, Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake and Eris, are recognised to be large enough to have been rounded by their own gravity, and are thus termed dwarf planets. The hypothetical Oort cloud, which acts as the source for long-period comets, may also exist at a distance roughly a thousand times beyond these regions.43 Within the Solar System, various populations of small bodies, such as comets, centaurs and interplanetary dust, freely travel between these regions, while the solar wind, a flow of plasma from the Sun, creates a bubble in the interstellar medium known as the heliosphere, which extends out to the edge of the scattered disc. Six of the planets and three of the dwarf planets are orbited by natural satellites, usually termed moons after Earth’s Moon. Each of the outer planets is encircled by planetary rings of dust and other particles. Discovery and Exploration For many thousands of years, humanity, with a few notable exceptions, did not recognise the existence of the Solar System. They believed the Earth to be stationary at the centre of the universe and categorically different from the divine or ethereal objects that moved through the sky. Although the Indian mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata and the Greek philosopher Aristarchus of Samos had speculated on a heliocentric reordering of the cosmos, Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to develop a mathematically predictive heliocentric system. His 17th-century successors Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, and Isaac Newton developed an understanding of physics which led to the gradual acceptance of the idea that the Earth moves around the Sun and that the planets

28 are governed by the same physical laws that governed the Earth. In more recent times, improvements in the telescope and the use of unmanned spacecraft have enabled the investigation of geological phenomena such as mountains and craters and seasonal meteorological phenomena such as clouds, dust storms and ice caps on the other planets.43, 44 Structure The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun, a main sequence G2 star that contains 99.86 percent of the system’s known mass and dominates it gravitationally. The Sun’s four largest orbiting bodies, the gas giants, account for 99 percent of the remaining mass, with Jupiter and Saturn together comprising more than 90 percent. Most large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of Earth’s orbit, known as the ecliptic. The planets are very close to the ecliptic while comets and Kuiper belt objects are frequently at significantly greater angles to it.43, 45 All of the planets and most other objects also orbit with the Sun’s rotation (counter-clockwise, as viewed from above the Sun’s North Pole). There are exceptions, such as Halley’s Comet. To cope with the vast distances involved, many representations of the Solar System show orbits the same distance apart. In reality, with a few exceptions, the farther a planet or belt is from the Sun, the larger the distance between it and the previous orbit. For example, Venus is approximately 0.33 astronomical units (AU) farther out than Mercury, while Saturn is 4.3 AU out from Jupiter, and Neptune lies 10.5 AU out from Uranus. Attempts have been made to determine a correlation between these orbital distances (see Titius-Bode law), but no such theory has been accepted.44 Kepler’s laws of planetary motion describe the orbits of objects about the Sun. According to Kepler’s laws, each object travels along an ellipse with the Sun at one focus. Objects closer to the Sun (with smaller semi-major axes) have shorter years. On an elliptical orbit, a body’s distance from the Sun varies over the

29 course of its year. A body’s closest approach to the Sun is called its perihelion, while its most distant point from the Sun is called its aphelion. Each body moves fastest at its perihelion and slowest at its aphelion. The orbits of the planets are nearly circular, but many comets, asteroids and Kuiper belt objects follow highly elliptical orbits. Most of the planets in the Solar System possess secondary systems of their own. Many are in turn orbited by planetary objects called natural satellites, or moons, some of which are larger than planets. Most of the largest natural satellites are in synchronous rotation, with one face permanently turned toward their parent. The four largest planets, the gas giants, also possess planetary rings, thin bands of tiny particles that orbit them in unison.46 The Sun The Sun is the Solar System’s star, and far and away its chief component. Its large mass (332,900 Earth masses) produces temperatures and densities in its core great enough to sustain nuclear fusion, which releases enormous amounts of energy, mostly radiated into space as electromagnetic radiation, peaking in the 400–to–700 nm band we call visible light. The Sun is classified as a type G2 yellow dwarf, but this name is misleading as, compared to majority of stars in our galaxy, the Sun is rather large and bright. Stars are classified by the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, a graph which plots the brightness of stars against their surface temperatures. Generally, hotter stars are brighter. Stars following this pattern are said to be on the main sequence, and the Sun lies right in the middle of it. However, stars brighter and hotter than the Sun are rare, while substantially dimmer and cooler stars, known as red dwarfs, are common, making up 85 percent of the stars in the galaxy.47 It is believed that the Sun’s position on the main sequence puts it in the prime of life for a star, in that it has not yet exhausted its store of hydrogen for nuclear fusion. The Sun is growing brighter; early in its history it was 70 percent as bright as it is today.

30 The Sun is a population I star; it was born in the later stages of the universe’s evolution, and thus contains more elements heavier than hydrogen and helium (metals in astronomical parlance) than older population II stars. Elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were formed in the cores of ancient and exploding stars, so the first generation of stars had to die before the universe could be enriched with these atoms. The oldest stars contain few metals, while stars born later have more. This high metallicity is thought to have been crucial to the Sun’s developing a planetary system, because planets form from accretion of metals.43, 48 Interplanetary Medium Along with light, the Sun radiates a continuous stream of charged particles (a plasma) known as the solar wind. This stream of particles spreads outwards at roughly 1.5 million kilometres per hour, creating a tenuous atmosphere (the heliosphere) that permeates the Solar System out to at least 100 AU. This is known as the interplanetary medium. Geomagnetic storms on the Sun’s surface, such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections, disturb the heliosphere, creating space weather. The largest structure within the heliosphere is the heliospheric current sheet, a spiral form created by the actions of the Sun’s rotating magnetic field on the interplanetary medium.49 Earth’s magnetic field stops its atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind. Venus and Mars do not have magnetic fields, and as a result, the solar wind causes their atmospheres to gradually bleed away into space. Coronal mass ejections and similar events, blow magnetic field and huge quantities of material from the surface of the Sun. The interaction of this magnetic field and material with Earth’s magnetic field funnels charged particles into the Earth’s upper atmosphere, where its interactions create aurorae seen near the magnetic poles.50 Cosmic rays originate outside the Solar System. The heliosphere partially shields the Solar System, and planetary magnetic fields (for those planets that

31 have them) also provide some protection. The density of cosmic rays in the interstellar medium and the strength of the Sun’s magnetic field change on very long timescales, so the level of cosmic radiation in the Solar System varies, though by how much is unknown. The interplanetary medium is home to at least two disc-like regions of cosmic dust. The first, the zodiacal dust cloud, lies in the inner Solar System and causes zodiacal light. It was likely formed by collisions within the asteroid belt brought on by interactions with the planets. The second extends from about 10 AU to about 40 AU, and was probably created by similar collisions within the Kuiper belt.51, 52 Inner Solar System The inner Solar System is the traditional name for the region comprising the terrestrial planets and asteroids. Composed mainly of silicates and metals, the objects of the inner Solar System are relatively close to the Sun; the radius of this entire region is shorter than the distance between Jupiter and Saturn. The four inner or terrestrial planets have dense, rocky compositions, few or no moons, and no ring systems. They are composed largely of refractory minerals, such as the silicates which form their crusts and mantles, and metals such as iron and nickel, which form their cores. Three of the four inner planets (Venus, Earth and Mars have substantial atmospheres; all have impact craters and tectonic surface features such as rift valleys and volcanoes. The term inner planet should not be confused with inferior planet, which designates those planets which are closer to the Sun than Earth is (i.e. Mercury and Venus).53, 54 Mercury (0.4 AU) is the closest planet to the Sun and the smallest planet (0.055 Earth masses). Mercury has no natural satellites, and it’s only known geological features besides impact craters are lobed ridges or rupes, probably produced by a period of contraction early in its history. Mercury’s almost negligible atmosphere consists of atoms blasted off its surface by the solar wind. Its relatively large iron core and thin mantle have not yet been adequately explained. Hypotheses include that its outer layers were stripped off by a giant

32 impact, and that it was prevented from fully accreting by the young Sun’s energy.53 Venus (0.7 AU) is close in size to Earth, (0.815 Earth masses) and like Earth, has a thick silicate mantle around an iron core, a substantial atmosphere and evidence of internal geological activity. However, it is much drier than Earth and its atmosphere is ninety times as dense. Venus has no natural satellites. It is the hottest planet, with surface temperatures over 400°C, most likely due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. No definitive evidence of current geological activity has been detected on Venus, but it has no magnetic field that would prevent depletion of its substantial atmosphere, which suggests that its atmosphere is regularly replenished by volcanic eruptions.54 Earth (1 AU) is the largest and densest of the inner planets, the only one known to have current geological activity, and is the only place in the universe where life is known to exist. Its liquid hydrosphere is unique among the terrestrial planets, and it is also the only planet where plate tectonics has been observed. Earth’s atmosphere is radically different from those of the other planets, having been altered by the presence of life to contain 21% free oxygen. It has one natural satellite, the Moon, the only large satellite of a terrestrial planet in the Solar System.55 Mars (1.5 AU) is smaller than Earth and Venus (0.107 Earth masses). It possesses an atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide with a surface pressure of 6.1 millibars (roughly 0.6 percent that of the Earth’s). Its surface, peppered with vast volcanoes such as Olympus Mons and rift valleys such as Valles Marineris, shows geological activity that may have persisted until as recently as 2 million years ago. Its red colour comes from iron oxide (rust) in its soil. Mars has two tiny natural satellites (Deimos and Phobos) thought to be captured asteroids.56 Asteroids are mostly small Solar System bodies composed mainly of refractory rocky and metallic minerals. The main asteroid belt occupies the orbit between Mars and Jupiter, between 2.3 and 3.3 AU from the Sun. It is thought to be

33 remnants from the Solar System’s formation that failed to coalesce because of the gravitational interference of Jupiter. Asteroids range in size from hundreds of kilometres across to microscopic. All asteroids save the largest, Ceres, are classified as small Solar System bodies, but some asteroids such as Vesta and Hygieia may be reclassed as dwarf planets if they are shown to have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium. The asteroid belt contains tens of thousands, possibly millions, of objects over one kilometre in diameter. Despite this, the total mass of the main belt is unlikely to be more than a thousandth of that of the Earth. The main belt is very sparsely populated; spacecraft routinely pass through without incident. Asteroids with diameters between 10 and 10−4 m are called meteoroids.57 Ceres (2.77 AU) is the largest body in the asteroid belt and is classified as a dwarf planet. It has a diameter of slightly under 1000 km, and a mass large enough for its own gravity to pull it into a spherical shape. Ceres was considered a planet when it was discovered in the 19th century, but was reclassified as an asteroid in the 1850s as further observation revealed additional asteroids. It was again reclassified in 2006 as a dwarf planet.57 Asteroids in the main belt are divided into asteroid groups and families based on their orbital characteristics. Asteroid moons are asteroids that orbit larger asteroids. They are not as clearly distinguished as planetary moons, sometimes being almost as large as their partners. The asteroid belt also contains main-belt comets which may have been the source of Earth’s water. Trojan asteroids are located in either of Jupiter’s L4 or L5 points (gravitationally stable regions leading and trailing a planet in its orbit); the term Trojan is also used for small bodies in any other planetary or satellite Lagrange point. Hilda asteroids are in a 2:3 resonance with Jupiter; that is, they go around the Sun three times for every two Jupiter orbits. The inner Solar System is also dusted with rogue asteroids, many of which cross the orbits of the inner planets.57, 58

34 Outer Solar System The outer region of the Solar System is home to the gas giants and their large moons. Many short period comets, including the centaurs, also orbit in this region. Due to their greater distance from the Sun, the solid objects in the outer Solar System are composed of a higher proportion of ices (such as water, ammonia, methane, often called ices in planetary science) than the rocky denizens of the inner Solar System, as the colder temperatures allow these compounds to remain solid. The four outer planets, or gas giants (sometimes called Jovian planets), collectively make up 99 percent of the mass known to orbit the Sun. Jupiter and Saturn consist overwhelmingly of hydrogen and helium; Uranus and Neptune possess a greater proportion of ices in their makeup. Some astronomers suggest they belong in their own category, ice giants. All four gas giants have rings, although only Saturn’s ring system is easily observed from Earth. The term outer planet should not be confused with superior planet, which designates planets outside Earth’s orbit.58, 59 Jupiter (5.2 AU), at 318 Earth masses, is 2.5 times all the mass of all the other planets put together. It is composed largely of hydrogen and helium. Jupiter’s strong internal heat creates a number of semi-permanent features in its atmosphere, such as cloud bands and the Great Red Spot. Jupiter has sixty-three known satellites. The four largest, Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa, show similarities to the terrestrial planets, such as volcanism and internal heating. Ganymede, the largest satellite in the Solar System, is larger than Mercury.58 Saturn (9.5 AU), distinguished by its extensive ring system, has several similarities to Jupiter, such as its atmospheric composition and magnetosphere. Although Saturn has 60% of Jupiter’s volume, it is less than a third as massive, at 95 Earth masses, making it the least dense planet in the Solar System. Saturn has sixty confirmed satellites; two of which, Titan and Enceladus, show signs of geological activity, though they are largely made of ice. Titan is larger than

35 Mercury and the only satellite in the Solar System with a substantial atmosphere.59 Uranus (19.6 AU), at 14 Earth masses, is the lightest of the outer planets. Uniquely among the planets, it orbits the Sun on its side; its axial tilt is over ninety degrees to the ecliptic. It has a much colder core than the other gas giants, and radiates very little heat into space. Uranus has twenty-seven known satellites, the largest ones being Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel and Miranda.58 Neptune (30 AU), though slightly smaller than Uranus, is more massive (equivalent to 17 Earths) and therefore more dense. It radiates more internal heat, but not as much as Jupiter or Saturn. Neptune has thirteen known satellites. The largest, Triton, is geologically active, with geysers of liquid nitrogen. Triton is the only large satellite with a retrograde orbit. Neptune is accompanied in its orbit by a number of minor planets, termed Neptune Trojans that are in 1:1 resonance with it.59 Comets are small Solar System bodies, typically only a few kilometres across, composed largely of volatile ices. They have highly eccentric orbits, generally a perihelion within the orbits of the inner planets and an aphelion far beyond Pluto. When a comet enters the inner Solar System, its proximity to the Sun causes its icy surface to sublimate and ionise, creating a coma: a long tail of gas and dust often visible to the naked eye.60 Short-period comets have orbits lasting less than two hundred years. Long- period comets have orbits lasting thousands of years. Short-period comets are believed to originate in the Kuiper belt, while long-period comets, such as Hale- Bopp, are believed to originate in the Oort cloud. Many comet groups, such as the Kreutz Sungrazers, formed from the breakup of a single parent. Some comets with hyperbolic orbits may originate outside the Solar System, but determining their precise orbits is difficult. Old comets that have had most of their volatiles driven out by solar warming are often categorised as asteroids.61

36 Farthest Regions The point at which the Solar System ends and interstellar space begins is not precisely defined, since its outer boundaries are shaped by two separate forces: the solar wind and the Sun’s gravity. The outer limit of the solar wind’s influence is roughly four times Pluto’s distance from the Sun; this heliopause is considered the beginning of the interstellar medium. However, the Sun’s Roche sphere, the effective range of its gravitational influence, is believed to extend up to a thousand times farther.62 The heliosphere is divided into two separate regions. The solar wind travels at roughly 400 km/s until it collides with the interstellar wind; the flow of plasma in the interstellar medium. The collision occurs at the termination shock, which is roughly 80–100 AU from the Sun upwind of the interstellar medium and roughly 200 AU from the Sun downwind. Here the wind slows dramatically, condenses and becomes more turbulent, forming a great oval structure known as the heliosheath that looks and behaves very much like a comet’s tail, extending outward for a further 40 AU on the upwind side but tailing many times that distance downwind. Both Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 are reported to have passed the termination shock and entered the heliosheath, at 94 and 84 AU from the Sun, respectively. The outer boundary of the heliosphere, the heliopause, is the point at which the solar wind finally terminates and is the beginning of interstellar space. The shape and form of the outer edge of the heliosphere is likely affected by the fluid dynamics of interactions with the interstellar medium as well as solar magnetic fields prevailing to the south, e.g. it is bluntly shaped with the northern hemisphere extending 9 AU (roughly 900 million miles) farther than the southern hemisphere. Beyond the heliopause, at around 230 AU, lies the bow shock, a plasma wake left by the Sun as it travels through the Milky Way.63 No spacecraft have yet passed beyond the heliopause, so it is impossible to know for certain the conditions in local interstellar space. It is expected that

37 NASA’s Voyager spacecraft will pass the heliopause some time in the next decade and transmit valuable data on radiation levels and solar wind back to the Earth. How well the heliosphere shields the Solar System from cosmic rays is poorly understood. A NASA-funded team has developed a concept of a Vision Mission dedicated to sending a probe to the heliosphere.64 Much of our Solar System is still unknown. The Sun’s gravitational field is estimated to dominate the gravitational forces of surrounding stars out to about two light years (125,000 AU). Lower estimates for the radius of the Oort cloud, by contrast, do not place it farther than 50,000 AU. Despite discoveries such as Sedna, the region between the Kuiper belt and the Oort cloud, an area tens of thousands of AU in radius, is still virtually unmapped. There are also ongoing studies of the region between Mercury and the Sun. Objects may yet be discovered in the Solar System’s uncharted regions.62 The Solar System is located in the Milky Way galaxy, a barred spiral galaxy with a diameter of about 100,000 light-years containing about 200 billion stars. Our Sun resides in one of the Milky Way’s outer spiral arms, known as the Orion Arm or Local Spur. The Sun lies between 25,000 and 28,000 light years from the Galactic Centre, and its speed within the galaxy is about 220 kilometres per second, so that it completes one revolution every 225–250 million years. This revolution is known as the Solar System’s cosmic year. The solar apex, the direction of the Sun’s path through interstellar space, is near the constellation of Hercules in the direction of the current location of the bright star Vega.65-67 The Solar System’s location in the galaxy is very likely a factor in the evolution of life on Earth. Its orbit is close to being circular and is at roughly the same speed as that of the spiral arms, which means it passes through them only rarely. Since spiral arms are home to a far larger concentration of potentially dangerous supernovae, this has given Earth long periods of interstellar stability for life to evolve. The Solar System also lies well outside the star-crowded environs of the

38 galactic centre. Near the centre, gravitational tugs from nearby stars could perturb bodies in the Oort Cloud and send many comets into the inner Solar System, producing collisions with potentially catastrophic implications for life on Earth. The intense radiation of the galactic centre could also interfere with the development of complex life. Even at the Solar System’s current location, some scientists have hypothesised that recent supernovae may have adversely affected life in the last 35,000 years by flinging pieces of expelled stellar core towards the Sun in the form of radioactive dust grains and larger, comet-like bodies.68, 69 The immediate galactic neighbourhood of the Solar System is known as the Local Interstellar Cloud or Local Fluff, an area of dense cloud in an otherwise sparse region known as the Local Bubble, an hourglass-shaped cavity in the interstellar medium roughly 300 light years across. The bubble is suffused with high-temperature plasma that suggests it is the product of several recent supernovae.70 There are relatively few stars within ten light years (95 trillion km) of the Sun. The closest is the triple star system Alpha Centauri, which is about 4.4 light years away. Alpha Centauri A and B are a closely tied pair of Sun-like stars, while the small red dwarf Alpha Centauri C (also known as Proxima Centauri) orbits the pair at a distance of 0.2 light years. The stars next closest to the Sun are the red dwarfs Barnard’s Star (at 5.9 light years), Wolf 359 (7.8 light years) and Lalande 21185 (8.3 light years). The largest star within ten light years is Sirius, a bright main sequence star roughly twice the Sun’s mass and orbited by a white dwarf called Sirius B. It lies 8.6 light years away. The remaining systems within ten light years are the binary red dwarf system Luyten 726-8 (8.7 light years) and the solitary red dwarf Ross 154 (9.7 light years). Our closest solitary sun-like star is Tau Ceti, which lies 11.9 light years away. It has roughly 80 percent the Sun’s mass, but only 60 percent its luminosity.71, 72

39 The closest known extrasolar planet to the Sun lies around the star Epsilon Eridani, a star slightly dimmer and redder than the Sun, which lies 10.5 light years away. Its one confirmed planet, Epsilon Eridani b, is roughly 1.5 times Jupiter’s mass and orbits its star every 6.9 years. Formation and Evolution The Solar System formed from the gravitational collapse of a giant molecular cloud 4.6 billion years ago. This initial cloud was likely several light-years across and probably birthed several stars. As the region that would become the Solar System, known as the pre-solar nebula collapsed, conservation of angular momentum made it rotate faster. The centre, where most of the mass collected, became increasingly hotter than the surrounding disc. As the contracting nebula rotated, it began to flatten into a spinning protoplanetary disc with a diameter of roughly 200 AU and a hot, dense protostar at the centre. At this point in its evolution, the Sun is believed to have been a T Tauri star. Studies of T Tauri stars show that they are often accompanied by discs of pre-planetary matter with masses of 0.001–0.1 solar masses, with the vast majority of the mass of the nebula in the star itself. The planets formed by accretion from this disk.73, 74 Within 50 million years, the pressure and density of hydrogen in the centre of the protostar became great enough for it to begin thermonuclear fusion. The temperature, reaction rate, pressure, and density increased until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved, with the thermal energy countering the force of gravitational contraction. At this point the Sun became a full-fledged main sequence star. The Solar System as we know it today will last until the Sun begins its evolution off of the main sequence of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. As the Sun burns through its supply of hydrogen fuel, the energy output supporting the core tends to decrease, causing it to collapse in on itself. This increase in pressure heats the core, so it burns even faster. As a result, the Sun is growing brighter at a rate of roughly ten percent every 1.1 billion years.74, 75

40 Around 5.4 billion years from now, the hydrogen in the core of the Sun will have been entirely converted to helium, ending the main sequence phase. At this time, the outer layers of the Sun will expand to roughly up to 260 times its current diameter; the Sun will become a red giant. Because of its vastly increased surface area, the surface of the Sun will be considerably cooler than it is on the main sequence (2600 K at the coolest). Eventually, the Sun’s outer layers will fall away, leaving a white dwarf, an extraordinarily dense object, half the original mass of the Sun but only the size of the Earth. The ejected outer layers will form what is known as a planetary nebula, returning some of the material that formed the Sun to the interstellar medium.76 OBSERVATION OF THE SUN The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. The Earth and other matter (including other planets, asteroids, meteoroids, comets, and dust) orbit the Sun, which by itself accounts for about 99.86% of the Solar System’s mass. The mean distance of the Sun from the Earth is approximately 149.6 million kilometers (1 AU), and its light travels this distance in 8 minutes and 19 seconds. This distance varies throughout the year from a minimum of 147.1 million kilometers (0.9833 AU) on the perihelion (around 3 January), to a maximum of 152.1 million kilometers (1.017 AU) on the aphelion (around 4 July). Energy from the Sun, in the form of sunlight, supports almost all life on Earth via photosynthesis, and drives the Earth’s climate and weather. The Sun consists of hydrogen (about 74% of its mass, or 92% of its volume), helium (about 24% of mass, 7% of volume), and trace quantities of other elements, including iron, nickel, oxygen, silicon, sulfur, magnesium, carbon, neon, calcium, and chromium. The Sun has a spectral class of G2V. G2 means that it has a surface temperature of approximately 5,780 K (5,510°C) giving it a white color, which often appears as yellow when seen from the surface of the Earth because of atmospheric scattering. It is this scattering of light at the blue

41 end of the spectrum that gives the surrounding sky its color. The Sun’s spectrum contains lines of ionized and neutral metals as well as very weak hydrogen lines. The V (Roman five) in the spectral class indicates that the Sun, like most stars, is a main sequence star. This means that it generates its energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium. There are more than 100 million G2 class stars in our galaxy. Once regarded as a small and relatively insignificant star, the Sun is now presumed to be brighter than 85% of the stars in the galaxy, most of which are red dwarfs.77, 78 The Sun’s hot corona continuously expands in space creating the solar wind, a hypersonic stream of charged particles that extends to the heliopause at roughly 100 AU. The bubble in the interstellar medium formed by the solar wind, the heliosphere, is the largest continuous structure in the Solar System. The Sun is currently traveling through the Local Interstellar Cloud in the low- density Local Bubble zone of diffuse high-temperature gas, in the inner rim of the Orion Arm of the Milky Way Galaxy, between the larger Perseus and Sagittarius arms of the galaxy. Of the 50 nearest stellar systems within 17 light- years (1.6×1014 km) from the Earth, the Sun ranks 4th in mass. The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a distance of approximately 24,000– 26,000 light years from the galactic center, moving generally in the direction of Cygnus and completing one revolution in about 225–250 million years (one Galactic year). Its orbital speed was thought to be 220 ± 20, km/s but a new estimate gives 251 km/s. Since our galaxy is moving with respect to the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) in the direction of Hydra with a speed of 550 km/s, the Sun’s resultant velocity with respect to the CMB is about 370 km/s in the direction of Crater or Leo.79, 80 Motion and Location of Sun within the Galaxy The Sun lies close to the inner rim of the Milky Way Galaxy’s Orion Arm, in the Local Fluff or the Gould Belt, at a hypothesized distance of 7.5–8.5 kpc (25,000–28,000 light years) from the Galactic Center, contained within the

42 Local Bubble, a space of rarefied hot gas, possibly produced by the supernova remnant, Geminga. The distance between the local arm and the next arm out, the Perseus Arm, is about 6,500 light-years. The Sun, and thus the Solar System, is found in what scientists call the galactic habitable zone.81 The Apex of the Sun’s Way, or the solar apex, is the direction that the Sun travels through space in the Milky Way. The general direction of the Sun’s galactic motion is towards the star Vega near the constellation of Hercules, at an angle of roughly 60 sky degrees to the direction of the Galactic Center. If one were to observe it from Alpha Centauri, the closest star system, the Sun would appear to be in the constellation Cassiopeia. The Sun’s orbit around the Galaxy is expected to be roughly elliptical with the addition of perturbations due to the galactic spiral arms and non-uniform mass distributions. In addition the Sun oscillates up and down relative to the galactic plane approximately 2.7 times per orbit. This is very similar to how a simple harmonic oscillator works with no drag force (damping) term.82, 83 It has been argued that the Sun’s passage through the higher density spiral arms often coincides with mass extinctions on Earth, perhaps due to increased impact events. It takes the Solar System about 225–250 million years to complete one orbit of the galaxy (a galactic year), so it is thought to have completed 20–25 orbits during the lifetime of the Sun. The orbital speed of the Solar System about the center of the Galaxy is approximately 251 km/s. At this speed, it takes around 1,400 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light-year, or 8 days to travel 1 AU. The Sun’s motion about the centre of mass of the Solar System is complicated by perturbations from the planets. Every few hundred years this motion switches between prograde and retrograde.84, 85 Characteristics of Sun The Sun is a yellow main sequence star comprising about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System. It is a near-perfect sphere, with an oblateness estimated at about 9 millionths, which means that its polar diameter differs from

43 its equatorial diameter by only 10 km (6 mi). As the Sun exists in a plasmatic state and is not solid, it rotates faster at its equator than at its poles. This behavior is known as differential rotation. The period of this actual rotation is approximately 25.6 days at the equator and 33.5 days at the poles. However, due to our constantly changing vantage point from the Earth as it orbits the Sun, the apparent rotation of the star at its equator is about 28 days. The centrifugal effect of this slow rotation is 18 million times weaker than the surface gravity at the Sun’s equator. The tidal effect of the planets is even weaker, and does not significantly affect the shape of the Sun.86 The Sun is a Population I, or heavy element-rich star. The formation of the Sun may have been triggered by shockwaves from one or more nearby supernovae. This is suggested by a high abundance of heavy elements in the Solar System, such as gold and uranium, relative to the abundances of these elements in so- called Population II (heavy element-poor) stars. These elements could most plausibly have been produced by endergonic nuclear reactions during a supernova, or by transmutation via neutron absorption inside a massive second- generation star. The Sun does not have a definite boundary as rocky planets do, and in its outer parts the density of its gases drops approximately exponentially with increasing distance from its center. Nevertheless, it has a well-defined interior structure. The Sun’s radius is measured from its center to the edge of the photosphere. This is simply the layer above which the gases are too cool or too thin to radiate a significant amount of light, and is therefore the surface most readily visible to the naked eye.86 The solar interior is not directly observable, and the Sun itself is opaque to electromagnetic radiation. However, just as seismology uses waves generated by earthquakes to reveal the interior structure of the Earth, the discipline of helioseismology makes use of pressure waves (infrasound) traversing the Sun’s interior to measure and visualize the star’s inner structure. Computer modeling of the Sun is also used as a theoretical tool to investigate its deeper layers.87

44 The core of the Sun is considered to extend from the center to about 0.2 to 0.25 solar radii. It has a density of up to 150 g/cm3 (150 times the density of water on Earth) and a temperature of close to 13,600,000 Kelvin (by contrast, the surface of the Sun is around 5,800 Kelvin). Recent analysis of SOHO mission data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than in the rest of the radiative zone. Through most of the Sun’s life, energy is produced by nuclear fusion through a series of steps called the p–p (proton–proton) chain; this process converts hydrogen into helium. Less than 2% of the helium generated in the Sun comes from the CNO cycle. The core is the only location in the Sun that produces an appreciable amount of heat via fusion: the rest of the star is heated by energy that is transferred outward from the core. All of the energy produced by fusion in the core must travel through many successive layers to the solar photosphere before it escapes into space as sunlight or kinetic energy of particles.88, 89 About 9.2 × 1037 protons (hydrogen nuclei) are converted into helium nuclei every second (out of ~8.9 × 1056 total amount of free protons in the Sun), or about 4.4 × 109 kg per second, releasing energy at the matter–energy conversion rate of 4.26 million metric tons per second, 383 yottawatts (3.83×1026 W), or 9.15 × 1010 megatons of TNT per second. Power density is about 194 µW/kg of matter, though since most fusion occurs in the relatively small core the plasma power density there is about 150 times bigger. For comparison, the human body produces heat at approximately the rate 1.3 W/kg, roughly 600 times greater per unit mass. Assuming core density 150 times higher than average, this corresponds to a surprisingly low rate of energy production in the Sun’s core— about 0.272 W/m3. This power is much less than generated by a single candle. The use of plasma with similar parameters for energy production on Earth would be completely impractical—even a modest 1 GW fusion power plant would require about 5 billion metric tons of plasma.89, 90 The rate of nuclear fusion depends strongly on density and temperature, so the fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of

45 fusion would cause the core to heat up more and expand slightly against the weight of the outer layers, reducing the fusion rate and correcting the perturbation; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present level.91 The high-energy photons (gamma rays) released in fusion reactions are absorbed in only a few millimeters of solar plasma and then re-emitted again in random direction (and at slightly lower energy)—so it takes a long time for radiation to reach the Sun’s surface. Estimates of the photon travel time range between 10,000 and 170,000 years. After a final trip through the convective outer layer to the transparent surface of the photosphere, the photons escape as visible light. Each gamma ray in the Sun’s core is converted into several million visible light photons before escaping into space. Neutrinos are also released by the fusion reactions in the core, but unlike photons they rarely interact with matter, so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately.92, 93 Radiative Zone From about 0.25 to about 0.7 solar radii, solar material is hot and dense enough that thermal radiation is sufficient to transfer the intense heat of the core outward. In this zone there is no thermal convection; while the material grows cooler as altitude increases (from 7,000,000°C to about 2,000,000°C) this temperature gradient is less than the value of adiabatic lapse rate and hence cannot drive convection. Heat is transferred by radiation—ions of hydrogen and helium emit photons, which travel only a brief distance before being reabsorbed by other ions. The density drops a hundredfold (from 20 g/cm³ to only 0.2 g/cm³) from the bottom to the top of the radiative zone.94 Between the radiative zone and the convection zone is a transition layer called the tachocline. This is a region where the sharp regime change between the uniform rotation of the radiative zone and the differential rotation of the convection zone results in a large shear—a condition where successive horizontal layers slide past one another. The fluid motions found in the

46 convection zone above, slowly disappear from the top of this layer to its bottom, matching the calm characteristics of the radiative zone on the bottom. Presently, it is hypothesized that a magnetic dynamo within this layer generates the Sun’s magnetic field.95 Convective Zone In the Sun’s outer layer, from its surface down to approximately 200,000 km (or 70% of the solar radius), the solar plasma is not dense enough or hot enough to transfer the heat energy of the interior outward via radiation (in other words it is opaque enough). As a result, thermal convection occurs as thermal columns carry hot material to the surface (photosphere) of the Sun. Once the material cools off at the surface, it plunges back downward to the base of the convection zone, to receive more heat from the top of the radiative zone. At the visible surface of the Sun, the temperature has dropped to 5,700°K and the density to only 0.2 g/m³ (about 1/10,000th the density of air at sea level).95, 96 The thermal columns in the convection zone form an imprint on the surface of the Sun, in the form of the solar granulation and supergranulation. The turbulent convection of this outer part of the solar interior gives rise to a “small-scale” dynamo that produces magnetic north and south poles all over the surface of the Sun. The Sun’s thermal columns are Bénard cells and therefore tend to be hexagonal prisms. Photosphere The visible surface of the Sun, the photosphere, is the layer below which the Sun becomes opaque to visible light. Above the photosphere visible sunlight is free to propagate into space, and its energy escapes the Sun entirely. The change in opacity is due to the decreasing amount of− H ions, w hich absorb visible light easily. Conversely, the visible light we see is produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to produce H− ions. The photosphere is actually tens to hundreds of kilometers thick, being slightly less opaque than air on Earth.

47 Because the upper part of the photosphere is cooler than the lower part, an image of the Sun appears brighter in the center than on the edge or limb of the solar disk, in a phenomenon known as limb darkening. Sunlight has approximately a black-body spectrum that indicates its temperature is about 6,000 K, interspersed with atomic absorption lines from the tenuous layers above the photosphere. The photosphere has a particle density of ~1023 m−3 (this is about 1% of the particle density of Earth’s atmosphere at sea level).97, 98 During early studies of the optical spectrum of the photosphere, some absorption lines were found that did not correspond to any chemical elements then known on Earth. In 1868, Norman Lockyer hypothesized that these absorption lines were because of a new element which he dubbed “helium”, after the Greek Sun god Helios. It was not until 25 years later that helium was isolated on Earth.99 Atmosphere The parts of the Sun above the photosphere are referred to collectively as the solar atmosphere. They can be viewed with telescopes operating across the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio through visible light to gamma rays, and comprise five principal zones: the temperature minimum, the chromosphere, the transition region, the corona, and the heliosphere. The heliosphere, which may be considered the tenuous outer atmosphere of the Sun, extends outward past the orbit of Pluto to the heliopause, where it forms a sharp shock front boundary with the interstellar medium. The chromosphere, transition region, and corona are much hotter than the surface of the Sun. The reason why has not been conclusively proven; evidence suggests that Alfvén waves may have enough energy to heat the corona.100 The coolest layer of the Sun is a temperature minimum region about 500 km above the photosphere, with a temperature of about 4,100 K. This part of the Sun is cool enough to support simple molecules such as carbon monoxide and water, which can be detected by their absorption spectra.

48 Above the temperature minimum layer is a layer about 2,000 km thick, dominated by a spectrum of emission and absorption lines. It is called the chromosphere from the Greek root chroma, meaning color, because the chromosphere is visible as a colored flash at the beginning and end of total eclipses of the Sun. The temperature in the chromosphere increases gradually with altitude, ranging up to around 20,000 K near the top. In the upper part of chromosphere helium becomes partially ionized. Above the chromosphere there is a thin (about 200 km) transition region in which the temperature rises rapidly from around 20,000 K in the upper chromosphere to coronal temperatures closer to one million K. The temperature increase is facilitated by the full ionization of helium in the transition region, which significantly reduces radiative cooling of the plasma. The transition region does not occur at a well-defined altitude. Rather, it forms a kind of nimbus around chromospheric features such as spicules and filaments, and is in constant, chaotic motion. The transition region is not easily visible from Earth’s surface, but is readily observable from space by instruments sensitive to the extreme ultraviolet portion of the spectrum.97, 101 The corona is the extended outer atmosphere of the Sun, which is much larger in volume than the Sun itself. The corona continuously expands into the space forming the solar wind, which fills all Solar System. The low corona, which is very near the surface of the Sun, has a particle density around 1015–1016 m−3. The average temperature of the corona and solar wind is about 1–2 million kelvins, however, in the hottest regions it is 8–20 million kelvins. While no complete theory yet exists to account for the temperature of the corona, at least some of its heat is known to be from magnetic reconnection. The heliosphere, which is the cavity around the Sun filled with the solar wind plasma, extends from approximately 20 solar radii (0.1 AU) to the outer fringes of the Solar System. Its inner boundary is defined as the layer in which the flow of the solar wind becomes superalfvénic—that is, where the flow becomes

49 faster than the speed of Alfvén waves. Turbulence and dynamic forces outside this boundary cannot affect the shape of the solar corona within, because the information can only travel at the speed of Alfvén waves. The solar wind travels outward continuously through the heliosphere, forming the solar magnetic field into a spiral shape, until it impacts the heliopause more than 50 AU from the Sun. In December 2004, the Voyager 1 probe passed through a shock front that is thought to be part of the heliopause. Both of the Voyager probes have recorded higher levels of energetic particles as they approach the boundary.102- 104 Magnetic field of Sun The Sun is a magnetically active star. It supports a strong, changing magnetic field that varies year-to-year and reverses direction about every eleven years around solar maximum. The Sun’s magnetic field gives rise to many effects that are collectively called solar activity, including sunspots on the surface of the Sun, solar flares, and variations in solar wind that carry material through the Solar System. Effects of solar activity on Earth include auroras at moderate to high latitudes, and the disruption of radio communications and electric power. Solar activity is thought to have played a large role in the formation and evolution of the Solar System. Solar activity changes the structure of Earth’s outer atmosphere.104, 105 All matter in the Sun is in the form of gas and plasma because of its high temperatures. This makes it possible for the Sun to rotate faster at its equator (about 25 days) than it does at higher latitudes (about 35 days near its poles). The differential rotation of the Sun’s latitudes causes its magnetic field lines to become twisted together over time, causing magnetic field loops to erupt from the Sun’s surface and trigger the formation of the Sun’s dramatic sunspots and solar prominences. This twisting action gives rise to the solar dynamo and an 11-year solar cycle of magnetic activity as the Sun’s magnetic field reverses itself about every 11 years.106

50 The solar magnetic field extends well beyond the Sun itself. The magnetized solar wind plasma carries Sun’s magnetic field into the space forming what is called the interplanetary magnetic field. Since the plasma can only move along the magnetic field lines, the interplanetary magnetic field is initially stretched radially away from the Sun. Because the fields above and below the solar equator have different polarities pointing towards and away from the Sun, there exists a thin current layer in the solar equatorial plane, which is called the heliospheric current sheet. At the large distances the rotation of the Sun twists the magnetic field and the current sheet into the Archimedean spiral like structure called the Parker spiral. The interplanetary magnetic field is much stronger than the dipole component of the solar magnetic field. The Sun’s 50– 400 μT (in the photosphere) magnetic dipole field reduces with the cube of the distance to about 0.1 nT at the distance of the Earth. However, according to spacecraft observations the interplanetary field at the Earth’s location is about 100 times greater at around 5 nT.107, 108 Sunspots and the Sunspot Cycle When observing the Sun with appropriate filtration, the most immediately visible features are usually its sunspots, which are well-defined surface areas that appear darker than their surroundings because of lower temperatures. Sunspots are regions of intense magnetic activity where convection is inhibited by strong magnetic fields, reducing energy transport from the hot interior to the surface. The magnetic field gives rise to strong heating in the corona, forming active regions that are the source of intense solar flares and coronal mass ejections. The largest sunspots can be tens of thousands of kilometers across.109 The number of sunspots visible on the Sun is not constant, but varies over an 11-year cycle known as the solar cycle. At a typical solar minimum, few sunspots are visible, and occasionally none at all can be seen. Those that do appear are at high solar latitudes. As the sunspot cycle progresses, the number of sunspots increases and they move closer to the equator of the Sun, a

51 phenomenon described by Spörer’s law. Sunspots usually exist as pairs with opposite magnetic polarity. The magnetic polarity of the leading sunspot alternates every solar cycle, so that it will be a north magnetic pole in one solar cycle and a south magnetic pole in the next.110 The solar cycle has a great influence on space weather, and is a significant influence on the Earth’s climate since luminosity has a direct relationship with magnetic activity. Solar activity minima tend to be correlated with colder temperatures, and longer than average solar cycles tend to be correlated with hotter temperatures. In the 17th century, the solar cycle appears to have stopped entirely for several decades; very few sunspots were observed during this period. During this era, which is known as the Maunder minimum or Little Ice Age, Europe experienced very cold temperatures. Earlier extended minima have been discovered through analysis of tree rings and also appear to have coincided with lower-than-average global temperatures.111 A recent theory claims that there are magnetic instabilities in the core of the Sun that cause fluctuations with periods of either 41,000 or 100,000 years. These could provide a better explanation of the ice ages than the Milankovitch cycles.112 Life cycle of Sun The Sun was formed about 4.57 billion years ago when a hydrogen molecular cloud collapsed. Solar formation is dated in two ways: the Sun’s current main sequence age, determined using computer models of stellar evolution and nucleocosmochronology, is thought to be about 4.57 billion years. This is in close accord with the radiometric date of the oldest Solar System material, at 4.567 billion years ago. The Sun is about halfway through its main-sequence evolution, during which nuclear fusion reactions in its core fuse hydrogen into helium. Each second, more than 4 million tonnes of matter are converted into energy within the Sun’s core, producing neutrinos and solar radiation; at this rate, the Sun will have so far converted around 100 Earth-masses of matter into

52 energy. The Sun will spend a total of approximately 10 billion years as a main sequence star.113, 114 The Sun does not have enough mass to explode as a supernova. Instead, in about 5 billion years, it will enter a red giant phase; its outer layers expanding as the hydrogen fuel in the core is consumed and the core contracts and heats up. Helium fusion will begin when the core temperature reaches around 100 million kelvins and will produce carbon, entering the asymptotic giant branch phase. Earth’s fate is precarious. As a red giant, the Sun will have a maximum radius beyond the Earth’s current orbit, 1 AU (1.5×1011 m), 250 times the present radius of the Sun. However, by the time it is an asymptotic giant branch star, the Sun will have lost roughly 30% of its present mass due to a stellar wind, so the orbits of the planets will move outward. If it were only for this, Earth would probably be spared, but new research suggests that Earth will be swallowed by the Sun owing to tidal interactions. Even if Earth would escape incineration in the Sun, still all its water will be boiled away and most of its atmosphere would escape into space. In fact, even during its current life in the main sequence, the Sun is gradually becoming more luminous (about 10% every 1 billion years), and its surface temperature is slowly rising. The Sun used to be fainter in the past, which is possibly the reason why life on Earth has only existed for about 1 billion years on land. The increase in solar temperatures is such that already in about a billion years, the surface of the Earth will become too hot for liquid water to exist, ending all terrestrial life. Following the red giant phase, intense thermal pulsations will cause the Sun to throw off its outer layers, forming a planetary nebula. The only object that will remain after the outer layers are ejected is the extremely hot stellar core, which will slowly cool and fade as a white dwarf over many billions of years. This stellar evolution scenario is typical of low- to medium-mass stars.115, 116

53 HISTORY OF OBSERVATION Early Understanding Humanity’s most fundamental understanding of the Sun is as the luminous disk in the sky, whose presence above the horizon creates day and whose absence causes night. In many prehistoric and ancient cultures, the Sun was thought to be a solar deity or other supernatural phenomenon. Worship of the Sun was central to civilizations such as the Inca of South America and the Aztecs of what is now Mexico. Many ancient monuments were constructed with solar phenomena in mind; for example, stone megaliths accurately mark the summer or winter solstice (some of the most prominent megaliths are located in Nabta Playa, Egypt, Mnajdra, Malta and at Stonehenge, England); Newgrange, a prehistoric human-built mount in Ireland, was designed to detect the winter solstice; the pyramid of El Castillo at Chichén Itzá in Mexico is designed to cast shadows in the shape of serpents climbing the pyramid at the vernal and autumn equinoxes. During the Roman era the Sun’s birthday was a holiday celebrated as Sol Invictus (literally unconquered sun) soon after the winter solstice which may have been an antecedent to Christmas. With respect to the fixed stars, the Sun appears from Earth to revolve once a year along the ecliptic through the zodiac, and so Greek astronomers considered it to be one of the seven planets, after which the seven days of the week are named in some languages.117-119 Development of Scientific Understanding One of the first people to offer a scientific or philosophical explanation for the Sun was the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras, who reasoned that it was a giant flaming ball of metal even larger than the Peloponnesus, and not the chariot of Helios. Peloponnesus is a large peninsula and region in Southern Greece covers an area of 21549 Km2 (8320square miles). For teaching this heresy, Anaxagoras was imprisoned by the authorities and sentenced to death, though he was later released through the intervention of Pericles. Eratosthenes estimated the

54 distance between the Earth and the Sun in the 3rd century BCE as ‘of stadia myriads 400 and 80000’, the translation of which is ambiguous, implying either 4,080,000 stadia (755,000 km) or 804,000,000 stadia (148–153 million km); the latter value is correct to within a few percent. In the 1st century CE, Ptolemy estimated the distance as 1,210 times the Earth radius.120, 121 Medieval Arabic contributions include Albatenius discovering that the direction of the Sun’s eccentric is changing (equivalent to the Earth moving in an elliptical orbit around the Sun in modern astronomy), and Ibn Yunus observing more than 10,000 entries for the Sun’s position for many years using a large astrolabe.122 The theory that the Sun is the center around which the planets move was apparently proposed by the ancient Greek Aristarchus as well as several ancient Babylonian, ancient Indian and medieval Arabic astronomers. This view was revived in the 16th century by Nicolaus Copernicus. In the early 17th century, the invention of the telescope permitted detailed observations of sunspots by Thomas Harriot, Galileo Galilei and other astronomers. Galileo made some of the first known Western observations of sunspots and posited that they were on the surface of the Sun rather than small objects passing between the Earth and the Sun. Sunspots were also observed since the Han dynasty and Chinese astronomers maintained records of these observations for centuries.123, 124 In 1672 Giovanni Cassini and Jean Richer determined the distance to Mars and were thereby able to calculate the distance to the Sun. Isaac Newton observed the Sun’s light using a prism, and showed that it was made up of light of many colors, while in 1800 William Herschel discovered infrared radiation beyond the red part of the solar spectrum. The 1800s saw spectroscopic studies of the Sun advance, and Joseph von Fraunhofer made the first observations of absorption lines in the spectrum, the strongest of which are still often referred to as Fraunhofer lines. When expanding the spectrum of light from the Sun, there are large number of missing colors can be found.125, 126

55 In the early years of the modern scientific era, the source of the Sun’s energy was a significant puzzle. Lord Kelvin suggested that the Sun was a gradually cooling liquid body that was radiating an internal store of heat. Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz then proposed the Kelvin-Helmholtz mechanism to explain the energy output. Unfortunately the resulting age estimate was only 20 million years, well short of the time span of at least 300 million years suggested by some geological discoveries of that time. In 1890 Joseph Lockyer, who discovered helium in the solar spectrum, proposed a meteoritic hypothesis for the formation and evolution of the Sun.127 Not until 1904 was a substantiated solution offered. Ernest Rutherford suggested that the Sun’s output could be maintained by an internal source of heat, and suggested radioactive decay as the source. However it would be Albert Einstein who would provide the essential clue to the source of the Sun’s energy output with his mass-energy equivalence relation E = mc2.128 In 1920, Sir Arthur Eddington proposed that the pressures and temperatures at the core of the Sun could produce a nuclear fusion reaction that merged hydrogen (protons) into helium nuclei, resulting in a production of energy from the net change in mass. The preponderance of hydrogen in the Sun was confirmed in 1925 by Cecilia Payne. The theoretical concept of fusion was developed in the 1930s by the astrophysicists Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar and Hans Bethe. Hans Bethe calculated the details of the two main energy- producing nuclear reactions that power the Sun.129 Finally, a seminal paper was published in 1957 by Margaret Burbidge, entitled “Synthesis of the Elements in Stars”. The paper demonstrated convincingly that most of the elements in the universe had been synthesized by nuclear reactions inside stars, some like our Sun.130 Solar Space Missions The first satellites designed to observe the Sun were NASA’s Pioneers 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, which were launched between 1959 and 1968. These probes orbited the

56 Sun at a distance similar to that of the Earth, and made the first detailed measurements of the solar wind and the solar magnetic field. Pioneer 9 operated for a particularly long period of time, transmitting data until 1987.131 In the 1970s, two Helios spacecraft and the Skylab Apollo Telescope Mount provided scientists with significant new data on solar wind and the solar corona. The Helios 1 and 2 probes was a joint U.S.–German probe that studied the solar wind from an orbit carrying the spacecraft inside Mercury’s orbit at perihelion. The Skylab space station, launched by NASA in 1973, included a solar observatory module called the Apollo Telescope Mount that was operated by astronauts’ resident on the station. Skylab made the first time-resolved observations of the solar transition region and of ultraviolet emissions from the solar corona. Discoveries included the first observations of coronal mass ejections, then called coronal transients, and of coronal holes, now known to be intimately associated with the solar wind.132 In 1980, the Solar Maximum Mission was launched by NASA. This spacecraft was designed to observe gamma rays, X-rays and UV radiation from solar flares during a time of high solar activity and solar luminosity. Just a few months after launch, however, an electronics failure caused the probe to go into standby mode, and it spent the next three years in this inactive state. In 1984 Space Shuttle Challenger mission STS-41C retrieved the satellite and repaired its electronics before re-releasing it into orbit. The Solar Maximum Mission subsequently acquired thousands of images of the solar corona before re- entering the Earth’s atmosphere in June 1989.133 Launched in 1991, Japan’s Yohkoh (Sunbeam) satellite observed solar flares at X-ray wavelengths. Mission data allowed scientists to identify several different types of flares, and also demonstrated that the corona away from regions of peak activity was much more dynamic and active than had previously been supposed. Yohkoh observed an entire solar cycle but went into standby mode

57 when an annular eclipse in 2001 caused it to lose its lock on the Sun. It was destroyed by atmospheric reentry in 2005.134 One of the most important solar missions to date has been the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, jointly built by the European Space Agency and NASA and launched on 2 December 1995. Originally intended to serve a two- year mission, SOHO is still in operation as of 2009. It has proven so useful that a follow-on mission, the Solar Dynamics Observatory, is planned for launch in November 2009. Situated at the Lagrangian point between the Earth and the Sun (at which the gravitational pull from both is equal), SOHO has provided a constant view of the Sun at many wavelengths since its launch. In addition to its direct solar observation, SOHO has enabled the discovery of large numbers of comets, mostly very tiny sungrazing comets which incinerate as they pass the Sun.135, 136 The Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) mission was launched in October 2006. Two identical spacecraft were launched into orbits that cause them to (respectively) pull further ahead of and fall gradually behind the Earth. This enables stereoscopic imaging of the Sun and solar phenomena, such as coronal mass ejections.137 Sun Observation Effects Sunlight is very bright, and looking directly at the Sun with the naked eye for brief periods can be painful, but is not particularly hazardous for normal, non- dilated eyes. Looking directly at the Sun causes phosphene visual artifacts and temporary partial blindness. It also delivers about 4 milliwatts of sunlight to the retina, slightly heating it and potentially causing damage in eyes that cannot respond properly to the brightness. UV exposure gradually yellows the lens of the eye over a period of years and is thought to contribute to the formation of cataracts, but this depends on general exposure to solar UV, not on whether one looks directly at the Sun. Long-duration viewing of the direct Sun with the naked eye can begin to cause UV-induced, sunburn-like lesions on the retina

58 after about 100 seconds, particularly under conditions where the UV light from the Sun is intense and well focused; conditions are worsened by young eyes or new lens implants (which admit more UV than aging natural eyes), Sun angles near the zenith, and observing locations at high altitude.138, 139 Viewing the Sun through light-concentrating optics such as binoculars is very hazardous without an appropriate filter that blocks UV and substantially dims the sunlight. An attenuating (ND) filter might not filter UV and so is still dangerous. Attenuating filters to view the Sun should be specifically designed for that use: some improvised filters pass UV or IR rays that can harm the eye at high brightness levels. Unfiltered binoculars can deliver over 500 times as much energy to the retina as using the naked eye, killing retinal cells almost instantly (even though the power per unit area of image on the retina is the same, the heat cannot dissipate fast enough because the image is larger). Even brief glances at the midday Sun through unfiltered binoculars can cause permanent blindness.140 Partial solar eclipses are hazardous to view because the eye’s pupil is not adapted to the unusually high visual contrast: the pupil dilates according to the total amount of light in the field of view, not by the brightest object in the field. During partial eclipses most sunlight is blocked by the Moon passing in front of the Sun, but the uncovered parts of the photosphere have the same surface brightness as during a normal day. In the overall gloom, the pupil expands from ~2 mm to ~6 mm, and each retinal cell exposed to the solar image receives about ten times more light than it would looking at the non-eclipsed Sun. This can damage or kill those cells, resulting in small permanent blind spots for the viewer. The hazard is insidious for inexperienced observers and for children, because there is no perception of pain: it is not immediately obvious that one’s vision is being destroyed.141, 142 During sunrise and sunset sunlight is attenuated due to Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering from a particularly long passage through Earth’s atmosphere, and the Sun is sometimes faint enough to be viewed comfortably with the naked eye

59 or safely with optics (provided there is no risk of bright sunlight suddenly appearing through a break between clouds). Hazy conditions, atmospheric dust, and high humidity contribute to this atmospheric attenuation.143 A rare optical phenomenon may occur shortly after sunset or before sunrise, known as a green flash. The flash is caused by light from the Sun just below the horizon being bent (usually through a temperature inversion) towards the observer. Light of shorter wavelengths (violet, blue, and green) is bent more than that of longer wavelengths (yellow, orange, red) but the violet and blue light is scattered more, leaving light that is perceived as green.144 Ultraviolet light from the Sun has antiseptic properties and can be used to sanitize tools and water. It also causes sunburn, and has other medical effects such as the production of vitamin D. Ultraviolet light is strongly attenuated by Earth’s ozone layer, so that the amount of UV varies greatly with latitude and has been partially responsible for many biological adaptations, including variations in human skin color in different regions of the globe.145 OBSERVATION OF THE EARTH Earth is the third planet from the Sun. It is the fifth largest of the eight planets in the solar system, and the largest of the terrestrial planets (non-gas planets) in the Solar System in terms of diameter, mass and density. It is also referred to as the World, the Blue Planet, and Terra. Home to millions of species, including humans, Earth is the only place in the universe where life is known to exist. The planet formed 4.54 billion years ago, and life appeared on its surface within a billion years. Since then, Earth’s biosphere has significantly altered the atmosphere and other abiotic conditions on the planet, enabling the proliferation of aerobic organisms as well as the formation of the ozone layer which, together with Earth’s magnetic field, blocks harmful radiation, permitting life on land. The physical properties of the Earth, as well as its geological history and orbit, allowed life to persist during this period. The world is expected to continue supporting life for another 1.5 billion

60 years, after which the rising luminosity of the Sun will eliminate the biosphere.146 – 148 Earth’s outer surface is divided into several rigid segments, or tectonic plates, that gradually migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years. About 71% of the surface is covered with salt-water oceans, the remainder consisting of continents and islands; liquid water, necessary for all known life, is not known to exist on any other planet’s surface. Earth’s interior remains active, with a thick layer of relatively solid mantle, a liquid outer core that generates a magnetic field, and a solid iron inner core.149 Earth interacts with other objects in outer space, including the Sun and the Moon. At present, Earth orbits the Sun once for every roughly 366.26 times it rotates about its axis. This length of time is a sidereal year, which is equal to 365.26 solar days. The Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted 23.4° away from the perpendicular to its orbital plane, producing seasonal variations on the planet’s surface with a period of one tropical year (365.24 solar days). Earth’s only known natural satellite, the Moon, which began orbiting it about 4.53 billion years ago, provides ocean tides, stabilizes the axial tilt and gradually slows the planet’s rotation. Between approximately 4.1 and 3.8 billion years ago, asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the surface environment.150 Both the mineral resources of the planet, as well as the products of the biosphere, contribute resources that are used to support a global human population. The inhabitants are grouped into about 200 independent sovereign states, which interact through diplomacy, travel, trade and military action. Human cultures have developed many views of the planet, including personification as a deity, a belief in a flat Earth or in Earth being the center of the universe, and a modern perspective of the world as an integrated environment that requires stewardship.151

61 Surface The Earth’s terrain varies greatly from place to place. About 70.8% of the surface is covered by water, with much of the continental shelf below sea level. The submerged surface has mountainous features, including a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system, as well as undersea volcanoes, oceanic trenches, submarine canyons, oceanic plateaus and abyssal plains. The remaining 29.2% not covered by water consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other geomorphologies. The planetary surface undergoes reshaping over geological time periods due to the effects of tectonics and erosion. The surface features built up or deformed through plate tectonics are subject to steady weathering from precipitation, thermal cycles, and chemical effects. Glaciation, coastal erosion, the build-up of coral reefs, and large meteorite impacts also act to reshape the landscape.152, 153 The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks granite and andesite. Less common is basalt, a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors. Sedimentary rock is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes compacted together. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form only about 5% of the crust. The third form of rock material found on Earth is metamorphic rock, which is created from the transformation of pre-existing rock types through high pressures, high temperatures, or both. The most abundant silicate minerals on the Earth’s surface include quartz, the feldspars, amphibole, mica, pyroxene and olivine. Common carbonate minerals include calcite (found in limestone), aragonite and dolomite.154 The pedosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes. It exists at the interface of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Currently the total arable land is 13.31% of the land surface, with only 4.71% supporting permanent crops. Close

62 to 40% of the Earth’s land surface is presently used for cropland and pasture, or an estimated 1.3 × 107 km² of cropland and 3.4 × 107 km² of pastureland.154 The elevation of the land surface of the Earth varies from the low point of −418 m at the Dead Sea, to a 2005-estimated maximum altitude of 8,848 m at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is 840 m.155 Hydrosphere The abundance of water on Earth’s surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the Blue Planet from others in the Solar System. The Earth’s hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of 2,000 m. The deepest underwater location is Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of −10,911.4 m. The average depth of the oceans is 3,800 m, more than four times the average height of the continents.155 The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35 × 1018 metric tons, or about 1/4400 of the total mass of the Earth, and occupies a volume of 1.386 × 109 km3. If all of the land on Earth were spread evenly, water would rise to an altitude of more than 2.7 km. About 97.5% of the water is saline, while the remaining 2.5% is fresh water. The majority of the fresh water, about 68.7%, is currently in the form of ice.156, 157 About 3.5% of the total mass of the oceans consists of salt. Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool, igneous rocks. The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms. Sea water has an important influence on the world’s climate, with the oceans acting as a large heat reservoir. Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation.158-160

63 Atmosphere The atmospheric pressure on the surface of the Earth averages 101.325 kPa, with a scale height of about 8.5 km. It is 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, with trace amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide and other gaseous molecules. The height of the troposphere varies with latitude, ranging between 8 km at the poles to 17 km at the equator, with some variation due to weather and seasonal factors.161 Earth’s biosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere. Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved 2.7 billion years ago, forming the primarily nitrogen- oxygen atmosphere that exists today. This change enabled the proliferation of aerobic organisms as well as the formation of the ozone layer which, together with Earth’s magnetic field, blocks ultraviolet solar radiation, permitting life on land. Other atmospheric functions important to life on Earth include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small meteors to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature. This last phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be −18 °C and life would likely not exist.152, 161 Weather and Climate The Earth’s atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere’s mass is contained within the first 11 km of the planet’s surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower density air then rises, and is replaced by cooler, higher density air. The result is atmospheric circulation that drives

64 the weather and climate through redistribution of heat energy. The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the trade winds in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the westerlies in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°. Ocean currents are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the thermohaline circulation that distributes heat energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions.162, 163 Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and settles to the surface as precipitation. Most of the water is then transported back to lower elevations by river systems, usually returning to the oceans or being deposited into lakes. This water cycle is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land, and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topological features and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region. The Earth can be sub-divided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the Polar Regions, these are the tropical (or equatorial), subtropical, temperate and polar climates. Climate can also be classified based on the temperature and precipitation, with the climate regions characterized by fairly uniform air masses. 164, 165 Upper Atmosphere Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Each of these layers has a different lapse rate, defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the exosphere thins out into the magnetosphere. This is where the Earth’s magnetic fields interact with the solar wind. An important part of the atmosphere for life on Earth is the ozone layer, a component of the stratosphere that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light. The Kármán line, defined as 100 km

65 above the Earth’s surface, is a working definition for the boundary between atmosphere and space.166, 167 Due to thermal energy, some of the molecules at the outer edge of the Earth’s atmosphere have their velocity increased to the point where they can escape from the planet’s gravity. This results in a slow but steady leakage of the atmosphere into space. Because unfixed hydrogen has a low molecular weight, it can achieve escape velocity more readily and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gasses. The leakage of hydrogen into space is a contributing factor in pushing the Earth from an initially reducing state to its current oxidizing one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is believed to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the Earth’s atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on the planet. In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.168-170 Continental Drift Continental drift is the movement of the Earth’s continents relative to each other. The hypothesis that continents ‘drift’ was first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596 and was fully developed by Alfred Wegener in 1912. However, it was not until the development of the theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s, that a sufficient geological explanation of that movement was found.171 The notion that continents have not always been at their present positions was suggested as early as 1596 by the Dutch map maker Abraham Ortelius in the third edition of his work Thesaurus Geographicus. Ortelius suggested that the Americas, Eurasia and Africa were once joined and have since drifted apart “by earthquakes and floods”, creating the modern Atlantic Ocean. For evidence, he wrote: “The vestiges of the rupture reveal themselves, if someone brings

66 forward a map of the world and considers carefully the coasts of the three continents.” Francis Bacon commented on Ortelius’ idea in 1620, as did Benjamin Franklin and Alexander von Humboldt in later centuries.171 Evidence for continental drift is now extensive. Similar plant and animal fossils are found around different continent shores, suggesting that they were once joined. The fossils of Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile rather like a small crocodile, found both in Brazil and South Africa, are one example; another is the discovery of fossils of the land reptile Lystrosaurus from rocks of the same age from locations in South America, Africa, and Antarctica. There is also living evidence — the same animals being found on two continents. An example of this is a particular earthworm found in South America and South Africa. The complementary arrangement of the facing sides of South America and Africa is obvious, but is a temporary coincidence. In millions of years, seafloor spreading, continental drift, and other forces of tectonophysics will further separate and rotate those two continents. It was this temporary feature, which inspired Wegener to study what he defined as continental drift, although he did not live to see his hypothesis become generally accepted.172 Widespread distribution of Permo-Carboniferous glacial sediments in South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica and Australia was one of the major pieces of evidence for the theory of continental drift. The continuity of glaciers, inferred from oriented glacial striations and deposits called tillites, suggested the existence of the supercontinent of Gondwana, which became a central element of the concept of continental drift. Striations indicated glacial flow away from the equator and toward the poles, in modern coordinates, and supported the idea that the southern continents had previously been in dramatically different locations, as well as contiguous with each other.172, 173

67 Tectonic Plates The mechanically rigid outer layer of the Earth, the lithosphere, is broken into pieces called tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move in relation to one another at one of three types of plate boundaries: Convergent boundaries, at which two plates come together, Divergent boundaries, at which two plates are pulled apart, and Transform boundaries, in which two plates slide past one another laterally. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation can occur along these plate boundaries. The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates, and their motion is strongly coupled with patterns convection inside the Earth’s mantle.174 As the tectonic plates migrate across the planet, the ocean floor is subducted under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid- ocean ridges. The combination of these processes continually recycles the oceanic crust back into the mantle. Because of this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than 100 million years in age. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific, and has an estimated age of about 200 million years. By comparison, the oldest dated continental crust is 4030 million years old.175, 176 Other notable plates include the Indian Plate, the Arabian Plate, the Caribbean Plate, the Nazca Plate off the west coast of South America and the Scotia Plate in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian Plate actually fused with Indian Plate between 50 and 55 million years ago. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the Cocos Plate advancing at a rate of 75 mm/yr and the Pacific Plate moving 52–69 mm/yr. At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of about 21 mm/yr.176, 177

68 Internal Structure The interior of the Earth, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their chemical or physical (rheological) properties. The outer layer of the Earth is a chemically distinct silicate solid crust, which is underlain by a highly viscous solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovičić discontinuity, and the thickness of the crust varies: averaging 6 km under the oceans and 30–50 km on the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the upper mantle are collectively known as the lithosphere, and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are comprised. Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at 410 and 660 kilometers below the surface, spanning a transition zone that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid outer core lies above a solid inner core. The inner core may rotate at a slightly higher angular velocity than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year.178, 179 Magnetic Field The Earth’s magnetic field is shaped roughly as a magnetic dipole, with the poles currently located proximate to the planet’s geographic poles. According to dynamo theory, the field is generated within the molten outer core region where heat creates convection motions of conducting materials, generating electric currents. These in turn produce the Earth’s magnetic field. The convection movements in the core are chaotic in nature, and periodically change alignment. This results in field reversals at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago.180 The field forms the magnetosphere, which deflects particles in the solar wind. The sunward edge of the bow shock is located at about 13 times the radius of

69 the Earth. The collision between the magnetic field and the solar wind forms the Van Allen radiation belts, a pair of concentric, torus-shaped regions of energetic charged particles. When the plasma enters the Earth’s atmosphere at the magnetic poles, it forms the aurora.181 Biosphere The planet’s life forms are sometimes said to form a biosphere. This biosphere is generally believed to have begun evolving about 3.5 billion years ago. Earth is the only place in the universe where life is known to exist. Some scientists believe that Earth-like biospheres might be rare.182 The biosphere is divided into a number of biomes, inhabited by broadly similar plants and animals. On land primarily latitude and height above the sea level separates biomes. Terrestrial biomes lying within the Arctic, Antarctic Circle or in high altitudes are relatively barren of plant and animal life, while the greatest latitudinal diversity of species is found at the Equator.183 Evolution of Life At present, Earth provides the only example of an environment that has given rise to the evolution of life. Highly energetic chemistry is believed to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago, and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all life existed. The development of photosynthesis allowed the Sun’s energy to be harvested directly by life forms; the resultant oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere and formed in a layer of ozone (a form of molecular oxygen (O3) in the upper atmosphere). The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of complex cells called eukaryotes. True multicellular organisms formed as cells within colonies became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer, life colonized the surface of Earth.184, 185

70 Since the 1960s, it has been hypothesized that severe glacial action between 750 and 580 Ma, during the Neoproterozoic, covered much of the planet in a sheet of ice. This hypothesis has been termed Snowball Earth, and is of particular interest because it preceded the Cambrian explosion, when multicellular life forms began to proliferate.186 Following the Cambrian explosion, about 535 Ma, there have been five mass extinctions. The last extinction event was 65 Ma, when a meteorite collision probably triggered the extinction of the (non-avian) dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but spared small animals such as mammals, which then resembled shrews. Over the past 65 million years, mammalian life has diversified, and several million years ago, an African ape-like animal gained the ability to stand upright. This enabled tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain. The development of agriculture, and then civilization, allowed humans to influence the Earth in a short time span as no other life form had, affecting both the nature and quantity of other life forms.187 The present pattern of ice ages began about 40 Ma and then intensified during the Pleistocene about 3 Ma. The Polar Regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating every 40–100,000 years. The last ice age ended 10,000 years ago.185 Natural and Environmental Hazards Large areas are subject to extreme weather such as tropical cyclones, hurricanes, or typhoons that dominate life in those areas. Many places are subject to earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes, sinkholes, blizzards, floods, droughts, and other calamities and disasters. Many localized areas are subject to human-made pollution of the air and water, acid rain and toxic substances, loss of vegetation (overgrazing, deforestation, and desertification), loss of wildlife, species extinction, soil degradation, soil depletion, erosion, and introduction of invasive species.

71 A scientific consensus exists linking human activities to global warming due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions. This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather conditions and a global rise in average sea levels.188 The greenhouse effect is the heating of the surface of a planet or moon due to the presence of an atmosphere containing gases that absorb and emit infrared radiation. Thus, greenhouse gases trap heat within the surface-troposphere system. This mechanism is fundamentally different from that of an actual greenhouse, which works by isolating warm air inside the structure so that heat is not lost by convection. The greenhouse effect was discovered by Joseph Fourier in 1824, first reliably experimented on by John Tyndall in 1858, and first reported quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896. In the absence of the greenhouse effect and an atmosphere, the Earth’s average surface temperature of 14°C (57°F) could be as low as−18°C (−0.4°F), the black body temperature of the Earth. Anthropogenic global warming (AGW), a recent warming of the Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere, is believed to be the result of an “enhanced greenhouse effect” mainly due to human-produced increases in atmospheric greenhouse gases.189, 190 The Earth receives energy from the Sun mostly in the form of visible light and nearby wavelengths. About 50% of the sun’s energy is absorbed at the Earth’s surface. Like all bodies with a temperature above absolute zero the Earth’s surface radiates energy in the infrared range. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb most of the infrared radiation emitted by the surface and pass the absorbed heat to other atmospheric gases through molecular collisions. The greenhouse gases also radiate in the infrared range. Radiation is emitted both upward, with part escaping to space, and downward toward Earth’s surface. The surface and lower atmosphere are warmed by the part of the energy that is radiated downward, making our life on earth possible.191

72 Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s near- surface air and oceans since the mid-20th century and its projected continuation. Global surface temperature increased 0.74 ± 0.18°C (1.33 ± 0.32°F) during the last century. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes that increasing greenhouse gas concentrations resulting from human activity such as fossil fuel burning and deforestation caused most of the observed temperature increase since the middle of the 20th century. The IPCC also concludes that variations in natural phenomena such as solar radiation and volcanoes produced most of the warming from pre-industrial times to 1950 and had a small cooling effect afterward. These basic conclusions have been endorsed by more than 40 scientific societies and academies of science, including all of the national academies of science of the major industrialized countries. A small number of scientists dispute the consensus view.192 Climate model projections summarized in the latest IPCC report indicate that the global surface temperature will probably rise a further 1.1 to 6.4°C (2.0 to 11.5°F) during the twenty-first century. The uncertainty in this estimate arises from the use of models with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations and the use of differing estimates of future greenhouse gas emissions. Some other uncertainties include how warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe. Most studies focus on the period up to the year 2100. However, warming is expected to continue beyond 2100 even if emissions stop, because of the large heat capacity of the oceans and the long lifetime of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. An increase in global temperature will cause sea levels to rise and will change the amount and pattern of precipitation, probably including expansion of subtropical deserts. The continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice is expected, with warming being strongest in the Arctic. Other likely effects include increases in the intensity of extreme weather events, species extinctions, and changes in agricultural yields. 193

73 Political and public debate continues regarding climate change, and what actions to take in response. The available options are mitigation to reduce further emissions; adaptation to reduce the damage caused by warming; and, more speculatively, geoengineering to reverse global warming. Most national governments have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions.194 Future of the Earth The future of the planet is closely tied to that of the Sun. As a result of the steady accumulation of helium at the Sun’s core, the star’s total luminosity will slowly increase. The luminosity of the Sun will grow by 10% over the next 1.1 Gyr (1.1 billion years) and by 40% over the next 3.5 Gyr. Climate models indicate that the rise in radiation reaching the Earth is likely to have dire consequences, including the possible loss of the planet’s oceans.195

The Earth’s increasing surface temperature will accelerate the inorganic CO2 cycle, reducing its concentration to lethal levels for plants (10 ppm for C4 photosynthesis) in 900 million years. The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, so animal life will become extinct within several million more years. After another billion years all surface water will have disappeared and the mean global temperature will reach 70°C. The Earth is expected to be effectively habitable for about another 500 million years, although this may be extended up to 2.3 billion years if the nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere. Even if the Sun were eternal and stable, the continued internal cooling of the Earth would result in a loss of much of its CO2 due to reduced volcanism, and 35% of the water in the oceans would descend to the mantle due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges.196 The Sun, as part of its evolution, will become a red giant in about 5 Gyr. Models predict that the Sun will expand out to about 250 times its present radius, roughly 1 AU (150,000,000 km). Earth’s fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, the Earth will

74 move to an orbit 1.7 AU (250,000,000 km) from the Sun when the star reaches it maximum radius. Therefore, the planet is expected to escape envelopment by the expanded Sun’s sparse outer atmosphere, though most, if not all, remaining life will be destroyed because of the Sun’s increased luminosity. However, a more recent simulation indicates that Earth’s orbit will decay due to tidal effects and drag, causing it to enter the red giant Sun’s atmosphere and be destroyed.197, 198 OBSERVATION OF THE STARS Historically, stars have been important to civilizations throughout the world. They have been part of religious practices and for celestial navigation and orientation. Many ancient astronomers believed that stars were permanently affixed to a heavenly sphere, and that they were immutable. By convention, astronomers grouped stars into constellations and used them to track the motions of the planets and the inferred position of the Sun. The motion of the Sun against the background stars (and the horizon) was used to create calendars, which could be used to regulate agricultural practices. The Gregorian calendar, currently used nearly everywhere in the world, is a solar calendar based on the angle of the Earth’s rotational axis relative to the nearest star, the Sun.199, 200 The oldest accurately dated star chart appeared in Ancient Egypt in 1,534 BCE. The Greek astronomer Aristillus created the first star catalogue in approximately 300 BC, with the help of Timocharis. Ptolemy’s star catalogue was based on earlier records by Hipparchus from the 2nd century BC. Hipparchus is known for the discovery of the first nova (new star). Islamic astronomers gave to many stars Arabic names which are still used today, and they invented numerous astronomical instruments which could compute the positions of the stars. In the 11th century, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī described the Milky Way galaxy as multitude of fragments having the properties of nebulous stars, and also gave the latitudes of various stars during a lunar eclipse in 1019.201-204

75 In spite of the apparent immutability of the heavens, Chinese astronomers were aware that new stars could appear. Early European astronomers such as Tycho Brahe identified new stars in the night sky (later termed novae), suggesting that the heavens were not immutable. In 1584 Giordano Bruno suggested that the stars were actually other suns, and may have other planets, possibly even Earth- like, in orbit around them, an idea that had been suggested earlier by such ancient Greek philosophers as Democritus and Epicurus. By the following century the idea of the stars as distant suns was reaching a consensus among astronomers. To explain why these stars exerted no net gravitational pull on the solar system, Isaac Newton suggested that the stars were equally distributed in every direction, an idea prompted by the theologian Richard Bentley.199 The Italian astronomer Geminiano Montanari recorded observing variations in luminosity of the star Algol in 1667. Edmond Halley published the first measurements of the proper motion of a pair of nearby fixed stars, demonstrating that they had changed positions from the time of the ancient Greek astronomers Ptolemy and Hipparchus. The first direct measurement of the distance to a star (61 Cygni at 11.4 light-years) was made in 1838 by Friedrich Bessel using the parallax technique. Parallax measurements demonstrated the vast separation of the stars in the space. William Herschel was the first astronomer to attempt to determine the distribution of stars in the sky. During the 1780s, he performed a series of gauges in 600 directions, and counted the stars observed along each line of sight. From this he deduced that the number of stars steadily increased toward one side of the sky, in the direction of the Milky Way core. His son John Herschel repeated this study in the southern hemisphere and found a corresponding increase in the same direction. In addition to his other accomplishments, William Herschel is also noted for his discovery that some stars do not merely lie along the same line of sight, but are also physical companions that form binary star systems.

76 The science of stellar spectroscopy was pioneered by Joseph von Fraunhofer and Angelo Secchi. By comparing the spectra of stars such as Sirius to the Sun, they found differences in the strength and number of their absorption lines—the dark lines in a stellar spectra due to the absorption of specific frequencies by the atmosphere. In 1865 Secchi began classifying stars into spectral types. However, the modern version of the stellar classification scheme was developed by Annie J. Cannon during the 1900s. Observation of double stars gained increasing importance during the 19th century. In 1834, Friedrich Bessel observed changes in the proper motion of the star Sirius, and inferred a hidden companion. Edward Pickering discovered the first spectroscopic binary in 1899 when he observed the periodic splitting of the spectral lines of the star Mizar in a 104 day period. Detailed observations of many binary star systems were collected by astronomers such as William Struve and S. W. Burnham, allowing the masses of stars to be determined from computation of the orbital elements. The first solution to the problem of deriving an orbit of binary stars from telescope observations was made by Felix Savary in 1827. The twentieth century saw increasingly rapid advances in the scientific study of stars. The photograph became a valuable astronomical tool. Karl Schwarzschild discovered that the color of a star, and hence its temperature, could be determined by comparing the visual magnitude against the photographic magnitude. The development of the photoelectric photometer allowed very precise measurements of magnitude at multiple wavelength intervals. In 1921 Albert A. Michelson made the first measurements of a stellar diameter using an interferometer on the Hooker telescope. Important conceptual work on the physical basis of stars occurred during the first decades of the twentieth century. In 1913, the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram was developed, propelling the astrophysical study of stars. Successful models were developed to explain the interiors of stars and stellar evolution. The

77 spectra of stars were also successfully explained through advances in quantum physics. This allowed the chemical composition of the stellar atmosphere to be determined. With the exception of supernovae, individual stars have primarily been observed in our Local Group of galaxies, and especially in the visible part of the Milky Way. But some stars have been observed in the M100 galaxy of the Virgo Cluster, about 100 million light years from the Earth. In the Local Supercluster it is possible to see star clusters, and current telescopes could in principle observe faint individual stars in the Local Cluster—the most distant stars resolved have up to hundred million light years away. However, outside the Local Supercluster of galaxies, neither individual stars nor clusters of stars have been observed. The only exception is a faint image of a large star cluster containing hundreds of thousands of stars located one billion light years away— ten times the distance of the most distant star cluster previously observed.17, 18 Distribution of Stars Stars are not spread uniformly across the universe, but are normally grouped into galaxies along with interstellar gas and dust. A typical galaxy contains hundreds of billions of stars, and there are more than 100 billion (1011) galaxies in the observable universe. While it is often believed that stars only exist within galaxies, intergalactic stars have been discovered. Astronomers estimate that there are at least 70 sextillion (7×1022) stars in the observable universe.17 The nearest star to the Earth, apart from the Sun, is Proxima Centauri, which is 39.9 trillion (1012) kilometres, or 4.2 light-years away. Light from Proxima Centauri takes 4.2 years to reach Earth. Travelling at the orbital speed of the Space Shuttle (5 miles per second—almost 30,000 kilometres per hour), it would take about 150,000 years to get there. Distances like this are typical inside galactic discs, including in the vicinity of the solar system. Stars can be much closer to each other in the centres of galaxies and in globular clusters, or much farther apart in galactic halos.

78 Due to the relatively vast distances between stars outside the galactic nucleus, collisions between stars are thought to be rare. In denser regions such as the core of globular clusters or the galactic center, collisions can be more common. Such collisions can produce what are known as blue stragglers. These abnormal stars have a higher surface temperature than the other main sequence stars with the same luminosity in the cluster.205, 206 Stellar Mass One of the most massive stars known is Eta Carinae, with 100–150 times as much mass as the Sun; its lifespan is very short—only several million years at most. A recent study of the Arches cluster suggests that 150 solar masses is the upper limit for stars in the current era of the universe. The reason for this limit is not precisely known, but it is partially due to the Eddington luminosity which defines the maximum amount of luminosity that can pass through the atmosphere of a star without ejecting the gases into space.207 The first stars to form after the Big Bang may have been larger, up to 300 solar masses or more, due to the complete absence of elements heavier than lithium in their composition. This generation of supermassive, population III stars is long extinct, however, and currently only theoretical.208 With a mass only 93 times that of Jupiter, AB Doradus C, a companion to AB Doradus A, is the smallest known star undergoing nuclear fusion in its core. For stars with similar metallicity to the Sun, the theoretical minimum mass the star can have, and still undergo fusion at the core, is estimated to be about 75 times the mass of Jupiter. When the metallicity is very low, however, a recent study of the faintest stars found that the minimum star size seems to be about 8.3% of the solar mass, or about 87 times the mass of Jupiter. Smaller bodies are called brown dwarfs, which occupy a poorly defined gray area between stars and gas giants.209-212 The combination of the radius and the mass of a star determines the surface gravity. Giant stars have a much lower surface gravity than main sequence stars,

79 while the opposite is the case for degenerate, compact stars such as white dwarfs. The surface gravity can influence the appearance of a star’s spectrum, with higher gravity causing a broadening of the absorption lines.213 Temperature of Stars The surface temperature of a main sequence star is determined by the rate of energy production at the core and the radius of the star and is often estimated from the star’s color index. It is normally given as the effective temperature, which is the temperature of an idealized black body that radiates its energy at the same luminosity per surface area as the star. Note that the effective temperature is only a representative value, however, as stars actually have a temperature gradient that decreases with increasing distance from the core. The temperature in the core region of a star is several million kelvins.214 The stellar temperature will determine the rate of energization or ionization of different elements, resulting in characteristic absorption lines in the spectrum. The surface temperature of a star, along with its visual absolute magnitude and absorption features, is used to classify a star. Massive main sequence stars can have surface temperatures of 50,000 K. Smaller stars such as the Sun have surface temperatures of a few thousand K. Red giants have relatively low surface temperatures of about 3,600 K, but they also have a high luminosity due to their large exterior surface area.215 Stellar Structure The interior of a stable star is in a state of hydrostatic equilibrium: the forces on any small volume almost exactly counterbalance each other. The balanced forces are inward gravitational force and an outward force due to the pressure gradient within the star. The pressure gradient is established by the temperature gradient of the plasma; the outer part of the star is cooler than the core. The temperature at the core of a main sequence or giant star is at least on the order of 107 K. The resulting temperature and pressure at the hydrogen-burning core

80 of a main sequence star are sufficient for nuclear fusion to occur and for sufficient energy to be produced to prevent further collapse of the star. As atomic nuclei are fused in the core, they emit energy in the form of gamma rays. These photons interact with the surrounding plasma, adding to the thermal energy at the core. Stars on the main sequence convert hydrogen into helium, creating a slowly but steadily increasing proportion of helium in the core. Eventually the helium content becomes predominant and energy production ceases at the core. Instead, for stars of more than 0.4 solar masses, fusion occurs in a slowly expanding shell around the degenerate helium core. In addition to hydrostatic equilibrium, the interior of a stable star will also maintain an energy balance of thermal equilibrium. There is a radial temperature gradient throughout the interior that results in a flux of energy flowing toward the exterior. The outgoing flux of energy leaving any layer within the star will exactly match the incoming flux from below.216 The radiation zone is the region within the stellar interior where radiative transfer is sufficiently efficient to maintain the flux of energy. In this region the plasma will not be perturbed and any mass motions will die out. If this is not the case, however, then the plasma becomes unstable and convection will occur, forming a convection zone. This can occur, for example, in regions where very high energy fluxes occur, such as near the core or in areas with high opacity as in the outer envelope. The occurrence of convection in the outer envelope of a main sequence star depends on the mass. Stars with several times the mass of the Sun have a convection zone deep within the interior and a radiative zone in the outer layers. Smaller stars such as the Sun are just the opposite, with the convective zone located in the outer layers. Red dwarf stars with less than 0.4 solar masses are convective throughout, which prevents the accumulation of a helium core. For most stars the convective zones will also vary over time as the star ages and the constitution of the interior is modified.217

81 The portion of a star that is visible to an observer is called the photosphere. This is the layer at which the plasma of the star becomes transparent to photons of light. From here, the energy generated at the core becomes free to propagate out into space. It is within the photosphere that sun spots, or regions of lower than average temperature, appear. Above the level of the photosphere is the stellar atmosphere. In a main sequence star such as the Sun, the lowest level of the atmosphere is the thin chromosphere region, where spicules appear and stellar flares begin. This is surrounded by a transition region, where the temperature rapidly increases within a distance of only 100 km. Beyond this is the corona, a volume of super-heated plasma that can extend outward to several million kilometres. The existence of a corona appears to be dependent on a convective zone in the outer layers of the star. Despite its high temperature, the corona emits very little light. The corona region of the Sun is normally only visible during a solar eclipse.218 From the corona, a stellar wind of plasma particles expands outward from the star, propagating until it interacts with the interstellar medium. For the Sun, the influence of its solar wind extends throughout the bubble-shaped region of the heliosphere. Stellar Nuclear Fusion Reaction Pathways A variety of different nuclear fusion reactions take place inside the cores of stars, depending upon their mass and composition, as part of stellar nucleosynthesis. The net mass of the fused atomic nuclei is smaller than the sum of the constituents. This lost mass is released as electromagnetic energy, according to the mass-energy equivalence relationship E = mc². The hydrogen fusion process is temperature-sensitive, so a moderate increase in the core temperature will result in a significant increase in the fusion rate. As a result the core temperature of main sequence stars only varies from 4 million K for a small M-class star to 40 million K for a massive O-class star.

82 In the Sun, with a 10 million K core, hydrogen fuses to form helium in the proton-proton chain reaction: 219 41H → 22H + 2e+ + 2νe (4.0 MeV + 1.0 MeV) 21H + 22H → 23He + 2γ (5.5 MeV) 23He → 4He + 21H (12.9 MeV) These reactions result in the overall reaction: 41H → 4He + 2e+ + 2γ + 2νe (26.7 MeV) where e+ is a positron, γ is a gamma ray photon, νe is a neutrino, and H and He are isotopes of hydrogen and helium, respectively. The energy released by this reaction is in millions of electron volts, which is actually only a tiny amount of energy. However enormous numbers of these reactions occur constantly, producing all the energy necessary to sustain the star’s radiation output. In more massive stars, helium is produced in a cycle of reactions catalyzed by carbon—the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle. In evolved stars with cores at 100 million K and masses between 0.5 and 10 solar masses, helium can be transformed into carbon in the triple-alpha process that uses the intermediate element beryllium: 4He + 4He + 92 keV → 8*Be 4He + 8*Be + 67 keV → 12*C 12*C → 12C + γ + 7.4 MeV For an overall reaction of: 34He → 12C + γ + 7.2 MeV In massive stars, heavier elements can also be burned in a contracting core through the neon burning process and oxygen burning process. The final stage in the stellar nucleosynthesis process is the silicon burning process that results in the production of the stable isotope iron-56. Fusion can not proceed any further except through an endothermic process, and so further energy can only be produced through gravitational collapse.220

83 Stellar Evolution Stars are massive, self-illuminous balls of plasma—fire of partially ionized gas that is held together by their own gravity. For most of the life, a star shines due to thermonuclear fusion in its core releasing energy that traverses the star’s interior and than radiates to outer space. The nearest star to earth is the sun, which is the source of most of the energy on earth. The sun is a typical star in the Milky Way Galaxy, made up of more than 10 billion stars. A star is born when a huge cloud of gas and dust, called a nebula, is pulled together into a sphere by the force of its own gravity. Once the temperature inside the cloud gets hot enough, hydrogen atoms in the core will begin to fuse, producing helium atoms and a great deal of energy. The star is considered a main-sequence star when it reaches this point of fusion. The evolution of a star is determined by its mass. The larger the star, shorter will be its life span. Our sun, an average sized star, has a ten billion year lifespan, whereas red dwarfs may live for as long as 100 billion years.221, 222 Through out a main-sequence star’s existence, there is a constant battle between gravitation and pressure for nuclear fusion. The energy released in the core presses out against the weight of the star in a state of hydrostatic equilibrium. A star will remain relatively stable throughout its life as a main-sequence star. However, the hydrogen fuel will not last forever and fusion in the core will eventually cease. Once fusion stops, the star will no longer be in hydrostatic balance, and gravity will begin to win the war against pressure. The core contracts, but the entire star actually expands in to a much cooler red giant. When the core collapses in on itself, the temperature increases to about 100 million degrees Kelvin. This temperature is hot enough to support the fusion of helium, giving the star a new source of fuel. But once again, the fuel will run out and the core contracts. The star blows up into a giant again, this time even more luminous. Because the core is so hot and the star is so big, the outer layers of the star’s atmosphere escape the pull of gravity and are blown away in a

84 stellar wind. At this point, no fusion is taking place, although the core is still relatively warm. This is called a white dwarf, and is composed mainly of oxygen and carbon. As the carbon is under a great amount of heat and pressure, the central core would likely be made of a very large diamond. After billions of years, the white dwarf will gradually cool off and become a black dwarf. No physical change actually takes place but it changes to black, because a minimal energy is given off and can no longer be detected.223, 224 The massive stars consume their fuel much more rapidly and have much shorter life span. When massive stars run out of fuel, they go through the same process as smaller stars. However, the core of a massive star actually gets hot enough to carry on the process of nuclear fusion past the point of small stars. When all the helium is fused in a small star, the process of fusion ends, whereas massive stars continue the cycle. Helium is fused to carbon, then oxygen, neon, magnesium, silicon, and sulfur. Each time through the cycle, a new type of element is fused. Eventually, nuclear fusion in the star will come to an end. Once the star has fused all of its elements into iron, no more fusion can take place because iron atoms do not fuse.220 The loss of fusion decreases the outward pressure, which can no longer sustain the weight of the star. The star will suddenly implode towards the core, causing an enormous release of energy in the form of a supernova explosion. The explosion expells gas and debris out into space, creating new celestial bodies. The leftover core will result in one of two things - a neutron star or a black hole. If the remaining stellar core is a few solar masses or less, its final destiny is to become a neutron star.221 A neutron star is formed when the iron core leftover from a supernova explosion cannot support its own weight. In an instant, the iron atoms collapse, electron fusing with protons, to form a neutral sphere of matter the density of an atomic nucleus. If a leftover stellar core is more than a few solar masses, the final result will be a black hole.222

85 All the mass that enters a black hole is contained in a single point of matter called the singularity. The gravitational effect of the singularity is so powerful that not even light can escape. The black hole has an oneway surface, called an event horizon, into which objects can fall but out of which nothing can come. The event horizon is the imaginary line at which nothing can escape the pull of gravity, that is, the escape velocity from anywhere inside that line exceeds the speed of light. Contrary to popular belief, black holes are very small objects, the largest being only a few miles across. Also, objects are not constantly being sucked into black holes like a vacuum. If a one solar mass black hole were to take the place of our sun, the earth would continue revolving in the same orbit. It is only when objects pass the event horizon that there is no chance for escape. Despite its invisible interior, a black hole can reveal its presence through interaction with other matter. A black hole can be inferred by tracking the movement of a group of stars that orbit a region in space which looks empty.225 A neutron star is about 20 km in diameter and has the mass of about 1.4 times that of our Sun. This means that a neutron star is so dense that on Earth, one teaspoonful would weigh a billion tons. Because of its small size and high density, a neutron star possesses a surface gravitational field about 2 x 1011 times that of Earth. Neutron stars can also have magnetic fields a million times stronger than the strongest magnetic fields produced on Earth. Neutron stars are one of the possible ends for a star. They result from massive stars which have mass greater than 4 to 8 times that of our Sun. After these stars have finished burning their nuclear fuel, they undergo a supernova explosion. This explosion blows off the outer layers of a star into a beautiful supernova remnant. The central region of the star collapses under gravity. It collapses so much that protons and electrons combine to form neutrons. Hence the name neutron stars. 226

86 OBSERVATION OF THE PULSARS A pulsar is a neutron star, which emits beams of radiation that sweep through the earth’s line of sight. Like a black hole, it is an endpoint to stellar evolution. The pulses of high-energy radiation we see from a pulsar are due to a misalignment of the neutron star’s rotation axis and its magnetic axis. Pulsars pulse because the rotation of the neutron star causes the radiation generated within the magnetic field to sweep in and out of our line of sight with a regular period. Neutron stars have very intense magnetic fields, about 1,000,000,000,000 times stronger than Earth’s own field. However, the axis of the magnetic field is not aligned with the neutron star’s rotation axis. The combination of this strong magnetic field and the rapid rotation of the neutron star produce extremely powerful electric fields, with electric potential in excess of 1,000,000,000,000 volts. Electrons are accelerated to high velocities by these strong electric fields. These high-energy electrons produce radiation (light) in two general ways: (1) Acting as coherent plasma, the electrons work together to produce radio emission by a process whose details remain poorly understood; and (2) Acting individually, the electrons interact with photons or the magnetic field to produce high-energy emission such as optical, X-ray and gamma-ray. The exact locations where the radiation is produced are uncertain and may be different for different types of radiation, but they must occur somewhere above the magnetic poles. External viewers see pulses of radiation whenever this region above the magnetic pole is visible. Because of the rotation of the pulsar, the pulses thus appear much as a distant observer sees a lighthouse appear to blink as its beam rotates. The pulses come at the same rate as the rotation of the neutron star, and, thus, appear periodic.226 Pulsars are the original gamma-ray astronomy point sources. A few years after the discovery of pulsars by radio astronomers, the Crab and Vela pulsars were detected at gamma-ray energies. Pulsars accelerate particles to tremendous

87 energies in their magnetospheres. These particles are ultimately responsible for the gamma-ray emission seen from pulsars. By the end of 2004 there were about 1500 pulsars known through radio detections, but only seven had been detected in the gamma-rays. Gamma-ray telescopes preferentially detect young, nearby pulsars. These pulsars tend to have large magnetic fields and to be spinning rapidly. It is the loss of the pulsar’s spin energy which eventually appears as radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum, including gamma-rays. Both observations and models indicate that pulsars eventually lose the ability to emit gamma-rays as the pulsar slowly takes longer and longer to rotate. Gamma-ray astronomers measure both the pulsar’s light curve and how the gamma-ray energy is distributed within the light curve. In this way, detailed models of how this light is created can be compared to observations in order to better understand pulsars. In addition, comparison of the gamma-ray energy to energy emitted at other wavelengths gives scientists other important clues to how the radiation is created. Hopefully, future gamma-ray instruments will greatly increase the number of detected sources and allow astronomers greater insight into these fascinating objects.226 X-ray Pulsars Although all pulsars are neutron stars, not all pulsars shine in the same way. X- ray pulsars in particular illustrate several ways in which pulsar emission can originate: 1. Magnetospheric Emission: Like gamma-ray pulsars, X-ray pulsars can be produced when high-energy electrons interact in the magnetic field regions above the neutron star magnetic poles. Pulsars seen this way, whether in the radio, optical, X-ray, or gamma-ray, are often referred to as spin-powered pulsars, because the ultimate source of energy comes from the neutron star rotation. The loss of rotational energy results in a slowing of the pulsar spin period.

88 2. Cooling Neutron Stars: When a neutron star is first formed in a supernova, its surface is extremely hot (more than 1,000,000,000 degrees). Over time, the surface cools. While the surface is still hot enough, it can be seen with X-ray telescopes. If some parts of the neutron star are hotter than others (such as the magnetic poles), then pulses of thermal X-rays from the neutron star surface can be seen as the hot spots pass through our line of sight. Some pulsars, including Geminga, show both thermal and magnetospheric pulses. 3. Accretion: If a neutron star is in a binary system with a normal star, the powerful gravitational field of the neutron star can pull material from the surface of the normal star. As this material spirals around the neutron star, it is funneled by the magnetic field toward the neutron star magnetic poles. In the process, the material is heated until it becomes hot enough to radiate X-rays. As the neutron star spins, these hot regions pass through the line of sight from the Earth and X-ray telescopes see these as X-ray pulsars. Because the gravitational pull on the material is the basic source of energy for this emission, these are often called accretion powered pulsars. OBSERVATION OF THE GALAXIES Astronomy is the scientific study of distant objects in the outer space including the Moon, Sun, planets, stars, galaxies and the universe as a whole. The modern observational study of the universe may be said to date from 1924, when U.S. astronomer Edwin Hubble demonstrated that great spiral nebula in Andromeda lies out side our Milky Way Galaxy, and in fact itself a galaxy similar to our own. It soon became evident that a galaxy is a unit in the structure of the universe. Much as a star is a unit in the structure of galaxy. Most galaxies are 1000 to 100,000 parsecs in diameter and are usually separated by distances on the order of millions of parsecs or mega parsecs.227, 228 The majority of galaxies are organized into a hierarchy of associations called clusters, which in turn can form larger groups called superclusters. These larger structures are generally arranged into sheets and filaments, which surround

89 immense voids in the universe. The realization that we live in a galaxy, and there were in fact, many other galaxies, parallels discoveries that were made about the Milky Way and other nebulae in the night sky.229, 230 The Greek philosopher Democritus (450-370 B.C.) proposed that the bright band in the night sky known as Milky Way might consist of distant stars. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), however, believed the Milky Way to be caused by the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars which are large numerous and close together, and that the ignition takes place in the upper part of the atmosphere. The Arabian astronomer, Alhazen (965-1037 A.D.) refuted this by making the first attempt at observing and measuring the Milky Way’s parallax, and he does determined that because the Milky Way had no parallax, it is very remote from the earth and did not belong to the atmosphere. The Persian astronomer Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (973-1048 A.D.), proposed the Milky Way galaxy to be a collection of countless nebulous stars. Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292-1350 A.D.) proposed the Milky Way galaxy to be a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of fixed stars, and that these stars are larger than planets.230-234 Actual proof of the Milky Way consisting of many stars came in 1610 when Galileo Galilei used a telescope to study the Milky Way and discovered that it is composed of a huge number of faint stars. The first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of the Sun in it was carried out by Willium Herschel in 1785. He produced a diagram of the shape of the galaxy with the solar system close to the centre. In the 10th century the Persian astronomer, Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (known in the West as Azophi), made the earliest description of the Andromeda Galaxy, describing it as a little cloud. He mentions it as lying before the mouth of a Big Fish, an Arabic constellation. The first recorded mention of the large Magellanic cloud was also given by al-Sufi. These were the first galaxies other than Milky Way to be observed from the

90 earth. Beginning in the 1990s, the Hubble Space Telescope yielded improved observation of the galaxies.230-234 The Hubble Deep Field, an extremely long exposure of a relatively empty part of the sky, provided evidence that there are about 125 billion (1.25x1011) galaxies in the universe. Improved technology (Radio Telescopes, Infrared Cameras, and X-ray Telescopes) in detecting spectra invisible to humans allows detection of other galaxies that are not detected by Hubble. Particularly, galaxy surveys in the region of the sky that is blocked by the Milky Way have revealed numerous new galaxies in the space.235, 236 The Milky Way Galaxy of which our sun is a member consists of more than 10 billion stars spaced so as to form a disc that is denser at the centre than at the rim. The sun occupies a position in it which is far remote from the centre of the disc. In 1917, Shapley estimated the distance between the sun and the centre of galaxy at 10 kiloparsecs. The galaxy revolves on its own axis which is its centre, and the stars revolve around the same centre in a circular orbit. To complete one revolution on its own axis, the galaxy takes about 250 million years.237 OBSERVATION DATA OF MILKY WAY GALAXY Type : SBbc (barred spiral galaxy) Diameter : 100,000 light years Thickness : 1,000 light years Number of stars : 100-400 billion (1–4×1011) Oldest known star : 13.2 billion years Mass : 5.8 × 1011 Solar Mass Sun’s distance to galactic center : 26,000 ± 1,400 light-years Sun’s galactic rotation period : 220 million years Spiral pattern rotation period : 50 million years Bar pattern rotation period : 15 to 18 million years Speed relative to CMB rest frame : 552 km/s.

91 OBSERVATION OF THE QUASARS A Quasar is an enormously bright object at the edge of our universe with the appearance of a star when viewed through a telescope. It emits massive amounts of energy, more energy than 100 normal galaxies combined. The name comes from a shortening of quasi-stellar radio source (QSR). Current theories hold that quasars are one type of active galactic nuclei (AGN). Many astronomers believe supermassive black holes may lie at the center of these galaxies and power their explosive energy output. In one second, a typical quasar releases enough energy to satisfy the electrical energy needs of Earth for the next billion years. Active galaxies have a small core of emission embedded in an otherwise typical galaxy. The core may be highly variable and very bright compared to the rest of the galaxy. Models of active galaxies concentrate on the possibility of a supermassive black hole which lies at the centre of the galaxy.238 There are two main processes constantly going on in massive stars – nuclear fusion and gravitation. Once gravitation dominates the star become unstable and starts to collapse. Once the star starts to collapse, it does not stop, and the star will cave inward upon itself resulting in the formation of a black hole. In General Relativity, a black hole is a region of space in which the gravitational field is so powerful that nothing, not even light, can escape. Quasars were first identified as being high red shift sources of electromagnetic energy, including radiowaves and visible light, that were point-like similar to stars, rather than extended sources similar to galaxies. Quasars show very high red shift, which is an effect of the expansion of the universe between the quasar and the earth. More than 200,000 quasars are observed between 780 million and 28 billion light-years away.239 It is thought by many astronomers that quasars are the most distant objects yet detected in the Universe. With the massive amounts of energy a quasar emits, it can be a trillion times brighter than our own sun. Because of this, they often

92 drown out the light from all other stars in the same galaxy. Yet, despite this, they are not visible to the naked eye. Quasars were first detected in the 1960s as sources of radio waves. In addition to radio waves and visible light, quasars also emit ultraviolet rays, infrared waves, X-rays, and gamma rays. Most quasars are larger than our solar system. A quasar is approximately 1 kiloparsec in width. Because of their distance, when we view quasars, we are seeing light from very early in the life of our universe, giving scientists information about the early stages of the Universe.240 PHYSICAL COSMOLOGY Physical cosmology is the branch of physics and astrophysics that deals with the study of the physical origins and evolution of the Universe. It also includes the study of the nature of the Universe on its very largest scales. In its earliest form it was what is now known as celestial mechanics, the study of the heavens. The Greek philosophers Aristarchus of Samos, Aristotle and Ptolemy proposed different cosmological theories. In particular, the geocentric Ptolemaic system was the accepted theory to explain the motion of the heavens until Nicolaus Copernicus, and subsequently Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei proposed a heliocentric system in the 16th century. This is known as one of the most famous examples of epistemological rupture in physical cosmology. With Isaac Newton and the 1687 publication of Principia Mathematica, the problem of the motion of the heavens was finally solved. Newton provided a physical mechanism for Kepler’s laws and his law of universal gravitation allowed the anomalies in previous systems, caused by gravitational interaction between the planets, to be resolved. A fundamental difference between Newton’s cosmology and those preceding it was the Copernican principle that the bodies on earth obey the same physical laws as all the celestial bodies. This was a crucial philosophical advance in physical cosmology.241, 242 Modern scientific cosmology is usually considered to have begun in 1917 with Albert Einstein’s publication of his final modification of general relativity in the

93 paper “Cosmological Considerations of the General Theory of Relativity”. General relativity prompted cosmogonists such as Willem de Sitter, Karl Schwarzschild and Arthur Eddington to explore the astronomical consequences of the theory, which enhanced the growing ability of astronomers to study very distant objects. Prior to this (and for some time afterwards), physicists assumed that the Universe was static and unchanging. In parallel to this dynamic approach to cosmology, a debate was unfolding regarding the nature of the cosmos itself. On the one hand, Mount Wilson astronomer Harlow Shapley championed the model of a cosmos made up of the Milky Way star system only. Heber D. Curtis, on the other hand, suggested spiral nebulae were star systems in their own right, island universes. This difference of ideas came to a climax with the organization of the Great Debate at the meeting of the US National Academy of Sciences in Washington on 26 April 1920. The resolution of the debate on the structure of the cosmos came with the detection of novae in the Andromeda galaxy by Edwin Hubble in 1923 and 1924. Their distance established spiral nebulae well beyond the edge of the Milky Way and as galaxies of their own. Subsequent modeling of the universe explored the possibility that the cosmological constant introduced by Einstein in his 1917 paper may result in an expanding universe, depending on its value. Thus the big bang theory was proposed by the Belgian priest Georges Lemaître in 1927 which was subsequently corroborated by Edwin Hubble’s discovery of the red shift in 1929 and later by the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964. These findings were a first step to rule out some of many alternative physical cosmologies.243, 244

Recent observations made by the COBE and WMAP satellites observing this background radiation have effectively, in many scientists’ eyes, transformed cosmology from a highly speculative science into a predictive science, as these observations matched predictions made by a theory called Cosmic inflation,

94 which is a modification of the standard big bang theory. This has led many to refer to modern times as the ‘Golden age of cosmology’. Physical cosmology, as a branch of astronomy, is the study of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of our universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its formation and evolution. Cosmology involves itself with studying the motions of the celestial bodies and the first cause. For most of human history, it has been a branch of metaphysics and religion. Cosmology as a science originates with the Copernican principle, which implies that celestial bodies obey identical physical laws to those on earth, and Newtonian mechanics, which first allowed us to understand those motions. This is now called celestial mechanics. Physical cosmology, as it is now understood, began with the twentieth century development of Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity and better astronomical observations of extremely distant objects.245 The twentieth century advances made it possible to speculate about the origins of the universe and allowed scientists to establish the Big Bang as the leading cosmological model, which most cosmologists now accept as the basis for their theories and observations. Vanishingly few researchers still advocate any of a handful of alternative cosmologies, but professional cosmologists generally agree that the big bang best explains observations. Physical cosmology, roughly speaking, deals with the very largest objects in the universe (galaxies, clusters and superclusters), the very earliest distinct objects to form (quasars) and the very early universe, when it was nearly homogeneous (hot big bang, cosmic inflation, cosmic microwave background radiation and the Weyl curvature hypothesis). Observations suggest that the universe as we know it began around 13.7 billion years ago. Since then, the evolution of the universe has passed through three phases. The very early universe, which is still poorly understood, was the split second in which the universe was so hot that particles had energies higher than those currently accessible in particle accelerators on Earth. Therefore, while the

95 basic features of this epoch have been worked out in the big bang theory, the details are largely based on educated guesses. Following this, in the early universe, the evolution of the universe proceeded according to known high energy physics. This is when the first protons, electrons and neutrons formed, then nuclei and finally atoms. With the formation of neutral hydrogen, the cosmic microwave background was emitted. Finally, the epoch of structure formation began, when matter started to aggregate into the first stars and quasars, and ultimately galaxies, clusters of galaxies and superclusters formed. The future of the universe is not yet firmly known, but according to the ΛCDM model it will continue expanding forever.245-248 The Very Early Universe While the early, hot universe appears to be well explained by the big bang from roughly 10-33 seconds onwards, there are several problems. One is that there is no compelling reason, using current particle physics, to expect the universe to be flat, homogeneous and isotropic. Moreover, grand unified theories of particle physics suggest that there should be magnetic monopoles in the universe, which have not been found. These problems are resolved by a brief period of cosmic inflation, which drives the universe to flatness; smooths out anisotropies and inhomogeneities to the observed level; and exponentially dilutes the monopoles. The physical model behind cosmic inflation is extremely simple, however it has not yet been confirmed by particle physics, and there are difficult problems reconciling inflation and quantum field theory. Some cosmologists think that string theory and brane cosmology will provide an alternative to inflation.249 Another major problem in cosmology is what has caused the universe to contain more particles than antiparticles. Cosmologists can use X-ray observations to deduce that the universe is not split into regions of matter and antimatter, but rather is predominantly made of matter. This problem is called the baryon asymmetry, and the theory to describe the resolution is called baryogenesis. The theory of baryogenesis was worked out by Andrei Sakharov in 1967, and

96 requires a violation of the particle physics symmetry, called CP-symmetry, between matter and antimatter. Particle accelerators, however, measure too small a violation of CP-symmetry to account for the baryon asymmetry. Cosmologists and particle physicists are trying to find additional violations of the CP-symmetry in the early universe that might account for the baryon asymmetry. Both the problems of baryogenesis and cosmic inflation are very closely related to particle physics, and their resolution might come from high energy theory and experiment, rather than through observations of the universe.250 Big Bang Nucleosynthesis Big Bang Nucleosynthesis is the theory of the formation of the elements in the early universe. It finished when the universe was about three minutes old and its temperature fell enough that nuclear fusion ceased. Because the time in which big bang nucleosynthesis occurred was so short, only the very lightest elements were produced, unlike in stellar nucleosynthesis. Starting from hydrogen ions (protons), it principally produced deuterium, helium-4 and lithium. Other elements were produced in only trace abundances. While the basic theory of nucleosynthesis has been understood for decades (it was developed in 1948 by George Gamow, Ralph Asher Alpher and Robert Herman) it is an extremely sensitive probe of physics at the time of the big bang, as the theory of big bang nucleosynthesis connects the abundances of primordial light elements with the features of the early universe. Specifically, it can be used to test the equivalence principle, to probe dark matter and test neutrino physics.246-248 Cosmic Microwave Background The cosmic microwave background is radiation left over from decoupling, when atoms first formed, and the radiation produced in the big bang stopped Thomson scattering from charged ions. The radiation, first observed in 1965 by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson, has a perfect thermal black-body

97 spectrum. It has a temperature of 2.7 kelvins today and is isotropic to one part in 105. Cosmological perturbation theory, which describes the evolution of slight inhomogeneities in the early universe, has allowed cosmologists to precisely calculate the angular power spectrum of the radiation, and it has been measured by the recent satellite experiments (COBE and WMAP) and many ground and balloon-based experiments (such as Degree Angular Scale Interferometer, Cosmic Background Imager, and Boomerang). One of the goals of these efforts is to measure the basic parameters of the Lambda-CDM model with increasing accuracy, as well as to test the predictions of the big bang model and look for new physics. The recent measurements made by WMAP, for example, have placed limits on the neutrino masses.250, 251 Newer experiments, such as QUIET and the Atacama Cosmology Telescope, are trying to measure the polarization of the cosmic microwave background, which will provide further confirmation of the theory as well as information about cosmic inflation, and the so-called secondary anisotropies, such as the Sunyaev-Zel’dovich effect and Sachs-Wolfe effect, which are caused by interaction between galaxies and clusters with the cosmic microwave background. Formation of Large-Scale Structure Understanding the formation and evolution of the largest and earliest structures (ie, quasars, galaxies, clusters and superclusters) is one of the largest efforts in cosmology. Cosmologists study a model of hierarchical structure formation in which structures form from the bottom up, with smaller objects forming first, while the largest objects, such as superclusters, are still assembling. The most straightforward way to study structure in the universe is to survey the visible galaxies, in order to construct a three-dimensional picture of the galaxies in the universe and measure the matter power spectrum. This is the approach of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey.252, 253

98 An important tool for understanding structure formation is simulations, which cosmologists use to study the gravitational aggregation of matter in the universe, as it clusters into filaments, superclusters and voids. Most simulations contain only non-baryonic cold dark matter, which should suffice to understand the universe on the largest scales, as there is much more dark matter in the universe than visible, baryonic matter. More advanced simulations are starting to include baryons and study the formation of individual galaxies. Cosmologists study these simulations to see if they agree with the galaxy surveys, and to understand any discrepancy. Other, complementary techniques will allow cosmologists to measure the distribution of matter in the distant universe and to probe reionization. These include: The Lyman alpha forest, which allows cosmologists to measure the distribution of neutral atomic hydrogen gas in the early universe, by measuring the absorption of light from distant quasars by the gas. The 21 centimeter absorption line of neutral atomic hydrogen also provides a sensitive test of cosmology. Weak lensing, the distortion of a distant image by gravitational lensing due to dark matter. These will help cosmologists settle the question of when the first quasars formed.254, 255 Dark Matter Evidence from big bang nucleosynthesis, the cosmic microwave background and structure formation suggests that about 25% of the mass of the universe consists of non-baryonic dark matter, whereas only 4% consists of visible, baryonic matter. The gravitational effects of dark matter are well understood, as it behaves like cold, non-radiative dust which forms haloes around galaxies. Dark matter has never been detected in the laboratory: the particle physics nature of dark matter is completely unknown. However, there are a number of

99 candidates, such as a stable supersymmetric particle, a weakly interacting massive particle, an axion, and a massive compact halo object. Alternatives to the dark matter hypothesis include a modification of gravity at small accelerations (MOND) or an effect from brane cosmology.The physics at the center of galaxies (active galactic nuclei, super massive black hole) may give some clues about the nature of dark matter.256 Dark Energy If the universe is to be flat, there must be an additional component making up 74% (in addition to the 22% dark matter and 4% baryons) of the energy density of the universe. This is called dark energy. In order not to interfere with big bang nucleosynthesis and the cosmic microwave background, it must not cluster in haloes like baryons and dark matter. There is strong observational evidence for dark energy, as the total mass of the universe is known, since it is measured to be flat, but the amount of clustering matter is tightly measured, and is much less than this. The case for dark energy was strengthened in 1999, when measurements demonstrated that the expansion of the universe has begun to gradually accelerate. However, apart from its density and its clustering properties, nothing is known about dark energy. Quantum field theory predicts a cosmological constant much like dark energy, but 120 orders of magnitude too large. Steven Weinberg and a number of string theorists (see string landscape) have used this as evidence for the anthropic principle, which suggests that the cosmological constant is so small because life (and thus physicists, to make observations) cannot exist in a universe with a large cosmological constant, but many people find this an unsatisfying explanation. Other possible explanations for dark energy include quintessence or a modification of gravity on the largest scales. The effect on cosmology of the dark energy that these models describe is given by the dark energy’s equation of state, which varies depending upon the theory. The nature of dark energy is one of the most challenging problems in cosmology.257

100 A better understanding of dark energy is likely to solve the problem of the ultimate fate of the universe. In the current cosmological epoch, the accelerated expansion due to dark energy is preventing structures larger than superclusters from forming. It is not known whether the acceleration will continue indefinitely, perhaps even increasing until a big rip, or whether it will eventually reverse. Unsolved Problems in Astronomy Although the scientific discipline of astronomy has made tremendous strides in understanding the nature of the universe and its contents, there remains some important unanswered questions.258-261 What is the origin of the stellar mass spectrum? That is, why do astronomers observe the same distribution of stellar masses—the initial mass function— apparently regardless of the initial conditions? A deeper understanding of the formation of stars and planets is needed. Is there other life in the Universe? Especially, is there other intelligent life? If so, what is the explanation for the Fermi paradox? The existence of life elsewhere has important scientific and philosophical implications. What is the nature of dark matter and dark energy? These dominate the evolution and fate of the cosmos, yet we are still uncertain about their true natures. Is the premise of the Fine-tuned universe hypothesis correct? If so, could this be the result of cosmological natural selection? What caused the cosmic inflation that produced our homogeneous universe? What will be the ultimate fate of the universe? Answers to these questions may require the construction of new ground- and space-based instruments, new developments in theoretical and experimental physics, and to study the universe in contrast to the religious and spiritual cosmology. 

101 RELIGIOUS COSMOLOGY

Humans have many different methods which attempt to answer fundamental questions about the nature of the universe and our place in it. Religion is one of the methods for trying to answer one or more of these questions. Other methods include philosophy, metaphysics, astrology, esotericism, mysticism, and forms of shamanism, such as the sacred consumption of ayahuasca among Peruvian Amazonia’s Urarina. The Urarina have an elaborate animistic cosmological system, which informs their mythology, religious orientation and daily existence.262 Many world religions have creation myths that explain the beginnings of the Universe and life. Often these are derived from scriptural teachings and held to be part of the faith’s dogma, but in some cases these are also extended through the use of philosophical and metaphysical arguments. In some creation myths, the universe was created by a direct act of a God or Gods who are also responsible for the creation of humanity. In many cases, religious cosmologies also foretell the end of the Universe, either through another divine act or as part of the original design.262, 263 Both Christianity and Judaism rely on the Genesis narrative as a scriptural account of cosmology. Islam relies on understanding from the Holy Qur’an as its major source for explaining cosmology. Certain adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism believe that the Universe passes through endless cycles of creation and destruction, each cycle lasting for trillions of years (e.g. 331 trillion years, or the life-span of Brahma, according to Hinduism), and each cycle with sub-cycles of local creation and destruction (e.g. 4.32 billion years, or a day of Brahma, according to Hinduism). The Vedic (Hindu) view of the world sees one true divine principle self-projecting as the divine word, birthing the cosmos that we know from the monistic Hiranyagarbha or Golden Womb. A complex mixture of native Vedic gods, spirits, and demons, overlaid with imported Hindu and Buddhist deities, beliefs, and practices are the key to the Sri

102 Lankan cosmology. The Australian Aboriginal concept of Dreaming explains the creation of the universe as an eternal continuum; everywhen. Through certain ceremonies, the past opens up and comes into the present. Each topographical feature is a manifestation of dormant creation spirits; each individual has personal Dreamings and ceremonial responsibilities to look after the spirits/land, determined at birth, within this belief framework. Many religions accept the findings of physical cosmology; in particular the Big Bang, and some, such as the Roman Catholic Church, has embraced it as suggesting a philosophical first cause. Others have tried to use the methodology of science to advocate for their own religious cosmology, as in intelligent design or creationist cosmologies. However, religious cosmologies are the ways of explaining the history and evolution of the universe based on the acceptance of principles that cannot be justified by accepted scientific arguments and physical cosmology. Most frequently, such theories begin by positing the existence of a God who created and maintains the universe. Some religious cosmologies have their basis in the teachings of particular religions and religious texts, whereas others are more general reactions to perceived difficulties in explaining the entire universe without the actions of a planning and coordinating intelligence.262, 264, 265 RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY A religion is a system of human thought which usually includes a set of narratives, symbols, beliefs and practices that give meaning to the practitioner’s experiences of life through reference to a higher power or ultimate truth. Religion is commonly identified by the practitioner’s prayer, ritual, meditation, music and art, among other things, but more generally is interwoven with society and politics. It focus on specific supernatural, metaphysical, and moral claims about reality (the cosmos and human nature) which yield a set of religious beliefs, laws, ethics, and a particular lifestyle. The development of

103 religion has taken many forms in various cultures. It considers psychological and social roots, along with origins and historical development.266, 267 In the frame of western religious thought, religions present a common quality, the “hallmark of patriarchal religious thought”: the division of the world in two comprehensive domains, one sacred, the other profane. Religion is often described as a communal system for the coherence of belief focusing on a system of thought, unseen being, person, or object, that is considered to be supernatural, sacred, divine, or of the highest truth. Moral codes, practices, values, institutions, tradition, rituals, and scriptures are often traditionally associated with the core belief, and these may have some overlap with concepts in secular philosophy. Religion is also often described as a way of life or a life stance.268, 269 Members of an organized religion may not see any significant difference between religion and spirituality. Some individuals draw a strong distinction between religion and spirituality. They may see spirituality as a belief in ideas of religious significance (such as God, the Soul, or Heaven), but not feel bound to the bureaucratic structure and creeds of a particular organized religion. They choose the term spirituality rather than religion to describe their form of belief, perhaps reflecting disillusionment with organized religion and a movement towards a more modern — more tolerant, and more intuitive — form of religion. These individuals may reject organized religion because of historical acts by religious organizations, such as Christian Crusades and Islamic Jihad, the marginalisation and persecution of various minorities or the Spanish Inquisition. The basic precept of the ancient spiritual tradition of India, the Vedas, is the inner reality of existence, which is essentially a spiritual approach to being. While the words religion and spirituality are often used interchangeably, an important distinction exists between spirituality in religion and spirituality outside religion.270, 271

104 Traditionally religions have regarded spirituality as an integral aspect of their religious experience, or faith. Religion has long arrogated spirituality for itself, claiming that true spirituality cannot be experienced by the secular. However, the human emotions of awe, wonder, and reverance are the province of secular/scientific man as well, in response to his highest values, or when observing or studying nature, or the universe. Those who speak of spirituality outside religion often identify themselves as “spiritual but not religious” and generally believe in the existence of many spiritual paths (denying that there is an objectively definable best path to follow). Such people often emphasize the importance of finding one’s individual path to spirituality. Some 24±4% of the United States population identifies itself as spiritual but not religious.272-274 WORLD RELIGIONS In the history of mankind so far known, it is only some ten thousand years ago that they conceived the idea of the hell and paradise. Some 5 thousand years later in Mesopotamia and there about and India and Egypt, man for the first time in the recorded history began to have an idea that there was a God who created the universe. Every thing in this world happens at the order of that God. He would reward mankind in the world hereafter according to their performances in this world; the righteous would be rewarded by the eternal peace of paradise and the evildoers would be sent to the fire of hell. Almost all the major divine religions were developed in the ancient periods on the basis of an idea of the existence of God. In course of time, though many of the facts of religions have been perished from the pages of history, however, there is no doubt that they were propagated by the prophets on the basis of belief in God, Hell, Paradise, Resurrection, and Judgment. All the prophets claimed that they were informed these ideas through revelations, intuitions, and meditation.275-277

105 ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS Abrahamic religions are practiced throughout the world. They share in common the Jewish patriarch Abraham and the Torah as an initial sacred text, although the degree to which the Torah is incorporated into religious beliefs varies between traditions.278, 279 Judaism accepts only the prophets of the Torah, but also relies on the authority of rabbis. It is practiced by the Jewish people, an ethnic group currently centered in Israel but also scattered throughout the Jewish diaspora. Today, Jews are outnumbered by Christians and Muslims. Christianity is centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the Gospels and the writings of the apostle Paul (1st century CE). The Christian faith is essentially faith in Jesus as the Christ, the Son of God, and as Savior and Lord. As the religion of Western Europe during the time of colonization, Christianity has been propagated throughout the world. However, Christianity is not practiced as a single orthodoxy but as a mixture of Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, and many forms of Protestantism. In the United States, for example, African-Americans and Korean-Americans usually attend separate churches from Americans of European descent. Many European countries as well as Argentina have established a specific church as the state religion, but this is not the case in the United States nor in many other majority Christian areas. Islam refers to the religion taught by the Islamic prophet Muhammad, a major political and religious figure of the 7th century CE. Islam is the dominant religion of northern Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia. As with Christianity, there is no single orthodoxy in Islam but a multitude of traditions which are generally categorized as Sunni and Shia, although there are other minor groups as well. Wahhabi is the established tradition of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

106 INDIAN RELIGIONS Indian religions are practiced or were founded in the Indian subcontinent. Concepts most of them share in common include karma, caste, reincarnation, mantras, yantras, and darśana. Islam in India has also been influenced by Indian religious practices.279-281 Hinduism is a synechdoche describing the similar Indian religious philosophies of Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and related groups. Hinduism is not a monolithic religion in the Romannic sense but a religious category containing dozens of separate philosophies amalgamated as Sanātana Dharma. Sikhism is a monotheistic religion founded on the teachings of Guru Nanak and ten successive Sikh Gurus in 15th century Punjab. Sikhs are found mostly in India. Jainism, taught primarily by Parsva (9th century BCE) and Mahavira (6th century BCE), is an ancient Indian religion that prescribes a path of non- violence for all forms of living beings in this world. Jains are found mostly in India. There are dozens of new Indian religions and Hindu reform movements, such as Ayyavazhi and Swaminarayan Faith. Buddhism Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Goutama in the 6th century BCE. Buddhists generally agree that Goutama aimed to help sentient beings end their suffering by understanding the true nature of phenomena, thereby escaping the cycle of suffering and rebirth, achieving Nirvana.279-281 Theravada Buddhism, which is practiced mainly in Southeast Asia alongside folk religion, shares some characteristics of Indian religions. It is based in a large collection of texts called the Pali Canon. Under the heading of Mahayana (the Great Vehicle) fall a multitude of doctrines which began their development in China and are still relevant in Vietnam, in Korea, in Japan, and to a lesser extent in Europe and the United

107 States. Mahayana Buddhism includes such disparate teachings as Zen, Pure Land, and Soka Gakkai. Vajrayana Buddhism, sometimes considered a form of Mahayana, was developed in Tibet and is still most prominent there and in surrounding regions. Two notable new Buddhist sects are Hòa and the Dalit Buddhist movement, which were developed separately in the 20th century. FOLK RELIGION Folk religion is a term applied loosely and vaguely to disorganized local practices. It is also called paganism, shamanism, animism, ancestor worship, and totemism, although not all of these elements are necessarily present in local belief systems. The category of folk religion can generally include anything that is not part of an organization. The modern neopagan movement draws on folk religion for inspiration.279-282 African traditional religion is a category including any type of religion practiced in Africa before the arrival of Islam and Christianity, such as Yoruba religion or San religion. There are many varieties of religions developed by Africans in the Americas derived from African beliefs, including Santería, Candomblé, Umbanda, Vodou, and Oyotunji. Folk religions of the Americas include Aztec religion, Inca religion, Maya religion, and modern Catholic beliefs such as the Virgin of Guadalupe. Native American religion is practiced across the continent of North America. Australian Aboriginal culture contains a mythology and sacred practices characteristic of folk religion. Chinese folk religion, practiced by Chinese people around the world, is a primarily social practice including popular elements of Confucianism and Taoism, with some remnants of Mahayana Buddhism. Most Chinese do not identify as religious due to the strong Maoist influence on the country in recent history, but adherence to religious ceremonies remains common. New religious movements include Falun Gong and I-Kuan Tao.

108 Traditional Korean religion was a syncretic mixture of Mahayana Buddhism and Korean shamanism. Unlike Japanese Shinto, Korean shamanism was never codified and Buddhism was never made a social necessity. In some areas these traditions remain prevalent, but Korean-influenced Christianity is far more influential in society and politics. Traditional Japanese religion is a mixture of Mahayana Buddhism and ancient indigenous practices which were codified as Shinto in the 19th century. Japanese people retain nominal attachment to both Buddhism and Shinto through social ceremonies, but irreligion is common. TIMELINE OF RELIGION The timeline of religion is a comparative chronology of important events in human religious history and prehistory. The history of religion refers to the written record of human religious events, experiences, and ideas. However, writing is only about 5000 years old therefore all history reaches about 5000 years into the past.283-288 The Prehistoric Era 223,000 - 100,000 BCE: The earliest evidence of Homonids, such as Neanderthals and even Homo heidelbergensis deliberately disposing of deceased individuals usually in funerary cashes. The graves, located throughout Eurasia are believed to represent the beginnings ceremonial rites. Neanderthals are placing their deceased in simple graves with little or no concern for grave goods or markers; however, their graves occasionally appear with limestone blocks in or on them, possibly archaic form of grave marking. These practices are possibly the resulting from empathetic feelings towards fellow tribs people. 98,000 BCE: In the area of present-day France and Belgium, Neanderthals begin defleshing their dead, possibly after a period of excarnation prior to burial.

109 70,000 BCE: A giant stone in the African Kalahari desert resembling a python, accompanied by a hidden chamber and surrounded by broken spear heads, is possibly the site of ritual offerings and snake worship. 40,000 BCE: One of the earliest anatomically modern humans to be cremated is buried near Lake Mungo. 25,000 BCE: Individual skulls and/or long bones begin appearing heavily stained with red ochre and are separately buried. This practice may be the origins of sacred relics. 33,000 BCE: All convincing evidence for Neanderthal burials cieces. Roughly coinciding with the time period of the Homo Sapien introduction to Europe and decline of the Neanderthals. The oldest discovered “Venus figurines” appear in graves. Some are deliberately broken or repeatedly stabbed. Possibly representing murders of the men they are buried with or some other unknown social dynamic. 25,000 - 21,000 BCE: Clear examples of burials are present in Iberia, Wales, and Eastern Europe. All of these, also, incorporate the heavy use of red ochre. Additionally, various are being included in the graves (i.e. periwinkle shells, weighted clothing, dolls, possible drumsticks, mammoth ivory beads, fox teeth pendants, panoply of ivory artifacts, “baton” antlers, flint blades, etc). 21,000 - 11,000 BCE: Convincing evidence of mortuary activity ceases. 13,000 - 8,000 BCE: Noticeable burial activity resumes. Prior mortuary activity had either taken a less obvious form or contemporaries retained some of their burial knowledge in the absence of such activity; dozens of men, women and children being buried in the same cave in which were used for burials 10,000 years beforehand. All these graves are delineated by the cave walls and large limestone blocks. The burials are very similar to each other and share a number of characteristics—ochre, shell and mammoth ivory jewelery--that go back thousands of years. Some burials are double, comprising an adult male with a juvenile male buried by his side. They are now appearing to take on the

110 form of modern cemeteries. Old burials are commonly being redug and moved to make way for the new ones, with the older bones often being gathered together and cached together. Large stones may have acted as grave markers. Pairs of ochred antlers are sometimes poles within the cave; this is compared to the modern practice of leaving flowers at ones grave. 100th to 34th century BCE: The Neolithic Revolution begins and results in population a world-wide population explosion. The first cities, states, kingdoms, and organized religions begin to emerge. The early states were usually theocracies, in which the political power is justified by religious prestige. 9130 - 7370 BCE: The apparent lifespan of Göbekli Tepe, the oldest human- made place of worship yet discovered. 8000 BCE: Four to five pine posts are erected near the eventual site of Stonehenge. 7500 - 5700 BCE: The settlements of Catalhoyuk develop as a likely spiritual center of Anatolia. Possibly practicing worship in communal shrines, its inhabitants leave behind numerous clay figurines and impressions of phallic, feminine, and hunting scenes. 3100 - 2900 BCE: Newgrange, the 250,000 ton (226,796.2 tonne) passage tomb aligned to the winter solstice in Ireland, is built. 3228 - 3102 BCE: Traditionally accepted time of Krishna’s life on Earth. 3100 BCE: The initial form of Stonehenge is completed. The circular bank and ditch enclosure, about 110 metres (360 ft) across, may be complete with a timber circle. 3000 BCE: Sumerian Cuneiform emerges from the proto-literate Uruk period, allowing the codification of beliefs and creation of detailed historical religious records. The second phase of Stonehenge is completed and appears to function as the first enclosed cremation cemetery in the British Isles.

111 2635 - 2610 BCE: The oldest surviving Egyptian Pyramid is commissioned by pharoah Djoser. 2600 BCE: Stonehenge begins to take on the form of its final phase. The wooden posts are replaced with that of bluestone. It begins taking on an increasingly complex setup—including altar, portal, station stones, etc—and shows consideration of solar alignments. 2560 BCE: The approximate time accepted as the completion of the Great Pyramid of Giza, the oldest pyramid of the Giza Plateau. 2494 - 2345 BCE: The first of the oldest surviving religious texts, the Pyramid Texts, are composed in Ancient Egypt. 2200 BCE: Minoan Civilization in Crete develops. Citizens worship a variety of Goddesses. 2150 - 2000 BCE: The earliest surviving versions of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (originally titled “He saw the deep”) were written. 2100 - 2000 BCE: Earliest Vedas are composed. 2000-1850 CE: The raditionaly accepted lifetime of the Judeochristian/Islamic patriarchal figure Abraham. Likely born in Ur Kaśdim or Haran and died in Machpelah, Canaan. 1700 BCE: Zoroaster (a.k.a. Zarathushtra), founder of Zoroastrianism is thought to have been born. 1600 BCE: The ancient development of Stonehenge comes to an end. 1367 BCE: Reign of Akhenaton in Ancient Egypt. 1300 - 1000 BCE: The “standard” Akkadian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh was edited by Sin-liqe-unninni. 1250 BCE: The believed time of the Hebrew exodus from Egypt. The first books of the Torah are composed. 1200 BCE: The Greek Dark Age begins. 1200 BCE: Olmecs build earliest pyramids and temples in Central America.

112 950 BCE: The Torah is written, the core texts of Judaism and foundation of later Abrahamic religions. 877 BCE: Parsva, the penultimate (23rd) Tirthankara of Jainism is born. 800 BCE: Early Brahmanas are composed. 800 BCE: The Greek Dark Age ends. 600 - 500 BCE: Earliest Confucian writing, Shu Ching incorporates ideas of harmony and heaven. 599 BCE: Mahavira, the final (24th) Tirthankara of Jainism is born. 563 BCE: Gautama Buddha, founder of Buddhism is born. 551 BCE: Confucius, founder of Confucianism, is born. 440 BCE: Zoroastrianism enters recorded history. 300 BCE: Theravada Buddhism is introduced to Sri Lanka by the Venerable Mahinda. 250 BCE: The Third Buddhist council was convened. 2nd century BCE to 4th century CE 63 BCE: Pompey captures Jerusalem and establishes Roman annexes Judea as a Roman client kingdom. 7 BCE - 36 CE: The approximate time-frame for the life of Jesus of Nazareth, the central figure of Christianity. 50-62: Council of Jerusalem is held. 70: Siege of Jerusalem and the Destruction of the Temple. 220: Manichaean Gnosticism is formed by prophet Mani. 250: Some of the oldest parts of the Ginza Rba, a core text of Mandaean Gnosticism, are written. 250 – 900: Classic Mayan civilization, Stepped pyramids are constructed. 300: The oldest known version of the Tao Te Ching is written on bamboo tablets. 325: The first Ecumenical Council, the Council of Nicaea, is convened to attain a consensus on doctrine through an assembly representing all of

113 Christendom. It establishes the original Nicene Creed, fixes Easter date, recognizes primacy of the sees of Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch and grants the See of Jerusalem a position of honor. 380: Theodosius the 1st declares Nicene Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire. 381: The second Ecumenical Council, the Council of Constantinople, reaffirms/revises the Nicene Creed repudiating Arianism and Macedonianism. 381 – 391: Theodosius proscripted paganism within the Roman Empire. 393: The Synod of Hippo the first time a council of bishops of early Christianity listed and approved a Biblical canon. Middle Ages (5th to 15th century CE) 5th to 9th century CE 405: St. Jerome completes the Vulgate, the first Latin translation of the bible. 410: The Western Roman Empire begins to decline, signaling the onset of the Dark Ages. 424: The Assyrian Church of the East formally separates from the See of Antioch and the western Syrian Church 431: The third Ecumenical Council, the Council of Ephesus, is held as a result of the controversial teachings of Nestorius, of Constantinople. It repudiates Nestorianism, proclaims the Virgin Mary as the Theotokos (“Birth-giver to God”, “God-bearer”, “Mother of God”), repudiates Pelagianism, and again reaffirmes the Nicene Creed. 449: The Second Council of Ephesus declares support of Eutyches and attacked his opponents. Originally convened as an Ecumenical council, its ecumenicality is rejected and is denounced as a latrocinium by the Chalcedonian. 451: The fourth Ecumenical Council, the Council of Chalcedon rejects the Eutychian doctrine of monophysitism, adopts the Chalcedonian Creed, reinstated those deposed in 449 and deposed Dioscorus of Alexandria, and

114 elevates of the bishoprics of Constantinople and Jerusalem to the status of patriarchates. 451: The Oriental Orthodox Church rejects the christological view put forth by the Council of Chalcedon and is excommunicated. 480– 547: The Codex Gigas, Devil’s Bible, is written by Benedict of Nursia, the founder of Western Christian monasticism. 553: The fifth Ecumenical Council, Second Council of Constantinople, repudiates the Three Chapters as Nestorian and condemns Origen of Alexandria. 570 – 632: Life-time of Prophet Muhammad ibn ‘Abdullah, the founder of Islam. 650: The Holy Qur’an is completed. 680 – 681: The sixth Ecumenical Council, the Third Council of Constantinople, rejects Monothelitism and Monoenergism. 692: The Quinisext Council (aka “Council in Trullo”), an amendment to the 5th and 6th Ecumenical Councils, establishes the Pentarchy. 712: Kojiki the oldest surviving book and Shinto texts are written. 754: The latrocinium Council of Hieria supports iconoclasm. 787: The seventh Ecumenical Council, Second Council of Nicaea, restores the veneration of icons and denounces iconoclasm. 10th to 15th century CE 1054: The Great Schism between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches formally takes place. 1095 – 1099: The first Crusade takes place. 1107 – 1110: Sigurd I of Norway wages the Norwegian Crusade on Muslims in Spain, the Baleares, and in Palestine. 1147 – 1149: The Second Crusade is waged in response to the fall of the County of Edessa. 1189 – 1192: The Third Crusade, European leaders attempt to reconquer the Holy Land from Saladin.

115 1199 – 1204: The Fourth Crusade takes place. 1204: Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade sack the Christian Eastern Orthodox city of Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire. 1209 – 1229: The Albigensian Crusade takes place in Occitania, Europe. 1217 – 1221: The Church attempts the Fifth Crusade. 1228 – 1229: The Sixth Crusade occurs. 1244: Jerusalem is sacked again, instigating the Seventh Crusade. 1270: The Eighth Crusade is organized. 1271 – 1272: The Ninth Crusade fails. 1378 – 1417: The Roman Catholic Church is split during the Western Schism. 1469 – 1539: The life of Guru Nanak, founder of Sikhism. 1500: African religious systems are introduced to the Americas, with the commencement of the trans-Atlantic forced migration. 1517: Martin Luther, of the Protestant Reformation, posts the 95 theses. In the Spanish Empire, Catholicism is spread and encouraged through such institutions as missions and the Inquisition. Early modern and Modern era (16th to 20th century CE) 16th to 18th century CE 1789 – 1799: The Dechristianisation of France during the Revolution. The state confiscates Church properties, bans monastic vows, with the passage of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy removes the Church from the Roman Pope and subordinates it as a department of the Government, replaces the traditional Gregorian calendar, and abolishes Christian holidays. 1791: Separation of church and state and Freedom of religion, enshrined in the Bill of Rights, is amended into the constitution of the United States forming an early and influential secular government. 19th to 20st century CE

116 1801: The situation following the French Revolution, France and Pope Pius VII entered into the Concordat of 1801. While “Catholicism” regains some powers and becomes recognized as “...the religion of the great majority of the French”, it’s not reafforded the latitude it an enjoyed prior to the Revolution. It’s not the official state religion, the Church relinquishes all claims to estate seized after 1790, the clergy is state salaried and must swear allegiance to the State, and religious freedom is maintained. 1817 – 1892: The life of Bahá’u’lláh, founder of the Bahá’í Faith. 1899: Aradia (aka the Gospel of the Witches), one of the earliest books describing post witchhunt European religious Witchcraft, is published by Charles Godfrey Leland. 1905: In France the law on the Separation of the Churches and the State is passed, officially establishing it a state secularism and putting and end to the funding of religious groups by the state. Becoming a place of pilgrimage for neo-druids and other pagans, the Ancient Order of Druids organized the first recorded reconstructionist ceremony in Stonehenge. 1917: The October Revolution, in Russia, leads to the annexation of all church properties and subsequent religious suppression. 1926: Cao Dai founded. 1930s: Rastafarianism, the Nation of Islam is founded. 1938: The first event of the Holocaust, the Kristallnacht, takes place. 1939 – 1945: Millions of Jews are relocated and killed by the Nazi government during Holocaust. 1952: Scientology is created. 1954: Wicca is publicized by Gerald Gardner. 1960s: Various Neopagan and New Age movements gain momentum. 1961: Unitarian Universalism formed from merger of Unitarianism and Universalism.

117 1962: The Church of All Worlds, the first American neo-pagan church, is formed by a group including Oberon Zell-Ravenheart, Morning Glory Zell- Ravenheart, and Richard Lance Christie. 1962 – 1965: The Second Vatican Council takes place. 1966: Religious Satanism begins, with Anton Szandor LaVey’s founding of the Church of Satan. 1972 – 1984: The Stonehenge free festivals are held. 1984: Operation Blue Star occurs at holiest site of the Sikhs, the Golden Temple in Amritsar. 1984 Anti-Sikh riots follow. 1972 – 2004: Germanic Neopaganism (aka Heathenism, Heathenry, Ásatrú, Odinism, Forn Siðr, Vor Siðr, and Theodism) begins to experience a second wave of revival. 1979: The Iranian Revolution results in the establishment of an Islamic Republic in Iran. 1981: The Stregherian revival continues. “The Book of the Holy Strega” and “The Book of Ways” Volume I & II are published. 1985: The Battle of the Beanfield forces an end to the Stonehenge free festivals. 1989: The revolutions of 1989, the overthrow of many Soviet-style states, allow resurgence in open religious practice in many Eastern European countries. 1990s: European pagan reconstructive movements (Celtic, Hellenic, Roman, Slavic, Baltic, Finnish, etc) organize. 1993: The European Council convened in Copenhagen, Denmark, agrees to criteria requiring religious freedom within any and all prospective members of the European Union. 1998: The Strega Arician Tradition is founded. Post modern period (21st century CE) 2001: Osama bin Laden’s declared holy war reaches a climax with 2,993 dead, through al-Qaeda’s actions on 11 September.

118 2009: The Church of Scientology in France is fined €600,000 and several its leaders are fined and sentenced to jail for defrauding new recruits out of their savings. The state fails to disband the church due to legal changes occurring over the same time period. MESSENGERS OF GOD In religion, a prophet is a Messenger of God who has been contacted by, or has encountered, the supernatural or the divine, and is often one who serves as an intermediary with humanity, delivering his newfound knowledge from the supernatural entity to other humans.289-290 Claims of prophets have existed in many cultures through history, including Christianity, Judaism, Islam, the Sybilline and Delphic Oracles practices in Ancient Greece, Zoroaster, and many others. Traditionally, prophets are regarded as having a role in society that promotes change due to their messages and actions. Buddha, Zoroaster, Moses, Jesus and Muhammad all were prophets who preached the glad tidings of the Paradise and warned mankind of punishment in the hell fire. They called upon mankind to the worship of God and informed about the judgement after death. In course of time, though many of the facts of religions have been perished from the pages of history, however, there is no doubt all the divine religions were propagated by the prophets and their followers all over the world. HINDUISM Hinduism is one of the oldest religions of the world. Its past history is wrapped in the darkness and none can say with certainty or even reasonable probability when Hinduism came into being. It does not have any historical founder. The belief and teachings of Hindus are mentioned in their holy books called Vedas, compiled approximately in 1600 B.C. Their other holy books are Upanishads, written in about 800 B.C.279

119 The dominant feature in the Vedic religion is the belief that after death the soul goes to a higher and happier world in the heaven and does not come back to the earth for another span of life. The doctrine of Karma (Action) and rebirth is very faint in the early Vedas. Both the doctrines which are interconnected are developed in the Upanishads. The position of Hinduism as a religion has become rather more and more confusing. The Hindus are said to adopt polytheism, monotheism, and pantheism as well as belief in demons, heroes and ancestors. It is easy to find out texts in support of each of these ideas. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru in his famous book, The Discovery of India, says, - “Hinduism as a faith, is vague, amorphous, many sided, all things to all men. In its presents form, and even in the past, it embraces many belief and practices, from the highest to the lowest often opposed to or contradicting each other.” This polytheistic religion, according to many Hindu scholars is not a religion of polytheism, but to the discerning Hindu minds the numerousness of their deities, is really just a way of expressing the immense and uncountable manifestations of one Supreme Being. The European scholars of Hinduism also advocate the same conclusion – Towards the end of Rig Veda the polytheism, belief in many gods. From the polytheism of Vedas, and the impersonal pantheism of the Upanishads, the Gita comes to a religion of love to one God which has remained the most popular branch of Indian religion. BUDDHISM Buddhism was introduced in India by Gautam Buddha. He was born in 567 B.C. at Kapilavastu, a small state of Nepal. It is said that after a long and continuos meditation he succeded in getting some revelation which gave him relief from agony that kept him uneasy hitherto. Karma (Action) and Nirvana (Extinction of desires) are two basic teachings of Buddha. He preached his religion of Nirvana through release from re-birth by means of Ahimsha and true knowledge for forty five years and left the world at the age of eighty.

120 As Buddha himself does not appear to have left his teachings recorded in writing, and these were not written down for about 400 years after his death, his teachings developed differently in different parts of the Buddhist world with variant ideas. Different sects of Buddhists thus sprang up. According to some scholars Buddhism split into sects long before there were any records at all.279 ZOROASTRIANISM Zoroastrianism was introduced in Persia by the prophet Zoroaster during the reign of Cyrus. Much obscurity envelops his person and the time and place of his mission. The Avesta is the holy book of the Zoroastrians which seems to be a revealed scripture. But only a small portion of the book is probably the work of the prophet. Zoroaster was a Magian who rebelled against the practices of the majority of his people. Among the great monotheistic religion of the world Zoroastrianism is held to be one of the oldest. It teaches that Ahura-Mazda is the sole creator of the universe. Dualism of the spirit of Goodness and the spirit of Evil is ethical dualism promising paradise to the good and hell to the wicked. Zoroaster’s doctrine of destiny of the soul was simple but later it was made complex. After death soul waits three nights for judgment. The soul of the good man who has committed few sins goes on to the paradise, while the soul of the wicked goes down to the hell. The degree of punishment in the hell is directly proportionate to the sins committed in the earth. In addition to the hell and paradise there is another place to which the soul of the dead may go, which is prepared for those whose goodness and evil are equal. It is situated between earth and the station of the stars, and dwells in this place suffer from both hot and cold. Zoroastrians believe in the four paradises of same resplendent realm and three lower registers of good thought, good words, and good deeds which are situated in the Sun, Moon, and stars. They believe in the torment of unending darkness and a lake of fire to which the sinners and wicked will be ultimately consigned.279

121 JUDAISM At present, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are generally regarded revealed religions having Holy Scriptures to their credit. Their apostles Moses, Jesus, and Mohammad were descended from Prophet Abraham and preached the religion of same God. The Hebraic Bible or the Old Testament is the holy scripture of the Jews. This is a collection of many books which was compiled at the beginning of the Israelite monarchy, around the Eleventh century B.C. These books were written in several languages over a period of more than nine hundred years, based on human memory and oral traditions.279-280 In Judaism, a prophet is seen as a person who is selected by, and speaks as a formal representative of God, and the intention of the message is always to effect a social change to conform to God’s desired standards initially specified in the Torah dictated to Moses. In Hebrew, the word that traditionally translates as prophet is navi, which means spokesperson. This forms the second of the three letters of TaNaKh, derived from Torah, Nevi’im, and Ketuvim. The meaning of navi is perhaps described in Deuteronomy 18:18, where God said, “I will put my words in his mouth and he will speak to them all that I command him.” Thus, the navi was thought to be the “mouth” of God. The root nun-vet-alef (navi) is based on the two-letter root nun-vet which denotes hollowness or openness; to receive transcendental wisdom, one must make oneself “open”. Fully a third of the TaNaKh is devoted to books about prophetic experience including a separate book of ‘minor’ prophets known as The Twelve Prophets (Trei-Assar).291 According to I Samuel 9:9, the old name for navi is ro’eh, which literally means Seer. That could document an ancient shift, from viewing prophets as seers for hire to viewing them as moral teachers. Allen (1971) comments that in the First Temple Era, there were essentially seer-priests, who formed a guild, divined, performed rituals and sacrifices, and were scribes, and then there were canonical prophets, who did none of these (and were against divination) and had instead a

122 message to deliver. The seer-priests were usually attached to a local shrine or temple, such as Shiloh, and initiated others as priests in that priesthood: it was a mystical craft-guild with apprentices and recruitment. Canonical prophets were not organised this way. The similar term ben-navi (son of the prophet) means “member of a seer-priest guild”.292 Some examples of prophets in the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) include Abraham, Moses, Miriam, Isaiah, Samuel, Ezekiel, Malachi, and Job. In Jewish tradition, Daniel is not counted in the list of prophets. A Jewish tradition suggests that there were twice as many prophets as the number which left Israel, which were 600,000 prophets. The Talmud recognizes the existence of 48 male prophets who bequeathed permanent messages to mankind. According to the Talmud there were also seven women who are counted as prophets whose message bears relevance for all generations: Sarah, Miriam, Devorah, Hannah (mother of the prophet Samuel), Abigail (a wife of King David), Huldah (from the time of Jeremiah), and Esther. Rashi points out that Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah were also prophets. Among adherents to the Jewish faith, non-Jewish prophets naturally have a far lower status than Jewish prophets. This is possibly demonstrated in the story of Balaam in Numbers 22, but not demonstrated in the story of Balaam in Numbers 24, in which Balaam the non-Jewish prophet received a prophecy laudatory of Israel, which has been accepted, quoted and revered by Jewish believers ever since.293 CHRISTIANITY Christianity is more or less an offshoot of Judaism and aims at enforcing the teachings of the Old Testament in addition to those of the four canonic Gospels. Jesus Christ began to propagate his Mission at the age of 30 years.279-280 In Christianity a prophet (or seer — 1 Samuel 9:9) is one inspired by God through the Holy Spirit to deliver a message for a specific purpose. It is often associated with predicting future events, but in Biblical terms it is wider and can

123 include those given the power to preach repentance to those who do not want to hear the message and to warn of God’s wrath for disobedience. God’s calling as a prophet is not considered to elevate an individual for their glory, but for the glory of God and to turn people to him. Some Christian denominations would limit that and exclude those who receive a personal message not intended for the body of believers, but in the Bible on a number of occasions prophets were called to deliver personal messages. The reception of a message is termed revelation and the delivery of the message is termed prophecy.294 Anyone who claims to speak God’s words or teach in his name and is not a prophet the Bible terms a false prophet. One test given in the Old Testament in Deuteronomy contains a warning of those who prophecy events which do not come to pass and said they should be put to death. Elsewhere a false prophet may be someone who is purposely trying to deceive, is delusional, under the influence of Satan or is speaking from his own spirit.295, 296 Prophets are recognised to still be human and fallible; they may make wrong decisions, have incorrect personal beliefs or opinions, or sin from time to time. Their hearing of revelation does not remove all their humanity or perfect them, nor do they always want to deliver the messages they have heard. Nevertheless, some Christians believe the minimum requirements of a true prophet can be summarized as clear and not vague prophecies, 100% accuracy in predicting events and present day prophets must not contradict the Bible. Many Christians believe these standards create difficulties for other Christians who have actively support high profile ministers and who have large followings and who claim to have received prophecies that have later turned out to be mistaken. Other Christians claim that these standards would disqualify several Biblical prophets, whose prophecies, though clearly stated, appear to be unfulfilled. Some sects of Christianity would also use these guidelines to disqualify the heads of other sects as prophets of God. It can also seem to favour

124 certain views of Biblical inspiration and limit the way that God can act. It also raises the issue of whose interpretation received prophecy is measured by.297 Some Christians who believe in dispensationalism believe prophecy ended along with the rest of the sign gifts shortly after the coming of Jesus, who delivered the “fullness of the law.” Within this group, many Protestants believe that prophecy ended with the last of the Hebrew prophets of the Torah of the Hebrew Bible, leaving a gap of about 400 years between then and the life of Jesus. The majority, including the Eastern Orthodox, allow an exception for John the Baptist as a prophet contemporary with Jesus. New Testament passages that explicitly discuss prophets existing after the death and resurrection of Christ include Revelation 11:10, Matthew 10:40-41 and Matthew 23:34, John 13:20 and John 15:20, and Acts 11:25-30, Acts 13:1 and Acts 15:32. Christians believe that the Holy Spirit leads people to faith in Jesus and gives them the ability to lead a Christian life and to give gifts to Christians. These may include the charismatic gifts such as prophecy, tongues, healing, and knowledge. Christians holding a view known as cessationism believe these gifts were given only in New Testament times and ceased after the last apostle died. Historical records, however, contradict this theory. Christians almost universally agree that spiritual gifts such as the gifts of ministry, teaching, giving, leadership, and mercy are still in effect today. Some Christians also believe that the title “prophet” encompasses others than those who receive visions from God. A more modern definition of prophet is someone who spreads God’s truths. These can be revealed in a number of ways not only visions. Many who believe God still uses prophets today point to Ephesians where the Bible declares that ‘God gave the church apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers for the perfecting of the saints. While many Christian sects recognize the existance of a “modern-day” prophet, the largest denomination by far is the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, who claim that God still communicates with mankind through prophecy. Other Christians claim that

125 Jesus Christ fulfilled some 300 of the messianic prophecies of the Hebrew Scriptures, thus demonstrating the authenticity of the Bible’s unique truth claim. 298

ISLAM In the chronology of the great religions, Islam is the latest. It was preached about six hundred years after Jesus Christ. Mohammad (pbuh) is the prophet of Islam to whom the Holy Qur’an was revealed. The Holy Qur’an is the direct speech of the Almighty God revealed to Prophet Mohammad by Archangel Gabriel. It was revealed over a period of twenty years up to the death of the prophet in 632 A.D. The Holy Qur’an is not the sole source of doctrine and legislation in Islam. During the life of Prophet Mohammad and after his death, his words and deeds were also considered as the source of Islamic teachings and explanation of the Holy Qur’an. A very large number of collections of the prophet’s words and deeds were appeared under the title of Hadiths. The Holy Qur’an identifies a number of men as prophets of Islam. Muslims believe such individuals were assigned a special mission by God to guide humanity. Besides Mohammad (pbuh), this includes Tanakh prophets such as Moses and David, and Jesus from the Christian religion.299 The Islamic concept of prophethood includes validation of a prophet’s authenticity by the assigning of miraculous powers to that prophet by the Creator. The prophet Mohammad (pbuh) performed a number of miracles that were mentioned in the Holy Qur’an and Islamic texts. The Qur’an never describes Mohammad (pbuh) as anything but a normal human being who was assigned by God to deliver the message of Islam to mankind. Surah 18:110: Say, I am but a man like you. Surah 17:94: What kept men back from belief when Guidance came to them, was nothing but this: they said, “Has Allah sent a man (like us) to be (His) Apostle?”

126 Surah 11:12: Perchance thou mayest (feel the inclination) to give up a part of what is revealed unto thee, and thy heart feeleth straitened lest they say, “Why is not a treasure sent down unto him, or why does not an angel come down with him?” But thou art there only to warn! It is Allah that arrangeth all affairs! According to the Islamic creed, the essence of all the prophets’ messages is what Islam calls for: worshipping God alone and rejecting false deities. The message of Islam resembles the messages of all previous prophets of God. The Holy Qur’an states: “Abraham was neither a Jew nor a Christian, but he was an upright man, a Muslim (submission to God’s will), and he was not one of the polytheists”. -- (The Holy Qur’an, 3:67). There were at least 4 Shariah which were revealed to Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus. Each of the prophets is believed to have been assigned a special mission by God to guide the whole or a group of the mankind, depending on the mission assigned to each. God is believed to have instructed each of these prophets to warn his community against evil and urge his people to obey God. Although only 25 prophets are mentioned by name in the Qur’an, a Hadith (no. 21257 in Musnad Ibn Hanbal) mentions that there were 124,000 of them in total throughout the history, and the Qur’an says that God has sent a prophet to every group of people throughout the time, and that Muhammad is the last of the prophets. - (The Holy Qur’an, 16:36). In general, Muslims regard the stories of the Qur’an as historical. The message of all the prophets is believed to be the same. Many of these prophets are also found in the texts of Judaism and Christianity.293 While Islam shares the Jewish tradition that the first prophet is Adam, it differs in that the last prophet is Mohammad, who in Islam is called Seal of the Prophets. Jesus is the result of a virgin birth in Islam as in Christianity, and is regarded as a prophet like the others. Traditionally, five prophets are regarded as especially important in Islam with distinctive title were given to each of them for example: Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Mohammad. Also, only a tiny minority of prophets are believed to have been sent holy books (such as the

127 Tawrat, Zabur, Injil and the Qur’an), and those prophets are considered Messengers or Rasul. However, other main Prophets are considered a Messenger or a Nabi even if they didn’t receive a Book from God. An example can be the Messenger-Prophet Aaron “Haroon’, the Messenger-Prophet Ishamel “Isma’eel” or the Messenger-Prophet Joseph “Yousuf”. Besides the four Holy Books sent by God to the four messengers, Muslims believe that God also had granted Scrolls Suhuf (contains basic Divine Laws to guide the people) to Adam, Abraham and many others. Mohammad is regarded in Islamic belief as having undertaken a prophetic mission addressed to all of humanity rather than a specific populace. Prophets were required to call all people to God. However, the laws they brought may have been limited to a certain community at some Era. Prophets were sent to all the nations and tribes of the world.299 HINDU COSMOLOGY The Rig Veda questions the origin of the cosmos in: Neither being (sat) nor non-being was as yet. What was concealed? And where? And in whose protection?…Who really knows? Who can declare it? Whence was it born, and whence came this creation? The devas were born later than this world’s creation, so who knows from where it came into existence? None can know from where creation has arisen, and whether he has or has not produced it. He who surveys it in the highest heavens, he alone knows-or perhaps does not know. - (Rig Veda 10. 129) But the Rig Veda’s view of the cosmos also sees one true divine principle self- projecting as the divine word, Vaak, ‘birthing’ the cosmos that we know, from the monistic Hiranyagarbha or Golden Womb. The Hiranyagarbha is alternatively viewed as Brahma, the creator who was in turn created by God, or as God (Brahman) himself.300, 301 The later puranic view asserts that the universe is created, destroyed, and re- created in an eternally repetitive series of cycles. In Hindu cosmology, a universe endures for about 4,320,000,000 years (one day of Brahma, the creator

128 or kalpa) and is then destroyed by fire or water elements. At this point, Brahma rests for one night, just as long as the day. This process, named pralaya (Cataclysm), repeats for 100 Brahma years (311 trillion human years) that represents Brahma’s lifespan. It must be noted that Brahma is the creator but not necessarily regarded as God in Hinduism. He is mostly regarded as a creation of God / Brahman.301, 302 We are currently believed to be in the 51st year of the present Brahma and so about 155 trillion years have elapsed since He was born as Brahma. After Brahma’s death, it is necessary that another 100 Brahma years pass until he is reborn and the whole creation begins anew. This process is repeated again and again, forever. Brahma’s day is divided in one thousand cycles (Maha Yuga, or the Great Year). Maha Yuga, during which life, including the human race appears and then disappears, has 71 divisions, each made of 14 Manvantara (1000) years. Each Maha Yuga lasts for 4,320,000 years. Manvantara is Manu’s cycle, the one who gives birth and governs the human race. Each Maha Yuga consists of a series of four shorter yugas, or ages. The yugas get progressively worse from a moral point of view as one proceeds from one Yuga to another. As a result each Yuga is of shorter duration than the age that preceded it. The current Kali Yuga (Iron Age) began at midnight 17 February / 18 February in 3102 BC in the proleptic Julian calendar.301 BUDDHIST COSMOLOGY Buddhist cosmology is the description of the shape and evolution of the Universe according to the canonical Buddhist scriptures and commentaries. The self-consistent Buddhist cosmology which is presented in commentaries and works of Abhidharma in both Theravāda and Mahāyāna traditions is the end- product of an analysis and reconciliation of cosmological comments found in the Buddhist sūtra and vinaya traditions. No single sūtra sets out the entire structure of the universe. However, in several sūtras the Buddha describes other

129 worlds and states of being, and other sūtras describe the origin and destruction of the universe.301 In Buddhism, the universe comes into existence dependent upon the actions (karma) of its inhabitants. Buddhists posit neither an ultimate beginning nor final end to the universe, but see the universe as something in flux, passing in and out of existence, parallel to an infinite number of other universes doing the same thing.302 The Buddhist universe consists of a large number of worlds which correspond to different mental states, including passive states of trance, passionless states of purity, and lower states of desire, anger, and fear. The beings in these worlds are all coming into existence or being born, and passing out of existence into other states, or dying. A world comes into existence when the first being in it is born, and ceases to exist, as such, when the last being in it dies. The universe of these worlds also is born and dies, with the death of the last being preceding a universal conflagration that destroys the physical structure of the worlds; then, after an interval, beings begin to be born again and the universe is once again built up. Other universes, however, also exist, and there are higher planes of existence which are never destroyed, though beings that live in them also come into and pass out of existence. As well as a model of universal origins and destruction, Buddhist cosmology also functions as a model of the mind, with its thoughts coming into existence based on preceding thoughts, and being transformed into other thoughts and other states.302 The Buddhism establishes many levels of heaven. The six lowest are places of sensuous desires and form. The sixteen middle registers are characterized by an absence of sensuous desire, but the presence of form. These heavens representating gradated states of being, can be visited by men even in this life. The classical Buddhism recognizes seven hells of fire. These are located at the bottom of the universe apparently in descending order corresponding to the

130 ascending heavens. Each hell is flanked on either side by four torture chambers. These include a fiery pit and a quaginine. There also a stygian river (Vaitarani). The Tibetan Buddhists also believe in eight cold hells and certain ephemeral frontire hells for those guilty of lesser sins.303 BIBLICAL COSMOLOGY The various authors of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh, or Old Testament) provide sporadic glimpses of their insight regarding astronomy and cosmology. These glimpses may be stitched together to form a Biblical impression of the physical universe. No systematic observations of the heavenly bodies were made by the ancient Hebrews.The texts of the Tanakh convey no theory of celestial appearances. The descriptive phrases used in them are conformed to the elementary ideas naturally presenting themselves to a pre-modern (Iron Age) people. Thus, the earth figures as an indefinitely extended circular disk, lying between the realm of light above and the abyss of darkness beneath. The word firmamentum, by which the Hebrew raqiya is translated in the Vulgate, expressed the notion of a solid, transparent vault, dividing the upper waters from the seas, springs, and rivers far below. Through the agency of the flood- gates, however, the waters sustained by the firmament were, in due measure, distributed over the earth. The main Judeo-Christian religious text, the Bible, details the story of creation. The first chapter of the Old Testament book known as Genesis describes the creation of light and darkness, the establishment of Heaven and Earth, and the creation of all creatures, including the first man and woman, by God. According to the Bible, each act of creation occurred on six successive days, and on the 7th day God rested.303 And God said, “Let there be lights in the expanse of the sky to separate the day from the night, and let them serve as signs to mark seasons and days and years, and let them be lights in the expanse of the sky to give light on the earth.” And it was so. God made two great lights—the greater light to govern the day and

131 the lesser light to govern the night. He also made the stars. God set them in the expanse of the sky to give light on the earth, to govern the day and the night, and to separate light from darkness. And God saw that it was good. And there was evening, and there was morning—the fourth day. – (Genesis 1: 14-19). Not much is said in the books of the Bible concerning the position of the earth in the universe or the designation of the stars and planets. Dependence for the most part must be placed on ambiguous references chiefly in the poetical sections. Although the Bible does use poetry to describe the Universe, there are some details given that would be very improbable for someone to guess during the era of the Bible. Using the stars to predict futures was forbidden (4:19 warns against worshipping the stars and naked eye planets, but there are descriptions in the Bible, which match the constellations such as the four beasts in Ezekiel. In Genesis chapter one, God says the stars, the sun and the moon are given for signs. The stars are called the hosts of heaven around God and in the heights above. Only a few stars and constellations are named individually in the Old Testament, and their identification is not certain. The clearest references include Kesil, Kimah, Ash, and Mezarim which may be Orion, Sirius, Hyades, and Ursa Major respectively. Two planets are named in the Old Testament, the Saturn and Venus. As in the Bible, so also in the Talmud, heaven and earth designate the two borders of the universe. The former is a hollow sphere covering the earth. It consists, according to one authority of a strong and firm plate two or three fingers in thickness, always lustrous and never tarnishing. Another tannaitic authority estimates the diameter of this plate as one-sixth of the sun’s diurnal journey; while another, a Babylonian, estimates it at 1,000 parasangs. According to others, the diameter of the firmament is equal to the distance covered in 50 or 500 years; and this is true also of the earth and the large sea (Tehom) upon which it rests. The distance of the firmament from the earth is a

132 journey of 500 years—a distance equivalent to the diameter of the firmament, through which the sun must saw its way in order to become visible. The firmament, according to some, consists of fire and water, and, according to others, of water only; while the stars consist of fire. The Talmud identified the twelve constellations of the zodiac with the twelve months of the Hebrew calendar. Some scholars identified the twelve signs of the zodiac with the twelve tribes of Israel. Two different cosmologies can be found in the Talmud. One is a flat Earth mythical cosmology resembling descriptions of the world in the mythology of the Ancient Near East. The other, resembling ancient Greek astronomy is the geocentric model, according to which the stars move about the earth. According to Aristotle, Ptolemy, and other philosophers among the Greeks, the stars have no motion of their own, being firmly attached to spheres whose center is the earth. A passage in the Talmud, the Baraita Pesahim 94b contrasts the pagan view with that of Jewish sages: The learned of Israel say, “The sphere stands firm, and the planets revolve”; the learned of the nations say, “The sphere moves, and the planets stand firm.” The learned of Israel say, “The sun moves by day beneath the firmament, and by night above the firmament”; the learned of the nations say, “The sun moves by day beneath the firmament, and by night beneath the earth.” ISLAMIC COSMOLOGY Muslims believe that God, or Allah, created the universe, including Earth’s physical environment and human beings. Islamic cosmology is mainly derived from the Qur’an, Hadith, Sunnah, and current Islamic as well as other pre- Islamic sources.304 There are many cosmological verses in the Holy Qur’an, which some modern writers have interpreted as foreshadowing the expansion of the universe and possibly even the Big Bang theory.

133 Several hadiths attributed to Prophet Mohammad also show that he was opposed to superstition in general. An example of this is when an eclipse occurred during his son Ibrahim ibn Mohammad’s death, and rumours began spreading about this being God’s personal condolence. Prophet Mohammad (SAW) is said to have replied: “An eclipse is a phenomenon of nature. It is foolish to attribute such things to the death or birth of a human being.” At the time the Holy Qur’an was revealed, the human understanding of the nature of the cosmos and the movement or the stillness of the heavenly bodies was extremely primitive and obscure. This is no longer the case, as our knowledge of the universe has considerably advanced and expanded by the present age.305 Some of the theories relating to the creation of the universe have been verified as facts, whereas some others are still being explored. The concept of the expanding universe belongs to the former category, and has been universally accepted by the scientific community as fact. This discovery was first made by Edwin Hubble in the 1920s. Yet some thirteen centuries before this, it was clearly mentioned in the Holy Qur’an: “And the universe, we constructed with power and skill and verily we are expanding it.” (51:47). It should be remembered that the concept of the continuous expansion of the universe is exclusive to the Qur’an. No other Divine scriptures even remotely hint at it. The discovery that the universe is constantly expanding is of prime significance to scientists, because it helps create a better understanding of how the universe was initially created. It clearly explains the stage by stage process of creation, in a manner which perfectly falls into step with the theory of the Big Bang. The first step of creation as related in the Qur’an accurately describes the event of the Big Bang in the following words:

134 Don’t those who reject faith see that the heavens and the earth were a single entity then We ripped them apart? — (Qur’an, 21:31). In Islamic Cosmology, the most striking feature of the motion of the heavenly bodies described in the holy Qur’an is the motion of the earth, which was described without glaringly contradicting the popular view prevailing in that age. All the scholars and sages of that time were unanimous in their belief that the earth is stationary while other heavenly bodies like the sun and the moon are constantly revolving around it. If the Qur’an had described the earth as stationary and the heavenly bodies as revolving around it, then although the people of that time might have been satisfied with this description, the people of the later ages would have treated that statement as a proof of the ignorance of the Qur’an’s author. Such a statement, they would emphasize, could not have been made by an All-Knowing, Supreme Being.305 Rather than literally comparing the motion of the earth to that of other heavenly bodies, the Qur’an makes the following statement: The mountains that you see, you think they are stationary while they are constantly floating like the floating of clouds. Such is the work of Allah Who made everything firm and strong. –(Qur’an, 27:89). If the mountains are declared to be in constant motion, then the only logical inference to be drawn from this would be that the earth is also rotating along with them. But thanks to the masterly language of the Qur’an this observation went unnoticed. They had the impression, shared with the rest of mankind, that the earth was stationary and it was this false impression that was not obtrusively challenged. If they had read with care the end of the same verse they would have been left with no room for any misunderstanding. It ends with a lasting tribute to the creative faculty of God, Who has created all things with such firmness that they cannot be dislodged. Anything which cannot be dislodged can never be catapulted out of the earth, to fly alone, leaving the earth behind.

135 Again, in many other verses the Qur’an refers to the mountains as ‘firmly rooted in the earth: He has created the heavens without any pillars that you can see, and He has placed in the earth firm mountains that it may not quake with you, and He has scattered therein all kinds of creatures; and We have sent down water from the clouds, and caused to grow therein every noble species. — (Qur’an, 1:11). And We have made in the earth firm mountains that they may provide them the living food, and We have made therein wide pathways that they may be rightly guided. — (Qur’an, 21:32). And He has placed in the earth firm mountains that they may provide you food, and rivers and routes that you may be guided. — (Qur’an, 16:16). The Holy Qur’an also pronounces that all heavenly bodies are in a constant state of motion; none of them is stationary: ... Everything is gliding along smoothly in its orbit. — (Qur’an, 21:34). This all-embracing statement covers the entire universe, our solar system being no exception. In addition to this, there are many other verses which mention the elliptical movement of all the heavenly bodies. But they also speak of their movement towards their destined time of death. Following are some of the verses, which cover the subject: Allah is He Who raised up the heavens without any pillars that you can see. Then He settled Himself on the Throne. And He pressed the sun and the moon into service. All pursue their course until an appointed time. He regulates it all. He clearly explains the Signs, that you may have a firm belief in the meeting with your Lord. – (Qur’an, 13:3). Hast thou not seen that Allah makes the night pass into the day, and makes the day pass into the night, and He has pressed the sun and the moon into service; all pursuing their course till an appointed term, and Allah is well aware of what you do? — (Qur’an, 31:30).

136 He merges the night into the day, and He merges the day into the night. And He has pressed into service the sun and the moon; each one runs its course to an appointed term. Such is Allah, your Lord; His is the kingdom, and those whom you call upon beside Allah own not even a whit. — (Qur’an, 35:14). He created the heavens and earth in accordance with the requirements of wisdom. He makes the night to cover the day, and He makes the day to cover the night; and He has pressed the sun and the moon into service; each pursues its course until an appointed time. Hearken; it is He alone Who is the Mighty, the Great Forgiver. — (Qur’an, 39:6). Now we turn to another amazing revelation of the Qur’an regarding a specific motion of the sun which is mentioned nowhere else. This verse 36:39, pronounces, And the sun is constantly moving in the direction of its ultimate abode of rest. This is the decree of the Almighty, the All-Knowing. — (Qur’an, 36:39). It clearly speaks of a point in space to be the sun’s final resting place. Despite the fact that it is only the sun which is mentioned, the verses which immediately follow bind the entire universe to the movement of the sun in the same specific direction: And the sun is constantly moving in the direction of its ultimate abode of rest. This is the decree of the Almighty, the All-Knowing. And for the moon We have regulated stages until it looks like a thin branch of an old palm tree. Nor does it behove for the sun to overtake the moon nor for the night to overtake the day. — (Qur’an, 36:39-41). If it were only the sun which was moving in a fixed direction, the verse which follows this statement would not have proclaimed that the sun and the moon strictly maintain their mutual distance; they will never be able to gain or move away from each other, an unchangeable destiny till their appointed time. This

137 clearly shows that in whatever direction the sun is moving, the moon is also moving. But it is not only the question of the sun and the moon. All the heavenly bodies are described in the Qur’an as soundlessly floating. Again there are numerous verses in the Qur’an which describe the heavenly bodies bound together with invisible links. Hence if one of them moves in a direction other than its orbital and elliptical motion, all the other heavenly bodies must also move along to maintain their mutual balance.305 And He it is Who created the night and the day, and the sun and the moon; everything gliding along in orbit. — (Qur’an, 21:34). It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor can the night outstrip the day. All float in an orbit. — (Qur’an, 36:41). This is a unique style of the Qur’an also employed for indicating the movement of the earth upon its axis. The people of the time of both these revelations could not clearly grasp the underlying idea. If the mountains are moving the earth must also move along, but this is not what the people of that age inferred. Nor could they grasp the idea that if the sun is moving in the direction of a specific space, the entire universe must also be moving along with it to the same destination. This vision of the entire universe drifting away in space is an idea, which perhaps has not as yet been conceived by contemporary scientists. Yet it can be implied from an in-depth study of the Qur’an that the entire cosmos is moving towards some point in space. If that implication is true then one is left with no choice but to visualize all the galaxies, of which our planetary system is but a tiny dot, to be moving along with the sun in a set direction.305 Islamic Rules There are several rules in Islam which lead Muslims to use better astronomical calculations and observations. The first issue is the Islamic calendar. The Holy Qur’an says: “The number of months in the sight of Allah is twelve (in a year) so ordained by Him the day He

138 created the heavens and the earth; of them four are sacred; that is the straight usage.” Therefore Muslims could not follow the Christian or Hebrew calendars and they thus had to develop a new one. The other issue is moon sighting. Islamic months do not begin at the astronomical new moon, defined as the time when the moon has the same celestial longitude as the sun and is therefore invisible; instead they begin when the thin crescent moon is first sighted in the western evening sky. The Qur’an says: “They ask you about the waxing and waning phases of the crescent moons, say they are to mark fixed times for mankind and Hajj.” This led Muslims to find the phases of the moon in the sky, and their efforts led to new mathematical calculations and observational instruments, as well as a special science being formed specifically for moon sighting. Muslims are also expected to pray towards the Kaaba in Mecca and orient their mosques in that direction. Thus they need to determine the direction of Mecca from a given location. Another problem is the time of prayer. Muslims need to determine from celestial bodies the proper times for the prayers at sunrise, at midday, in the afternoon, at sunset, and in the evening. The sun is a celestial body which determine the time of prayers. Prophet Mohammad (SAW) told in a message recorded in the Sahih Al-Bukhari, Muslim, Tirmidhi and many other authentic books of Hadith that the Sun was a Hell. Prophet Mohammad (pbuh) said, “You pray at noon until it gets cooler. Because fire of hell is the source of intense heat at noon.” Prophet also said, “Once the hell complained to his Creator, saying Oh my Lord! My one part has engulfed another part. Thus God allowed the hell to take two breaths, one in the winter, and another in the summer. So the intensity of winter and summer which is now felt in the earth is due to the two breaths of the hell.”- (Al-Bukhari, Al-Muslim). In many of his famous messages Prophet Mohammad (pbuh) described the characteristics of hell. Prophet said that the fire of hell is so much hot and destructive that a dot of fire if thrown to the earth, the entire Earth will become

139 ash. If any body would be punished in the West by the fire of hell, all the animals including men and women in the East will die of fear and shock. There are numerous venomous serpents and scorpions in the hell made of fire which will be biting the sinners constantly forever, if one of them breathes towards the earth neither green grasses nor plants will grow here. The inhabitants of the hell will never die. They will be punished forever. On the Day of Judgment the inhabitants of hell will see their destined abode face to face and will realize the error of their ways. But, of course, it will be too late. The Holy Qur’an states: “No! When the earth is pounded to powder, and your Lord comes with His angels, rank upon rank, and Hell, that Day, is brought [face to face] – on that Day will man remember? But how will that remembrance profit him?” -(al- Fajr 89:21-23). “On the Day We will say to Hellfire, ‘have you been filled?’ it will say, ‘Are there some more?” - (Qaf 50:30). Ibn Mas’ud (RA) reported that the Messenger of Allah (pbuh) said: “Hell will be brought on that Day. It will have seventy thousand reins with seventy thousand angels drawing it by each rein.” - (Muslim). Abu Hurairah (RA) reported that Allah’s Messenger (pbuh) said: “Hell and Paradise fell into a dispute during which Hell said, ‘I have been distinguished by the proud and the haughty.’ And Paradise said, ‘What is the matter with me that only the meek and the humble and the downtrodden and the simple enter me?’ Thereupon, Allah said to Paradise, ‘you are the means of My mercy whereby I show mercy to those of My servants whom I wish.’ Then He said to Hell, ‘you are the means of punishment whereby I punish those of My servants whom I wish. Both of you will be full.’ Hell will not be filled up until Allah puts His foot over it. Then Hell will say, ‘Enough, enough, enough,’ at which point it will be filled up, all of its parts integrated together.”- (Muslim). Anas bin Malik (RA) reported that Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said: “Hell will continue to ask, ‘Is there anything more?’ until Allah, the Exalted, and High

140 will place His foot thereon, then it will say, ‘Enough, enough, by Your honor,’ and some of its parts will draw close together. (Allah is infinite. “His foot will fill the hell” means the hell is too much big.).”- (Muslim). SPIRITUAL COSMOLOGY The cosmology in the religious texts can be divided into physical cosmology and spiritual cosmology. The physical cosmology of the religious texts is the part of ancient astronomical sciences, and spiritual cosmology is concerned with the existence of God, Hell and Paradise, formation, evolution and fate of the Universe, Resurrection, Judgment, and life in the World Hereafter that cannot be justified by accepted scientific arguments. Today, for development of advanced technologies in the astronomical sciences many distant celestial objects have been discovered. These distant celestial objects were hidden and unknown to mankind in the ancient periods, which are now proved to be the topics of spiritual cosmology of the religious texts.303, 306 Spiritual Cosmology divides the universe into the two worlds, this world and the world hereafter. This world is situated on our blue planet Earth, a very small part of the universe, separated from rest of the universe by the atmosphere. This world is also known as biosphere. The biosphere is generally believed to have begun evolving about 3.5 billion years ago. Earth is the only place in the universe where life is known to exist. The atmosphere, which is also known as the sky of the earth, is decorated by distant celestial bodies the Sun, Moon, stars, and planets those are inhabitants of the outer space or the world hereafter. Everything beyond the Kármán line or outside the atmosphere is known as outer space or the world hereafter. This Earth is a test world, also known as the imperfect world and rest of the universe is the world hereafter made up of hell and paradise.303, 306 Before the creation of the universe, God was known only by himself, because there was nothing in existence except God. According to the Attributes of God, it was the part of his great plan to create creatures so that all his attributes get

141 satisfied. According to the Holy Scriptures existence of God, hell and paradise may be known through Revelation and Reasoning. God has sent prophets and messengers to mankind who have conveyed His messages regarding the existence of God, Hell and Paradise. Individuals may acknowledge about their existence through revelations. This is analogous to a child who goes through school and learns about various things by his or her teachers and books. Individuals may also develop this awareness of God, Hell and Paradise through reasoning. This may include building arguments through logic or through rational arguments or via realization due to scientific or historical research for further support. For example, a scientist may choose to believe in God, Hell and Paradise due to the depth of knowledge that he has acquired about the origin of the universe. Similarly, a logician may choose to believe in God through rational arguments built upon logic. Spiritual Cosmology explains the formation, evolution and fate of the universe. The Holy Scriptures describe the establishment of earth, atmosphere, hell, and paradise in the universe, and the creation of all creatures, including angels, evils, men, and women, by God. In Islam, the hell and paradise are the everlasting dwellings for mankind in the world hereafter. Almighty God created them long before. Prophet Mohammad (pbuh) visited the hell and paradise during his famous night journey to the outer space and meeting with Almighty God. The hell and paradise are eternal dwellings of mankind in the world hereafter created long before by God. Thousands of prophets all over the world told their nations about the existence of hell and paradise in the space. The hell is the world of fire made for the punishment of unbelievers, and the paradise is a biological world, where believers will enjoy a happier life forever. The paradise is situated in the deeper and distant regions of the space near-by the holy throne of God, and the hell, in the outer space nearer to the earth. The Holy Qur’an

142 says– For the righteous are Gardens, in nearness to their Lord, with rivers flowing beneath where they shall dwell for ever. - (3:15). In the Holy Scriptures of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, it had been stated that at the day of final judgment the earth would be changed to a large field known as the field of resurrection, and it would be surrounded by the hells. A very long bridge will be built over the hells extending from the earth to the paradise. After the judgment believers will pass over the bridge easily and safely. The unbelievers will fall in to the hells. The Jewish Rabbis teach that there is an upper and a lower paradise containing apartments for the residence and reward of righteous. They believe that there is an upper and a lower hell. In the hell there are seven divisions, in each division six thousand house and in each house six thousand chests, and in each chest six thousand barrels of gall. Each of the division of the hell to be as depth as one can walk in three hundred years. Christian description of hell follows the Jewish popular tradition.303 The Hindus and Buddhists also believe in the existence of Hell and Paradise. They compare the Hell to a river of fire — Vaitarani, which will have to pass to reach the gardens of paradise. The Hindus divide the cosmos into three realms—heaven, earth, and nether world. Twenty-one hells lie beneath the nether world. The Rig Veda speaks of a deep abyss reserved for false men and faithless women. In the paradise the pious and righteous retain their full personal identity and their soul united with a body. The delights of paradise are a thousand times those of the happiest of mortal men.301- 303 The Buddhism establishes many levels of heaven. The six lowest are places of sensuous desires and form, which may be attained by meritorious deeds. The sixteen middle registers are characterized by an absence of sensuous desire, but the presence of form. In the four highest there is neither sensuous desire nor form. These heavens representating gradated states of being, can be visited by men even in this life. The classical Buddhism recognizes seven hells of fire.

143 These are located at the bottom of the universe apparently in descending order corresponding to the ascending heavens.303 TIMELINE OF COSMOLOGY The following timeline of cosmological theories and discoveries is a chronological catalog of the evolution of humankind’s understanding of the cosmos over the last two-plus millennia. Modern cosmological conceptions follow the development of the scientific discipline of physical cosmology.307- 309 Pre-1900 ca. 12th century BC - The Rigveda has some cosmological hymns, particularly in the late book 10, notably the Nasadiya Sukta which describes the origin of the universe, originating from the monistic Hiranyagarbha or ‘Golden Egg’. ca. 8th century Puranic Hindu cosmology, in which the universe goes through repeated cycles of creation, destruction and rebirth, with each cycle lasting 4.32 billion years. 6th century BC- the Babylonian world map shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria, Armenia and several cities, in turn surrounded by a “bitter river” (Oceanus), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star. Contemporary Biblical cosmology of the Tanakh reflects the same view of the earth as a plain or a hill figured like a hemisphere, swimming on water and overarched by the solid vault of the firmament. To this vault are fastened the stars. 4th century BC - Aristotle proposes an Earth-centred universe in which the Earth is stationary and the universe is finite in extent but infinite in time. 3rd century BC - Aristarchus of Samos proposes a Sun-centered universe. 2nd century BC - Seleucus of Seleucia elaborates on Aristarchus’ heliocentric universe, using the phenomenon of tides to explain heliocentrism. 2nd century AD - Ptolemy proposes an Earth-centred universe, with the Sun and planets revolving around the Earth.

144 5th-11th centuries - Several astronomers propose a Sun-centered universe, including Aryabhata, Albumasar and Al-Sijzi. 6th century - John Philoponus proposes a universe that is finite in time and argues against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite universe. 7th century – Prophet Mohammad (SAW) visited the hell and paradise in the outer space and said in a message that the sun is a hell. 9th-12th centuries - Al-Kindi (Alkindus), Saadia Gaon (Saadia ben Joseph) and the Al-Ghazali (Algazel) support a universe that has a finite past and develop two logical arguments against the notion of an infinite past, one of which is later adopted by Immanuel Kant. 964 - Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi), a Persian astronomer, makes the first recorded observations of the Andromeda Galaxy and the Large Magellanic Cloud, the first galaxies other than the Milky Way to be observed from Earth, in his Book of Fixed Stars. 13th century - Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī provides the first empirical evidence for the Earth’s rotation on its axis. 15th century - Ali Kuşçu provides empirical evidence for the Earth’s rotation on its axis and rejects the stationary Earth theories of Aristotle and Ptolemy. 15th-16th centuries - Nilakantha Somayaji and Tycho Brahe propose a universe in which the planets orbit the Sun and the Sun orbits the Earth, known as the Tychonic system. 1543 - Nicolaus Copernicus publishes his heliocentric universe in his De revolutionibus orbium coelestium. 1576 - Thomas Digges modifies the Copernican system by removing its outer edge and replacing the edge with a star-filled unbounded space. 1584 - Giordano Bruno proposes a non-hierarchical cosmology, wherein the Copernican solar system is not the centre of the universe, but rather, a relatively insignificant star system, amongst an infinite multitude of others. 1610 - Johannes Kepler uses the dark night sky to argue for a finite universe.

145 1687 - Sir Isaac Newton’s laws describe large-scale motion throughout the universe. 1720 - Edmund Halley puts forth an early form of Olbers’ paradox. 1744 - Jean-Philippe de Cheseaux puts forth an early form of Olbers’ paradox. 1791 - Erasmus Darwin pens the first description of a cyclical expanding and contracting universe in his poem The Economy of Vegetation. 1826 - Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers puts forth Olbers’ paradox. 1848 - Edgar Allan Poe offers first correct solution to Olbers’ paradox in Eureka: A Prose Poem, an essay that also suggests the expansion and collapse of the universe. 1900-1949 1905 - Albert Einstein publishes the Special Theory of Relativity, positing that space and time are not separate continua. 1915 - Albert Einstein publishes the General Theory of Relativity, showing that an energy density warps spacetime. 1917 - Willem de Sitter derives an isotropic static cosmology with a cosmological constant, as well as an empty expanding cosmology with a cosmological constant, termed a de Sitter universe. 1922 - Vesto Slipher summarizes his findings on the spiral nebulae’s systematic redshifts. 1922 - Alexander Friedmann finds a solution to the Einstein field equations which suggests a general expansion of space. 1927 - Georges Lemaître discusses the creation event of an expanding universe governed by the Einstein field equations. 1928 - Howard Percy Robertson briefly mentions that Vesto Slipher’s redshift measurements combined with brightness measurements of the same galaxies indicate a redshift-distance relation.

146 1929 - Edwin Hubble demonstrates the linear redshift-distance relation and thus shows the expansion of the universe. 1933 - Edward Milne names and formalizes the cosmological principle. 1934 - Georges Lemaître interprets the cosmological constant as due to a vacuum energy with an unusual perfect fluid equation of state. 1938 - Paul Dirac suggests the large numbers hypothesis, that the gravitational constant may be small because it is decreasing slowly with time. 1948 - Ralph Alpher, Hans Bethe (in absentia), and George Gamow examine element synthesis in a rapidly expanding and cooling universe, and suggest that the elements were produced by rapid neutron capture. 1948 - Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle propose steady state cosmologies based on the perfect cosmological principle. 1948 - George Gamow predicts the existence of the cosmic microwave background radiation by considering the behavior of primordial radiation in an expanding universe. 1950 to 1999 1950 - Fred Hoyle derisively coins the term Big Bang. 1961 - Robert Dicke argues that carbon-based life can only arise when the gravitational force is small, because this is when burning stars exist; first use of the weak anthropic principle. 1965 - Hannes Alfvén proposes the now-discounted concept of ambiplasma to explain baryon asymmetry. 1965 - Martin Rees and Dennis Sciama analyze quasar source count data and discover that the quasar density increases with redshift. 1965 - Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, astronomers at Bell Labs discover the 2.7 K microwave background radiation, which earns them the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physics. Robert Dicke, James Peebles, Peter Roll and David Todd Wilkinson interpret it as relic from the big bang.

147 1966 - Stephen Hawking and George Ellis show that any plausible general relativistic cosmology is singular. 1966 - James Peebles shows that the hot Big Bang predicts the correct helium abundance. 1967 - Andrei Sakharov presents the requirements for baryogenesis, a baryon- antibaryon asymmetry in the universe. 1967 - John Bahcall, Wal Sargent, and Maarten Schmidt measure the fine- structure splitting of spectral lines in 3C191 and thereby show that the fine- structure constant does not vary significantly with time. 1968 - Brandon Carter speculates that perhaps the fundamental constants of nature must lie within a restricted range to allow the emergence of life; first use of the strong anthropic principle. 1969 - Charles Misner formally presents the Big Bang horizon problem. 1969 - Robert Dicke formally presents the Big Bang flatness problem. 1973 - Edward Tryon proposes that the universe may be a large scale quantum mechanical vacuum fluctuation where positive mass-energy is balanced by negative gravitational potential energy. 1974 - Robert Wagoner, William Fowler, and Fred Hoyle show that the hot Big Bang predicts the correct deuterium and lithium abundances. 1976 - Alex Shlyakhter uses samarium ratios from the Oklo prehistoric natural nuclear fission reactor in Gabon to show that some laws of physics have remained unchanged for over two billion years. 1977 - Gary Steigman, David Schramm, and James Gunn examine the relation between the primordial helium abundance and number of neutrinos and claim that at most five lepton families can exist. 1981 - Viacheslav Mukhanov and G. Chibisov propose that quantum fluctuations could lead to large scale structure in an inflationary universe. 1981 - Alan Guth proposes the inflationary Big Bang universe as a possible solution to the horizon and flatness problems.

148 1986 - Astronomical discovery of hell in the universe, first announced from Dhaka, Bangladesh in a book written by Dr. Muhammad Fazlul Islam in Bengali named ‘Paralook Abishker’ (Discovery of the World Hereafter). 1990 - Preliminary results from NASA’s COBE mission confirm the cosmic microwave background radiation is an isotropic blackbody to an astonishing one part in 105 precision, thus eliminating the possibility of an integrated starlight model proposed for the background by steady state enthusiasts. 1990s - Ground based cosmic microwave background experiments measure the first peak; determine that the universe is geometrically flat. 1998 - Controversial evidence for the fine structure constant varying over the lifetime of the universe is first published. 1998 - Adam Riess, Saul Perlmutter and others discover the cosmic acceleration in observations of Type Ia supernovae providing the first evidence for a non-zero cosmological constant. 1999 - Measurements of the cosmic microwave background radiation provide evidence for oscillations in the anisotropy angular spectrum as expected in the standard model of cosmological structure formation. These results indicate that the geometry of the universe is flat. Together with large scale structure data, this provides complementary evidence for a non-zero cosmological constant. Since 2000 2002 - The Cosmic Background Imager (CBI) in Chile obtained images of the cosmic microwave background radiation with the highest angular resolution of 4 arcmin. It also obtained the anisotropy spectrum at high-resolution not covered before up to l ~ 3000. It found a slight excess in power at high- resolution (l > 2500) not yet completely explained, the so-called “CBI-excess”. 2003 – NASA’s WMAP obtained full-sky detailed pictures of the cosmic microwave background radiation. The image can be interpreted to indicate that the universe is 13.7 billion years old (within one percent error) and confirm that the Lambda-CDM model and the inflationary theory are correct.

149 2003 - The Sloan Great Wall is discovered. 2004 - The Degree Angular Scale Interferometer (DASI) first obtained the E- mode polarization spectrum of the cosmic microwave background radiation. 2006 - The long-awaited three-year WMAP results are released, confirming previous analysis, correcting several points, and including polarization data. IDEAS OF HEAVEN AND HELL IN HINDUISM According to the Hindu Puranas, there are fourteen worlds in the universe - the seven upper and the seven lower. The seven upper worlds are Bhuh, Bhavah, Swah, Mahah, and Janah. Tapah, and Satyam; and the seven nether worlds are Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Rasatala, Talatala, Mahatala, and Patala. The region known as Bhuh is the earth where we dwell, while Swah is the celestial world to which people repair after death to enjoy the reward of their righteous actions on earth. Bhuvah is the region between the two. Janah, Tapah, and Satyam constitute Brahmaloka, or the highest heaven, where fortunate souls repair after death and enjoy spiritual communion with the personal God, and at the end of the cycle attain liberation, though a few return to earth again. The world of Mahah is located between Brahmaloka and Bhuh, Bhuuah, and Swah. Patala, the lowest of the seven nether worlds, is the realm where wicked souls sojourn after death and reap the results of their unrighteous actions on earth. Thus, from the viewpoint of Hinduism, heaven and hell are merely different worlds, bound by time, space, and causality. According to Hinduism, desires are responsible for a person’s embodiment. Some of these desires can best be fulfilled in a human body, and some in an animal or a celestial body. Accordingly, a soul assumes a body determined by its unfulfilled desires and the results of its past actions. An animal or a celestial body is for reaping the results of past karma, not for performing actions to acquire a new body. Performance of karma to affect any change of life is

150 possible only in a human body, because only human beings do good or evil consciously. Human birth is therefore a great privilege, for in a human body alone can one attain the supreme goal of life. Thus, in search of eternal happiness and immortality, the apparent soul is born again and again in different bodies, only to discover in the end that immortality can never be attained through fulfillment of desires. The soul then practices discrimination between the real and the unreal, attains desirelessness, and finally realizes its immortal nature. Affirming this fact, the Katha Upanishad says: “When all the desires that dwell in the heart fall away, then the mortal becomes immortal and here attains Brahman.”- (Swami Adiswarananda, Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center, New York). Heaven and Hell from the Mahabharata Anusasana Parva, Section CXI Yudhishthira said: O grandsire, O thou that are possessed of great wisdom and conversant with all the scriptures. I desire to know those excellent ordinances in consequence of which mortal creatures have to travel through their rounds of rebirth. What is that conduct by following which, O king, men succeed in attaining to high Heaven, and what is that conduct by which one sinks in Hell? When abandoning the dead body that is as inert as a piece of wood or clod of earth, people proceed to the other world, what are those that follow them thither? Bhishma said: Here comes the illustrious Vrihaspati of great intelligence! Do thou ask his blessed self. The subject is an eternal mystery. None else is capable of explaining the matter. There is no speaker like Vrihaspati. Yudhishthira, approaching the illustrious Vrihaspati, asked him the question in proper form, desirous of knowing the truth. Yudhishthira said: O illustrious one, thou are conversant with all duties and all the scriptures, Do thou tell me what is truly the friend of mortal creatures? Is the father, or mother, or son, or preceptor, or kinsmen, or relatives, or those called friends, that may be said to truly constitute the friend of the mortal creature?

151 One goes to the next world, leaving one’s dead body that is like a piece of wood or a clod of earth. Who is it that follows him thither? Vrihaspati said: One is born alone, O king, and one dies alone; one crosses alone the difficulties one meets with, and one alone encounters whatever misery falls to one’s lot. One has really no companion in these acts. The father, the mother, the brother, the son, the preceptor, kinsmen, relatives, and friends, leaving the dead body as if it were a piece of wood or a clod of earth, after having mourned for only a moment, all turn away from it and proceed to their own concerns. Only righteousness follows the body that is thus abandoned by them all. Hence, it is plain, that Righteousness is the only friend and that Righteousness only should be sought by all. One endued with righteousness would attain to that high end which is constituted by heaven. If endued with unrighteousness, he goes to hell. Hence, the man of intelligence should always seek to acquire religious merit through wealth won by lawful means. Piety is the one only friend which creatures have in the world hereafter. Let by cupidity, or stupefaction, or compassion, or fear, one destitute of much knowledge is seen to do improper acts, his judgment thus stupefied by cupidity. Note: One that is not possessed of much learning is liable to do improper acts. These acts are all done for another, viz., one’s body and the senses and not oneself. The Sanskrit word para here is, the Not-self. Piety, wealth and pleasure, - these three constitute the fruit of life. One should acquire these three by means of being free from impropriety and sin. Yudhishthira said: I have carefully heard the words spoken by thy illustrious self,-these words that are fraught with righteousness, and that are highly beneficial. I wish now to know of the existence of the body (after death). The dead body of man becomes subtile and unmanifest. It becomes invisible. How is it possible for piety to follow it?

152 Vrihaspati said: Earth, Wind, Space, Water, Light, Mind, Yama (the king of the dead), Understanding, the Soul, as also Day and Night, all together behold as witness the merits (and demerits) of all living creatures. With these, Righteousness follows the creatures (when dead). When the body becomes bereft of life, skin, bones, flesh, the vital seed, and blood, O thou of great intelligence, leave it at same time. Endued with merit (and demerit) Jiva (Individual soul), after the destruction of this body, attains to another. After the attainment by Jiva of that body, the presiding deities of the five elements once more behold as witness all his acts good and bad. What else do thou wish to hear? If endued with righteousness, Jiva enjoys happiness. What other topic, belonging to this or that world, shall I discourse upon? Yudhishthira said: Thy illustrious self has explained how Righteousness follows Jiva. I desire to know how the vital seed is originated? Vrihaspati said: The food that these deities, O king, who dwell in the body, viz., Earth, Wind, Space, Water, Light, and Mind eat, gratifies them. When those five elements become gratified, O monarch, with Mind numbering as their sixth, their vital seed then becomes generated, O thou of cleansed soul! When an act of union takes place between male and female, the vital seed flows out and causes conception. I have thus explained to thee what thou hast asked. What else do you wish to hear? Yudhishthira said: Thou hast, O illustrious one, said how conception takes place. Do thou explain how the Jiva (individual soul) that takes birth grows (by becoming possessed of body)? Vrihaspati said: As soon as Jiva enters the vital seed, he becomes overwhelmed by the elements already mentioned. When Jiva becomes disunited therewith, he is said to attain to the other end (viz., death). Endued as Jiva becomes with all those elements, he attains, in consequence thereof, a body. The deities that preside over those elements behold as witness all his acts, good and bad. What else do you wish to hear?

153 Yudhishthira said: Leaving off skin and bone and flesh, and becoming destitute of all those elements, in what does Jiva reside, O illustrious one, for enjoying and enduring happiness and misery? Vrihaspati said: Endued with all his acts, the Jiva quickly enters the vital seed, and utilizing the functional flow of women, takes birth in time, O Bharata. After birth, the Jiva receives woe and death from the messengers of Yama (god of death). Indeed, misery and painful round of rebirth are his inheritance. Endued with life, O king, the Jiva in this world, from the moment of his birth, enjoys and endures his own previous acts, depending upon righteousness (and its reverse). If the Jiva, according to the best of his power, follows righteousness from the day of his birth, he then succeeds in enjoying, when reborn, happiness without interruption. THE HELL If, on the other hand, without following righteousness, without interruption, he acts sinfully, he reaps happiness at first as the reward of his righteousness and endures misery after that. Endued with unrighteousness, the Jiva has to go to the dominions of Yama and suffering great misery there, he has to take birth in an intermediate order of being. Note: Intermediate, i.e., between deities and human beings; hence animals and birds. Listen to me as I tell thee what the different acts are by doing which the Jiva, stupefied by folly, has to take birth in different orders of being, as declared in the Vedas, the scriptures, and the (sacred) histories. Mortals have to go to the frightful regions of Yama. In those regions, O king, there are places that are fraught with every merit and that are worthy on that account of being the abodes of the very deities. There are, again, places in those regions that are worse than those which are inhabited by animals and birds. Indeed, there are spots of these kinds, in the abode of Yama which (so far as its happier regions are concerned) is equal to the regions of Brahman himself in merits. Creatures bound by their

154 acts endure diverse kinds of misery. I shall, after this, tell thee what those acts and dispositions are in consequence of which a person obtains to an end that is fraught with great misery and terror. If a regenerate person, having studied the four Vedas, becomes stupefied by folly and accepts a gift from a fallen man, he has then to take birth in the asinine order. He has to live as an ass for five and ten years. Casting off his asinine form, he has next to take birth as an ox, in which state he has to live for seven years. Casting off his bovine form, he has next to take birth as a Rakshasa (demon)of regenerate order. Living as Rakshasa of the regenerate order for three months, he then regains his status (in his next birth) of a Brahmana. A Brahmana (priest), by officiating at the sacrifice of a fallen person, has to take birth as a vile worm. In this form he has to live for five and ten years, O Bharata. Freed from the status of a worm, he next takes birth as an ass. As an ass he has to live for five years, and then a hog, in which state also he has to remain for as many years. After that, he takes birth as a cock, and living for five years in that form, he takes birth as a jackal and lives for as many years in that state. He has next to take birth as a dog, and living thus for a year he regains his status of humanity. That foolish disciple, who offends his preceptor by doing any injury to him, has certainly to undergo three transformations in this world. Such a person, O monarch, has in the first instance to become a dog. He has then to become a beast of prey, and then an ass. Living his asinine form, he has to wander for some time in great affliction as a spirit. After the expiration of that period, he has to take birth as a Brahmana. That sinful disciple, who even in thought commits adultery with the wife of his preceptor, has in consequence of such a sinful heart, to undergo many fierce shapes in this world. First taking birth in the canine order he has to live for three years. Casting off the canine form when death comes, he takes birth as a worm

155 or vile vermin. In this form he has to live for a year. Leaving that form he succeeds in regaining his status as a human being of the regenerate order. That son who disregards his father and mother, O king, has to take birth, after leaving off his human form as an animal of the asinine order. Assuming the asinine form he has to live for ten years. After that he has to take birth as a crocodile, in which form he has to live for a year. After that he regains the human form. ….. That man who misappropriates what is deposited with him in trustfulness has to undergo a hundred transformations. He at last takes birth as a vile worm. In that order he has to live for a period of ten and five years, O Bharata. Upon the exhaustion of his great demerit in this way, he succeeds in regaining his status of humanity. That man of wicked understanding who becomes guilty of breach of trust has to take birth as a fish. Living as a fish for eight years, he takes birth, O Bharata, as a deer. Living as a deer for four months, he has next to take birth as a goat. After the expiration of a full year he takes birth then as a worm. After that he succeeds in regaining his status of humanity. Having committed an act of adultery with the spouse of another man, one has to take birth as a wolf. After that he has to assume the forms of a dog and a jackal and vulture. He has next to take birth as a snake and then as a Kanka (a bird of prey) and then as crane. He who eats without having performed the rites in honour of the deities or those in honour of the Pitris (dead ancestors) or without having offered (even) oblations of water to both the Rishis and the Pitris, has to take birth as a crow. He next assumes the form of a cock. His next transformation is that of a snake for a month. After this, he regains the status of humanity. The man who becomes guilty of ingratitude, O king, has to go to the regions of Yama and there to undergo very painful and severe treatment at the hands of the messengers, provoked to fury, of the grim king of the dead. Clubs with heavy hammers and mallets, sharp-pointed lances, heated jars, all fraught with severe

156 pain, frightful forests of sword-blades, heated sands, thorny Salamis – these and many other instruments of the most painful torture such a man has to endure in the regions of Yama, O Bharata! The ungrateful person, O chief of Bhatrata’s race, having endured such terrible treatment in the regions of the grim king of the dead, has to come back to this world and take birth among vile vermin. He has to live as a vile vermin for a period of five and ten years. Note: He is repeatedly struck with the clubs and hammers and mallets. He is frequently impaled. He is confined with fiery vessels. He is dragged with forests of sword-blades. He is made to walk over heated sand. He is rubbed against thorny Salamalis. The Salamalis is the Bombox Malalbaricum. He has then to enter the womb and die prematurely before birth. After this, that person has to enter the womb a hundred times in succession. Indeed, having undergone a hundred rebirths, he at last becomes born as a creature in some intermediate order between man and inanimate nature. Having endured misery for a great many years, he has to take birth as a hairless tortoise. That wretch who himself well armed, slays another while that other is unarmed, from motives of obtaining his victim’s wealth or from feelings of hostility, has, after casting off his human body, to take birth as an ass. Assuming that asinine form he has to live for a period of two years and then meet with death at the edge of a weapon. Casting off in this way his asinine body he has to take birth in his next life as a deer always filled with anxiety (at the thought of foes that may kill him). Upon the expiration of a year from the time of his birth as a deer, he has to yield up his life at the point of a weapon. Thus casting off his form as a deer, he next takes birth as a fish and dies in consequence of being dragged up in net, on the expiration of the fourth month. He has next to take birth as a beast of prey. For ten years he has to live in that form, and then he takes birth as a pard in which form he has to live for a period of five years. Impelled by the change that is

157 brought about by time, he then casts off that form, and his demerit having been exhausted he regains the status of humanity. Indeed, having committed sins, O Bharata, one has to take birth in an order intermediate between that of humanity and vegetables. Those people are entirely unacquainted with righteousness, which has their own hearts for its authority. Those men that commit diverse acts of sin and then seek to expiate them by continuous vows and observances of piety become endued with both happiness and misery and live in great anxiety of heart. Those men that are of sinful conduct and that yield to the influence of cupidity and stupefaction, without doubt, take birth as Mlechchhas that do not deserve to be associated with. Those men on the other hand, who abstain from sin all their lives, become free from disease of every kind, endued with beauty of form and possessed of wealth. Women also, when they act in the way indicated, attain to births of the same kind. Indeed, they have to take births as the spouse of the animals I have indicated. I have told thee all the faults that relate to the appropriation of what belongs to others. I have discoursed to thee very briefly on the subject, O sinless one. Having listened to all this, O monarch, do thou always set thy heart on righteousness. THE HEAVEN Yudhishthira said: Thou hast told me, O regenerate one, what the end is of unrighteousness or sin. I desire now to hear, O foremost of speakers, of what the end is of Righteousness. Having committed acts of sin, by what acts do people succeed in attaining to an auspicious end in this world? By what acts also do people attain to an auspicious end in heaven? Vrihaspati said: By committing sinful acts with perverted mind, one yields to the sway of unrighteousness and as a consequence goes to hell. That man who, having perpetrated sinful acts through stupefaction of mind, feels the pangs of repentance and sets his heart on contemplation (of the deity), has not to endure

158 the consequences of his sins. One becomes freed from one’s sins in proportion as one repents for them. If one having committed a sin, O king, proclaims it in the presence of Brahmanas (priests) conversant with duties, one becomes quickly cleansed from the obloquy arising from one’s sin. Accordingly as one becomes cleansed therefrom fully or otherwise, like a snake freed from his diseased slough. By making with a concentrated mind, gifts of diverse kinds unto a Brahmana, and concentrating the mind (on the deity), one attains to an auspicious end. I shall now tell thee what those gifts are, O Yudhishthira, by making which a person, even if guilty of having committed sinful acts, may become endued with merit. Of all kinds of gifts, that of food is regarded as the best. One desirous of attaining to merit should, with a sincere heart, make gifts of food. Food is the life-breath of men. From it all creatures are born. All the worlds of living creatures are established upon food. Hence food is applauded. The deities, Rishis (seers), Pitris (deceased ancestors), and men, all praise food. King Rantideva, in days of old, proceeded to Heaven by making gifts of food. Food that is good and that has been acquired lawfully, should be given, with a cheerful heart, unto such Brahmanas (priests) as are possessed of Vedic lore. That man has never to take birth in an intermediate order, whose food, given with a cheerful heart is taken by a thousand Brahmanas. A person, O chief of men, by feeding ten thousand Brahmanas, becomes cleansed of (his sins) and acquires piety and becomes devoted to Yoga practices. A Brahmana conversant with the Vedas, by giving away food acquired by him as alms, unto a Brahmana devoted to the study of the Vedas, succeeds in attaining to happiness here. A Kshatriya (ruling class and warriors) who, without taking anything that belongs to a Brahmana, protects his subjects lawfully, and makes gifts of food, obtained by the exercise of his strength, unto Brahmanas foremost in Vedic knowledge, with concentrated heart, succeeds by

159 such conduct, O thou of righteous soul, in cleansing himself, O son of Pandu, of all his sinful acts. That Vaisya (farmers, merchant class, wealth producers) who divides the produce of his fields into six equal shares and makes a gift of one of those shares unto Brahmanas, succeeds by such conduct in cleansing himself from every sin. That Sudra (labour class) who, earning food by hard labour and at the risk of life itself, makes a gift of it to Brahmanas becomes cleansed from every sin. That man who, by putting forth his physical strength, earns food without doing any act of injury to any creature, and makes gift of it unto Brahmanas succeeds in avoiding all calamities. A person by cheerfully making gifts of food acquired by lawful means unto Brahmanas pre-eminent in Vedic lore becomes cleansed of all his sins. By treading in the path of the righteous one becomes freed from all sins. A person by making gifts of such food as is productive of great energy becomes himself possessed of great energy. The path made by charitable persons is always trod by those that are endued with wisdom. They that make gifts of food are regarded as givers of life. The merit they acquire by such gifts is eternal. Hence, a person should, under all circumstances, seek to earn food by lawful means, and having earned to make always gifts of it unto deserving men. Food is the great refuge of the world of living creatures. By making gifts of food, one has never to go to hell. Hence, one should always make gifts of food, having earned it by lawful means. The householder should always seek to eat after having made a gift of food unto a Brahmana. Every man should make the day fruitful by making gifts of food. Note: That day is sterile or lost in which no gift is made of food. A person by feeding, O king, a thousand Brahmanas all of whom are conversant with duties and the scriptures and the sacred histories, has not to go to Hell and to return to this world for undergoing rebirths. Endued with the fruition of every wish, he enjoys great felicity hereafter. Possessed of such merit, he sports in

160 happiness, freed from every anxiety, possessed of beauty of form and great fame and endued with wealth. I have thus told thee all about the high merit of gifts of food. Even this is the root of all righteousness and merit, as also of all gifts, O Bharata! CONCEPTS OF HEAVEN AND HELL IN BUDDHISM Buddhism tells of many hells, of which Avîci is the most terrible. They are of course all temporary and therefore purgatories rather than places of eternal punishment, and the beings who inhabit them have the power of struggling upwards and acquiring merit, but the task is difficult and one may be born repeatedly in hell. The phraseology of Buddhism calls existences in heavens and hells new births. To us it seems more natural to say that certain people are born again as men and that others go to heaven or hell. But the three destinies are really parallel.279 The desire to accommodate influential ideas, though they might be incompatible with the strict teaching of the Buddha, is well seen in the position accorded to spirits of the dead. The Buddha was untiring in his denunciation of every idea which implied that some kind of soul or double escapes from the body at death and continues to exist. But the belief in the existence of departed ancestors and the presentation of offerings to them have always formed a part of Hindu domestic religion. To gratify this persistent belief, Buddhism recognized the world of Petas that is ghosts or spirits. Many varieties of these are described in later literature. Some are as thin as withered leaves and suffer from continual hunger, for their mouths are so small that they can take no solid food. According to strict theology, the Petas are a category of beings just above animals and certain forms of bad conduct entail birth among them. But in popular estimation, they are merely the

161 spirits of the dead who can receive nourishment and other benefits from the living. Buddhism has a best heaven. Everything is just the way you want it to be. In this heaven, there is no reason to change anything. You are ultimately happy. The problem is that it’s not permanent, as is everything in Buddhism. One day in the heaven realm is equal to 400 human years, and your stay is four thousand heaven years, so you will be there a really long time. But, one day the karma that put you in this heaven will be used up. You are only in heaven as long as your Karma account has merit in it. You can only draw from your Karma account while in heaven, because there in no way to make a deposit. You can’t practice generosity or compassion, and you’re not striving to gain wisdom. When the karma that put you in heaven is used up... you’re reborn... And that would probably make a lot of folks really unhappy. Who wants to leave a perfect place? The second heaven realm, which is a lower one, is where things are almost perfect. I call this the Donald Trump heaven. It could be better, if only you owned one more building or house. You see, there is still some desire associated with this heaven realm, and so it can’t ever be perfect. The next realm is the human realm, where all of us find ourselves in this lifetime. This is the best place for us to be, because this is the only place we can become enlightened. We cannot become enlightened in heaven, things are too nice, and we have no reason to strive. We cannot become enlightened in hell; because things are so bad, all we do is suffer. In this human rebirth, we have enough happiness and joy to keep us from taking our own lives, and we experience anxiety and fear to keep us striving. We cannot relax too long in any one mental state as a human, because all things are in a constant state of flux. The next lower realm is the animal realm. The animal realm is marked by wanting to have sex, wanting to have food, wanting to have sleep, and being

162 totally confused. Those are the four characteristics found in the animal realm. So you can see, we are not likely to become enlightened as an animal. A Zen question-- Does a dog have Buddha nature?-- comes to mind. Yes, a dog does have the potential to become enlightened, but only in the human realm. Can animals be reborn as human beings? Yes, if they come into contact with the Dharma, see a Buddhist temple, or smell incense burning. The contact can plant a Dharma seed which takes root when they’re reborn as humans. They can achieve their full potential and become enlightened, but only as a human being. So, it’s up to all of us to help our pets be reborn in the human realm. The next realm is called the hungry ghost realm. The hungry ghost is often pictured as a giant creature, with a large stomach and a pinhole for a mouth. It can never end it’s hunger no matter how much it eats, it never finds satisfaction. In the hell realm, the worst place, you find the most suffering. You are given little hell bodies when you enter. Then, one day you might be walking through a forest, when all the leaves on a tree turn into razor blades and fall, cutting you into a million pieces. You cry out in pain, and your hell body resurrects, so you can be killed over and over again. The only way to get out of the hell realm is to burn through the karma that put you there. Suffering is the only act of purification in hell, and much suffering is necessary before the next rebirth. In the Buddhist model of afterlife, there are specific practices necessary to achieve rebirth in heaven, and more important, there are specific practices necessary to attain Nirvana. The Buddha did not leave afterlife up to chance. Just because a person says he’s a Buddhist does not ensure rebirth in heaven or Nirvana. The Buddhist path to afterlife is a labor intensive practice that requires personal responsibility.275, 281

163 THE HEBREW VISIONS OF HELL AND PARADISE THE REVELATION OF MOSES (Gedulath Mosheh, Amsterdam, 1854, v. Jellinek, Beth-hammidrash, II. pp. x., xiv. ff., and xix-xx.) 1. As the apple tree among the trees of the wood, so is my beloved among the sons (Song of Songs, ii. 3). (This applies to Moses, upon whom be peace.) 2. In that hour when God said unto him: “Go and bring out the children of Israel from Egypt, for I have heard their groaning, and I remembered the covenant, and the oath I swore to Abraham my servant.” Moses said: “O Lord of the Universe, who am I that I should go unto Pharaoh, and that I should bring forth the children of Israel out of Egypt?” (Ex. iii. 11). God said: “Thou hast humbled thyself in saying ‘Who am I that I should go to Pharaoh?’ but I will honour thee [as it is said: ‘He that is of lowly spirit shall obtain honour’ (Prov. xxix. 23)], and I will give the whole of Egypt into thy hands, and I will bring thee up even near to my throne of glory; and I will shew thee the angels of the Heaven.” Thereupon God commanded Metatron, the angel of his presence (of the face), and said unto him: “Go and bring Moses with harps, and pipes, and drums, and dances, with joy, and songs, and praises.” 3. And Metatron answered and said: “O Lord of the Universe, Moses is not able to come up and see the angels, for there are angels who are of fire and he is only of flesh and blood.” 4. God said: “Go and change his flesh (body) into fire.” And Metatron went to Moses. 5. When Moses beheld Metatron he trembled with fear, and said to him: “Who art thou?” 6. And he answered: “I am Enoch the son of Jared, thy father’s father. The Almighty hath sent me to bring thee up to his throne of glory.”

164 7. Moses said: “I am only flesh and blood, and cannot look upon the angels.” And Metatron changed Moses’ tongue into a tongue of fire, and his eyes he made like the wheels of the heavenly chariot, and his power like unto that of the angels, and his tongue like a flame, and brought him up to heaven. 15,000 angels were on the right hand, and 15,000 on the left, Metatron and Moses in the middle. In this way was Moses carried up to heaven. 8. The first heaven to which Moses ascended corresponds to the first day of the week; there he saw the waters standing in lines. This heaven was full of windows, and at each window stood an angel. And Moses asked Metatron: “What are these windows?” and Metatron answered: “These windows are the window of prayer, the window of request, the window of supplication, the window of crying (tears), the window of joy, the window of satiation, the window of famine, the window of poverty, the window of riches, the window of war, the window of peace, the window of pregnancy, the window of birth, the window of the treasures of rain, the window of dew, the window of sin, the window of repentance, the window of smallness, the window of greatness, the window of death, the window of life, the window of disease among men, the window of disease among animals, the window of healing, the window of sickness, the window of health.” And Moses saw great things past finding out, “yea marvellous things without number” (Job ix. 10). 9. Moses ascended then the second heaven, which corresponds to the second day of the week. There he saw an angel whose name is X. His length is 300 parasangs and 50 myriads of angels stand before him; they are of fire and water, and their faces are directed towards the Shekina above; and all sing hymns, saying: “Great is the Lord and highly to be praised” (cxlv. 3). 10. And Moses asked Metatron and said: “Who are those?” He answered: “These are the angels who are placed over the clouds, the wind, and the rain; they go and fulfil the will of their Creator and return to their places and praise the Almighty.” And Moses asked: “Why have they their faces turned towards

165 the Shekina?” And Metatron answered: “From that day when God created them until to-day they have not been moved from their position.” 11. Moses went up to the third heaven, which corresponds to the third day of the week. There he saw an angel whose name is X. His length is a journey of 500 years. He has 70,000 heads, in each head 70,000 mouths, in each mouth 70,000 tongues, and in each tongue 70,000 dictions; before him stand 70,000 myriads of angels, all of white fire; they all praise and sing to God [and say: “Thine, O Lord, is the greatness and power,” etc. (1 Chr. xxix. 11)]. 12. Moses asked Metatron: “Who are these? and what is their name?” And he answered: “Their name is Erelim; they are placed over the grass (herbs), and over the trees, and over the fruits, and over the corn; and they all go and fulfil the will of their Creator and return to their places.” 13. Moses went up to the fourth heaven. There he saw the temple built; the columns of red fire, the sides of green fire, the thresholds of white fire, the hooks and the planks of blazing fire; the portals of carbuncle and the halls of sparkling gems. And he saw angels going therein praising (and saying) [as King David, upon whom may peace rest, said: “Bless the Lord, ye angels of His, ye mighty in strength, that fulfil his word” (Ps. ciii. 20)]. 14. Moses asked Metatron and said: “Who are these angels?” And Metatron answered: “These are the angels, who are placed over the earth, and over the sun, and over the moon, and over the stars, and over the planets, and over the spheres, and ever sing they hymns unto Him.” And he saw two big stars, each of them as big as the whole earth; the name of one was Nogah, and the name of the other Maadim, one standing above the sun, and the other above the moon. Moses asked Metatron: “Why do these stand above those others?” And he said: “The one stands above the sun in summer in order to cool the world from the heat of the sun, and that is the star Nogah; whilst the other stands near the moon in order to warm the world from the cold of the moon (and this is the star Maadim).”

166 15. Moses went to the fifth heaven and he saw there troops of angels half of fire and half of snow, and the snow is above the fire without extinguishing it, for God makes peace between them [as it is said: “He maketh peace in his high places,” Job xxv. 2], and all praise the Almighty. 16. And Moses asked Metatron: “What are these doing?” He said: “Since the day when God created them are they so.” Moses asked: “What is their name?” and he answered: “These are the Erelim who are called Ishim [as it is said: ‘Unto you, O Ishim (men), I call,’ Prov. viii. 4; i.e.: I call you Ishim!].” 17. Moses went up to the sixth heaven, there he saw an angel whose length was 500 years’ journey; his name was X., and he was wholly of hail (ice), and by him stood thousands and myriads of angels, without number, and all sung praises to the One who said and the world was created [as it is said: the heaven proclaim the glory of God (Ps. xix. 2)]. 18. Moses asked Metatron: “Who are these?” and he answered: “These are the Irin Kadishin, the holy watchers,” (Daniel iv. 10-14). 19. Moses went up to the seventh heaven, and he saw an angel wholly of fire; and two angels, whose names were X. These were fastened with two chains of red and dark fire; and each of them had the length of 500 parasangs. 20. Moses asked Metatron: “Who are these?” And he answered: “These are wrath and anger, and God created them during the six days of creation, that they should fulfil his will.” 21. Moses replied: “I am afraid of these angels, and I cannot look on them.” Thereupon Metatron embraced Moses, placed him in his bosom and said: “O Moses, beloved of God, be not frightened nor dread thou aught.” And Moses was immediately calmed. 22. After this Moses saw another angel, whose countenance was totally different from those of the other angels, for he was ugly and his height of 540 years’ journey, and he was girded forty times around his waist. From the sole of the

167 foot unto the head he was full of fiery eyes, and whosoever looked at him, fell down in dread. 23. And Moses asked Metatron: “Who is this?” He answered: “This is the angel of death, who takes the souls of men.” 24. And Moses said before God: “May it be thy will, O Lord, my God and God of my fathers that thou shouldst not deliver me into the hands of this angel!” 25. Then saw he angels standing before God; each of them having six wings. With twain wings they covered their faces, so that they might not look upon the Shekina. With the other twain wings they cover their feet, for they have the feet of a calf, and with the other twain wings they fly and praise God. The length of each wing is 500 years’ journey, and the width from one end of the world to the other. And Moses asked: “Who are these?” and Metatron answered: “These are the holy Creatures.” 26. Our sages tell that at the time when Nebuchadnezzar the impious said: “I will ascend above the heights of the clouds; I will be like the Most High” (Isaiah xv. 14 {sic. Isaiah xiv. 14}), the Holy Spirit came forth and said: “O impious man! How many are the days of the years of thy life? Threescore and ten, or even by reason of strength, fourscore years” (Ps. xc. 10), and the distance from earth to heaven alone is 500 years, the thickness of the heaven again 500 years, and from the heaven Rakia to the heaven Shehakim 500 years, and its thickness 500 years, and from Shehakim to Zebul again 500 years, and its thickness 500 years, and from Zebul to Meon 500 years, and its thickness 500 years, and from Meon to Araboth 500 years, and its thickness 500 years, and the feet of the holy Creatures are equal to the whole; and their ankles are equal to the whole; and the wings of the creatures are like the whole, and their necks are like the whole, and their heads like the whole, and their horns like unto the whole, and upon them is the throne of glory which is equal to the whole. It is like the terrible ice, Ezek. i. 22. And there sits the King of Kings, the Holy, blessed be He exalted and high, and thou sayest: “I will ascend above the heights of the clouds, I will

168 be like the Most High! Woe unto thee, O impious man and woe unto thy soul, for thou shalt be brought down to the uttermost parts of the pit (cf. Isaiah xiv. 15) to the seven regions of hell to be punished for ever and ever.” 27. And after that Moses saw an angel in the heaven called Araboth, i.e. the seventh heaven, and this angel was teaching the souls which were created by God at the time of the Creation and have been placed in paradise. The name of the angel was X. He teaches them in seventy languages in the college on high, and they answer: “Thus is the law of Moses given by tradition from Mount Sinai [as it is said Dina was set and the books were opened (Daniel vii. 10), and Dina is none other than this angel, who is the guardian angel of the Law and of wisdom.” He has also another name, they call him Jefefiyah, for the name of the guardian angel of the Law is Iofiel. 28.(From the Zohar) R. Simeon, son of Johai, said: “At that time when Moses went up to heaven an angel sat before him and taught him 370 mysteries of the Law, Moses then said to God, ‘I will not depart from here unless Thou wilt give me good gifts.’” God answered: “Moses, my servant, faithful in my house, I will give thee my Law wherein are good gifts, as it is written: ‘For I gave thee a good gift’ (Prov. iv. 2). Therein are also the commandments, positive and negative, and not only this (I grant thee) but also that the Law shall be recorded in thy name, as it is written: ‘Remember ye the Law of Moses, my servant’ (Malachi iii. 22).” Whence do we know that Moses did actually ascend seven heavens? We learn it from the verse, “And Moses ascended to God.” (It is further written, “God went up amidst the sounds of trumpets”) (Ps. xlvii. 6). Moses is therefore called Elohim like unto his Master, for it is said: “See I have made thee as Elohim unto Pharaoh,” therefore it is written: “Like an apple-tree in the wood is my beloved among the sons.” This is Moses, master of the Prophets and servant of God; he is like an apple in odour and taste. 29. At that time a Bath-Kol came forth from underneath the throne of glory and said: “Moses, my servant! Art thou afraid of them?” [It is written: “A wise man

169 scaleth the city of the mighty and bringeth down the strength of the confidence thereof” (Prov. xxi. 22). Strength means the Law as it is said: “God will give strength to his people” (Ps. xxix. 11). 30. God said then to Moses: “Moses, my servant! Thou camest up here and hast been worthy of the privilege of seeing all with thy (earthly) power; and I have made thee ascend seven heavens, and have shown thee my treasures and I have given thee my law. Now thou shalt be worthy of seeing the two parks I have created in this world, one for the righteous and one for the sinners, viz. Paradise and Hell.” 31. At that hour God sent Gabriel and said unto him: “Go with my beloved servant Moses and show him Hell!” 32. And Moses said to him: “I cannot enter Hell, that blazing fire.” He said to him: “Moses, there is a fire which burns more than all the seven Hells, and yet when thou wilt tread it with thy feet, it shall not burn thee.” 33. At an hour when Moses entered Hell, the fire of Hell withdrew for 500 parasangs. The master of Hell said to him: “Who art thou?” He answered: “I am the son of Amram.” The Lord of Hell answered: “Not here is thy place.” And Moses said: “I came to see the powerful works of God, blessed be He.” And God said to the Lord of Hell: “Go and show him how men are in Hell.” 34. Immediately he went with Moses, like a pupil before his master, and entered Hell together with him. 35. Moses saw there men tortured by the angels of destruction. Some of the sinners were hanged by their eyelids, some by their ears, some by their hands, and others by their tongues, and they cried bitterly. And he saw women hanging by their hair and by their breasts and in such like ways, all were hanging by chains of fire. 36. And Moses asked the Lord of Hell, and said “Why are these hanged by their eyes and by their tongues and are so fearfully tortured and so sorely punished?” And the master of Hell answered: “Because they looked with an evil eye at fair

170 women, and at married women, and at the money of their friends and neighbours, and gave false witness against their neighbours.” 37. Also saw he in Hell men hanging by their sexual organs and their hands were tied, and he asked: “Why do these hang?” The Lord answered: “Because they committed adultery, and stole, and killed, and murdered.” 38. He saw other men hanging by their ears and their tongues, and he asked: “Why are these hanging by their ears and tongues?” And he answered: “Because they neglected the study of the law, and talked slander and vain words and empty words. The women are hanging by their hair and breasts, because they used to uncover their breasts and their hair before the young men and desired them, and came thus to sin.” 39. Hell cried then with a bitter and loud voice, and said to the Master of Hell: “Give me the sinners, that I may destroy them.” For Hell is always hungry and never satisfied, and crieth always for the sinners to devour them, but hath no power over the righteous. 40. Moses went further and saw two sinners hanged by their feet with their heads downwards, and they cried by reason of the torture of Hell, and their bodies were covered with black worms, each worm 500 parasangs long. And these sinners cry and lament, saying: “Woe unto us, for the terrible punjshment of Hell; would we could die.” But they cannot die as it is said: “They long for death but it cometh not” (Job iii. 21). 41. Moses asked the master of Hell: “What acts have these committed?” And he answered: “These are those who swore falsely, and profaned the Sabbath, and despised the learned, and persecuted the orphans; and gave bad names to their neighbours, and bare false witness. Therefore hath God delivered them to these worms to take vengeance on these sinners.” And Moses asked: “What is the name of this place?” And he answered: “Aluka [as it is said; Aluka hath two daughters” (Prov. xxx. 15).

171 42. Moses went then to another place. There the sinners were lying on their faces; and he saw two thousand scorpions swarming over them and stinging them and torturing them, and the sinners cried bitterly. Each scorpion has 70,000 mouths, and each mouth 70,000 stings, and each sting has 70,000 vesicles filled with poison and venom, and with these are the sinners imbued and thus are they tortured; and their eyes are sunk in their sockets for fear and dread, and their cry: “Woe unto us, for our sins, and for the day of judgment.” 43. And Moses asked: “What have these committed?” And he answered: “These have wasted the money of others; they have taken bribery, and elevated themselves above others; they have put their neighbours publicly to shame; they have delivered up their brother Israelite to the gentile; they denied the oral Law and maintained that God did not create the world. Therefore God has handed them over to the scorpions to be avenged on them.” 44. He saw there another place where the sinners stood up to their knees; the name of that place is Tit hayaven (“miry clay,” Ps. xl. 3). Angels of destruction tie them up with chains of iron and lash them with fiery whips, and they take fiery stones and break with them the teeth of the sinners, from morning until evening, and during the night they prolong their teeth again to the length of a parasang in order to break them anew next morning; [as it is said: “Thou hast broken the teeth of the wicked” (Ps. iii. 8)]. And the sinners cry: “Woe unto us, woe unto us!” but nobody takes pity on them. 45. Moses asked the master of Hell: “What have these committed?” He answered: “They ate all kinds of forbidden fruit and gave them to Israelites to eat; they were usurers, and apostates and blasphemers; they wrote the ineffable name of God for Gentiles; they had false weights; they stole money, and ate on the fast day of Kippur [for whosoever eats blood, or reptiles, or worms, and does not keep away from them is punished by being cut off], these are for ever punished in Hell, and therefore God hath delivered them to the angels of destruction to chastise them.

172 46. He saw there further how they punish the wicked with fire and snow; and torture them terribly. The Lord of Hell said then to Moses: “Come and see how the wicked are punished in Hell with fire.” Moses answered: “I dread to go.” But the Lord of Hell answered: “Go and dread naught,” as it is said: “Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death I will fear no evil” (Ps. xxiii. 4). 47. And Moses stood up to go, and he saw the Shekina moving before him, so that he should not be in dread of the angels of destruction. Each of these is full of eyes, and hath fiery chains in his hands, and his length is 500 years’ journey. 48. Moses went and saw how the wicked were punished by fire, being half in fire and half in snow, with worms crawling up and down their bodies and a fiery collar round their necks, and having no rest, except on Sabbath days and Festival days. All (the other) days they are tortured in Hell. Of these speaks the verse: “And they shall go forth and look upon the carcases of the men that have transgressed against me, for their worm shall not die, neither shall their fire be quenched” (Isaiah cxvi. 28 {sic lxvi. 24}). 49. And Moses asked the angel of Hell: “What have these committed?” And the angel answered: “This is the punishment for those who have committed adultery, sodomy, idolatry, and murder, and who have cursed their parents. Therefore hath God delivered them to the angels of destruction to be avenged on them.” And Moses asked: “What is the name of this place?” And he answered: “The name of it is Abadon.” 50. Thereupon Moses went up (to heaven) and said: “May it be Thy will, O Lord, my God, and God of my fathers, that Thou mayest save me and Thy people Israel from those places which I have seen in Hell.” 51. God said to Moses: “Moses, my servant? I have created two parks: Paradise and Hell. Whosoever committeth evil deeds goeth down to Hell, and whosoever doth good deeds cometh into Paradise” [as it is said: “I the Lord search the

173 heart, I try the reins, even to give every man according to his ways, according to the fruit of his doings “ (Jer. xvii. 10)]. 52. Then Moses lifted up his eyes and beheld the angel Gabriel; and he fell down and bowed himself before him. And the angel said: “Hast thou seen Hell?” He answered: “Yea.” And the angel said: “Come then, I will show thee Paradise, by the will of God.” So Moses went with him to Paradise. 53. When they came there, the angels said: “Thy time is not yet arrived to leave the world.” Moses answered: “I came to see the mighty deeds of God, and the reward of the pious in Paradise, what is their condition there.” 54. The angels began then to praise Moses and they said: “Hail, O Moses, servant of the Lord; Hail, O Moses, born of woman, who hast been found worthy to ascend seven heavens, hail the nation to whom such belongs.” 55. When Moses went into Paradise he saw an angel sitting under the tree of life. Moses asked the angel Gabriel: “Who is this angel?” He answered: “This is the Lord (guardian) of Paradise and his name is X.” 56. This angel then asked Moses: “Who art thou?” He answered: “I am the son of Amram.” He said to him: “Why didst thou come hither?” And Moses answered: “To see the reward of the pious in Paradise have I come hither.” 57. The angel took Moses by the hand, and they went both together. Moses looked up and saw seventy thrones fixed, one next to another; all made of precious stones, of emerald, sapphire and diamond and precious pearls, and the foot of each was of gold and fine gold. Around each throne stood seventy angels. Amongst the thrones was one greater than the others, and twenty of the ministering angels kept ward thereover. 58. Moses enquired of the angel and said: “Whose is that throne?” He answered: “It is the throne of Abraham the Patriarch.” 59. Thereupon Moses went immediately up to Abraham. Abraham asked him: “Who art thou?” He answered: “I am the son of Amram.” And Abraham asked: “Is perchance already thy time come to leave the world?” Moses answered: “My

174 time is not yet come, but with the permission of God I came to see the reward of the pious.” Abraham then said: “Praise ye the Lord, for He is good; for His mercy endureth for ever” (Ps. cvi. 1). 60. Then went Moses to the throne of Isaac, and he spake with him in a similar manner, and Moses answered in like wise. 61. Then asked Moses, the guardian angel of Paradise: “What is the length and width of Paradise?” The angel answered: “There is none who could measure it; no angel or Seraph can ever know the length and width of Paradise, for it is unlimited and boundless and immeasurable. The angels guard only the thrones and these are unlike to one another, for some of them are of silver, others of gold, others of bdellium, others of ruby, topaz, and carbuncle, others of emerald, sapphire and diamond, others of precious stones and pearls, others of rubies and carbuncles.” 62. Moses asked the angel: “For whom is the throne of pearls?” He answered: “It is for the scholars who study the Law day and night for the sake of heaven.” “And those of precious stones?” “For the pious men.” “And those of rubies?” “For the just.” “And those of gold?” “For the men who repent;” “but the greatest throne is for thy forefather Abraham, the other thrones are for Isaac and Jacob, and for the prophets and righteous, and the holy and wise pious men, each after his worth and position and the good works he hath performed in the world.” 63. Moses then said to the angel: “For whom is that throne of copper?” He answered: “For the wicked man, whose son is pious; because through the merits of his son he obtains a portion of heavenly bliss; as thou seest in the case of Terah, who had worshipped all the idols in the world, but who through the merits of his son Abraham obtained that throne of copper as it is said: “Thou shalt go to thy fathers in peace” (Gen. xv. 15), thus announcing to him (Abraham) that God would give (his father also) a place in Paradise.” 64. Afterwards Moses looked and beheld a spring of living water welling forth from underneath the tree of life and dividing itself into four streams, [and it

175 comes from under the throne of glory] and they encompass the Paradise from one end to the other. And under each throne there flow four rivers, one of honey, the second of milk, the third of wine, and the fourth of pure balsam. These all pass beneath the feet of the just, who are seated upon thrones. 65. It is said in the Zohar. King Messias said to R. Simeon, son of Johai: “Worthy art thou of thy portion in heaven, for thy teaching is divided (spread) through 670 heavens, each heaven is divided into 670 lights, each light is divided in 670 arguments, each argument is divided in (among) 670 worlds, each world is divided in 670 streams of pure balsam. 66. And all these streams flow round Paradise and beneath all the thrones. All these were created by God for the just, and whoso becometh equal to them in merit, sees and enjoys, as they enjoy, the splendour of the Shekina. 67. When Moses saw all these godly and pleasant things he felt great joy, and exclaimed: “Oh! how great is Thy goodness which Thou hast laid up for them that fear Thee, which Thou hast wrought for them that put their trust in Thee, before the sons of men” (Ps. xxxi. 19 {sic xxxi. 20}). 68. And Moses retired from there and went away. At that same moment a voice from Heaven (Bath-Kol) was heard saying: “Moses, servant of the Lord, faithful in His house; even as thou hast seen the reward which is preserved for the just in the future world, so also in the days to come shalt thou see the rebuilding of the Temple and the advent of the Messiah, and behold the beauty of the Lord, and meditate in His Temple” (Ps. xxvii. 4). (May it now be Thy will, O Lord, my God and the God of my fathers, that I and the whole nation of Israel may be deemed worthy of sharing in good and the great consolation, and the days of the Messiah, and the rebuilding of the Temple, and the everlasting life. Amen.) [Ziyuni, fol. 93 c-d, cf. Yalkut Reubeni, fol. 100d-101a; Jellinek, Beth- hammidrash, I. 58-64; Pesikta Rabbati, ed. Friedmann, sec. 20, fol. 96a- 98b; MS. Oxford, No. 1466, 14 (Cat. Neubauer)].

176 1. Moses, our teacher, upon whom may rest peace, said to Israel: “Hear, O Israel, you the whole nation! I went up on high, and I saw all the Heavenly rulers. I saw p. 589 the angel Kemuel, the Janitor, who is placed over 12,000 angels of destruction, and who stands at the gates of heaven. 2. I saw further the angel Hadarniel, who is higher by 60 myriads of parasangs than Kemuel, and with every diction that comes out of his mouth go forth 12,000 flashes of lightning. 3. I saw further Sandalfon, the prince, greater than Hadarniel by 500 years’ journey. Of him said Ezekiel: “One wheel upon the earth besides the living Creatures, for each of the four faces thereof” (Ezek. i. 15). 4. This is the Sandalfon who weaves crowns for his master. When this crown appears before the heavenly hosts, they all shake and tremble and the holy Creatures are struck dumb, and the holy Seraphim roar like lions, and they say: “Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of Hosts, the whole earth is full of his glory” (Is. vi. 2). And when the crown approaches the throne the wheels of the throne of glory move, and the thresholds of brilliancy quake, and all the heavens are seized with terror. And when the crown passes on to the throne of glory to its right place all the heavenly hosts open their mouths, turn to the Seraphim and say: “Blessed be the glory of the Lord from his place.” They say: “From his place” (Ezek. iii. 12), because they do not know His actual place. When the crown comes near to God’s head He accepts it graciously from His servants. And the heavenly Creatures and the Seraphim, and the wheels of the throne of glory, and the heavenly hosts, and the Hashmalim and Cherubim praise the Creator, acknowledge him as their king, and exclaim unanimously: “The Lord reigneth, the Lord reigned, the Lord will reign for evermore.” 5. I saw further the fiery river Rigyon, which comes out before God, from under the throne of glory, and is formed from the perspiration of the holy Creatures who support the throne of glory; and out of dread of God’s majesty perspire fire. This river is meant by the saying “a fiery stream issued and came forth before

177 him; thousand thousands ministered unto him, and ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him; the judgment was set and the books were opened” (Dan. vii. 10). For the Almighty sits and judges the ministering angels, and after the judgment they bathe in that river of fire and are renewed. Afterwards the river flows on and carries with it fiery coals, and falls on the heads of the sinners in Hell, as it is said: “Behold the tempest of the Lord, even His fury is gone forth, yea, a whirling tempest; it shall burst on the head of the wicked” (Jer. xxiii. 19). 6. I saw further the angel Galitzur, surnamed also Raziel, who stands behind the curtain and listens to all that is decreed in heaven and proclaims it. This proclamation is then handed over to the prophet Elijah and he proclaims it to the world from the Mount Horeb. 7. The wings of Galitzur are spread and keep off the breath of the holy Creatures, for otherwise all the ministering angels would be burned by the breath of the holy Creatures. 8. I saw further Michael, the great prince, standing at the right side of the throne, and Gabriel at the left; and Iefefiyah, the guardian of the law, standing before it; and Metatron, the angel of the presence, standing at the door of the palace of God. And he sits and judges all the heavenly hosts before his master. And God pronounces judgment and he executes it. 9. I saw then a troop of the terrible angels who surround the throne of glory, they were more powerful and mightier than all the other angels. All these whom I saw wished to scorch me with the breath of their mouths, but out of dread of the presence of the Almighty, the king of kings, they had no power to injure me, for they all were full of fear and agony and dread before Him. [1. V. 23; cf. Peter, 8 (H. 23); Paul, 32; V. Mary.]310 THE REVELATION OF JOSHUA BEN LEVI (Orhot Hayim II. Cod. 52, Montefiore College, f. 281b-282b; Cod. 28, Jews’ College, London, f. 145b-147a; Jellinek, Beth-hammidrash, II. 48-51; with

178 Agadath Bereshit, Warsaw, 1867, fol. 51a-b; Kolbo, § 120; Zunz, Gottesdienstl. Vortraege, p. 141, No. e.). 1. R. Joshua, son of Levi, was a pious man. When the time approached that he should leave this world, the Lord said to the angel of death, “Go and fulfil whatever his wish may be.” He went to him and said unto him: “The time is nigh when thou shalt leave this world, but now tell me what thou wishest, that I may fulfil it.” 2. As soon as R. Joshua heard this, be said: “I pray thee, show me my place in Paradise.” He answered and said: “Come and I will show thee it.” R. Joshua answered and said, “Give me thy sword, so that thou shouldst not frighten me.” And he gave him his sword. So they went together till they reached the wall of Paradise. There being outside the wall, the angel of death lifted R. Joshua from the ground and placed him upon the crest of the wall, and said unto him: “Behold thy place in Paradise.” 3. At that moment R. Joshua jumped down from the wall and fell into Paradise. The angel of death caught him by his mantle and said to him, “Get thee out thence.” But R. Joshua swore by the name of God that he would not do so. The angel of death had no power to enter therein. The ministering angels seeing this, said to the Almighty: “Lord of the Universe, behold what R. Joshua hath done! By force hath he taken possession of his portion in Paradise.” God answered: “Go and see if he has ever broken his oath, then shall this oath of his be likewise void and null.” They searched and could not find any such case. So they came and said: “He hath never broken his oaths in his lifetime.” And God answered: “If it be so, let him remain there.” 4. When the angel of death saw this, he said to R. Joshua: “Give me now my sword back.” But R. Joshua did not fulfil his request till a voice came forth and said: “Give him the knife, for it is of necessity for His creatures.” 5. R. Joshua then said to him: “Swear unto me that thou wilt not show it any more to the creatures at the moment when thou takest their souls.” For up to that

179 time the angel of death used to kill men openly, as one slaughters animals, and he showed it even to the suckling in the bosom of their mother. At that hour he swore unto him, and R. Joshua returned the knife to him. 6. After that began the prophet Elijah to proclaim and to cry out aloud to the just: “Clear the way for the son of Levi.” 7. He went and saw R. Joshua sitting in the compartment of the just, and he asked him: “Art thou the son of Levi?” And he answered: “Yes.” He asked again: “Hast thou seen a rainbow in thy lifetime?” Again R. Joshua answered: “Yes.” And he replied: “Then if this is so, thou art not the son of Levi.”--In fact it had not been the case. Now as Joshua had not seen a rainbow, but he did not wish to boast of it and to ascribe it to his own merits. He had asked him about the rainbow, for it is the sign of the covenant between God and the world; and when the rainbow appears then God (remembers) and pitieth his creatures; but when there liveth a just man, there is no longer any necessity for a rainbow, as through his merits the world is saved. As it is said: “And the just is the foundation of the world” (Prov. x. 25). Therefore did he ask him about the rainbow. 8. The angel of death went to R. Gamaliel and told him: “So and so hath R. Joshua done unto me.” R. G. answered and said: “He served thee right. But now please go and tell him I request him to search through heaven and hell their mysteries and to write them down and send it to me (also if there are idolators in hell).” 9. The angel went, and R. Joshua answered: “I will do so.” 10. Thereupon R. Joshua went and searched through Paradise and he found therein seven compartments, each of twelve myriads of miles in width, and twelve myriads of miles in length; the measure of their width being the same as that of their length. 11. The first compartment corresponds to the first door of Paradise. Here dwell the proselytes who had embraced Judaism of their own free will, not from

180 compulsion. The walls are of glass and the wainscoting of cedar. As I tried to measure it the inhabitants rose to prevent me from doing it. Obadiah the just, who presides over them, rebuked them and said: “What are your merits that this man should dwell here with you?” (for they wished to retain him there). Thereupon they allowed him to measure it. 12. The second compartment corresponds to the facing of the door of Paradise. It is built of silver and the wainscoting thereof of cedar. Here dwell those who repent, and Manasseh, son of Ezekiah, presides over them. 13. The third compartment, facing the third door, is built of silver and gold. Here dwell Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and all the Israelites who came out of Egypt, and the whole generation who had lived in the desert, and all the kings (princes), with the exception of Absalom. There is also David, and Solomon, and Kilab, son of David, still alive, and all the kings of the house of Judah, with the exception of Manasseh, who presides over those who repent. Over these here preside Moses and Aaron. Here are the precious vessels of silver and gold, and jewels, and canopies, and beds, and thrones, and lamps of gold, and precious stones and pearls. And I asked: “For whom are all these prepared?” And David answered and said: “They are for those who still dwell in the world whence thou comest.” And I asked: “Is here perhaps one also from the Gentiles, at least from my brother Esau?” And he answered and said: “No; because the Almighty gives the reward of every good deed they do in their lifetime in that world, but after death they go down to Hell; whilst the sinners in Israel get their punishment in their lifetime in that world, but after death they obtain the merit of their good deed here.” As it is said: “And he payeth.” 14. The fourth compartment, facing the fourth door of Paradise, is beautifully built, like to the first compartment, but its wainscoting is of olive-wood. Here dwell the perfect, and faithful, and just men. Why is the wainscoting of olive- wood? Because their life has been bitter to them as olives.

181 15. The fifth compartment is of silver, and gold, and refined gold, and of crystal, and bdellium; and through its midst flows the river Gihon. The walls are of silver and gold, and a perfume breathes through it more exquisite than the perfume of Lebanon. And beds of silver and gold are there prepared, covered with violet and purple covers, woven by Eve, and mixed with scarlet and made of hair of goats, woven by angels. Here dwell the Messiah and Elijah in a palanquin of the wood of Lebanon; the pillars thereof of silver, the bottom thereof of gold, the seat of it of purple. Herein lieth the Messiah, the son of David, who is the love of the daughters of Jerusalem, the midst thereof is love. The prophet Elijah takes the head of the Messiah and places it in his bosom and says to him: “Be quiet and wait, for the end draweth nigh.” On every Monday and Thursday and Saturday and Holiday the Patriarchs come to him and the fathers of the Tribes and Moses and Aaron and David and Solomon and every king of Israel and of the house of Judah, and they weep with him and comfort him, and say unto him: “Be quiet and wait and rely upon thy Creator, for the end draweth nigh.” Also Korah and his company and Dathan and Abiram and Absalom come to him on every Wednesday, and ask him: “When will the end of our misery come? When wilt thou reveal thyself?” 16. He answereth them and says: “Go to your fathers and ask them.” And when they hear of their fathers they feel ashamed and do not ask any further. 17. When I came to the Messiah he asked me: “What is Israel doing in the world from which thou comest?” And I answered and said: “Every day they await Thee.” He immediately raised His voice and wept. 18. In the sixth compartment dwell those who died through performing a pious act. 19. In the seventh compartment dwell those who died from illnesses caused through the sins of Israel. 20. R. Joshua, son of Levi, tells further: “I asked the Messiah to allow me to look into Hell, but he did not allow me, as the righteous should never behold

182 Hell.” So I sent to the angel called Komm that he might describe Hell for me. But it was impossible, for at that moment R. Ismael, the high priest, and R. Simeon, son of Gamaliel, and ten just men were killed, and the news reached us, so I could not go with the angel. I went afterwards with the angel Kipod and the light went with me up to the gates of Hell, and the Messiah came with me, and they were open. The sinners who were there saw the light of the Messiah, and rejoiced, and said to one another: “This will bring us out from here.” 21. I saw compartments of ten miles length and of five width, full of pits of fire, and these consume the sinners, and after their destruction they are again made whole and fall again into the fire. In that compartment are ten nations from the Gentiles, and Absalom presides over them. These nations say one to another: “Our sin is that we have not accepted the Law; but what is your sin?” And the other answers: “That is also our sin, we are like you.” They say then to Absalom: “Why art thou punished, seeing that thou as well as thy parents hast accepted the Law?” And he answers them and says: “Because I did not hearken to the commandments of my father.” Angels stand close by and with their staves drive them back into the fire and burn them. Then they hurry to Absalom to beat him also, and to burn him; but a voice calls out to them: “Do not beat him and do not burn him, for he is from the seed of Israel, who said ‘We will do and hearken,’ and he is the son of my servant David.” So they leave him upon his seat and honour him with the honour of a king. They bring out afterwards the sinners from the fire just as if they had not been burnt and the fire had never touched them; and they burn them again. This they repeat seven times, three times at day and four times at night. Absalom alone is saved because he is the son of David. 22. After having seen this I returned to Paradise, wrote description of Hell and sent it to R. Gamaliel and the ten elders of the Jews, and I told them all what I had seen in Paradise and Hell.

183 (Jellinek, Beth-hammidrash II. p. 52-53; Yalkut I. § 20, f. 7a; Elia ha- Cohen: Shebet Mussar, Constantinople, 720, ch. 25, f. 80-81a.) 1. R. Joshua, son of Levi, tells: “Paradise has two gates of carbuncle, and sixty myriads of ministering angels keep watch over them. Each of these angels shine with the lustre of the heavens. When the just man approaches them they divest him of the clothes in which he had been buried and clothe him with eight clothes, woven out of clouds of glory, and place upon his head two crowns, one of precious stones and pearls and the other of gold, and they place eight myrtles in his hand and praise him and say to him: “Go and eat thy bread with joy.” And they lead him to a place full of rivers (waters) surrounded by roses and myrtles. Each one has a canopy according to his merits, as it is said: “For over all the glory shall be spread a canopy” (Is. iv. 5). 2. And through it flow four rivers, one of oil, the other of balsam, the third of wine, and the fourth of honey. Every canopy is overgrown by a vine of gold, and thirty pearls hang down from it, each of them shining like the morning star. In every canopy there is a table of precious stones and pearls, and sixty angels stand at the head of every just man, saying unto him: “Go and eat with joy of the honey, for thou hast worked assiduously in the Law,” of which it is said: “And it is sweeter than honey,” and drink of the wine preserved from the six days of Creation, for thou hast worked in the Law which is compared with the wine,” as it is said: “I would cause thee to drink of spiced wine” (Song viii. 2). The least fair of them is beautiful as Joseph and Johanan and the grains of the pomegranate upon which fall the rays of the sun. There is no night, as it is said: “And the light of the righteous is as the shining light” (Prov. iv. 18). 3. And they undergo three transformations passing through three wards. In the first ward the just is changed into a child, and he enters the compartment of children and tastes the joys of childhood. In the second ward he is changed into a youth, there he enjoys the delights of youth. In the third ward he is changed

184 into an old man, he enters the compartment of the old and enjoys the pleasures of mature age. 4. In Paradise there are eighty myriads of trees in every corner; the meanest among them choicer than a garden of spices. In every corner there are sixty myriads of angels singing with sweet voices, and the tree of life stands in the middle and over-shadoweth the whole Paradise; and it has 500 tastes, each different from the others, and the perfumes thereof vary likewise. Over it hang seven clouds of glory, and the winds blow from all the four corners and waft its many odours from one end of the world to the other. Underneath sit the scholars and explain the Law. These have each two canopies, one of stars and the other of sun and moon, and clouds of glory separate one from the other. 5. Within this is the Eden containing 310 worlds, as it is said: “That I may cause those that love me to inherit Substance” (Prov. viii. 21) [the numerical value of the Hebrew word for Substance is equivalent to 310]. 6. Here are the seven compartments of the just. In the first are the martyrs, as, for instance, R. Akiba and his companions. In the second, those who were drowned. In the third, R. Johanan and his disciples. In what consisted his great merit? He said: “If all the skies were skins and all men scribes and all the forests pens, these scribes would not be able to write down all that I have learned from my teachers, and still am I no more than a dog liking the sea.” The fourth group is of those who were covered by the cloud of glory. The fifth group is that of the penitents for the place occupied by a penitent not even a perfectly just man can occupy. The sixth group is that of children who have not yet tasted sin in their lives. The seventh group is that of the poor, who, notwithstanding that, studied the Law and the Talmud, and had acquired moral life. Of these speaks the verse: “For all that put their trust in Thee rejoice, and they shout for ever for joy” (Ps. v. 11 {sic v. 12}). And God Almighty sitteth in their midst, and expounds to them the Law, as it is said: “Mine eyes shall be upon the faithful of the land, that they may dwell with me” (Ps. xci. 6 {sic cxi. 6}). And God hath not yet

185 fully unveiled the glory which awaiteth them in the world to come, as it is said: “The eye hath not seen, O God, beside Thee, that which Thou workest for him that waiteth for Him” (Isaiah lxiv. 4 {sic lxiv. 3b}). Amen. (Orhot Hayim, Vol. II. Cod. 52, Montefiore College, Ramsgate, f. 279a-b ( = §§ 1-18). Elia de Vidas: Reshit Hochma, Constantinople, 1736, f. 40 a-b ( = §§ 1-9, 19-21); cf. ibid. f. 40b, 41a. Jellinek, Beth-hammidrasch V. 50-51 ( = §§ 10-18).) 1. R. Johanan began his homily with the verse “Passing through the valley of weeping they make it a valley of springs.” This means to say that the sinner confesses, just as the leprous confesses, and he says: “I have committed such and such a transgression in that place, on that day, in the presence of so-and-so, in that society.” 2. Hell has three gates: one at the sea, the other in the wilderness, and the third in the inhabited part of the world. That at the sea is alluded to in Jonah (ii. 3): “Out of the belly of Sheol cried I, and thou heardest my voice.” That of the wilderness is alluded to (Numbers xvi. 33). “So they and all that appertained to them, went down alive unto Sheol.” And that in the inhabited portion of the world (Isaiah xxxi. 9) “Saith the Lord, whose fire is in Zion and his furnace in Jerusalem.” 3. Nine different kind of fires are in Hell, one devours and absorbs, another absorbs and does not devour, while another again neither devours nor absorbs. There is further fire devouring fire. There are coals big as mountains and coals big as hills, and coals huge like unto the Dead Sea and coals like huge stones. 4. There are rivers of pitch and sulphur flowing and fuming and seething. 5. The punishment of the sinner is thus: The angels of destruction throw him to the flame of hell; this opens its mouth wide and swallows him [as it is said: “Therefore Sheol hath enlarged her desire and opened her p. 600 mouth without measure and their glory and their multitude and their pomp and he that rejoices among them descends into it” (Isaiah v. 14.)] This all happens to him who has

186 not done one single pious act which would make the balance incline towards mercy; whilst that man who possesses many virtues and good actions and learning and who has suffered much he is saved from hell [as it is said: “Yea though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil for thou art with me; thy rod and thy staff shall comfort me” (Ps. xxiii. 4). “Thy rod” means the suffering and “thy staff” means the law]. 6. R. Johanan began: “The eyes of the wicked shall fail and refuge is perished from them and their hope shall be the giving up of the ghost” (Job ii. 20 {sic xi. 20}). That means: a body which is never destroyed and whose soul enters a fire which is never extinguished; of these speaks the verse: “For their worm shall not die neither shall their fire be quenched” (Isaiah lxvi. 24). 7. R. Joshua, son of Levi, said: Once upon a time I was walking on my way when I met the prophet Elijah. He said to me: “Would you like to be brought to the gate of hell?” I answered: “Yes!” So he showed me men hanging by their hair; and he said to him, these were they that let their hair grow to adorn themselves for sin. Others were hanging by their eyes; these were they that followed their eyes to sin, and did not place God before their face. Others were hanging by their noses; these were they that perfumed themselves to sin. Others were hanging by their tongues; these were they that had slandered. Others were hanging by their hands; these were they that had stolen and robbed. Others were hanging by their sexual organs; these were they that had committed adultery. Others were hanging by their feet; these were they that had run to sin. He showed me women hanging by their breasts; these were they that uncovered their breasts before men, to make them sin. He showed me further men that were fed on fiery coals; these were they that blasphemed. Others were forced to eat bitter gall; these were they that ate on fast-days. He showed me further men eating fine sand, they are forced to eat it and their teeth are broken; and the Almighty says to them: “O ye sinners! when you used to eat that which you stole and robbed it was sweet in your mouth now you are not able to eat even

187 this.” As it is said: “Thou hast broken the teeth of the wicked” (Ps. iii. 8).] And he showed me men wallowing in the mire and worms were set upon them; these are they of whom it is said: “For their worm shall not die, neither shall their fire be quenched; and they shall be an abhorring unto all flesh” (Is. lxvi. 24). He showed me further men who are thrown from fire to snow and from snow to fire; these were they that abused the poor who came to them for assistance; therefore are they thus punished as it is said: “Thou hast caused men to ride over our heads; we went through fire and through water” (Ps. lxvi. 12). He showed me others who were driven from mountain to mountain, as a shepherd leads the flock from one mountain to another. [Of these speaks the verse: “They are appointed as a flock for Sheol. Death shall be their shepherd and the upright shall have the dominion over them in the morning, and their form shall be for Sheol to consume that there be no habitation for it” (Ps. xlix. 15). 8. R. Johanan said: “For every sin there is an angel appointed to obtain the expiation thereof; one comes first and obtains his expiation, then follows another and so on until all the sins are expiated, as with a debtor who has many creditors and they come before the king and claim their debts, and the king delivers him to them and says: “Take him and divide him between yourself.” So also is the soul delivered in hell to cruel angels, and they divide it among themselves. 9. Three descend to hell for ever and do not ascend any more--the man who commits adultery, who blames his neighbour in public, and who is guilty of perjury. Others say: “Those who honour themselves by slandering their neighbours, those who make intrigues between man and wife in order to create disputes among them.” 10. Seven descend to Hell: the judge, the butcher, the scribe, the physician, the barber and the teacher of very young children. These, if they have fulfilled their mission conscientiously for the sake of heaven, ascend afterwards again. Three,

188 however, descend never to ascend: the man who blames his neighbour in public, the man who slanders his neighbour, and the man who commits adultery. 11. Hell has seven names: Sheol, Abadon, Beer Shaon, Beer Shahat, Hatzar Maveth, Beer Tahtiyah, and Tit Hayaven. The length of Sheol is a three years’ journey, and so are its width and height. Similarly are the others also. Hell is thus a 2100 years’ journey. If a man deserves punishment he is handed over to the angels of destruction. These seize him and lead him to the court of death, darkness and gloom, as it is said: “Let their way be dark and slippery” (Ps. xxxv. 6)]. But this is not all, for they thrust him into Hell, [as it is said: “And the angel of the Lord pursuing them” (Ps. xxxv. 6). 12. When a man dies and is carried along upon his bier ministering angels walk before him and people walk behind the bier following him. If they say: “Happy the man, for he was good and praiseworthy in his lifetime;” the angels say unto him: “Write it down,” and he writes it down. And this is not all, but two angels watch over the man at the moment of his death, and they know whether he has stolen or robbed during his lifetime; for even the stones and the beams of his house witness against him; as it is said: “For the stones shall cry out of the wall and the beam out of the timber shall answer it” (Habak. ii. 11). 13. When a man dies he is brought before Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. They say unto him: “My son! what hast thou done in that world from which thou comest?” When he answereth: “I have bought fields and vineyards; and I have tilled them all my life.” They answer: “O fool, that thou hast been! Hast thou not learned the words of King David, who said: ‘The earth is the Lord’s and the fulness thereof’ (Ps. xxiv. 1).” Angels then take him away and bring another man before them, and they ask him in likewise. If he answereth: “I gathered gold and silver,” they retort: “Fool that thou art! Hast thou not read in the books of the prophets: “The silver is mine and the gold is mine, saith the Lord of hosts” (Haggai ii. 8).

189 14. When scholars are brought before them, they say: “My son! What hast thou done in the world from which thou comest?” He answers: “I have devoted my life to the study of the law.” And the patriarchs answer: “He entereth into peace; they rest in their beds, each one that walketh in his uprightness” (Is. lvii. 2). And the Almighty receives them with grace. 15. There are five kinds of punishment in Hell, and Isaiah saw them all. He entered the first compartment and saw there two men carrying pails full of water on their shoulders, and they pour that water into a pit which, however, never fills. Isaiah said to God: “O thou who unveilest all that is hidden, unveil to me the secret of this!” And the Spirit of the Lord answered: “These are the men who coveted the property of their neighbours, and thus is their punishment.” 16. He entered the second compartment and he saw two men hanging by their tongues, and he said: “O thou, who unveilest the hidden, reveal to me the secret of this!” He answered: “These are the men who slandered, therefore they are thus punished!” 17. He entered the third compartment and he saw there men hanging by the sexual organs. He said: “O thou who unveilest the hidden, reveal to me the secret of this!” And He answered: “These are the men who neglected their own wives and committed adultery with the daughters of Israel!” 18. He entered the fourth compartment and saw there women hanging by their breasts, and he said: “O thou who unveilest the hidden, reveal to me the secret of these!” And He answered: “These are the women who uncover their hair and rend their veil, and sit in the open market place to suckle their children in order to attract the gaze of men and to make them sin; therefore they are punished thus!” 19. He entered the fifth compartment and found it full of smoke. There were all the princes, chiefs, and great men, and Pharaoh, the wicked, presides over them and watches at the gate of hell, and he saith unto them: “Why did you not learn

190 from me when I was in Egypt?” So he sits there still and watches at the gates of hell. 20. On the eve of the Sabbath the sinners are led to two mountains of snow, where they are left until the end of the Sabbath, when they are taken back from there and brought again to their former places. An angel comes and thrusts them back to their former place in hell. Some of them take, however, snow and hide it in their secret parts to cool them during the six days of the week, but the Almighty says unto them: “Woe unto you who steal even in hell!” As it is said: “Draught and heat consume the snow waters, in Sheol they sin.” {Job xxiv. 19} That means to say: “They sin even in Sheol.” 21. Every twelvemonth the sinners are burned to ashes and the wind disperses them and carries those ashes under the feet of the just as it is said: “And ye shall tread down the wicked, for they shall be ashes under the sole of your feet” (Malachi iii. 29 {sic iii. 21}). 22. Afterwards the soul is returned to them and they come out black as the blackness of a pot, and they acknowledge the justice of their punishment and say: “Thou hast rightly sentenced us and rightly judged us. With Thee is righteousness and with us shame, as it is with us to-day.” 23. The other nations, however, and the idolators are punished in the seven compartments of hell, in each compartment for a twelvemonth. And the river Dinor floweth from beneath the throne of glory and falleth over the heads of the sinners, and it floweth from one end of the world to the other. 24. There are seven compartments in hell, and in each of them are 6000 rooms, in each room 6000 windows, in each window (recess) there are 6000 vessels filled with venom, all destined for slanderous writers and iniquitous judges. [It is to that, that Solomon alludes when he says: “And thou mourn at thy latter end when thy flesh and thy body are consumed” (Prov. v. 2 {sic v. 11}).] None of these will be saved unless they acquire learning and pious deeds. But at the end the Almighty will have pity on all his creatures, as it is said: “For I will not

191 contend for ever, neither will I be always wroth, for the spirit shall pass before Me and the souls which I have made” (Is. lvii. 16). (Nachmanides, Shaar ha-gemul, Ed. Warsaw, 1878, p. 10 ( = §§ 2-7); cf. Orhot Hayim, II. f. 282b-283a; Midrash Kônen, l.c. f. 4a). 1. R. Joshua, son of Levi, says: “When I measured the first compartment of Hell, I found it to be 100 miles long and 60 miles wide. Therein are pits with lions; all fall into those pits and are devoured by the lions, and the bones are thrown into burning fire. I entered the second compartment and found it of the same size as the first. 2. In the second compartment, in the second division, there are ten nations, and their punishment is like unto that of the first compartment. Doeg presides over them and the angel who punishes them is Lahatiel; but Doeg is freed from chastisement because he is a descendant from those who said: “We will do and hearken” (Israel). 3. In the third compartment there are other ten nations, their punishment is the same. The angel who punishes them is Shaftiel. Korah who presides over them and his companions are free from punishment, for they also said: “We will do and hearken.” 4. In the fourth compartment the punishment is the same. There are also ten nations and Jeroboam presides over them. The angel who punishes them is Maktiel (Matniel). Jeroboam, however, has immunity for he himself had studied the Law, and he cometh from those who had said: “We will do and hearken.” 5. In the fifth compartment the punishment is the same. Ahab presides over them. The angel who punishes them is Hutriel (Oniel). Ahab has immunity because he is one of the children of Israel who said on Mount Sinai: “We will do and hearken.” 6. In the sixth compartment the punishment is the same. Micha presides over them. The angel who punishes them is Pusiel (Hadriel). Micha is free from

192 chastisement for he is from those who said on Mount Sinai: “We will do and hearken.” 7. In the seventh compartment the punishment is the same. Elisha ben Abuya presides over them. The angel who punishes them is Dalkiel (Rugziel). Elisha, however, has immunity for he is a descendant from those who said on Mount Sinai: “We will do and hearken. “ This is the punishment of the tens of thousand who are in each compartment, and they do not see each other, for it is dark, and this darkness is that deep darkness which existed before the world was created. (Baraita de Massechet Gehinom: in Hesed le-Abraham of Abr. Azulai in: Yalkut-ha-roim, Warsaw, 1858, f. 85, sqq. Cf. Midrash Kônen, l.c. f. 3b-4a. Shebet Mussar, ch. 26, f. 84a.) 1. We read in the Baraita of the Creation: “Beneath the earth is the (abyss) Tehom under Tehom is Bohu, under Bohu is Yam, under Yam is Mayim, under Mayim is Arka, and there is, Sheol, Abadon, Beer Shahat, Tit-hayaven, Shaare Mavet, Shaare Tzalmavet, and Gehinom. Here are the sinners and the angels of destruction presiding over them. There is darkness thick as the wall of a city, and there the heavy and bitter punishments of the sinners are enacted, as it is said: ‘The wicked shall be put to silence in darkness’ (1 Sam. ii. 9).” 2. The uppermost compartment is Sheol. The height thereof is 300 years’ journey; the width 300 years’ journey; and its length 300 years’ journey. The second compartment is Beer Shahat, of the same height, width, and length. The third is Tit-Hayaven of equal size. The fourth is Shaare Mavet of the same size. The fifth Abadon of the same size. The sixth Shaare Tzalmavet of the same size. The seventh Gehinom of the same size. That makes altogether the length of hell 6300 years’ journey.” We read further: the fire of Gehinom is one-sixtieth of the fire of Shaare Tzalmavet, and so of every consecutive compartment till the fire of Sheol, and in Sheol is half fire and half hail (ice), and the sinners therein when they come out from the fire are tortured by the hail (ice), and when they come out from the hail (ice) the fire burns them, and the angels who preside

193 over them keep their souls within their bodies as it is said, “for their worm shall not die, neither shall their fire be quenched” (Isaiah lxvi. 24). 3. We read further, “God created seven hells, in each hell are seven compartments, in each compartment there are seven rivers of fire and seven of hail (ice), the width of each is 100 cubits, its depth 1000 cubits, and its length 300 cubits, and they flow one after the other, and all the sinners pass through them and are burned, but the 40,000 angels of destruction who preside over them revive them and raise them on their feet and announce to them their deeds which were evil, and their ways which were crooked,” and they say to them, “Pass now through the rivers of fire and hail and snow, just as you passed over and transgressed the law and the commandments which were given unto you on Mount Sinai, for you feared not the fire of hell and the punishment of Abadon. Now render account of your deeds!” 4. There are besides in every compartment 7000 holes (crevices), in every hole there are 7000 scorpions. Every scorpion has 300 slits (cavities), in every slit 70,000 pouches of venom, from these flow six rivers of deadly poison. When a man touches it he immediately bursts, every limb is torn from him, his body is cleft asunder, and he falls dead upon his face. The angels of destruction collect his limbs and set them, and revive the man and place him upon his feet and take their revenge upon him anew. (In Massechet Atziluth, ed. Warsaw, 1876, f. 54 a-b; Siddur Amram, Warsaw, 1865, I. f. 12b-13a). R. Ismael tells: “Sagansagel addressed me and said to me: ‘My beloved! sit in my bosom and I will tell thee what will happen to Israel.’ So I sat in his bosom and he looked at me and wept; and tears flowed from his eyes and dropped on my face. And I said: ‘Glorious heavenly light! Why dost thou weep? ‘ And he answered: ‘Come and I will show unto thee what is awaiting my holy people Israel.’ He took me and brought me into the innermost place, to the treasure- house of treasures and he took down the books and showed me the decrees of

194 many misfortunes written therein. I asked him: ‘For whom are these destined?’ And he answered: ‘For Israel!’ Again I asked: ‘Will they be able to endure them?’ And he answered: ‘Come to-morrow and I will show thee more calamities still.’ The next day he showed me still more calamities, for some it being decreed to die by the sword, for others to die of hunger, others again destined for slavery. And I said: ‘O glorious heavenly light! have they indeed sinned so heavily?’ He anwered: ‘Every day new calamities are decreed, but when Israel gathers in his prayer-house and repeats: “May His exalted name be praised” we retain those calamities and do not let them come out from these rooms.’ When I left him I heard a voice speaking in Aramaic and saying: ‘The holy temple is destined to be ruined and the temple to be a burning light, and the kingly palace delivered over to the owls and the young to slavery, and the princes to death and the pure altar to be profaned, and the table for the shewbread will be carried off by enemies, and Jerusalem will be a desert, and the land of Israel a desolation.’ When I heard these p. 610 words I was terrified and trembled and I fell down. Then came the angel Hadarniel and breathed into me a new soul and lifted me upon my feet and said to me: ‘My beloved! what hath happened unto thee?’ And I answered: ‘O glorious heavenly light! is there indeed no salvation for Israel?’ And he answered and said: ‘Come and I will show thee the treasures of comfort and help stored up for Israel.’ He brought me up and I saw groups of angels weaving raiments of salvation and making crowns of life and fixing in them precious stones and pearls, and anointing them with all kinds of spices and delights. I asked: ‘For whom are these all destined?’ He answered: ‘For David, king of Israel.’ And I said: ‘Show me the glory of David.’ And he said: ‘Wait three hours until David will come hither in his glory.’ So he took me and placed me in his bosom, and he asked me: ‘What dost thou see?’ I answered: ‘I see seven lightnings running into one another.’ He said: ‘Shut thine eyes that thou mayest not be dazzled by the light which precedes King David.’ At that moment the wheels and Ophanim and holy

195 Creatures and the treasures of rain and snow, and the clouds of glory and the planets and the ministering angels moved and shook and said: ‘The heavens declare the glory of God’ (Ps. xix. 1 {sic xix. 2}). I heard then a loud voice proceeding from Eden crying: ‘The Lord reigneth for ever and ever,’ and lo! David was in front and all the kings of his house after him, each one with his crown upon his head; but the crown of David surpassed them all, its lustre shineth from one end of the world unto the other. And David went up to the heavenly Temple, where a throne of fire stood ready for him, whose height is of 40 parasangs, its length and its width double the same. When David took his seat upon the throne prepared for him, facing that of his Creator, all the kings of Judah ranged themselves before him, and the kings of Israel stood behind him. Then he began to utter hymns and praises, such as no human ear has heard. And when he said: ‘The Lord will reign for ever and ever.’ Metraton and his company responded: ‘Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of Hosts,’ and the holy Creatures praised and said: ‘Blessed be the glory of the Lord in its place.’ The heavens say: ‘The Lord will reign for ever and ever.’ The earth says: ‘The Lord hath reigned, does reign, and will reign for ever,’ and all the kings respond and say: ‘And the Lord will be king over the whole earth.’” – (1. Paul, ch. 29.)310 HEAVEN AND HELL IN CHRISTIANITY The prevailing belief among mainstream Christians is that the faithful will go to heaven when they die. In fact, many priests and ministers of various religious denominations do not hesitate to claim that many individuals are already in heaven, awaiting reunification with their families and loved ones.279, 303 Common Biblical terms describing where the dead are: (1) Sheol - a Hebrew term simply describing “the grave” or “death” – Does not refer to “hell” specifically. (2) Hades - A Greek term that usually refers to hell – a place of torment (Luke 10:15; 16:23, etc.).

196 (3) Gehenna - A Greek term (borrowed from a literal burning dump near Jerusalem) that always refers to hell – a place of torment (Matthew 5:30; 23:33). (4) Lake of fire- the final abode of unbelievers after they are resurrected (Revelation 20:14, 15). (5) Abraham’s bosom - (Luke 16:22) a place of eternal comfort. (6) Paradise - (Luke 23:43) a place of eternal comfort. (7) With the Lord - a key phrase describes where church age believers are after death (Philippians 1:23; 1 Thessalonians 4:17; 2 Corinthians 5:8). (8) New heavens and earth – where believers will be after they are resurrected (Revelation 20:4-6; 21:1-4). Key facts about eternity in Bible: (1) Everyone will exist eternally either in heaven or hell (Daniel 12:2,3; Matthew 25:46; John 5:28; Revelation 20:14,15). (2) Everyone has only one life in which to determine their destiny (Hebrews 9:27). (3) Heaven or hell is determined by whether a person believes (puts their trust) in Christ alone to save them (John 3:16, 36, etc.). Key passages about Hell: (1) Hell was designed originally for Satan and his demons (Matthew 25:41; Revelation 20:10). (2) Hell will also punish the sin of those who reject Christ (Matthew 13:41,50; Revelation 20:11-15; 21:8). (3) Hell is conscious torment. •Matthew 13:50 “furnace of fire…weeping and gnashing of teeth” •Mark 9:48 “where their worm does not die, and the fire is not quenched” •Revelation 14:10 “he will be tormented with fire and brimstone” (4) Hell is eternal and irreversible. BIBLE VERSES ON THE HEAVEN AND HELL (Taken from the Holy Bible: New International Version (C) 1978 by the New York Bible Society).

197 THE HEAVEN DEU 26:15 - Look down from heaven, your holy dwelling place, and bless your people Israel and the land you have given us as you promised on oath to our forefathers, a land flowing with milk and honey.” PSA 11:4 - The LORD is in his holy temple; the LORD is on his heavenly throne. He observes the sons of men; his eyes examine them. ISA 66:1- This is what the LORD says: “Heaven is my throne, and the earth is my footstool. Where is the house you will build for me? Where will my resting place be? MAT 5:12 - Rejoice and be glad, because great is your reward in heaven, for in the same way they persecuted the prophets who were before you. 6:20 - But store up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where moth and rust do not destroy, and where thieves do not break in and steal. 18:10 - “See that you do not look down on one of these little ones. For I tell you that their angels in heaven always see the face of my Father in heaven. MAR 16:19 - After the Lord Jesus had spoken to them, he was taken up into heaven and he sat at the right hand of God. LUK 15:7- I tell you that in the same way there will be more rejoicing in heaven over one sinner who repents than over ninety-nine righteous persons who do not need to repent. 20:34- Jesus replied, “The people of this age marry and are given in marriage. 35- But those who are considered worthy of taking part in that age and in the resurrection from the dead will neither marry nor be given in marriage, 36- And they can no longer die; for they are like the angels. They are God’s children, since they are children of the resurrection. JOH 14:2- In my Father’s house are many rooms; if it were not so, I would have told you. I am going there to prepare a place for you. 3- And if I go and prepare a place for you, I will come back and take you to be with me that you also may be where I am.

198 ACT 7:49 - Heaven is my throne, and the earth is my footstool. What kind of house will you build for me? Says the Lord. Or where will my resting place be? 1TH 4:17- After that, we who are still alive and are left will be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air. And so we will be with the Lord forever. HEB 10:34-You sympathized with those in prison and joyfully accepted the confiscation of your property, because you knew that you yourselves had better and lasting possessions. 2PE 3:13- But in keeping with his promise we are looking forward to a new heaven and a new earth, the home of righteousness. REV 2:7- He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches. To him who overcomes, I will give the right to eat from the tree of life, which is in the paradise of God. 4:4- Surrounding the throne were twenty-four other thrones, and seated on them were twenty-four elders. They were dressed in white and had crowns of gold on their heads. 7:9 - After this I looked and there before me was a great multitude that no one could count, from every nation, tribe, people and language, standing before the throne and in front of the Lamb. They were wearing white robes and were holding palm branches in their hands. 13-Then one of the elders asked me, “These in white robes--who are they, and where did they come from?” 14- I answered, “Sir, you know.” And he said, “These are they who have come out of the great tribulation; they have washed their robes and made them white in the blood of the Lamb. 15-Therefore, “they are before the throne of God and serve him day and night in his temple; and he who sits on the throne will spread his tent over them. 16- Never again will they hunger; never again will they thirst. The sun will not beat upon them, nor any scorching heat.

199 17- For the Lamb at the center of the throne will be their shepherd; he will lead them to springs of living water. And God will wipe away every tear from their eyes.” 15:2- And I saw what looked like a sea of glass mixed with fire and, standing beside the sea, those who had been victorious over the beast and his image and over the number of his name. They held harps given them by God. 21:1- Then I saw a new heaven and a new earth, for the first heaven and the first earth had passed away, and there was no longer any sea. 2- I saw the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God, prepared as a bride beautifully dressed for her husband. 3- And I heard a loud voice from the throne saying, “Now the dwelling of God is with men, and he will live with them. They will be his people, and God himself will be with them and be their God. 4- He will wipe every tear from their eyes. There will be no more death or mourning or crying or pain, for the old order of things has passed away.” 5- He who was seated on the throne said, “I am making everything new!” Then he said, “Write this down, for these words are trustworthy and true.” 9- One of the seven angels who had the seven bowls full of the seven last plagues came and said to me, “Come, I will show you the bride, the wife of the Lamb.” 10- And he carried me away in the Spirit to a mountain great and high, and showed me the Holy City, Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God. 11- It shone with the glory of God, and its brilliance was like that of a very precious jewel, like a jasper, clear as crystal. 18- The wall was made of jasper, and the city of pure gold, as pure as glass. 19- The foundations of the city walls were decorated with every kind of precious stone. The first foundation was jasper, the second sapphire, the third chalcedony, the fourth emerald,

200 21- The twelve gates were twelve pearls, each gate made of a single pearl. The great street of the city was of pure gold, like transparent glass. 22- I did not see a temple in the city, because the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb are its temple. 23- The city does not need the sun or the moon to shine on it, for the glory of God gives it light, and the Lamb is its lamp. 24- The nations will walk by its light, and the kings of the earth will bring their splendor into it. 25- On no day will its gates ever be shut, for there will be no night there. 26- The glory and honor of the nations will be brought into it. 27-Nothing impure will ever enter it, nor will anyone who does what is shameful or deceitful, but only those whose names are written in the Lamb’s book of life. 22:1-Then the angel showed me the river of the water of life, as clear as crystal, flowing from the throne of God and of the Lamb 2- down the middle of the great street of the city. On each side of the river stood the tree of life, bearing twelve crops of fruit, yielding its fruit every month. And the leaves of the tree are for the healing of the nations. 3- No longer will there be any curse. The throne of God and of the Lamb will be in the city, and his servants will serve him. 4- They will see his face, and his name will be on their foreheads. 5-There will be no more night. They will not need the light of a lamp or the light of the sun, for the Lord God will give them light. And they will reign for ever and ever. THE HELL PSA 9:17- The wicked return to the grave, all the nations that forget God. 139:8- If I go up to the heavens, you are there; if I make my bed in the depths, you are there. PRO 5:5- Her feet go down to death; her steps lead straight to the grave.

201 15:24- The path of life leads upward for the wise to keep him from going down to the grave. 23:13-Do not withhold discipline from a child; if you punish him with the rod, he will not die. MAT 5:22- But I tell you that anyone who is angry with his brother will be subject to judgment. Again, anyone who says to his brother, ‘Raca,’ is answerable to the Sanhedrin. But anyone who says, ‘You fool!’ will be in danger of the fire of hell. 29- If your right eye causes you to sin, gouge it out and throw it away. It is better for you to lose one part of your body than for your whole body to be thrown into hell. 30- And if your right hand causes you to sin, cut it off and throw it away. It is better for you to lose one part of your body than for your whole body to go into hell. 7:13- “Enter through the narrow gate. For wide is the gate and broad is the road that leads to destruction, and many enter through it. 10:28-Do not be afraid of those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather, be afraid of the One who can destroy both soul and body in hell. 13:38-The field is the world, and the good seed stands for the sons of the kingdom. The weeds are the sons of the evil one, 39-and the enemy who sows them is the devil. The harvest is the end of the age, and the harvesters are angels. 40-“As the weeds are pulled up and burned in the fire, so it will be at the end of the age. 41-The Son of Man will send out his angels, and they will weed out of his kingdom everything that causes sin and all who do evil. 42-They will throw them into the fiery furnace, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.

202 49-This is how it will be at the end of the age. The angels will come and separate the wicked from the righteous 50- And throw them into the fiery furnace, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth. 16:18-And I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it. 23:15-Woe to you, teachers of the law and Pharisees, you hypocrites! You travel over land and sea to win a single convert, and when he becomes one, you make him twice as much a son of hell as you are. 33- You snakes! You brood of vipers! How will you escape being condemned to hell? 25:28- Take the talent from him and give it to the one who has the ten talents. 29- For everyone who has will be given more, and he will have an abundance. Whoever does not have, even what he has will be taken from him. 30- And throw that worthless servant outside, into the darkness, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.’ 41-Then he will say to those on his left, ‘Depart from me, you who are cursed, into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels. 46-Then they will go away to eternal punishment, but the righteous to eternal life. MAR 9:43- If your hand causes you to sin, cut it off. It is better for you to enter life maimed than with two hands to go into hell, where the fire never goes out. 45- And if your foot causes you to sin, cut it off. It is better for you to enter life crippled than to have two feet and be thrown into hell. 47- And if your eye causes you to sin, pluck it out. It is better for you to enter the kingdom of God with one eye than to have two eyes and be thrown into hell, LUK 12:5- But I will show you whom you should fear: Fear him who, after the killing of the body, has power to throw you into hell. Yes, I tell you, fear him.

203 16:23- In hell, where he was in torment, he looked up and saw Abraham far away, with Lazarus by his side. 24- So he called to him, ‘Father Abraham, have pity on me and send Lazarus to dip the tip of his finger in water and cool my tongue, because I am in agony in this fire.’ 26- And besides all this, between us and you a great chasm has been fixed, so that those who want to go from here to you cannot, nor can anyone cross over from there to us.’ 2TH 1:9-They will be punished with everlasting destruction and shut out from the presence of the Lord and from the majesty of his power. JAM 3:6-The tongue also is a fire, a world of evil among the parts of the body. It corrupts the whole person, sets the whole course of his life on fire, and is itself set on fire by hell. 2PE 2:4-For if God did not spare angels when they sinned, but sent them to hell, putting them into gloomy dungeons to be held for judgment; JUD 1:6- And the angels who did not keep their positions of authority but abandoned their own home--these he has kept in darkness, bound with everlasting chains for judgment on the great Day. REV 1:18- I am the Living One; I was dead, and behold I am alive for ever and ever! And I hold the keys of death and Hades. 6:8- I looked, and there before me was a pale horse! Its rider was named Death, and Hades was following close behind him. They were given power over a fourth of the earth to kill by sword, famine and plague, and by the wild beasts of the earth. 9:1- The fifth angel sounded his trumpet, and I saw a star that had fallen from the sky to the earth. The star was given the key to the shaft of the Abyss. 2- When he opened the Abyss, smoke rose from it like the smoke from a gigantic furnace. The sun and sky were darkened by the smoke from the Abyss.

204 14:10- he, too, will drink of the wine of God’s fury, which has been poured full strength into the cup of his wrath. He will be tormented with burning sulfur in the presence of the holy angels and of the Lamb. 11- And the smoke of their torment rises for ever and ever. There is no rest day or night for those who worship the beast and his image, or for anyone who receives the mark of his name.” 19:20- But the beast was captured, and with him the false prophet who had performed the miraculous signs on his behalf. With these signs he had deluded those who had received the mark of the beast and worshiped his image. The two of them were thrown alive into the fiery lake of burning sulfur. 20:10- And the devil, who deceived them, was thrown into the lake of burning sulfur, where the beast and the false prophet had been thrown. They will be tormented day and night for ever and ever. 13- The sea gave up the dead that were in it, and death and Hades gave up the dead that were in them, and each person was judged according to what he had done. 14-Then death and Hades were thrown into the lake of fire. The lake of fire is the second death. 15- If anyone’s name was not found written in the book of life, he was thrown into the lake of fire. 21:8 - But the cowardly, the unbelieving, the vile, the murderers, the sexually immoral, those who practice magic arts, the idolaters and all liars - their place will be in the fiery lake of burning sulfur. This is the second death. THE HELL AND PARADISE IN ISLAM Like Christianity, Islam teaches the continued existence of the soul and a transformed physical existence after death. Muslims believe there will be a day of judgment when all humans will be divided between the eternal destinations of Paradise and Hell.279, 299, 303

205 The central doctrine of the Holy Qur’an is the Last Day, on which the world will be destroyed and Allah will raise all people and jinn from the dead to be judged. The Last Day is also called the Day of Standing Up, Day of Separation, Day of Reckoning, Day of Awakening, Day of Judgment, The Encompassing Day or The Hour. Until the Day of Judgment, deceased souls remain in their graves awaiting the resurrection. However, they begin to feel immediately a taste of their destiny to come. Those bound for hell will suffer in their graves, while those bound for heaven will be in peace until that time. The resurrection that will take place on the Last Day is physical, and is explained by suggesting that God will re-create the decayed body (17:100: “Could they not see that God who created the heavens and the earth is able to create the like of them?”). On the Last Day, resurrected humans and jinn will be judged by Allah according to their deeds. One’s eternal destination depends on balance of good to bad deeds in life. They are either granted admission to Paradise, where they will enjoy spiritual and physical pleasures forever, or condemned to Hell to suffer spiritual and physical torment for eternity. The Day of Judgment is described as passing over Hell on a narrow bridge in order to enter Paradise. Those who fall, weighted by their bad deeds, will remain in Hell forever. The Holy Qur’an specifies two exceptions to this general rule: 1. Warriors who die fighting in the cause of God are ushered immediately to God’s presence (2:159 and 3:169); and 2. Enemies of Islam are sentenced immediately to Hell upon death. Paradise (Firdaws), also called “The Garden” (Janna), is a place of physical and spiritual pleasure, with lofty mansions (39:20, 29:58-59), delicious food and drink (52:22, 52:19, 38:51), and virgin companions called houris (56:17-19,

206 52:24-25, 76:19, 56:35-38, 37:48-49, 38:52-54, 44:51-56, 52:20-21). There are seven heavens (17:46, 23:88, 41:11, and 65:12). “O soul who is at rest, return to thy Lord, well-pleased with Him, well-pleasing Him. So enter among My servants, and enter My garden.” - (89:27-30). Hell, or Jahannam (Greek Gehenna), is mentioned frequently in the Qur’an and the Sunnah using a variety of imagery. It has seven doors (Qur’an 39:71; 15:43) leading to a fiery crater of various levels, the lowest of which contains the tree Zaqqum and a cauldron of boiling pitch. The level of hell depends on the degree of offenses. Suffering is both physical and spiritual. Being a Muslim does not keep one out of Hell, but it is not clear whether Muslims remain in Hell forever. Non-Muslims (kafir), however, will be punished eternally. Ultimately, God will remove from Hell those believers whose sins were not forgiven nor atoned for by good deeds in their lifetimes, and they will then enter Paradise. The remaining inhabitants of Hell will stay there eternally. Some Islamic commentators, noting that Allah can rescue people from hell as he chooses, and that he is merciful and compassionate, have hypothesized that eventually hell will be empty. Alternatively, Hell can be seen as a place of progress where souls are instructed until they are fit to go to heaven. So life after death is actually the starting-point of further progress for man. Those in paradise are advancing to higher and higher stages in knowledge and perfection of faith. Hell is meant to purify those in it of the effects of their bad deeds, and so make them fit for further advancement. Its punishment for Muslims is, therefore, not everlasting. THE HELL IN THE HOLY QUR’AN Reception to the Hell “Fear the fire, which is prepared for the unbelievers.”- (Al–Imran 3:131). “Truly Hell is lying in wait- a destination for the transgressors.” (An-Naba 78:21-22) “The unbelievers will be led to Hell in crowds until, when they arrive there; its gates will be opened.”- (Az-Zumar 39:71).

207 “And verily, Hell is the promised abode for them all. It has seven gates: to each of those gates is a specific class of sinners assigned.”- (Al-Hijr 15:43-44). “To them will be said, ‘Enter you the gates of Hell to dwell therein. And how evil is this abode of the arrogant.”- (Az-Zumar 39:72). “But those who reject Our signs are the companions of the left hand – on them will be fire vaulted over.”- (Al-Balad 90:19-20). “It is the fire of Allah, kindled to a blaze, which mounts right to the hearts. It will be a vault over them in outstretched columns.”- (Al-Humaza 104:6-9). Intensity of the fire of Hell “Verily, Allah has cursed the disbelievers and prepared for them a Blazing Fire. Dwelling therein forever and they will find no protector or helper.”- (Al-Ahzab 33:64-65) “But he who is given his record behind his back will soon cry for destruction, and he will enter a blazing Fire.”- (Al- Inshiqaq 84:10-12). “No, they deny the Hour (of the judgment to come), but We have prepared a blazing fire for such as deny the Hour. When it sees them from a far off place, they will hear its fury and its raging sigh. And when they are cast, bound, in chains, into constricted place therein, they will plead therein for destruction. Do not plead today for a single destruction; plead for destruction oft-repeated.”- (Al- Furqan 25:11-14) “The companions of the left hand – what are the companions of the left hand? (They will be) in the midst of a fierce blast (of fire) and in boiling water.”- (Al- Waqi’ah 56:41-42). “But, he whose scales are light his home will be a pit. And what will make you understand what that is? (It is) a fire, blazing fiercely.”- (Al- Qari’ah 101:8-11). “Soon will I cast him into Saqar (the Hellfire). And what will explain to you what Saqar is? It permits nothing to endure, and it leaves nothing alone, darkening and changing the color of man.”- (Al- Muddaththir 74:26-29).

208 “Their abode will be Hell. Every time it abates. We will increase for them the blaze (the fierceness) of the fire.”- (Al- Isra 17:97). “Those are the ones, who have exchanged the Hereafter for the gains of this worldly life. The punishment will not be lightened for them, and they will not be aided.”- (Al-Baqarah 2:86). “So taste, (the result of your deeds), for We will not increase you except in punishment.” -(An- Naba 78:30). Capacity and Depth of Hell On the Day of Judgment the inhabitants of Hell will see their destined abode face to face and will realize the error of their ways. But, of course, it will be too late. The Holy Qur’an states: “No! When the earth is pounded to powder, and your Lord comes with His angels, rank upon rank, and Hell, that Day, is brought (face to face) – on that Day will man remember? But how will that remembrance profit him?”- (Al- Fajr 89:21-23). “On the Day We will say to Hellfire, ‘have you been filled?’ it will say, ‘Are there some more?” -(Qaf 50:30). Fuel of Hell “Those who has disbelieved – their wealth and their children will never benefit them anything with Allah. And those are the ones who are the fuel of Hellfire.”- (Al- Imran 3:10). “And there are among us Muslims (in submission to Allah) and others who deviate from justice. And whoever accepts Islam has sought out the right path. As for those who deviate, they will be firewood for the Hellfire.”- (Al-Jinn 72:14-15). “But if you cannot – and of a surety you cannot – then fear the fire whose fuel is men and stones, which is prepared for those who reject faith.”- (Al- Baqara 2:24) “O you who believe, save yourselves and your families from a fire whose fuel is men and stones, over which are appointed angels, stern and severe, who do not

209 disobey Allah in what He orders them and who do precisely what they are commanded.”- (Al-Tahreem 66:6). “Verily, you (unbelievers) and what you worship besides Allah are fuel for Hellfire; you will surely come to it. If those had (truly) been gods, they would not have come to it. But all will abide therein eternally.”- (Al-Anbiya 21:98-99). “And the Fierce Fire will be brought out before those straying in evil, and it will be said to them, ‘Where are those you worshipped besides Allah? Can they help you or help themselves?’ Then they will be thrown into it (the Hellfire) on their faces – they and those straying in evil and the soldiers of Iblees, all together.”- (Ash-Shu’ara 26:91-95). Names of Hell Jahannam: “Truly Jahannam (the Hellfire) is lying in wait.”- (Naba 78:21) Latha: “By no means! For it is Latha (the fire of Hell) burning away right to the skull.” (Ma’arij -70:15-16). Hutamah: “By no means! He will certainly be thrown into al-Hutamah. And what will make you understand what al-Hutamah is? It is the fire of Allah, kindled to a blaze, which mounts right to the hearts.”- (Al- Humazah 104:4-7). Sa’eer: “…a group in Paradise and a group in Sa’eer.”- (Ash-Shura 42:7). Saqar: “Soon will I cast him into Saqar. And what will explain to you what Saqar is? It permits nothing to endure and it leaves nothing alone, darkening and changing the color of man.”- (Al- Muddaththir 74:26-29). Jaheem: “And al-Jaheem will be brought out before those straying in evil.”- (Ash- Shu’ara 26:91)

210 Hawiyah: “But he whose scales are light – his home will be a pit. And what will make you understand what that is? It is a fire, blazing fiercely.”- (Al- Qar’iah 101:8-11). Inhabitants of Hell Pharaoh: “And We sent Musa with Our clear signs and an authority manifest unto Pharaoh and his chiefs, but they followed the command of Pharaoh. And the command of Pharaoh was no right guide. He will go before his people on the Day of Judgment and lead them into the Fire. And how evil will be the place to which they are led. And they are followed by a curse in this [life] and on the Day of Judgment. And evil is the gift which will be given to them.” - (Hud -- 11:96-99) “The Fire – they will be exposed to it morning and evening, and on the Day that judgment will be established [it will be said], ‘Cast the people of Pharaoh into the severest punishment.’”- (Ghafir 40:46) The Wives of Nuh and Lut: “Allah has given an example of those who disbelieve: the wife of Nuh and the wife of Lut. They were under two of Our righteous servants but betrayed them; so they [the two prophets] did not benefit them [the wives] before Allah at all, and they were told, ‘Enter the Fire with those who enter.’”- (At-Tahreem 66:10) Abu Lahab and his wife: “May the hands of Abu Lahab be ruined and ruined is he. His wealth will not avail him nor that which he gained. He will enter a flaming fire and his wife [as well] – the carrier of firewood – around her neck a rope of palm fiber.”- (Masad 111:1-5). “He will say, ‘Enter into the company of communities who passed away before you – of jinn and men – into the Fire.”- (Al-A’raf 7:38) “If your Lord had so willed, He could have make mankind one people, but they will not cease to dispute except those on whom your Lord has bestowed His

211 mercy. And the word of your Lord will be fulfilled: ‘Certainly I will fill Hell with jinn and men all together.’”- (Hud, 11:118-119). “Then they will be thrown into it [the Hellfire] on their faces – they and those straying in evil and the soldiers of Iblees, all together.”- (Ash-Shu’ara 26:94- 95). Unbelievers: “But those who disbelieve and deny Our signs will be companions of the Fire; they will abide therein.”- (Al-Baqarah 2:39). “Those who have disbelieved and died while they are disbelievers will have the curse of Allah upon them and the [curse of the] angels and all of mankind. [they will abide] eternally therein. The punishment will not be lightened for them, nor will the punishment be postponed.”- (Al-Baqarah, 2:161-162). Hypocrites: “Indeed the hypocrites will be in the lowest depths of the Fire; you will find no helper for them.”- (An-Nisa 4:145) “The hypocrites are afraid that a surah be sent down about them, showing them what is really in their hearts. Say, ‘Ridicule you! But verily, Allah will expose all that you fear.’ If you question them, they declare, ‘We were only talking idly and playing.’ Say, ‘Is it Allah and His signs and His messengers that you were mocking?’ Make no excuses that you were rejected faith after having accepted it. If We pardon some of you, We will punish others because they were criminals. The hypocrites – men and women are of one another. They enjoin evil and forbid what is just and close their hands [in stinginess]. They have forgotten Allah, so He has forgotten them. Verily, the hypocrites are rebellious and perverse. Allah has promised the hypocrites men and women and the rejecters of faith the fire of Hell; they will dwell therein. It is sufficient for them. And Allah will curse them, and they will have an enduring punishment.”- (At- Tawbah 9:64-68). Polytheists:

212 “Those who reject truth among the People of the Book and the polytheists were not going to depart from their ways until there comes to them clear evidence – a messenger from Allah, rehearsing pure scriptures, wherein are upright laws. Nor did those who had been given the scripture make schisms until after there had come to them clear evidence. And they were not commanded except to worship Allah, sincere in religion to Him, to establish regular prayer, and to pay zakah. And that is the upright religion. Those who reject [truth] among the People of the Book and the polytheists will be in the fire of Hell, dwelling therein forever. They are the worst of creatures.”- (Al-Bayyinah, 98:1-6) People of the Books: “Those reject truth among the People of the Book are the polytheists will be in the fire of Hell, dwelling there therein forever. They are the worst of creatures.”- (Al-Bayyinah, 98:6). Arogant Rejecters of the Truth: “But those who reject Our signs and treat them with arrogance – they are the companions of the Fire, dwelling therein forever.”- (Al-’A’raf, 7:36). Sinners and Criminals: “Indeed the criminals will be in the punishment of Hell, dwelling therein forever. It will not be lightened for them, and they will be overwhelmed there in despair. And We have not wronged them, but it is they who have wronged themselves.”- (Az-Zukhruf, 43:74-76). The Unjust: “Then it will be said to those who were unjust, ‘Taste the eternal punishment. Are you recompensed except for what you used to earn?” - (Yunus, 10:52) Transgressors: “But when there comes the Greatest Event – the Day when man will remember what he strove for and the Hellfire will be brought forth for [all] to see – then for him who had transgressed and preferred the life of this world, indeed Hellfire will be his shelter.”- (An-Nazi’at, 79:34-39).

213 Concealers of Allah’s Revelations: “Those who conceal what We have sent down of proofs and guidance after We have made it clear to the people in the scripture- those are cursed by Allah and cursed by those who [are entitled to] curse.”- (Surah al Baqara, 2:159). Tyrants: “But they asked victory, and disappointment is the lot of every obstinate tyrant. In front of him is Hell, and he is given pus to drink. He will gulp it but will hardly be able t oswallow it, and death will come to him from every place, yet he will not die. And in front of him will be a heavy punishment.”- (Ibrahim, 14:15-17) “(It will be said to the two angels), ‘Throw into Hellfire every obstinate rejecter of Allah – who prevented good, transgressed, and doubted, who set up another god besides Allah – throw him into the severe punishment.”- (Qaf, 50:24-26). Murderers: “And whoever kills a believer intentionally – his recompense is Hell to abide therein forever and the warth and the curse of Allah is upon him, and He has prepared for him a great punishment.”- (An-Nisa, 4:93) Persecutors of Believers: “Those who presect (or draw into temptations) the believers – men and women – and then do not turn in repentance will have the punishment of Hell, and they will have the punishment of the Burning Fire.”- (Al-Buruj 85:10) Those who Prefer this world and Neglect the Hereafter; “Whoever wishes for the immediate – We hasten to grant him such things as We will to whom We will. Then We have mark for them hallmark they will burn therein, disgraced and rejected.”- (Al-Isra 17:18) Foods of Hell “No food will there be for them except bitter dhari (a thorny plant), which will neither nourish nor satisfy hunger.”- (Al-Ghashiyah 88:6-7).

214 “Verily, the tree of Zaqqum will be the food of the sinful. Like molten brass it will boil in their insides like the boiling of scalding water.”- (Ad-Dukhan 44:43- 46) “Is that (Paradise) the better hospitality or the tree of Zaqqum? For We have truly made it as a torment for the wrongdoers. For it is a tree that springs out of the bottoms of Hellfire; the shoots of its fruit-stalks are like the heads of devils. Truly they will eat from it and fill their bellies with it. Then on top of that they will be given a mixture of boiling water.”- (As-Saffat 37:62-67). “Then will you truly –O you who have gone astray and denied – you will surely eat of the trees of Zaqqum. Then will you fill your stomachs with it and drink boiling water on top of it, and you will drink boiling water on top of it, and you will drink like diseased camels, raging with thirst. Such will be their hospitality on the Day of Requital.”- (Al-Waqi’ah 56:51-56). “With Us are yokes (to bind them) and fire (to burn them) and food that chokes and a grievous punishment.” -(Al-Muzzammil 73:12-13) “So he has no friend here this Day, nor does he have any food except what comes from the washing of wounds, which none will eat except the sinners.”- (Al- Haqqah 69:35-37) “Thus, All this. But indeed for the oppressors will be an evil place of final return. It is Hellfire – they will burn therein, and how evil is that bed, Thus, then will they taste it – a boiling fluid and a filthy fluid of pus and blood and other penalties of a similar kind to match them.”- (Sad 38:55-58) Ibn ‘Abbas (RA) reported: “The Messenger of Allah (SAW) recited the following verse: ‘Fear Allah with the fear due to Him, and do not die except as Muslims.’ Then he said, ‘If a drop of Zaqqum would have fallen into a house in this world, it would have spoiled all the provisions of the people of this world. Then how will it be with one whose food it has become?’”- (At- Tirmidhi, Surah al-Imran 3:102)

215 “Those who unjustly eat up the property of orphans are only eating fire into their bellies. They will soon be driven into a blazing fire.”- (An- Nisa 4:10) “Truly, those who conceal what Allah has revealed from the scripture and exchange it for a small price – they are not taking into their stomachs except fire. Allah will not speak to them on the Day of Judgment, and He will not purify them. And they will have a painful punishment.”- (Al- Baqara 2:174) Drinks of Hell “Here is a parable of the Garden which the righteous are promised. In it are rivers of water, incorruptible; rivers of milk of which the taste never changes; rivers of wine, delicious to those who drink; and rivers of honey, pure and clear. In it there are for them all kinds of fruits and forgiveness from their Lord be compared to such as will dwell forever in the Fire and be given boiling water to drink that will cut up their bowels?”- (Muhammad 47:15) “This is the Hell which the criminals deny. They will go back and forth between it and boiling hot water.”- (Ar- Rahman 55:43-44). “Thus. Then will they taste it – a boiling fluid and a filthy fluid of pus and blood and other penalties of a similar kind to match them.”- (Sad 38:57-58) “Has the story reached you of the Overwhelming Event? Some faces, that Day, will be humiliated, laboring hard, weary. They will be driven into a blazing fire. They will be given drink from a boiling spring.” - (Al- Ghashiyah 88:1-5) “To Him will be your return all of you. The promise of Allah is true. It is He who begins the process of creation and repeats it that HE may reward those who believe and work righteousness with justice. But those who reject Him will have a drink of boiling fluids and a painful punishment because of their rejection.”- (Yunus 10:4) “Then will you truly – O you who have gone astray and denied – you will surely eat of the trees of Zaqqum. Then will you fill your stomachs with it and drink boiling water on top of it, and you will drink like diseased camels raging with

216 thirst. Such will be their hospitality on the Day of Requital.”- (Al- Waqi’ah 56:51-56) “Truly they will eat from it and fill their bellies with it. Then on top of that they will be given a mixture of boiling water. Then their return will be to Hellfire.”- (As-Saffat 37:66-68). “Thus, then will they taste it – a boiling fluid and a filthy fluid of pus and blood and other penalties of a similar kind to match them.” - (Sad 38:57-58). “In front of him is Hell, and he is given pus to drink. He will gulp it but will hardly be able to swallow it, and death will come to him from every place, yet, he will not die. And in front of him will be a heavy punishment.”- (Ibrahim 14:16-17) “Say, The Truth is from your Lord, so let him who will, believe, and let him who will, reject it.’ Indeed We have prepared for the wrongdoers a fire whose walls surround them. If they call for relief, they will be relieved with water like molten brass that will scald their faces. How dreadful the drink. How evil the resting place.”- (Al-Kahf 18:29) Dress and Chains “These two opponents dispute with each other about their Lord. But those who disbelieve will have garments of fire cut out for them. Over their heads will be poured boiling water.”- (Al- Hajj 22:19) “And you will see the criminals that Day bound together in chains and yokes- their garments of liquid pitch and their faces covered with fire.”- (Ibrahim 14:49-50) “They will have from Hellfire a bed and over them from it coverings. Thus do We reward the unjust.”- (Al-Araf 7:41) “It may be that your Lord may show mercy unto you, but if you revert to your sins. We will revert to Our punishments. And We have made Hell a mat for the disbelievers.”- (Al- Isra 17:8)

217 “Do you not see those who dispute concerning the signs of Allah – how they are turned away from truth? Those who reject the Book and that with which We sent Our messengers – soon they will know. When the yokes will be round their necks and the chains. They will be dragged in the boiling water. Then in the Fire they will be burned.” -(Ghafir 40:69-72). “They will conceal their regret when they see the penalty. And We will put yokes on the necks of the unbelievers. Are they recompensed except for what they used to do?” -(Saba 34:33). “For the disbelievers We have prepared chains, yokes and a blazing fire.”-(Al- Insan 76:4). “With Us are yokes to bind them and fire to burn them.”- (Al- Muzzammil 73:12). “And you will see the criminals that Day bound together in chains and yokes.”- (Ibrahim 14:49) “It will be commanded, ‘Seize him and bind him. Then drive him into the Hellfire. Then in a chain whose length is seventy cubits bind him.’ For indeed, he would not believe in Allah, Most Great, and would not encourage the feeding of the poor. So he has no friend here this Day.”- (Al- Haqqah, 69:30-35). “And for them are maces of iron to punish them. Every time they wish to get out from it and from anguish, they will be returned to it, and it will be said, ‘Taste the punishment of the Burning Fire!’”- (Al- Hajj 22:21-22). Examples of Punishment “Indeed the hypocrites are in the lowest depths of the Fire; you will find no helper for them.”- (an- Nisa 4:145). “The Fire – they will be exposed to it morning and evening, and on the Day, that judgment will be established [it will be said], ‘Cast the people of Pharaoh into the severest punishment.”- (Ghafir 40:46) “Those who disbelieved and hindered mankind from the path of Allah – We will increase them in punishment over their punishment, for they used to spread corruption.”- (An- Nahl 16:88) “No, but stain has covered their hearts from that which they have earned. Verily, they will be concealed (and prevented) from their Lord that Day. Then

218 they will enter Hellfire. Then it will be said to them, ‘This is [the reality] which you used to deny.”- (al-Mutaffifeen 83:14-17). “Those who have disbelieved in Our signs – We will burn them in fire. As often as their skins are roasted through, We will exchange them for other skins so that they may taste the punishment. Indeed, Allah is Exalted in Power, Wise.”- (An- Nisa 4:56) “These two opponents dispute with each other about their Lord. But those who disbelieve will have garments of fire cut out for them. Over their heads will be poured boiling water. With it will be scalded what is within their bellies as well as their skins.” -(Al-Hajj 22:19-20). “And you will see the criminals that Day bound together in chains and yokes – their garments of liquid pitch and their faces covered with fire.”- (Ibrahim 14:49-50). “But those who scales of good are light, those are the ones who have lost their souls; they will abide in Hell eternally. The fire will burn, their faces, and they will appear to grin therein, their lips displaced.”- (Al- Mu’minun 23:103-104). “If only the unbelievers knew about when they will not be able to ward off the fire from their faces, nor from their backs, and that they will not be helped. No, but it will come to them suddenly and confound them. And they will not be able to avert it, nor will they be given respite.”- (Al- Anbiya 21:39-40) “The Day that their faces will be turned from side to side in the fire, they will say, ‘We wish that we had obeyed Allah and obeyed the Messenger.”- (Al- Ahzab 33:66) “Is, then, one who will confront with his face the evil of the punishment on the Day of Judgment like one protected from it? It will be said to the wrong-doers, ‘Taste what you used to earn.”- (Az-Zumar 39:24) “Truly, the criminals are in error and madness. The Day they will be dragged through the Fire on their faces, they will hear, ‘Taste the touch of Hell.”- (Al- Qamar 54:47-48)

219 “Do you not see those who dispute concerning the signs of Allah – how they are turned away from truth? Those who reject the Book and that with which We sent Our messengers – soon they will know. When the yokes will be round their necks and the chains. They will be dragged in the boiling water. Then in the Fire they will be burned.” -(Ghafir 40:69-72) “Do not be like those who are divided among themselves and fall into disputes after receiving clear proofs, for those will have a great punishment on the Day when some faces will be white and some faces will be black. As for those who faces are black, [it will be said], ‘Did you reject faith after accepting it? Taste, then, the punishment for what you used to reject.”- (Al- Imran 3:105-106). “For those who do good is good – and extra! No darkness or shame will cover their faces. They are companions of the Garden. They will abide in it forever. But those who have earned evil will have a reward of like evil; humiliation will cover their faces. They will have no defender from the wrath of Allah. Their faces will be covered with pieces of the darkness of night. They are the companions of the Fire. They will abide in it forever.” -(Yunus 10:26-27) “On the Day that the punishment will cover them from above them and below them, layers. With this Allah warns His servants, ‘O my servants then fear Me!”- (Az-Zumar 39:16) “Say, ‘The Truth is from your Lord, so let him who will, believe, and let him who will, reject it.’ Indeed We have prepared for the wrongdoers a fire whose walls surround them. If they call for relief, they will be relieved with water like molten brass that will scald their faces. How dreadful the drink. How evil the resting place.”- (Al-Kahf 18:29) “It is the fire of Allah kindled to a blaze, which mounts right to the hearts. It will be a vault over them in outstretched columns.”- (Al- Humazah 104:6-9). “Upon you, O jinn and mankind will be sent a flame of fire [to burn] and [molten] brass. You will have no defense!”- (Ar-Rahman 55:35)

220 “Those who are wretched will be in the Fire. In it there will be for them the sound of exhaling and inhaling. They will dwell in it for all the time that the heavens and earth endure, except for what your Lord wills. For your Lord is the sure accomplisher of what He intends.”- (Hud - 11:106-107). “Verily, you unbelievers and what you worship besides Allah are fuel for Hellfire. You will surely come to it. If those had truly been gods, they would not have come to it. But all will abide therein eternally. There, for them will be heaving, deep signs, and they will not hear there anything else.”- (Al- Anbiya 21:98-100) “Therein they will cry out for assistance, ‘Our Lord, remove us [and] we will work righteousness – other than what we used to do.’ But did We not give you long enough life that whoever would be reminded therein could be reminded, and the warner had come to you? So taste the result of your deeds. There is no helper for the wrongdoers.” - (Fatir, 35:37) “They will conceal their regret when they see the penalty. And We will put yokes on the necks of the unbelievers. Are they recompensed except for what they used to do?” -(Saba 34:33) “For those who reject their Lord is the penalty of Hell, and evil is such a destination. When they are cast therein, they will hear the terrible drawing in of its breath even as it blazes forth. It is almost bursting with fury. Every time a group is cast therein, its keepers will ask, ‘Did no warner come to you?’ They will say, ‘Yes, a warner had come to us, but we denied and said, ‘Allah has revealed nothing. You are but in great delusion.’ And they will say, ‘Had we listened or used our intelligence, we would not now be among the companions of the Blazing Fire.’ So they will confess their sin, but far will be forgiveness from the companions of the Blazing Fire.”- (Al-Mulk 67:6-11) “If only you could see when the criminals hang their heads before their Lord, saying, ‘Our Lord, we have seen and we have heard, so sent us back to the world; we will work righteousness, for we are indeed certain now.’ If We had

221 willed, We could certainly have brought every soul its guidance, but the Word will be realized: ‘I will fill Hell with jinn and men all together. Taste, then- for you forgot the meeting of this, your Day, We, too, will forget you. And the taste the punishment of eternity for what you used to do.”- (As- Sajdah, 32:12-14). “They will say, ‘Our Lord, our misfortune overwhelmed us, and we were a people astray. Our Lord, remove us from this; if ever we return [to evil], then we will indeed be wrongdoers.’ He will say, ‘Remain humiliated therein, and do not speak to Me!”- (Al- Mu-minun, 23:106-108). The Keepers of Hell “Those in the Fire will say to the keepers of Hell, ‘Pray to your Lord to lighten for us the penalty for a day (at least).’ They will say, ‘Did there not come to you your messengers with clear signs?’ They will say, ‘Yes.’ They will reply, ‘Then pray as you like. But the prayer of those without faith is not but in error.’”- (Ghafir 40:49-50). “O you who believe, save yourselves and your families from a fire whose fuel is men and stones, over which are (appointed) angels, stern and severe, and who do not disobey Allah in what He orders them and who do precisely what they are commanded.”-(At-Tahreem 66:6) “Over it are nineteen. And We have not made the guardians of the Fire except angels. And We have made their number only as a trial for the unbelievers – in order that the People of the Book may be certain and that the believers may increase in faith, and so that the People of the Book and the believers would not doubt, and that those in whose hearts is a disease and the unbelievers would say, ‘What example does Allah intend by this?’ Thus does Allah leave to stray whom he pleases and guides whom He pleases. And none can know the soldiers of your Lord except Him. And this is nothing other than a warning to mankind.”- (Muddaththir 74:30-31) “They will cry out, ‘O Malik, let your Lord put an end to us.’ He will say, “Surely, you will stay (as you are).”- (Az-Zukhrub 43:77).

222 Ibn Abbas (RA) narrated: “The Prophet (SAW) said, “On the night of my ascent to the Heaven, I saw Musa and ‘Isa. I also saw Malik, the gatekeeper of the Hell”. - (Muslim). THE PARADISE IN THE HOLY QUR’AN Reception to the Paradise “Gardens of perpetual bliss – they shall enter them as well as the righteous among their fathers, their spouses and their offspring. And angels shall enter upon them from every gate.”- (Al- Raad 13:23) “This is a reminder. Verily, for the righteous is a beautiful place of final return – garden of eternity, whose doors will always be open to them.”- (Saad 38:49-50). “And those who feared their Lord will be led to the Garden in crowds until behold, they arrive there. Its gates will be opened, and its keepers will say, ‘Peace be upon you! Well have you done, so enter it, abiding in it eternally.”- (Al- Zumar 39:73) Be foremost (in seeking) forgiveness from your Lord. And a garden of bliss, the width of the heavens and the earth prepared for those who believe in Allah and His messengers - that is the grace of Allah which He bestows on whom He pleases, and Allah is the Lord of abounding grace.”- (Al- Hadeed 57:21) “And those who feared their Lord will be led to the Garden in crowds, until behold, they arrive there. Its gates will be opened, and its keepers will say, ‘Peace be upon you! Well have you done, so enter it, abiding in it eternally.”- (Al- Zumar 39:73) “Gardens of perpetual bliss – they shall enter them as well as the righteous among their fathers, their spouses, and their offspring. Angels shall enter unto them from every gate (with the salutation), ‘Peace unto you for what you endured in patience! Now, how excellent is the final home!”- (Al -Ra’d 13:23- 24)

223 “But those who believed and worked righteousness will be admitted to gardens beneath which rivers flow to dwell therein forever by permission of their Lord. Their greeting therein will be, ‘Peace!”- (Ibrahim 14:23) “Their salutation on the day they met Him will be ‘Peace!’; and He has prepared for them a generous reward.”- (Ah -Ahzaab 33:44) “No frivolity will they hear therein or anything sinful – only the saying, ‘Peace! Peace!” -(Al- Waaqi’ah 56:25-26) “Every fruit (enjoyment) will be there for them, and they shall have whatever they call for. ‘Peace!’ a word (of salutation) from a Lord most Merciful!”- (Yasin 36:57-58) “Certainly, those who believe and work righteousness – their Lord will guide them because of their faith. Beneath them will flow rivers in gardens of bliss. Their prayer therein will be, ‘Subhaanak Allahumma’ (Glory be to You Oh Allah!’), and their greeting therein will be, ‘Salam’ (Peace). And the last day of their prayers will be, ‘Praise be to Allah, Lord of the worlds.” - (Yunus 10:9-10) The People of Paradise “You will recognize in their faces the beaming brightness of bliss.”- (Al- Mutaffifeen 83:24) “Some faces, that day, will beam (in happiness), looking at their Lord!”- (Al- Qiyaamah 75:22-23) “The righteous will be amid gardens and springs. (They will be greeted), ‘Enter here in peace and security.’ And We shall remove from their hearts any lurking sense of injury. (They will be) brothers facing each other on thrones. There no sense of fatigue shall touch them, nor shall they (ever) be evicted.”- (Al- Hijr 15:45-48) “Faces that day will be joyful – pleased with their striving – in a garden on high, where they shall hear no bad speech.”- (Al- Ghashiyah 88:8-11) “But after them (i.e. prophets and righteous believers) there followed a posterity who neglected prayer and followed after lusts. Soon, then, will they face

224 destruction, except those who repent, believe and work righteousness. These will enter the Garden and will not be wronged in the least - gardens of eternity, those which (Allah), Most Merciful, has promised to His servants in the Unseen. His promise must come to pass. They will not hear therein any vain discourse, but only salutation of peace. They will have therein their sustenance, morning and evening. Such is the Garden which We give as an inheritance for those of Our servants who are God fearing.”- (Maryam 19:59-63) “He that works evil will not be requited but by the like thereof. And he that works a righteous deed – whether male or female, and is a believer – such will enter the Garden. Therein they will have provision without measure.”- (Ghaafir 40:40). “But give glad tidings to those who believe and work righteousness, that they will have gardens beneath which rivers flow. Every time they are provided with fruits there from, they say, ‘Why? This is what we were provided with before,’ for they are given things in resemblance. They have therein pure companions, and they abide therein forever.”- (Al-Baqarah 2:25). “But the sincere (and devoted) servants of Allah, for them are a sustenance determined fruits (delights) and, they shall be honored in gardens of felicity.”- (Al-Saafaat 37:40-43). “That is what you are promised for the Day of Account! Truly, such will be Our bounty (to you). It will never cease.”- (Al-Saad 38:53-54). “Allah has promised to believers, men and women, gardens under which rivers flow to dwell therein eternally and good homes in gardens of everlasting bliss. But the pleasure of Allah is greatest. That is the supreme triumph.”- (Tawbah 9:72). “Therein will be thrones raise don high, goblets placed ready, cushions set in rows and rich carpets spread out.”- (Al-Ghaashiyah 88:31-36).

225 “Truly, the righteous will be in bliss. On thrones they will command a sight of things. You will recognize in their faces the beaming brightness of bliss.”- (Al- Mutaffifeen 83:22-24). “They will recline with ease on thrones arranged in ranks. We shall join them with companions with beautiful, big, and lustrous eyes.”- (Al Tur 52:20). “Reclining on raised thrones, they will see therein neither (burning) sun nor (freezing) cold.”- (Al Insaan 76:13). “They and their spouses will be in cool shade, reclining on thrones.”- (Yasin 36: 56). “They will be on thrones encrusted with gold and precious stones, reclining on them, facing each other.”- (Al Waaqi’ah 56:15-16). “They will recline on carpets whose linings will be of rich brocade. The fruit of the gardens will be hanging near (and in easy reach).”- (Al Rahmaan 55:54). “But on this day the believers will laugh at the unbelievers. On thrones they will command a sight of all things. Are the unbelievers not rewarded finally for what they used to do?”- (Al Mutaffifeen 83:34-36). Activities of the People of Paradise “Verily, the companions of the Garden are in occupation they enjoy. They and their spouses will be in cool shade, reclining on thrones.”- (Yasin 36:55-56). “Then those who have believed and worked righteous deeds will be in a garden (of happiness), honored.”- (Rum 30:15). “(They will be) facing each other on thrones. Passed around to them will be a cup from a clear, flowing fountain, crystal, white, of a taste so delicious to those who drink from it. It is free from headiness, and they will not suffer intoxication from it. Beside them will be chaste women, restraining their glances, with big eyes of wonder and beauty, as if they were delicate eggs, closely guarded.”- (Al-Saafaat 37:44-49). “But on this day the believers will laugh at the unbelievers. On thrones they will command a sight of all things. Are the unbelievers not rewarded (finally) for what they used to do?”- (Al Mutaffifeen 83:34-36).

226 “They will say, ‘Praise be to Allah, who has truly fulfilled His promise to us and has made us inherit the earth. We can dwell in the garden where we will. How excellent a reward for those who work (righteousness)!”- (Al- Zumar 39:74). “They will advance to each other, engaging in mutual enquiry. They will say, ‘We used to be fearful of Allah and His punishment among our people. But Allah has been good to us and has delivered us from the penalty of the scorching wind. Truly, we used to call upon Him before. Truly, it is He who is the Beneficent, the Merciful.”- (Al- Tur 52:25-28). Rivers of Paradise “(Here is)A parable of the Garden which the righteous are promised. In it are rivers of water, incorruptible; rivers of milk of which the taste never changes; rivers of wine, delicious to those who drink; and rivers of honey, pure and clear. In it there are for them all kinds of fruits and forgiveness from their Lord. Can those in such bliss be compared to such as shall dwell forever in the Fire? Those whom shall be given boiling water to drink, it will be so hot that it cuts up their bowels to pieces.”- (Muhammad 47:15) “As for the righteous, they will be in the midst of gardens and rivers, in and assembly of truth, in the presence of a Sovereign Omnipotent.”- (Al-Qamar 54:54-55) “Verily, Allah will admit those who believe and do righteous deeds to gardens beneath which rivers flow. While those who reject Allah will enjoy (this world) and eat as cattle eat. The Fire will be their abode.”- (Muhammad 47:12). Fountains of Paradise “The righteous will be amid gardens and springs. (They will be greeted), ‘Enter here in peace and security.’ And We shall remove from their hearts any lurking sense of injury. (They will be) brothers facing each other on thrones.”- (Al-Hijr 15:45-47). “Their thirst will be slaked with pure wine, sealed. The seal will be of musk. For This, let the competitors compete. With it (will be given) a mixture of Tasneem,

227 (highest spring in Paradise), a spring from which those nearest to Allah drink.”- (Al-Mutaffifeen 83:25-28). “A fountain there, called Salsabeel.”- (Al- Insaan 76:18). “Therein will be a flowing spring.”- (Al- Ghaashiyah 88:12). “In them (each garden) will be two springs, flowing freely.”- (Al- Rahmaan 55:50). “As for the righteous, they shall drink from a cup in which is a mixture of kaafoor (cool and refreshing drink), a fountain from which the righteous servants of Allah drink, causing it to burst forth simply by their will.”- (Al- Insaan 76:5-6). The Gardens of Paradise “Verily, for the righteous there will be attainment of security – gardens enclosed and grapevines.”- (Naba 78:31-32). “In them will be two pairs of every fruit.”- (Al- Rahmaan 55:52). “They will recline on carpets whose linings will be rich brocade. The fruit of the gardens will be hanging near. Then which of the favors of your Lord will you deny?”- (Al- Rahmaan 55:54-55). “In them will be fruits and dates and pomegrantes.”- (Al- Rahmaan 55:68). “The companions of the right hand – what are the companions of the right hand? (They will be) among lot trees without thorns, among talh (bananas ) trees with flowers (or fruits) piled one above another, and in shade long –extend by water flowing (constantly) and fruit abundance whose season is not limited not (supply) forbidden.”- (Al- Waaqiah 56:27-33). “And its shades will come low over them, and the bunches (of fruit will hang low in compliance).”- (Insaan 76:14) The Shade of Paradise “The parable of the Garden which the righteous are promised – beneath it flow rivers. Perpetual is the enjoyment thereof and shade therein. Such is the end of the righteous. The end of the disbelievers is the Fire.”- (Al-Ra’d 13:35)

228 “As for the righteous, they shall be amid shades and springs of water and fruits, all they desire. ‘Eat and drink to your heart’s content because of what you used to do’. Thus do We certainly reward the doers of good.”- (Al- Mursalaat 77:41- 44). “And its shades will come low over them, and the bunches of fruit will hang low in compliance.”- (Al- Insaan 76:14) “They will be among lot trees with thorns talh (bananas) trees with flowers or fruits piled one above another, and in shade long and extended, by water flowing (constantly) and fruit in abundance whose season is not limited nor (supply) forbidden.”- (Al-Waaqi’ah 56:28-33). “They and their spouses will be in (cool) shade, reclining on thrones. (Every) fruit (i.e. enjoyment) will be there for them and they shall have whatever they call for. ‘Peace!’ – a word (of salutation) from a Lord most merciful.”’- (Yasin 36:56-58). “But those who believe and do deeds of righteousness, We shall soon admit to gardens with rivers flowing beneath – abiding there forever. Therein they shall have pure companions. We shall admit them to shades, cool and ever deep.”- (Al- Nisaa 4:57). The Climate of Paradise “Reclining on raised thrones, they will see therein neither (burning) sun nor (freezing) cold.”- (Al- Insaan 76:13) “Faces that day will be joyful – pleased with their striving – in a garden on high, where they shall hear no bad speech.”- (Al- Ghashiyah 88:8-11) “They will say, ‘Praise be to Allah who has removed from us (all) sorrow, for our Lord is indeed oft – forgiving, appreciative, who has settled us in the house of lasting residence out of His bounty. Neither toil nor sense of weariness shall touch us therein.”- (Faatir 35:34-35).

229 The Women of Paradise “But give glad tidings to those who believe and work righteousness, that they will have gardens beneath which rivers flow, Every time they are provided with fruits there from they say, ‘Why, this is what we were provided with before,’ for they are given things in resemblance. They have therein pure companions, and they abide therein forever.”- (Al- Baqarah 2:25) “And (there will be) companions with beautiful, big, and lustrous eyes, likened to well – guarded pearls, a reward for what they used to do.”- (Al Waaqi’ah 56:22-24). “And beside them will be chaste women restraining their glances (companions) of equal age.”- (Saad 38:52). “In them will be chaste (Maidens) restraining their glances, whom no man or jinn before them has touched.”- (Al- Rahmaan 55:56). “In them will be fair companions, good and beautiful.”- (Al- Rahmaan 55:70). “We have created their companions of special creation and made them virgins, loving by nature and equal in age for the companions of the right hand.”- (Al-- Waaqi’ah 56:35-38). “Verily, for the righteous there will be attainment of security gardens enclosed and grapevines, companions of equal age and a cup full (to the brim).”- (Al- Naba 78:31-34). The Servants of Paradise “Around them will circulate eternal youths with goblets, beakers and cups filled from clear and flowing fountains, no after, ache will they there from, nor will they suffer intoxication, and also with fruits, any that they may select; and the flesh of fowls, any that they may desire.”- (Waaqi’ah 56:17-21). “Around them will circulate (devoted) youths resembling well guarded pearls.”- (Tur 52:24). “Around them, youths of perpetual (freshness) will serve. If you see them, you will think they are scattered pearls).”- (Al- Insaan 76:19).

230 The Dress of Paradise “Allah will admit those who believe and work righteous deeds to gardens beneath which rivers flow, they shall be adorned with bracelets of gold and pearls, and their garments therein will be silk. They have been guided in this life to good speech, and they have been guided to the path of Him, the All Praised.”- (Al- Hajj 22:23-24) “For them will be gardens of eternity, rivers flowing beneath them. They will be adorned with bracelets of gold, and they will wear green garments of fine silk and heavy brocade, reclining on raised thrones. How good the reward! How beautiful a place of rest!”- (Al- Kahf 18:31). “As for the righteous, (they will be) in a position of security among gardens and springs, dressed in fine silk and in rich brocade, facing each other. And We shall join them to companions with beautiful, big and lustrous eyes.”- (Al Dukhaan 44:51-54). “Allah will admit those who believe and work righteous deeds to gardens beneath which rivers flow. They shall be adorned with bracelets of gold and pearls, and their garments therein will be silk. They have been guided (in this life) to good speech, and they have been guided to the path of Him, and the All- praised.”- (al- Hajj 22:23-24). “For them will be gardens of eternity, rivers flowing beneath them. They will be adorned with bracelets of gold, and they will wear green garments of fine silk and heavy brocade, reclining on raised thrones. How good the reward! How beautiful a place of rest!”- (Al- Kahf 18:31). “Gardens of eternity they will enter. They will be adorned therein with bracelets of gold and pearls. Their garments will be of silk. They will say, ‘Praise be to Allah who has removed from us, (all) sorrow, for our Lord is indeed oft-forgiving, appreciative, who has settled us in the house of lasting residence out of His bounty. No toil no sense of weariness shall touch us therein.”- (Faatir 35:33-35).

231 Food and Drinks of Paradise “Such will be the Garden which you have inherited because of what you used to do. You shall have therein abundance of fruit from which you shall eat.”- (Al- Zukhruf 43:72-73). “And We shall provide them with fruit and meat, anything they shall desire. They shall exchange with one another a cup free of frivolity, free of sin.”- (Tur 52:22-23). “As for the righteous, (they will be) in a position of security among gardens and springs, dressed in fine silk and in rich brocade, facing each other. And We shall join them to companions with beautiful, big, lustrous eyes. There they can call for every kind of fruit, in peace and security.”- (Al-Dukhaan 44:51-55). “Every fruit will be there for them, and they shall have whatever they call for.”- (Yasin 36:57). “And among them will be circulated vessels of silver and glasses of crystal, - crystal- clear, made of silver which they will determine the measure thereof (according to their wishes). They will be given a cup in which a mixture of Zanjabeet (ginger) from a fountain called Salsabeel. Around them, youths of perpetual (freshness) will serve. If you see them, you will think they are scattered pearls. When you look there (Paradise), you will see bliss and a magnificent realm. Upon them (people of Paradise) will be green garments of fine silk and heavy brocade. They will be adorned with bracelets of silver, and their Lord will give them a pure drink. ‘Verily this is a reward for you and your endeavor has been appreciated.”- (Al-Insaan 76:15-22). “The companions of the right hand – what are the companions of the right hand? (They shall be) among lot trees without thorns, among talh (bananas) trees with flowers (or fruits) piled one above another, and in shade long – extended, by water flowing (constantly) and fruit in abundance whose season is not limited nor (supply) forbidden. And (they will be) on thrones (of dignity) raised high.”- (Waaqi’ah 56:27-34).

232 “As for the righteous, they shall be amid (cool) shades and springs (of water) and fruits, all they desire. ‘Eat and drink to your heart’s content because of what you used to do.’ Thus do We certainly reward the doers of good.”- (Mursalaat 77:41-44). “As for the righteous, they will be gardens and feel happiness, enjoying what their Lord has given them. And their Lord had (already) prevented them from the penalty of the Fire. (to them it will be said), ‘Eat and drink with satisfaction because of what you used to do.”- (Al- Tur 52:17-19). “Around them will circulate eternal youths with goblets, beakers and cups (filled) from clear – flowing fountains –no one will ache will they receive nor will they suffer intoxication.”- (Waqi’ah 56:17-19). “To them will be passed dishes and goblets of gold. There will be all that the soul could desire and all that the eyes could delight in, and you shall abide therein eternally.”- (Al-Zukhruf 43:71). “And among them will be circulated vessels of silver and glasses of crystal – crystal clear and made of silver which they will determine the measure thereof (according to their wishes).”- (Al-Insaan 76:15-16). “Verily for the righteous there will be attainment of security, gardens enclosed and grape vines, companions of equal age and a cup full to the brim.”- (Naba 78:31-34). Everlasting life in the Paradise “But those who have faith and work righteousness, they are companions of the Garden, abiding in it eternally.”- (Al- Baqara 2:82). “There, no sense of fatigue shall touch them, nor shall they ever be evicted.” (Al Hijr 15:48) “They will not taste death therein, except the first death, and He will preserve them from the penalty of the blazing Fire. (It will be) a bounty from your Lord. That will be the supreme achievement!”- (Al Dukhaan 44:56-57).

233 “As for those who believe and work righteous deeds, they will have the gardens of Paradise as hospitality. Eternally therein, they will not desire any other place.”- (Al-Kahf 18:107-108). “Their Lord gives them glad tidings of a mercy from Himself and good pleasure and of gardens for them wherein is lasting enjoyment.”- (Al-Tawbah 9:21). The Ranks in the Paradise “Those who believe, emigrate and strive with might and main in Allah’s cause with their wealth and their persons have the highest rank in the sigh of Allah. They are the ones who will achieve (salvation). Their Lord gives them glad tidings of a mercy from Himself and good pleasure and of gardens for them wherein is lasting enjoyment. They will dwell therein forever. Verily, with Allah is a great reward.”- (Al-Tawbah 9:20-22). “Look how We have bestowed more on some than on others. But verily in the hereafter is greater difference in rank and preference.”- (Al- Israa 17:21) “Verily, he who comes to his Lord as a criminal (at judgment), for him is Hell, wherein he shall neither die nor live. But he who comes to Him as a believer who has worked righteous deeds, for them are ranks exalted gardens of eternity, beneath which flow rivers, dwelling therein forever. Such is the reward of those who purify themselves (from evil).”- (TaaHaa 20:74-76) The Greatest Thing in the Paradise “Say, ‘Shall I bring your attention to things far better than those? For the righteous are gardens in nearness to their Lord, with rivers flowing beneath, eternal therein, with pure companions and the good pleasure of Allah. For within Allah’s sight are all His servants – especially those who say, “Our Lord, we have indeed believed, so forgive us our sins and protect us from the agony of the Fire.” Those who are patient, are truthful, who worship devoutly, who spend in the way of Allah and who prays for forgiveness in the pre-dawn hours.”- (Al- Imraan 3:15-17).

234 “Allah has promised to believers, men and women, gardens under which rivers flow to dwell therein eternally and good homes in gardens of everlasting bliss. But the pleasure of Allah is greatest. That is the supreme triumph.”- (Al- Tawbah 9:72). “Those who believe, emigrate and strive with mighty and main in Allah’s cause with their wealth and their persons’ have the highest rank in the weight of Allah. They are the ones who will achieve salvation. Their Lord gives them glad tidings of a mercy from Himself and good pleasure and of gardens for them wherein is lasting enjoyment. They will dwell therein forever. Verily, with Allah is a great reward.”- (Al-Tawbah 9:20-22) SAYINGS OF PROPHET MUHAMMAD (PBUH) ABOUT THE HELL AND PARADISE 1. Abu Hurairah (RA) narrated that the Messenger of Allah (SAW) said: “When Allah created Paradise and Hellfire, He sent Gabriel to Paradise, saying, ‘look at it and at what I have prepared therein for its inhabitants.’ So Gabriel went to it and looked at it and at what Allah had prepared therein for its inhabitants. Then Gabriel returned it Allah and said, ‘By Your glory, no one hears of it without entering it.’ So Allah ordered that it be encompassed by forms of hardship, and He said, ‘Return to it and look at what I have prepared therein for its inhabitants! So, Gabriel returned to it and found that it was encompassed by forms of hardship. Then he returned to Allah and said, ‘By Your glory, I fear that no one will enter it, Allah said, ‘Go to Hellfire and look at it and at what I have prepared therein for its inhabitants.’ Gabriel found that it was in layers, one above the other. Then Gabriel returned to Allah and said, ‘By Your glory, no one who hears of it will enter it.’ So Allah ordered that it be encompassed by lusts. Then He said, ‘Return to it and Gabriel returned to it and said, ‘By Your glory, I am frightened that no one will escape from entering it.’- (At-Tirmidhi, Abu Dawud and An-Nasa’i).

235 2. Masruuq (RA) said: “We asked ‘Abdullah Ibn Mas’ood about this verse: “And do not regard those who have been killed in the cause of Allah as dead, rather, they are alive with their Lord and being provided for.” (Surah Ali Imraan 3:169) He said, ‘We asked about that and the Prophet (SAW) said, “Their souls are in the insides of green birds, having lanterns suspended from the Throne, roaming freely in Paradise where they please, then taking shelter in those lanterns. Their Lord cast a glance at them and said, ‘Do you wish for anything?’ They said, ‘What shall we wish for when we roam freely in Paradise where we please?’ And He did that with them three times- when they saw that they would not be spared from being asked again, they said, ‘Oh Lord! We would like for You to put our souls back into our bodies so that we might fight for Your sake once again.’ When Allah saw that they were not in need of anything, they were let be.’ - (Muslim, At-Tirmidhi, an-Nasaaa’I and Ibn Majah). 3. Sahl bin Sa’d (RA) reported that the Prophet (SAW) said: “Paradise has eight gates, and one of them is called ar-Rayyaan, through which none will enter but those who observe fasting.”- (Al-Bukhari) 4. Abu Hurairah (RA) narrated that the Prophet (SAW) said: “Whoever spends two things in the way of Allah will be called from the agates of Paradise and will be addressed, ‘O slave of Allah, here is prosperity!’ So whoever was among the people who used to offer their prayers will be called from the gate of the prayer; and whoever was among the people who used to participate in jihad will be called from the gates of jihad; and whoever was among those who used to observe fasts will be called from the gate of ar-Rayyaan; and whoever was among those who used to give in charity will be called from the gate of charity.” Abu Bakr said, ‘Let my parents be sacrificed for you, Oh Allah’s Apostle! No distress or need will befall him who will be called from those gates Will there by anyone who will be called from these gates?” The Prophet (SAW) replied, “Yes. And I hope you will be one of them.” - (Al-Bukhari).

236 5. ‘Uqba bin ‘Aamir said: “We were entrusted with the task of tending the camels – On my turn, when I came back in the evening after grazing them in the pastures, I found Allah’s Messenger (SAW) stand and address the people. I heard these words of his, ‘If any Muslim performs ablution well, then stands and prays two rak’ahs, setting about them with his heart as well as his face, Paradise will be guaranteed to him.’ I said, ‘What a fine thing this is!’ A narrator who was before me said, ‘The first was even better than this.’ When I cast a glance, I saw that it was Umar who said, ‘I see that you have just come and observed. If anyone among you performs the ablution, completes the ablution well and says, “I testify that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is the servant of Allah and His Messenger,” then the eight gates of Paradise will be opened for him and he may enter by whichever of them he wishes.” - (Muslim). “The gates of Paradise will be opened on Mondays and on Thursdays, and every servant of Allah who associates noting with Allah will be forgiven, except for the man who has a grudge against his brother. About them it will be said, ‘Delay these two until they are reconciled. Delay these two until they are reconciled. Delay these two until they are reconciled.”‘- (Muslim, Maalik and Abu Dawud). 6. Abu Hurairah (RA) reported that the Messenger of Allah (SAW) said that Allah SWT said: “I have prepared for My righteous servants what no eye has seen and no ear has heard, nor has it occurred to the human heart. Thus, recite if you wish, ‘And no soul knows what joy has been kept hidden for them.”‘- (Al- Bukhari, Muslim, At-Tirmidhi, and Ibn Majah, Surah Al Sajdah 32:17). 7. Sahl bin Sa’d (RA) narrated Allah’s Apostle (SAW) said: “A place in Paradise equal to the size of a lash is better than the whole world and whatever is in it.”- (Al-Bukhari). Abu Hurairah (RA) narrated that the Prophet (SAW) said: “In Paradise there is a tree under the shadow of which a rider can travel for a hundred years.” - (Muslim).

237 8. Sahl bin Sa’d (RA) reported that Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said: “In Paradise there is a tree under the shadow of which a rider can travel for a hundred years. Without covering the distance completely.”- (Muslim) 9. Abu Sa’eed al-Khudri (RA) narrated that Allah’s Apostle (SAW) said: “In Paradise there is a tree under the shadow of which a rider of a fine and swift – footed horse can travel for a hundred years without covering the distance completely. There will be the pleasure of Allah for the inhabitants of Paradise, and he will never be annoyed with them.”- (Muslim). 10. Anas bin Maalik (RA) reported that the Prophet (SAW) said: “There is a tree in Paradise (which is so large that) if a rider traveled in its shade for one hundred years, he would not be able to cross it.”- (Al-Bukhari). 11. Abu Hurairah (RA) narrated that the Prophet (SAW) said: “There is a tree in Paradise (which is so large that) a rider could travel in its shade for a hundred years. And if you wish, you can recite: “In shade long – extended (Al Waaqi’ah 56:30). A place in Paradise equal to an arrow bow of one of you is better than (the whole earth) on which the sun rises and sets.”- (Al-Bukhari). 12. Anas bin Maalik (RA) reported that Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said: “In Paradise there is a street to which they (the inhabitants of Paradise) will come every Friday. The north wind will blow and will scatter fragrance on their faces and on their clothes. This will add to their beauty and loveliness. Then they will go back to their family after having an added luster to their beauty and loveliness, and their family will say to them, ‘By Allah, you have been increased in beauty and loveliness after leaving us.’ They (the ones who have been scattered with fragrance) will say, ‘By Allah, you have also increased in beauty and loveliness after us.”- (Muslim). 13. Abu Sa’eed (RA) narrated that the Prophet (SAW) said: “The first meal which the people of Paradise will take will be the caudate (extra) lobe of the liver of a fish.” - (Al-Bukhari).

238 14. Abu Sa’eed Al-Khudri (RA) reported that Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said: “The believers, after being saved from the Hellfire, will be stopped at a bridge between Paradise and Hell, and mutual retaliation will be established among them regarding wrongs they have committed in the world against one another. After they are cleansed and purified (through the retaliation), they will be admitted into Paradise. By Him in whose hand Muhammad’s soul is, everyone of them will know his dwelling in Paradise better than he knew his dwelling in this world.”- (Al-Bukhari). 15. Abdullah bin Qais Al-Ash’ari (RA) narrated that the Prophet (SAW) said: “A tent (in Paradise) is like a hollow pearl which is thirty miles in height. On every corner of the tent the believers will have a family that cannot be seen by the others.” (Narrated Abu ‘Imraan in another narration,” (The tent is) sixty miles (in height).”- (Al-Bukhari). 16. It is reported that the Prophet (SAW) said: “While I was asleep, I saw myself in Paradise, and there I beheld a woman making ablution beside a palace. I asked, ‘To whom does this palace belong?’ somebody said, ‘To Umar bin AL-Khattab.’ Then I remembered Umar’s jealousy (concerning women), and so I quickly went away from that palace.” (When Umar heard this from the Prophet (SAW), he wept and said, ‘Do you think it is likely that I feel jealousy because of you, Oh Allah’s Apostle?” - (Al-Bukhari). 17. On the authority of his father, Abu Bakr bin Abu Moosa bin Qais (RA) narrated that Allah’s Apostle (SAW) said: “There will be a tent made of a pearl whose height towards the sky will be sixty miles. In each corner, there will be a family of the believer, out of sight of the others.”- (Muslim). 18. Abu Bakr bin ‘Abdullah bin Qais (RA) reported on the authority of his father that Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said: “In Paradise there will be a tent of a single hollowed pearl, the width of which will be sixty miles from all sides. There will live a family in each corner, and the other will not be able to see the believer who goes around to them.”- (Muslim).

239 19. Abu Hurairah (RA) reported that the Prophet (SAW) said: “Allah, the Exalted and Glorious, created Adam in His own image with his length being sixty cubits. As He created him, He told him to greet that group (a party of angels sitting there) and listen to the response that they gave him, for it would form his greeting and that of his offspring. He then went away and said, ‘Peace be upon you!’ They (the angels) said, “May there be peace upon you and the mercy of Allah.” So all those who enter Paradise will be in the form of Adam, his length being sixty cubits. Then the people who followed him continued to diminish in size up to now.”- (Muslim) 20. Abu Hurairah (RA) reported that the Messenger (SAW) said: “There will enter Paradise people whose hearts will be like those of the hearts of the birds.”- (Muslim) Sahl bin Sa’d (RA) narrated that the Prophet (SAW) said: “Seventy thousand or seven hundred thousand of my followers (the narrator is in doubt as to the correct number) will enter Paradise holding each other till the first and the last of them enter Paradise at the same time. Their faces will have a glitter like that of the moon at night when it is full.”- (Al-Bukhari). 21. Sahl bin Sa’d (RA) reported that the Prophet (SAW) said: “Verily, 70,000 or 700,000 of my followers will enter Paradise altogether so that the first and the last of them will enter at the same time. Their faces will be a glittering like the bright full moon.” - (Al Al-Bukhari) 22. Abu Hurairah (RA) narrated that the Prophet (SAW) said: “The first batch (of people) who will enter Paradise will be (glittering like the full moon, and the batch next to them will be (glittering) like the most brilliant star in the sky. Their hearts will be as the heart of a single man, for they will have neither enmity nor jealousy among themselves. Everyone will have two wives from the hooris (who will be so beautiful, pure and transparent that) the marrow of the bones of their legs will be seen through the bones and the flesh.”- (Al Al- Bukhari)

240 23. Abu Hurairah (RA) reported that Allah’s Apostle (SAW) said: “The first group (of people) who will enter Paradise will be glittering like the moon when it is full. They will not spit or blow their noses or relieve nature. Their utensils will be of gold and their cups of gold and silver. In their censors, the aloe wood will be used, and their sweat will smell like musk. Every one of them will have no enmity among themselves. Every one of them shall have two wives. The marrow of the bones of the wives ‘legs will be seen through the flesh because of excessive beauty. They (the people of Paradise) will be neither have differences nor hatred among themselves. HTier hearts will be as one heart, and they will be glorifying Allah in the morning and in the evening.”- (Al-Bukhari) 24. Abu Hurairah (RA) narrated that the Prophet (SAW) said: “The first batch (of people) who will enter Paradise will be (glittering) like a full moon, and those who will enter next will be glittering like the brightest star. Their hearts will be like the heart of a single man, for they will have two wives, each of whom will be so beautiful, pure and transparent that the marrow of the bones of their legs will be see through the flesh, they will be glorifying Allah in the morning and evening. They will never fall ill, blow their noses or spit. Their utensils will be of gold and silver and their cups will be of gold. The matte used in their censors will be the aloe wood, and their sweat will smell like musk.”- (Al-Bukhari) 25. Abu Sa’eed Al-Khudri (RA) reported that the Prophet (SAW) said: “Paradise and Hellfire disputed together and Hellfire said, ‘In me are the mighty and haughty.’ Paradise said, ‘In me are the weak and the poor.’ So Allah judged between them (saying), ‘You are Paradise, My mercy. Through you and I show mercy to those I wish. And you are Hellfire, My punishment. Through you I punish those I wish, and it is incumbent upon Me that each of you shall have its full.’”- (Al Muslim, al Al-Bukhari and at-Tirmidhi). 26. Haaarithah bin Wahb (RA) narrated that the Messenger of Allah (SAW) said: “May I tell you who the dwellers of Paradise are? (They are) every person

241 who is considered weak and is despised, and who if he takes an oath of reliance upon Allah, will fulfill it. Now may I tell you who the people destined for Hell are? (they are) everyone who is ignorant, impertinent, proud and arrogant.”- (Al-Bukhari and Muslim). 27. Abu Hurairah (RA) reported that the Prophet (SAW) said: “The members if the first group to enter Paradise will have faces as bright as the full moon during the night. The next group will have faces as bright as the shining stars in the sky. Every person will have two wives, and the marrow of their shanks will glimmer beneath the flesh. There will be non without a wife in Paradise.”- (Muslim). 28. After Harrithah (RA) had been martyred by an arrow thrown by an unknown person on the Day (of the battle) of Badr, his mother came to the Prophet (SAW) she said: “O Allah’s Apostle, you know the position of Haarithah in my heart. (how dear he was to her). So if he is in Paradise, I will not weep for him. Otherwise, you will see what I will do.” The Prophet (SAW) said, “Are you mad? Is there only one Paradise? There are many Paradises and he is in the highest Paradise of Firdaus” The Prophet (SAW) added, “A forenoon journey or an afternoon journey in Allah’s cause is better than the whole world and whatever is in it. A place equal to an arrow bow of anyone of you or a place equal to a foot in Paradise is better than the whole world and what ever is in it. If one of the women of Paradise looked at the earth, she would fill whatever is in between them with perfume. The veil of her face is better than the whole world and whatever is in it.”- (Al Al-Bukhari). 29. Al Baraa’h bin ‘Aazib (RA) said: “Allah’s Apostle (SAW) was given a silken garment, and its beauty and delicacy astonished the people. On that, Allah apostle (SAW) said, ‘No doubt, the handkerchiefs of Sa’d bin Mu’aadh in Paradise are better than this.”- (Al-Bukhari) 30. Abu Hurairah (RA) reported that the Prophet (SAW) aid: “The (members of the ) first group that will be admitted to Paradise will have their faces as bright

242 as a full moon during the night. They will neither spit nor suffer anything. They will have their utensils and their combs made of gold and silver, and the fuel of their braziers will be aloes, and their sweat will be musk and everyone of them will have two spouses (so beautiful) that the marrow of their shanks will be visible through the flesh. There will be no dissension among them and no enmity in their hearts. Their hearts will be like one heart, glorifying Allah morning and evening.”- (Muslim) 31. It is narrated that the Prophet (SAW) said: “Whoever believes in Allah and His Apostle (SAW), offers prayer perfectly and fasts the month of Ramadan will rightfully be granted Paradise by Allah, no matter whether he fights in Allah’s cause or remains in the land where he is born.” The people said, “Oh Allah’s Apostle! Shall we acquaint the people with this good news?” He said, “Paradise has one hundred grades which Allah has reserved for the mujaahidoon who fight in His cause, and the distance between each of two grades is like the distance between the Heaven and the earth. So when you ask Allah (for something), ask for al-firdawus which is the best and highest part of Paradise.” (the subnarrator added, “I think the Prophet (SAW) also said ‘Above it (alfirdaus) is the throne of the beneficent (Allah), and from its originate the rivers of Paradise.”- (Al Al-Bukhari) 32. Sahl bin Sa’d (RA) reported that the Messenger (SAW) said: “The people of Paradise will look to the upper apartment of Paradise in the same way as you see the planets in the sky.”- (Muslim). 33. Abu Sa’eed al Khudri (RA) narrated that the Prophet (SAW) said: “The people of Paradise will look at the dwellers of the lofty mansions (a superior place in Paradise) in the same way as one looks at a brilliant star far away in the East or in the West on the horizon. That is because of their superiority over one another (in rewards).” Because of that, the people said, “Oh Allah’s Apostle! Are these lofty mansions the prophets’ mansions which nobody else can reach?” The Prophet (SAW) replied, “By Allah, in whose hands my life is, some men

243 who believe in Allah and trust His Apostles will be able to reach them.”- (Al- Bukhari and Muslim). 34. Anas bin Maalik (RA) reported that Umm Ar- Rubaa’I bint Al Baraa’h (RA) the mother of Haarithah bin Suraaqah (RA) came to the Prophet (SAW) and said: “OH Allah’s Prophet! Will you tell me about Haarithah?” Haarithah had been killed (martyred) on the day of Badr with an arrow by an unidentified person. She added, “IF he is in Paradise, I will weep bitterly for him.” He said, “Oh mother of Haarithah! There are gardens in Paradise, and your son got the Firdaus at A’laa (the best place in Paradise).”- (Al-Bukhari). 35. Abdullah (RA) said: “The Prophet (SAW) said, ‘I know the person who will be the last to come out of the Hellfire and the last to enter Paradise. He will be a man who will come out of the Hellfire crawling, and Allah will say to him, ‘Go and enter Paradise.” He will go to it, but will imagine that it has been filled, and then he will return and say, “Oh Lord, I have found it full.” Allah will say, “Go and enter Paradise, and you will have what equals the world and ten times as much (you will have as much as ten times the like of the world).” On that, the man will say, “Do you mock at me (laugh at me) though You are the King?” I saw Allah’s Apostle (SAW) (while saying that) smiling that his premolar teeth became visible. It is said that will be the lowest degree among the people of Paradise.”- (Al-Bukhari). 36. Abu Hurairah (RA) said: “Some people said, ‘O Allah’s Apostle! Shall we see our Lord on the Day of Resurrection?’ He said, ‘Do you crowd and squeeze each other on looking at the sun when it is not hidden by clouds?’ They replied, ‘No, Allah’s Apostle’. He said, ‘Do you crowd and squeeze each other on looking at the moon when it is full and not hidden by clouds?’ They replied, No’, Allah’s Apostle’. He said, ‘So you will see Him (your Lord) on the Day of Resurrection similarly. Allah will gather all the people and say, ‘Whoever used to worship anything should follow that thing.’ So he who used to worship the sun, will follow it; and he who used to worship the moon will follow it and he

244 who used to worship false deities will follow them. And then only this nation (Muslims) will remain, including their hypocrites. Allah will come to them in a shape other than they know and will say, “I am your Lord.” They will say, “We seek refuge from you. This is our place (we will not follow you) till our Lord comes to us, and when our Lord comes to us, we will recognize Him.” Then Allah will come to them in a shape they know and will say, “I am your Lord,” They will say, “(No doubt) You are our Lord.” And they will follow Him. Then a bridge will be laid over the Hellfire.” And Allah’s Apostle (SAW) added, ‘I will be the first to cross it. The invocation of the apostles on that day will be, ‘Allahumma sallim, sallim! (O Allah save us, save us!)’ Over that bridge will be hooks similar to the thorns of as’sa’daan (a thorny tree). Didn’t you see the thorns of as’ sa’daan?’ The companions said, ‘Yes, Oh Allah’s Apostle.’ He added, ‘So the hooks over that bridge will be like the thorns of as’-sa’daan, except that their greatness in size is only known to Allah. These hooks will snatch the people according to their deeds. Some people will be ruined because of their evil deeds, and some will be cut into pieces and fall down in Hell, but will be saved afterwards when Allah finished the judgments among His slaves and intends to take out of the Fire whoever He wishes to take out from among those who used to testify that none had the right to be worshipped but Allah. He will order the angels to take them out. The angels will know them by the mark of the traces of prostration (on their foreheads), for Allah banned the Fire to consume the traces of prostration on the body of Adam’s son. So they will take them out, and by then they will have been burnt (as coal). Then water, called maa’ul hayat (water of life) will be poured on them, and they will spring out like a seed springs out on the bank of a rainwater stream. There will remain one man who will be facing the Hellfire and will say, “Oh Lord! Its (Hell) vapor has poisoned and smoked me, and its flame has burnt me. Please turn my face away from the Fire.” He will keep on invoking Allah till Allah says, “Perhaps if I give you (what you want), you will ask for another thing?” The man will say,

245 “No, by Your power, I will not ask You for anything else.” Then Allah will turn his face away from the Fire. The man will say after that, “Oh Lord, bring me near the gate of Paradise.” Allah will say to him, “Didn’t you promise not to ask for anything else? Woe to you, oh son of Adam! How treacherous you are!” The man will keep invoking Allah till Allah will say, “But if I give you that, you may ask me for something else.” The man will say, “No, by Your power, I will not ask for anything else.” He will give Allah his covenant and promise not to ask for anything else after that. So Allah will bring him near to the gate of Paradise. When he sees what is in it, he will remain silent as long as Allah wills, and then he will say, “Oh Lord! Let me enter Paradise.” Allah will say, “Didn’t you promise that you would not ask ME for anything other than that? Woe to you, oh son of Adam! How treacherous you are!” On that, the man will say, “Oh Lord! Do not make me the most wretched of Your creation,” and will keep on invoking Allah till Allah will smile. When Allah smiles because of him, then HE will allow him to enter Paradise. When he enters Paradise, he will be addressed, “Wish from so and so” He will wish until all his wishes are fulfilled. Then Allah will say, “All this (what you have wished for) and as much again therewith are for you.” Abu Hurairah (RA) added, ‘That man will be the last of the people of Paradise to enter Paradise.” ‘Ataaa (RA) narrated while Abu Hurairah (RA) reporting: “Abu Sa’eed (RA) was sitting in the company of Abu Hurairah (RA) and he did not deny anything of his narration till he reached his saying, ‘All this and as much again therewith are for you.” Then Abu Sa’eed (RA) said, ‘I heard Allah’s Apostle say, “This is for you and ten times as much.” Abu Hurairah (RA) said, “In my memory it is as much again therewith.”- (Al-Bukhari). 37. Abu Hurairah (RA) reported that Alla’s Apostle (SAW) said: “He who gets into Paradise (will be made to enjoy such and everlasting) bliss that he will neither become destitute nor will his clothes wear out nor will his youthfulness decline.” - (Muslim)

246 38. Abu Sa’eed Al Khudri (RA) and Abu Hurairah (RA) both narrated that Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said: “There will be an announcer (in Paradise) who will make this announcement, ‘Verily, there is in store for you (everlasting) health. You will never fall ill, and you will live (forever) and never die. You will reamin young and never become destitute.’ (This is explained in) the words of Allah, the Exalted and Glorious, ‘And it will be announced to them, “This is the Paradise you have been made to inherit for what you used to do.”- (Muslim) 39. Abu Sa’eed (RA) reported that Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said: “Death will be brought on the Day of Resurrection in the form of a white – colored ram.” Abu Juraib made the addition, “Then it will be made to stand between Paradise and Hell.” It will be said to the people of Paradise. ‘Do you recognize this? They will raise up their necks, look towards it and say, ‘Yes, it is death’ Then a command will be given to slaughter it, and it will be said, “Oh people of Paradise, there is everlasting life for you and no death, Then (Addressing) the people of Hellfire, it is will be said, “Oh people of Hellfire! There is everlasting life for you and no death.” Allah’s Messenger (SAW) then recited the following verse pointing with his hand to this material world. “Warn them of the day of regret, when their affairs will be decided. They are unmindful, and they do not believe!”- (Muslim, Surah Maryam 19:39). 40. Abu Hurairah (RA) narrated that the Prophet (SAW) said: “It will be said to the people of Paradise. ‘Oh people of Paradise, eternity for you and no death!’ To the people of the Fire (It will be said), “Oh people of the fire, eternity for you and no death!’”- (Al-Bukhari). 41. Abu Sa’eed al Khudri (RA) reported that the Prophet (SAW) said: “Allah will say to the inhabitants of Paradise, ‘Oh inhabitants of Paradise! They will say, Oh our Lord, we present ourselves and are at Your pleasure, and good ness rests in Your hands.’ Then He will say, ‘Are you contented?’ They will reply, ‘And how should we not be contented, oh Lord, when You have given to us that which You have given to no one else of Your creation?’ Then He will say,

247 ‘Would you not like Me to give you something better than that?’ They will answer, ‘Oh Lord and what thing is better than that?’ He will say, “ shall cause My favor to descend upon you and there you shall never be displeased with you.’”- (Al-Bukhari, Muslim and Tirmidhi). 42. Abu Hurairah (RA) narrated that Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said: ‘When the month of Ramadan begins and the gates of Heaven are opened, the gates of Hell are closed, and the devils are chained.”- (Al-Bukhari). 43. Ibn Mas’ud (RA) reported that the Messenger of Allah (SAW) said: “Hell will be brought on that Day. It will have seventy thousand reins with seventy thousand angels drawing it by each rein.”- (Muslim). 44. Abu Hurairah (RA) reported that the Prophet (SAW) said: “And his (the disbeliever’s) seat in Hellfire is as much as (the distance) between Makkah and Madinah.”- (At Tirmidhi and al-Hakim). 45. Abu Hurairah (RA) reported: “While we were in the company of Allah’s Messenger (SAW), we heard a terrible sound. Thereupon, Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said, ‘Do you know what that sound is?’ When we answered, ‘Allah and His Messenger know best.’ He said. “That is a stone which was thrown into Hell seventy years ago and has been constantly falling until now when it finally reached the bottom.’”- (Muslim). 46. Abu Hurairah (RA) reported that Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said: “Hell and Paradise fell into a dispute during which Hell said, ‘I have been distinguished by the proud and the haughty.’ And Paradise said, ‘What is the matter with me that only the meek and the humble and the downtrodden and the simple enter me?’ Thereupon, Allah said to Paradise, ‘You are the means of My mercy whereby I show mercy to those of My servants whom I wish.’ Then He said to Hell, ‘You are the means of punishment whereby I punish those of My servants whom I wish. Both of you will be full.’ Hell will not be filled up until Allah puts His foot over it. Then Hell will say, ‘Enough, enough, enough,’ at which point it will be filled up, all of its parts integrated together.”- (Muslim).

248 47. Anas bin Malik (RA) reported that Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said: “Hell will continue to ask, ‘Is there anything more?’ until Allah, the Exalted, and High will place His foot thereon, Then it will say, ‘Enough, enough, by Your honor,’ and some of its parts will draw close together.”- (Muslim). 48. Abu Hurairah (RA) narrated: “When Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said, ‘Your ordinary fire is one of the 70 potions of the Hellfire,’ someone commented, ‘O Messenger of Allah, would it (ordinary fire) not be sufficient (to burn the wrongdoers)?’ At that, Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said, ‘The Hellfire has 69 more portions than ordinary (worldly) fire, and all of them are as hot as this (worldly fire).”- (Al-Bukhari). 49. Anas (RA) reported that the Messenger of Allah (SAW) said: “The most favored man among the dwellers of the Earth will be brought from among the people of the Fire on the Day of Resurrection. He will be dyed in the Fire but once, and then it will be said to him, ‘O son of Adam, have you ever seen good at all? Has any pleasure ever come to you?’ He will say, ‘No, by Allah, O Lord.’ Then the most miserable people in the world will be brought from the people of Paradise and will be dyed with the dye of Paradise. It will be said to him, ‘O son of Adam, have you ever seen any misery, and has any hardship ever come to you? ‘ He will say, ‘No, by Allah, O my Lord. No misery ever came to me, nor did I see any hardship.”- (Muslim). 50. Samurah (RA) narrated that the Prophet (SAW) said: “Last night I saw [in a dream] two men coming to me. One of them said, ‘The one who lights the fire is Malik, the gatekeeper of Hell; I am Jibreel, and this is Mika’eel.’”- (Al-Bukhari) 51. Ibn Abbas (RA) related: “The Prophet (SAW) said, ‘On the night of my ascent to Heaven. I saw Musa (who was a tall, brown, curly-haired man) as if he was one of the men of the Shan’awah tribe. Then I saw ‘Isa, a man of medium height, of moderate complexion inclined to the red and white colors, and of lank hair. I also saw Malik, the gatekeeper of the Hellfire.’”- (Muslim).

249 52. Abu Hurairah (RA) narrated that the Messenger of Allah (SAW) said: “The Hellfire complained to its Lord, saying, ‘O my Lord, my different parts eat each other up.’ So Allah allowed it to take two breaths – one in the winter and the other in the summer. This is (the cause of) the severe heat and the bitter cold you experience.’” - (Al Al-Bukhari) 53. Ibn ‘Umar (RA) narrated that the Prophet (SAW) said: “Fever is from the breath of the Hellfire; so cool it with water.”- (Al-Bukhari) 54. Abu Dharr (RA) narrated: “While the Prophet (SAW) was on a journey, he said regarding the performance of the thuhr prayer, ‘Wait until it gets cooler.’ He said the same thing again until the shade of the hillocks extended, and then he said, ‘Delay the thuhr (noon) prayer until it gets cooler, for the severity of heat is from the breath of Hell.’” - (Al-Bukhari). 55. Abu Hurairah (RA) narrated: “The Prophet (SAW) said, ‘The first man to be called on the Day of Resurrection will be Adam, who will be shown his descendants. And it will be said to them, “This is your father, Adam.” Adam will say, “Labbayk wa sa’dayk.” Then Allah will say [to Adam], “Bring forth from your descendants the delegations of the Fire.” He will say, “O Lord, how many should I bring?” Allah will answer, “From every hundred, ninety-nine.’” The companions said, ‘O Messenger of Allah, if ninety-nine out of every one hundred of us are brought forth, then what will remain of us?’ The Prophet (SAW) stated, ‘My nation among other nations is like a white hair on a black bull.’”- (Al-Bukhari). 56. Abu Hurairah (RA) narrated that the Messenger of Allah (SAW) said: “The molar tooth of an unbeliever or the canine tooth of an unbeliever will be like [Mount] Uhud, and the thickness of his skin will be like a three night’s journey.”- (Muslim) 57. Abu Hurairah (RA) that the Messenger of Allah (SAW) said: “The distance between the two shoulders of the non-believer in Hell will be like a three day’s journey for a swift rider.”- (Muslim).

250 58. Abu Hurairah (RA) reported that the Prophet (SAW) said: “Indeed, the thickness of the disbeliever’s skin will be the length of forty two forearms of those of giants, his molar tooth like Mount Uhud, and his seat in Hellfire the distance between Makkah and Madinah.”- (At-Tirmidhi and al-Hakim). 59. ‘Imran bin Husayn (RA) narrated that the Prophet (SAW) said: “I looked into Paradise and saw that the majority of its inhabitants were the poor, and I looked into Hell and saw that the majority of its inhabitants were women.”- (Al- Bukhari) 60. Ibn ‘Abbas (RA) stated: “The Prophet (SAW) said, ‘I looked into the Hellfire, and the majority of its dwellers were women who were ungrateful.’ It was asked, ‘Did they disbelieve in (i.e. were ungrateful to ] Allah?’ He replied, ‘They were ungrateful to their husbands and were ungrateful for favors and the good deeds done for them. If you had always been good to one of them and then she saw something in you not to her liking, she would say, ‘I have never seen any good from you at all.”‘- (Al-Bukhari). 61. Abu Hurairah (RA) reported that Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said: “I saw ‘Amr bin Luhayy bin Qam’a bin Khindif, brother of Bani Ka’b, dragging his intestines in the Fire.”- (Muslim) 62. Abu Hurairah (RA) stated that Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said: “I saw ‘Amr bin ‘Amir al-Khuya’I dragging his intestines in the Fire; he was the first who dedicated to animals to false deities.”- (Muslim) 63. Ibn ‘Abbas (RA) reported that the Messenger of Allah (SAW) said: “Of the inmates of the Fire, the one with the easiest punishment will be Abu Talib; he will be wearing a pair of shoes which will cause his brain to boil.”- (Al- Bukhari). 68. Abu Huraiarh (RA) that the Messenger of Allah (SAW) said: ‘He who kills himself with a steel [weapon] will be eternal inhabitant of Hell, and he will have that [weapon] in his hand and will be thrusting it into his stomach forever and ever; he who kills himself by drinking poison will sip in the fire of Hell, forever

251 and forever. He will kills himself by throwing himself from a the top of a mountain and will constantly fall in the fire of Hell forever and ever.”- (Muslim). 69. Harithah bin Wahb narrated (RA) that he heard the Messenger of Allah (SAW) say: “Shall I not inform you who the people of Paradise are? [They are comprised of] every person who is weak and taken advantage of, but if he swore that Allah would do something, He would comply. And shall I not inform you who the people of Hell are? They are every one who is cruel, proud and arrogant.”- (Muslim & Al-Bukhari). 70. It is narrated: “The Prophet (SAW) said, ‘The inhabitants of Hell are five: 1) the weak who lack self-restraint, who follow blindly and do not care for family or property (i.e. they care neither for the benefits of the Hereafter nor of this world); 2) the treacherous who does not show himself but his greed is such that he is deceitful even in small things; 3) a person who would betray you morning and evening regarding your family and your property.’ He also made mention of 4) the miser of the liar and 5) one who is in the habit of abusing people and using obscene and foul language.”- (Muslim). 71. It is narrated that the Messenger of Allah (SAW) said: “Paradise and Hell fell into a dispute for, accommodating the haughty and proud, and Paradise said, ‘What is the matter with me that only the meek and the humble and the downtrodden and simple will find abode in me?’ Thereupon, Allah said to Paradise, ‘You are a means of My mercy. I will show mercy through you to whom I will from among My servants.’ Then He said to Hell, ‘You are a sign of My chastisement, and I will chastise through you whom I will from among My servants. Both of you will be full.’ And as regards to Hell, it will not be full until Allah, the Exalted and Glorious, places His foot over it. Then Hell will say, ‘Enough, enough, enough!’ at which point it will be full and will be compressed. Allah will not treat unjustly anyone among His creation. As for Paradise, He will create another creation to fill it.”- (Muslim).

252 72. Abu Hurairah (RA) narrated that the Messenger of Allah (SAW) said: “There are two types of inhabitants of Hell whom I have not seen in my lifetime: People who have whips like the tails of oxen with them and will be beating people, and women who will be dressed yet undressed, who will be inclined to evil and will make others incline towards it. Their heads will appear like the humps of Persian camels inclined to one side. They will not enter Paradise, nor will they even smell its odor, although will be smelled from long distances away.”- (Muslim). 73. Samurah bin Jundub (RA) reported that Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said: “There will be some to whose ankles the fire will reach, some to whose knees the fire will reach, some to whose waists the fire will reach, and some to whose collarbones the fire will reach.”- (Muslim). 74. Nu’man bin Basheer (RA) reported that the Messenger of Allah (SAW) said: “Verily, of the inmates of the Fire, the one with the easiest punishment will be one who will have a pair of sandals and s traps of fire. His brain will boil from them as a kettle boils. He does not see that anyone is suffering a punishment more severe than him, while he is the one with the easiest punishment.”- (Al-Bukhari and Muslim). 75. Ibn ‘Abbas (RA) reported that the Messenger of Allah (SAW) said: “Of the inmates of the Fire, the one with the easiest punishment will be Abu Talib; he will be wearing a pair of shoes which will cause his brain to boil.”- (Al- Bukhari). 76. Abu Hurairah (RA) stated that Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said: “I saw ‘Amr bin ‘Amir al Khuya’I dragging his intestines in the Fire; he was the first who dedicated animals to false deities.”- (Muslim). 77. Abu Hurairah (RA) reported that Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said: “I saw ‘Amr bin Luhayy bin Qam’a bin Khindif, brother of Bani Ka’b, dragging his intestines in the Fire.”- (Muslim).

253 78. Abu Zayd Usamah bin Zayd bin Haritha (RA) narrated that the Messenger of Allah (SAW) said: “On the Day of Judgment a man will be brought and thrown into Hell. As a result of this, his intestines will come out of his belly, and he will circumambulate, holding his intestines like a donkey running a mill. His companions in Hell will say to him, ‘O so and so, what is this? Did you not ask people to do good and avoid evil?’ He will say, ‘That is true. However, I told others to do good but did not do it myself, and I forbade them to do evil, but did it myself.’”- (Al-Bukhari and Muslim). 79. Abu Sa’eed (RA) reported: “Allah Messenger (SAW) said, ‘Death will be brought on the Day of Resurrection in the form of a white-colored ram. Abu Kurayb added: “Then it will be made to stand between Paradise and Hell.” It will be said to the inhabitants of Paradise, ‘Do you recognize this?” They will stretch forth their necks and look towards it, saying, ‘Yes, it is death.” Then it will be said to the inhabitants of the Hellfire, ‘Do you recognize this?” And they will stretch forth their necks, look, and say, ‘Yes it is death.” Then the command will be given for slaughtering the ram, and it will be said, ‘O inhabitants of Paradise, there is now eternity and no death.” And then it will be said to the inhabitants of Hellfire, “O inhabitants of Hell, there is now eternity and no death.”‘ Allah’s Messenger then recited the following verse, pointing with his hand to this material world: ‘But warn them of the Day of Regret, when the matter will be determined; yet, they are unmindful, and they do not believe.’”- (Muslim, surah Maryam 19:39) 80. Abu Hurairah (RA) reported that Prophet (SAW) said: “None will enter Paradise except that he will be shown the place that he would have occupied in Hellfire if he had been evil – so that he will be more thankful; each one of those who enter Hellfire will be shown the place that he would have occupied in Paradise if he had been good – so that he will increase in regret.”- (Al-Bukhari).

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254 COMPARATIVE STUDY HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, mythological, and astrological practices of pre-history. Early astronomy involved observing the regular patterns of the motions of visible celestial objects, especially the Sun, Moon, stars and naked eye planets. An example of this early astronomy might involve a study of the changing position of the Sun along the horizon or the changing appearances of stars in the course of the year, which could be used to establish an agricultural or ritual calendar. Ancient astronomers were able to differentiate between stars and planets, as stars remain relatively fixed over the centuries while planets will move an appreciable amount during a comparatively short time. Early History Early cultures identified celestial objects with gods and spirits. They related these objects and their movements to phenomena such as rain, drought, seasons, and tides. It is generally believed that the first ‘professional’ astronomers were priests (such as the Magi), and that their understanding of the ‘heavens’ was seen as ‘divine’, hence astronomy’s ancient connection to what is now called astrology. Ancient structures with possibly astronomical alignments (such as Stonehenge) probably fulfilled both astronomical and religious functions.311 Calendars of the world have usually been set by the Sun and Moon (measuring the day, month and year), and were of importance to agricultural societies, in which the harvest depended on planting at the correct time of year. The most common modern calendar is based on the Roman calendar, which divided the year into twelve months of alternating thirty and thirty-one days apiece. In 46 BC Julius Caesar instigated calendar reform and adopted a calendar based upon the 365 1/4 day year length originally proposed by 4th century BC Greek astronomer Callippus.312

255 Mesopotamia The origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, the land between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, where the ancient kingdoms of Sumer, Assyria, and Babylonia were located. A form of writing known as cuneiform emerged among the Sumerians around 3500-3000 BC. Our knowledge of Sumerian astronomy is indirect, via the earliest Babylonian star catalogues dating from about 1200 BC. The fact that many star names appear in Sumerian suggests a continuity reaching into the Early Bronze Age. Astral theology, which gave planetary gods an important role in Mesopotamian mythology and religion, began with the Sumerians. They also used a sexagesimal (base 60) place-value number system, which simplified the task of recording very large and very small numbers. The modern practice of dividing a circle into 360 degrees, of 60 minutes each, began with the Sumerians.313 The first evidence of recognition that astronomical phenomena are periodic and of the application of mathematics to their prediction is Babylonian. Tablets dating back to the Old Babylonian period document the application of mathematics to the variation in the length of daylight over a solar year. Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena are recorded in the series of cuneiform tablets known as the Enūma Anu Enlil. The oldest significant astronomical text that we possess is Tablet 63 of the Enūma Anu Enlil, the Venus tablet of Ammi-saduqa, which lists the first and last visible risings of Venus over a period of about 21 years and is the earliest evidence that the phenomena of a planet were recognized as periodic. The MUL.APIN, contains catalogues of stars and constellations as well as schemes for predicting heliacal risings and the settings of the planets, lengths of daylight measured by a water-clock, gnomon, shadows, and intercalations. The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in strings that lie along declination circles and thus measure right- ascensions or time-intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences.313

256 A significant increase in the quality and frequency of Babylonian observations appeared during the reign of Nabonassar (747-733 BC). The systematic records of ominous phenomena in astronomical diaries that began at this time allowed for the discovery of a repeating 18-year cycle of lunar eclipses, for example. The Greek astronomer Ptolemy later used Nabonassar’s reign to fix the beginning of an era, since he felt that the earliest usable observations began at this time. The last stages in the development of Babylonian astronomy took place during the time of the Seleucid Empire (323-60 BC). In the third century BC, astronomers began to use goal-year texts to predict the motions of the planets. These texts compiled records of past observations to find repeating occurrences of ominous phenomena for each planet. About the same time, or shortly afterwards, astronomers created mathematical models that allowed them to predict these phenomena directly, without consulting past records. A notable Babylonian astronomer from this time was Seleucus of Seleucia, who was a supporter of the heliocentric model. Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy, in classical Indian astronomy, in Sassanian Iran, in Byzantium, in Syria, in Islamic astronomy, in Central Asia, and in Western Europe.313, 314 Egypt The precise orientation of the Egyptian pyramids affords a lasting demonstration of the high degree of technical skill in watching the heavens attained in the 3rd millennium BC. It has been shown the Pyramids were aligned towards the pole star, which, because of the precession of the equinoxes, was at that time Thuban, a faint star in the constellation of Draco. Evaluation of the site of the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak, taking into account the change over time of the obliquity of the ecliptic, has shown that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the midwinter sun. The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year.315

257 Astronomy played a considerable part in religious matters for fixing the dates of festivals and determining the hours of the night. The titles of several temple books are preserved recording the movements and phases of the sun, moon and stars. The rising of Sirius at the beginning of the inundation was a particularly important point to fix in the yearly calendar. Writing in the Roman era, Clement of Alexandria gives some idea of the importance of astronomical observations to the sacred rites: And after the Singer advances the Astrologer, with a Horologium in his hand, and a palm, the symbols of astrology. He must know by heart the Hermetic astrological books, which are four in number. Of these, one is about the arrangement of the fixed stars that are visible; one on the positions of the sun and moon and five planets; one on the conjunctions and phases of the sun and moon; and one concerns their risings. The Astrologer’s instruments (Horologium and palm) are a plumb line and sighting instrument. They have been identified with two inscribed objects in the Berlin Museum; a short handle from which a plumb line was hung, and a palm branch with a sight-slit in the broader end. The latter was held close to the eye, the former in the other hand, perhaps at arms length.314, 315 From the tables of stars on the ceiling of the tombs of Rameses VI and Rameses IX it seems that for fixing the hours of the night a man seated on the ground faced the Astrologer in such a position that the line of observation of the pole star passed over the middle of his head. On the different days of the year each hour was determined by a fixed star culminating or nearly culminating in it, and the position of these stars at the time is given in the tables as in the centre, on the left eye, on the right shoulder, etc. According to the texts, in founding or rebuilding temples the north axis was determined by the same apparatus, and we may conclude that it was the usual one for astronomical observations. In careful hands it might give results of a high degree of accuracy.311

258 India Ancient Indian astrology is based upon sidereal calculation. The sidereal astronomy is based upon the stars and the sidereal period is the time that it takes the object to make one full orbit around the Sun, relative to the stars. It can be traced to the final centuries BC with the Vedanga Jyotisha attributed to Lagadha, one of the circum-Vedic texts, which describes rules for tracking the motions of the Sun and the Moon for the purposes of ritual. After formation of Indo-Greek kingdoms, Indian astronomy was influenced by Hellenistic astronomy adopting the zodiacal signs. Identical numerical computations for lunar cycles have been found to be used in India and in early Babylonian texts.3 Around 500 AD, Aryabhata presented a mathematical system that took the Earth to spin on its axis and considered the motions of the planets with respect to the Sun. He also made an accurate approximation of the Earth’s circumference and diameter, and also discovered how the lunar eclipse and solar eclipse happen. He gives the radius of the planetary orbits in terms of the radius of the Earth/Sun orbit as essentially their periods of rotation around the Sun. He was also the earliest to discover that the orbits of the planets around the Sun are ellipses. Astronomy was advanced during the Sunga Empire and many star catalogues were produced during this time. The Sunga period is known as the ‘Golden age of astronomy in India’. Brahmagupta (598-668) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain and during his tenure there wrote a text on astronomy, the Brahmasphutasiddhanta in 628. He was the earliest to use algebra to solve astronomical problems. He also developed methods for calculations of the motions and places of various planets, their rising and setting, conjunctions, and the calculation of eclipses. Bhaskara (1114-1185) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of Brahmagupta. He wrote the Siddhantasiromani which consists of two parts: Goladhyaya (sphere) and

259 Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets). He also calculated the time taken for the Earth to orbit the sun to 9 decimal places. The Buddhist University of Nalanda at the time offered formal courses in astronomical studies. Other important astronomers from India include Madhava of Sangamagrama, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeshtadeva, who were members of the Kerala School of astronomy and mathematics from the 14th century to the 16th century. Nilakantha Somayaji, in his Aryabhatiyabhasya, a commentary on Aryabhata’s Aryabhatiya, developed his own computational system for a partially heliocentric planetary model, in which Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. Nilakantha’s system, however, was mathematically more effient than the Tychonic system, due to correctly taking into account the equation of the centre and latitudinal motion of Mercury and Venus. Most astronomers of the Kerala School of astronomy and mathematics who followed him accepted his planetary model.316 Greece and Hellenistic World The Ancient Greeks developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three- dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of Cyzicus. Their models were based on nested homocentric spheres centered upon the Earth. Their younger contemporary Heraclides Ponticus proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis.317 A different approach to celestial phenomena was taken by natural philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. They were less concerned with developing mathematical predictive models than with developing an explanation of the reasons for the motions of the Cosmos. In his Timaeus Plato described the universe as a spherical body divided into circles carrying the planets and governed according to harmonic intervals by a world soul. Aristotle, drawing on

260 the mathematical model of Eudoxus, proposed that the universe was made of a complex system of concentric spheres, whose circular motions combined to carry the planets around the earth. This basic cosmological model prevailed, in various forms, until the Sixteenth century.3 Greek geometrical astronomy developed away from the model of concentric spheres to employ more complex models in which an eccentric circle would carry around a smaller circle, called an epicycle which in turn carried around a planet. The first such model is attributed to Apollonius of Perga and further developments in it were carried out in the 2nd century BC by Hipparchus of Nicea. Hipparchus made a number of other contributions, including the first measurement of precession and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed our modern system of apparent magnitudes. The study of astronomy by the ancient Greeks was not limited to Greece itself but was further developed in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, in the Hellenistic states and in particular in Alexandria. However, the work was still done by ethnic Greeks. In the 3rd century BC Aristarchus of Samos was the first to suggest a heliocentric system, although only fragmentary descriptions of his idea survive. Eratosthenes, using the angles of shadows created at widely separated regions, estimated the circumference of the Earth with great accuracy.3, 4 The Antikythera mechanism, an ancient Greek device for calculating the movements of planets, dates from about 80 B.C., and was the first ancestor of an astronomical computer. It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete. The device became famous for its use of a differential gear, previously believed to have been invented in the 16th century, and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts, comparable to a clock made in the 18th century. The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, accompanied by a replica.

261 Depending on the historian’s viewpoint, the acme or corruption of physical Greek astronomy is seen with Ptolemy of Alexandria, who wrote the classic comprehensive presentation of geocentric astronomy, the Megale Syntaxis (Great Synthesis), better known by its Arabic title Almagest, which had a lasting effect on astronomy up to the Renaissance. In his Planetary Hypotheses Ptolemy ventured into the realm of cosmology, developing a physical model of his geometric system, in a universe many times smaller than the more realistic conception of Aristarchus of Samos four centuries earlier.1-4 China The astronomy of East Asia began in China. Solar term was completed in Warring States Period. The knowledge of Chinese astronomy was introduced into East Asia. Astronomy in China has a long history. Detailed records of astronomical observations were kept from about the 6th century BC, until the introduction of Western astronomy and the telescope in the 17th century. Chinese astronomers were able to precisely predict comets and eclipses. Much of early Chinese astronomy was for the purpose of timekeeping. The Chinese used a lunisolar calendar, but because the cycles of the Sun and the Moon are different, astronomers often prepared new calendars and made observations for that purpose.3 Astrological divination was also an important part of astronomy. Astronomers took careful note of guest stars, which suddenly appeared among the fixed stars. They were the first to record a supernova, in the Astrological Annals of the Houhanshu in 185 A.D. Also, the supernova that created the Crab Nebula in 1054 is an example of a guest star observed by Chinese astronomers, although it was not recorded by their European contemporaries. Ancient astronomical records of phenomena like supernovae and comets are sometimes used in modern astronomical studies. The world’s first star catalogue was made by Gan De, a Chinese astronomer, in 4th century BC.4, 312-313

262 Mesoamerica Maya astronomical codices include detailed tables for calculating phases of the Moon, the recurrence of eclipses, and the appearance and disappearance of Venus as morning and evening star. The Maya based their calendrics in the carefully calculated cycles of the Pleiades, the Sun, the Moon, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, and also they had a precise description of the eclipses as depicted in the Dresden Codex, as well as the ecliptic or zodiac, and the Milky Way was crucial in their Cosmology. A number of important Maya structures are believed to have been oriented toward the extreme risings and settings of Venus. To the ancient Maya, Venus was the patron of war and many recorded battles are believed to have been timed to the motions of this planet. Mars is also mentioned in preserved astronomical codices and early mythology. Although the Maya calendar was not tied to the Sun, John Teeple has proposed that the Maya calculated the solar year to somewhat greater accuracy than the Gregorian calendar. Both astronomy and an intricate numerological scheme for the measurement of time were vitally important components of Maya religion.1-3 Islamic Astronomy The Arabic world under Islam had become highly cultured, and many important works of knowledge from Greek astronomy and Indian astronomy were translated into Arabic, used and stored in libraries throughout the area. The late 9th century Persian astronomer Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī wrote extensively on the motion of celestial bodies. His work was translated into Latin during the Latin translations of the 12th century.318, 319 In the 9th century, Ja’far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma’shar al-Balkhi (Albumasar) developed a planetary model which has been interpreted as a heliocentric model. This is due to his orbital revolutions of the planets being given as heliocentric revolutions rather than geocentric revolutions, and the only known planetary theory in which this occurs is in the heliocentric theory. His work on

263 planetary theory has not survived, but his astronomical data was later recorded by al-Hashimi and al-Biruni.320, 321 In the 10th century, Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi) carried out observations on the stars and described their positions, magnitudes, brightness, and colour and drawings for each constellation in his Book of Fixed Stars. He also gave the first descriptions and pictures of ‘A Little Cloud’ now known as the Andromeda Galaxy. He mentions it as lying before the mouth of a Big Fish, an Arabic constellation. This ‘cloud’ were apparently commonly known to the Isfahan astronomers, very probably before 905 AD. The first recorded mention of the Large Magellanic Cloud was also given by al-Sufi. In 1006, Ali ibn Ridwan observed SN 1006, the brightest supernova in recorded history, and left a detailed description of the temporary star.322 In the late 10th century, a huge observatory was built near Tehran, Iran, by the astronomer Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi who observed a series of meridian transits of the Sun, which allowed him to calculate the obliquity of the ecliptic, also known as the tilt of the Earth’s axis relative to the Sun. In 11th-century Persia, Omar Khayyám compiled many tables and performed a reformation of the calendar that was more accurate than the Julian and came close to the Gregorian. An amazing feat was his calculation of the year to be 365.24219858156 days long, which is accurate to the 6th decimal place.318, 319 In the early 11th century, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) wrote the Maqala fi daw al- qamar (On the Light of the Moon) some time before 1021. This was the earliest attempt at applying the experimental method to astronomy and astrophysics, and thus the first successful at combining mathematical astronomy with ‘physics’ (which then referred to Aristotelian physics) for several of his astronomical hypotheses. He disproved the universally held opinion that the moon reflects sunlight like a mirror and correctly concluded that it “emits light from those portions of its surface which the sun’s light strikes.” In order to prove that “light is emitted from every point of the moon’s illuminated surface,” he built an

264 ingenious experimental device. Ibn al-Haytham had “formulated a clear conception of the relationship between an ideal mathematical model and the complex of observable phenomena; in particular, he was the first to make a systematic use of the method of varying the experimental conditions in a constant and uniform manner, in an experiment showing that the intensity of the light-spot formed by the projection of the moonlight through two small apertures onto a screen diminishes constantly as one of the apertures is gradually blocked up.”323, 324 Other Muslim advances in astronomy included the construction of the first observatory as a research institute in Baghdad during the reign of Caliph al- Ma’mun, the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the Ptolemaic model, the development of the universal latitude-independent astrolabe by Arzachel, the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, the beginning of astrophysics and celestial mechanics after Ja’far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir theorized that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres were subject to the same physical laws as Earth, the first elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena and the first semantic distinction between astronomy and astrology by Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, introduction of exacting empirical observations and experimental techniques, and the introduction of empirical testing by Ibn al-Shatir, who produced the first model of lunar motion which matched physical observations.320, 321 The Earth’s rotation and heliocentrism were also discussed by several Muslim astronomers, such as Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, Al-Sijzi and Qutb al-Din al- Shirazi, while the first empirical observational evidence of the Earth’s rotation was given by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali al-Qushji, and al-Birjandi developed an early hypothesis on circular inertia. Natural philosophy was also separated from astronomy by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), Ibn al-Shatir, and al-Qushji.324 It is known that the Copernican heliocentric model in Nicolaus Copernicus’ De revolutionibus was adapted from the geocentric model of Ibn al-Shatir and the

265 Maragha school (including the Tusi-couple) in a heliocentric context, and that his arguments for the Earth’s rotation were similar to those of Nasīr al-Dīn al- Tūsī and Ali al-Qushji. Some have referred to the achievements of the Maragha School as a Maragha Revolution, Maragha School Revolution, or Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance.325 Medieval Western Europe After the significant contributions of Greek scholars to the development of astronomy, it entered a relatively static era in Western Europe from the Roman era through the Twelfth century. This lack of progress has led some astronomers to assert that nothing happened in Western European astronomy during the middle Ages. Recent investigations, however, have revealed a more complex picture of the study and teaching of astronomy in the period from the Fourth to the Sixteenth centuries. Western Europe entered the middle Ages with great difficulties that affected the continent’s intellectual production. The advanced astronomical treatises of classical antiquity were written in Greek, and with the decline of knowledge of that language, only simplified summaries and practical texts were available for study. The most influential writers to pass on this ancient tradition in Latin were Macrobius, Pliny, Martianus Capella, and Calcidius. In the Sixth Century Bishop Gregory of Tours noted that he had learned his astronomy from reading Martianus Capella, and went on to employ this rudimentary astronomy to describe a method by which monks could determine the time of prayer at night by watching the stars. 3, 4 In the Seventh Century the English monk Bede of Jarrow published an influential text, On the Reckoning of Time, providing churchmen with the practical astronomical knowledge needed to compute the proper date of Easter using a procedure called computus. This text remained an important element of the education of Clergy from the Seventh Century until well after the rise of the Universities in the Twelfth Century.

266 The range of surviving ancient Roman writings on astronomy and the teachings of Bede and his followers began to be studied in earnest during the revival of learning sponsored by the emperor Charlemagne. By the Ninth Century rudimentary techniques for calculating the position of the planets were circulating in Western Europe; medieval scholars recognized their technical flaws, but texts describing these techniques continued to be copied, reflecting an interest in the motions of the planets and in their astrological significance. Building on this astronomical background, in the Tenth Century European scholars such as Gerbert of Aurillac began to travel to the Spain and Sicily to seek out learning which they had heard existed in the Arabic-speaking world. There they first encountered various practical astronomical techniques concerning the calendar and timekeeping, most notably those dealing with the astrolabe. Soon scholars such as Hermann of Reichenau were writing texts in Latin on the uses and construction of the astrolabe and others, such as Walcher of Malvern, was using the astrolabe to observe the time of eclipses in order to test the validity of computistical tables. By the Twelfth century, scholars were traveling to Spain and Sicily to seek out more advanced astronomical and astrological texts, which they translated into Latin from Arabic and Greek to further enrich the astronomical knowledge of Western Europe. The arrival of these new texts coincided with the rise of the universities in medieval Europe, in which they soon found a home. Reflecting the introduction of astronomy into the universities, John of Sacrobosco wrote a series of influential introductory astronomy textbooks: the Sphere, a Computus, a text on the Quadrant, and another on Calculation. In the 14th century, Nicole Oresme, later bishop of Liseux, showed that neither the scriptural texts nor the physical arguments advanced against the movement of the Earth were demonstrative and adduced the argument of simplicity for the theory that the earth moves, and not the heavens. However, he concluded “everyone maintains, and I think myself, that the heavens do move and not the

267 earth: For God hath established the world which shall not be moved.” In the 15th century, cardinal Nicholas of Cusa suggested in some of his scientific writings that the Earth revolved around the Sun, and that each star is itself a distant sun. He was not, however, describing a scientifically verifiable theory of the universe.326 Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) crafted his own telescope and discovered that our Moon had craters, that Jupiter had moons, that the Sun had spots, and that Venus had phases like our Moon. The renaissance came to astronomy with the work of Nicolaus Copernicus, who proposed a heliocentric system, in which the planets revolved around the Sun and not the Earth. His De revolutionibus provided a full mathematical discussion of his system, using the geometrical techniques that had been traditional in astronomy since before the time of Ptolemy. His work was later defended, expanded upon and modified by Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler.327 Galileo was among the first to use a telescope to observe the sky, and after constructing a 20x refractor telescope he discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter in 1610. This was the first observation of satellites orbiting another planet. He also found that our Moon had craters and observed sunspots. Galileo noted that Venus exhibited a full set of phases resembling lunar phases. Galileo argued that these observations supported the Copernican system and were, to some extent, incompatible with the favored model of the Earth at the center of the universe.3, 4 Although the motions of celestial bodies had been qualitatively explained in physical terms since Aristotle introduced celestial movers in his Metaphysics and a fifth element in his On the Heavens, Johannes Kepler was the first to attempt to derive mathematical predictions of celestial motions from assumed physical causes. Combining his physical insights with the unprecedentedly accurate naked-eye observations made by Tycho Brahe, Kepler discovered the three laws of planetary motion that now carry his name.

268 Isaac Newton developed further ties between physics and astronomy through his law of universal gravitation. Realising that the same force that attracted objects to the surface of the Earth held the moon in orbit around the Earth, Newton was able to explain - in one theoretical framework - all known gravitational phenomena. In his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, he derived Kepler’s laws from first principles.327, 328 Discovery of Hell In the 16th Century, Italian astronomer Giordano Bruno proposed that the stars were actually other suns like our own. In 1838, German astronomer Friedrich Bessel measured the parallax of 61 Cygni star as 0.314 arc seconds, which given the diameter of the earth’s orbit indicated that the star was about 9.8 light years away that had proved the stars to be far remote from the earth’s atmosphere and all were suns.199 In the 20th Century with the advent of improved technology, it was proven that other stars were similar to our own sun, and the sun was found to be part of a galaxy made up of more than 10 billion stars. Astronomers estimate that there are at least 70 sextillion (7×1022) suns or stars in the observable universe. Stars are not spread uniformly across the universe, but are normally grouped into galaxies along with interstellar gas and dust. A typical galaxy contains hundreds of billions of stars, and there are about 125 billion (1.25x1011) galaxies in the observable universe.17 In the Seventh Century, Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) visited the hell and paradise during his famous night journey to the outer space and meeting with Almighty God. Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said, “You pray at noon until it gets cooler. Because fire of hell is the source of intense heat at noon.” Prophet (pbuh) also said, “Once the hell complained to his Creator, saying Oh my Lord! My one part has engulfed another part. Thus Allah allowed the hell to take two breaths, one in the winter, and another in the summer. So the intensity of winter

269 and summer which is now felt in the earth is due to the two breaths of the hell.”- (Imam Malik, Bukhari, Muslim, Tirmidhi, Nasai, Abu Daud, and Ibn Majah). The Muslim scientists developed a diagram of the universe on the basis of comparative study of astronomy and religious cosmology, where the Hell is placed around the earth, consisting of stars and constellations of ancient astronomy.

Fig: Prophet Solomon’s Astronomical Seal, modified by the Muslim Scientists according to Religious Cosmology. Prophet Solomon’s Astronomical Seal, also known as the Fortune Seal, modified by the Muslim Scientists according to Religious Cosmology, where they placed the Hell in the outer space nearer to the Earth consisting of stars and constellations of ancient astronomy, and the Paradise in the deeper and distant regions of the universe near-by the holy throne of God. The legend of Prophet

270 Solomon’s astronomical seal, of the wondrous signet ring, which the prophet designed in 800 B.C., is common to Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The Muslim scientists’ work on astronomy allows the true essence of prophet Solomon’s seal as a symbol of connection between the two worlds, traditional cosmology and religious cosmology.329 In the Holy Scriptures of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, it had been stated that at the day of final judgment the earth would be changed to a big field known as the field of resurrection, and it would be surrounded by the hells. A very long bridge will be built over the hells extending from the earth to the paradise. After the judgment believers will pass over the bridge easily and safely. The unbelievers will fall in to the hells.303 The Jewish Rabbis teach that there is an upper and a lower paradise containing apartments for the residence and reward of righteous. They believe that there is an upper and a lower hell. In the hell there are seven divisions, in each division six thousand house and in each house six thousand chests, and in each chest six thousand barrels of gall. Each of the division of the hell to be as depth as one can walk in three hundred years. Christian description of hell follows the Jewish popular tradition.303 The Hindus and Buddhists also believe in the existence of Hell and Paradise. They compare the Hell to a river of fire — Vaitarani, which will have to pass to reach the gardens of paradise.279 According to religious cosmology, the earth is surrounded by the hells. The Islamic scholars have been recognizing the Sun as a hell since the Seventh Century. Astronomers all over the world have confirmed that all the stars in the galaxies are Suns. So the Sun and Sun like billions of stars in the galaxies, the quasars, pulsars, and black holes, which are situated around the earth in the regions of hells, all are hells. In the Holy Qur’an 1400 years ago, Almighty God praised the scientists who would investigate into the matters of the space and the earth, and on the basis of

271 their findings they would beg refuge from the punishment of Hell-fire. The Holy Qur’an says- In the creation of the space and the earth, and in the variation of night and day are signs for those who possess intelligence, those remember God when standing, sitting and lying down, and reflect on the creation of the space and the earth, and says- Lord you have not created those celestial bodies (the Sun, stars and galaxies) in vain. Glory be to you! Save us from the penalty of Hell-fire, Lord those whom you will cast into Hell shall be put to eternal shame: non will help the evildoers. - (3:190-192). These astronomical verses of the Holy Qur’an are clearly indicating us that the scientific discovery of spiritual Hell in the universe will activate mankind for a normal religious life style and behaviour to remain safe from the Hell-fire and enter into the eternal Paradise that might restore peace and discipline all over the world. SPACE EXPLORATION

Space exploration is the discovery and exploration of outer space by means of space technology. While the observation of objects in space, known as astronomy, predates reliable recorded history, it was the development of large and relatively efficient rockets during the early 20th century that allowed physical space exploration to become a reality.330 Deep Space Exploration is the term used for the exploration of deep space and which is usually described as being quite distant away from Earth, within or away from the solar system. It is the branch of astronomy and space technology which is involved with exploring the distant regions of outer space. Space Tourism is space travel for recreational, leisure or business purposes. A number of startup companies have sprung up in recent years, hoping to create a space tourism industry. Orbital space tourism opportunities have been limited and expensive, with only the Russian Space Agency providing transport to date.

272 The publicized price for flights brokered by Space Adventures to the International Space Station aboard a Russian Soyuz spacecraft have been US$20–35 million, during the period 2001–2009. Some space tourists have signed contracts with third parties to conduct certain research activities while in orbit. Russia halted orbital space tourism in 2010 due to the increase in the International Space Station crew size, using the seats for expedition crews that would be sold to paying spaceflight participants. However, tourist flights are tentatively planned to resume in 2013, when the number of single-use three- person Soyuz launches could rise to five a year.331 Spaceflight is the use of space technology to achieve the flight of spacecraft into and through outer space. The most commonly used definition of outer space is everything beyond the Kármán line, which is 100 kilometers (62 miles) above the Earth’s surface. The United States sometimes defines outer space as everything beyond 50 miles (80 km) in altitude. Space missions are designed to explore the unknown and learn more about the universe around us. Whether it’s a manned space mission to the moon, a robot explorer in the solar system or a probe to the galaxy beyond. Spaceflight is used in space exploration, and also in commercial activities like space tourism and satellite telecommunications. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites and other earth observation satellites. A spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft—both when unpropelled and when under propulsion—is covered by the area of study called astrodynamics. Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact.

273 The first rocket to reach space was the German V-2 Rocket, on a test flight in June, 1944, although sub-orbital flight is not considered a spaceflight in Russia. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, which became the first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth. The first human spaceflight was Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, aboard which Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin made one orbit around the Earth. Space Colonization, also called "interstellar colonization", space settlement, space humanization, space habitation, or extraterrestrial colonization, is the concept of permanent human habitation outside of Earth. At the present time, there are many proposals and speculations about the first space colony. It is seen as a long-term goal of some national space programs.332 Potential sites for space colonies include the Moon, Mars, asteroids and free- floating space habitats. Ample quantities of all the necessary materials, such as solar energy and water, are available from or on the Moon, Mars, near-Earth asteroids or other planetary bodies. In 2005 NASA Administrator Michael Griffin identified space colonization as the ultimate goal of current spaceflight programs, saying: “ ... the goal isn't just scientific exploration ... it's also about extending the range of human habitat out from Earth into the solar system as we go forward in time ... In the long run a single-planet species will not survive ... If we humans want to survive for hundreds of thousands or millions of years, we must ultimately populate other planets. The Space Shuttle was a partially reusable launch system and orbital spacecraft operated by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for human spaceflight missions. The system combined rocket launch, orbital spacecraft, and re-entry space plane with modular add-ons. The first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981 leading to operational flights beginning in 1982. It was used on a total of 135 missions from 1981 to 2011 all launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

274 Major missions included launching numerous satellites, interplanetary probes, the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), conducting space science experiments, and constructing and servicing the International Space Station. Major components included the orbiters, recoverable boosters, external tanks, payloads, and supporting infrastructure. Five space-worthy orbiters were built; two were destroyed in mission accidents. The Space Shuttle at launch consisted of the Orbiter Vehicle (OV), one external tank (ET), and two Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs). It was launched vertically like a conventional rocket with thrust from the two SRBs and three main engines. During launch, the external tank provided fuel for the orbiter's main engines. The SRBs and ET were jettisoned before the orbiter reached orbit. At the conclusion of the orbiter's space mission, it fired its thrusters to drop out of orbit and re-enter the lower atmosphere. The orbiter decelerated in the atmosphere before flying like a glider but with reaction control system thrusters before landing on a long runway. A space station (or orbital station) is a spacecraft capable of supporting a crew which is designed to remain in space (most commonly in low Earth orbit) for an extended period of time, and to which other spacecraft can dock. A space station is distinguished from other spacecraft used for human spaceflight by lack of major propulsion or landing systems. Instead other vehicles transport people and cargo to and from the station. As of October 2011 two space stations are in orbit; the International Space Station, and China's Tiangong 1, which successfully launched on September 29, 2011. Previous stations include the Almaz and Salyut series, Skylab and most recently Mir. Space stations are used to study the effects of long-term space flight on the human body as well as to provide platforms for greater number and length of scientific studies than available on other space vehicles. All space stations have been designed with the intention of rotating multiple crews, with each crew member staying aboard the station for weeks or months, but rarely more than a

275 year. Since the ill-fated flight of Soyuz 11 to Salyut 1, all manned spaceflight duration records have been set aboard space stations. The duration record for a single spaceflight is 437.7 days, set by Valeriy Polyakov aboard Mir from 1994 to 1995. As of 2011, three astronauts have completed single missions of over a year, all aboard Mir. Space stations have been used for both military and civilian purposes. The last military-use space station was Salyut 5, which was used by the Almaz program of the Soviet Union in 1976 and 1977. The International Space Station (ISS) is a habitable artificial satellite in low Earth orbit. It follows the Salyut, Almaz, Skylab and Mir stations as the ninth space station to be inhabited. The ISS is a modular structure whose first component was launched in 1998. Like many artificial satellites, the station can be seen with the naked eye from Earth without any special equipment. The ISS consists of pressurized modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components. ISS components have been launched by American Space Shuttles as well as Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets. Budget constraints led to the merger of three space station projects with the Japanese Kibō module and Canadian robotics. In 1993 the partially built Soviet/Russian Mir-2, the proposed American Freedom, and the proposed European Columbus merged into a single multinational programme. The Russian Federal Space Agency (RSA/RKA) is using the ISS as a work site to assemble their next space station, called OPSEK. Modules and components for the new station began arriving on orbit in 2010, and the RSA plans to commission the new station before the remainder of the ISS is de-orbited. The ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology and other fields. The station is suited for the testing of spacecraft systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon and Mars.

276 The station has been continuously occupied for 11 years and 291 days, having exceeded the previous record of almost 10 years (or 3,644 days) held by Mir, in 2010. The station is serviced by Soyuz spacecraft, Progress spacecraft, the Automated Transfer Vehicle, the H-II Transfer Vehicle, and formerly the Space Shuttle. It has been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 different nations. On 25 May 2012, Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (or SpaceX) became the world's first privately held company to send a cargo load, the Dragon spacecraft, to the International Space Station.333 The ISS programme is a joint project between five participating space agencies, the American NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency, the Japanese JAXA, the European ESA, and the Canadian CSA. The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The station is divided into two sections, the Russian orbital segment (ROS) and the United States orbital segment (USOS), which is shared by many nations. The ISS is maintained at an orbital altitude of between 330 km (205 mi) and 410 km (255 mi). It completes 15.7 orbits per day. The ISS is funded until 2020, and may operate until 2028. An astronaut or cosmonaut is a person trained by a human spaceflight program to command, pilot, or serve as a crew member of a spacecraft. While generally reserved for professional space travelers, the terms are sometimes applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists, and tourists. Until 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, either by the military, or by civilian space agencies. With the sub- orbital flight of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created: the commercial astronaut. Space industry refers to economic activities related to manufacturing components that go into Earth's orbit or beyond, delivering them to those regions, and related services. Owing to the prominence of the satellite-related activities, some sources use the term satellite industry interchangeably with the

277 term space industry. The term space business has also been used. A narrow definition encompasses only hardware providers (primarily related to launch vehicles and satellites). This definition does not exclude certain activities, such as space tourism. Thus more broadly, space industry can be described as the companies involved in the space economy, and providing goods and services related to space. Space economy has been defined as "all public and private actors involved in developing and providing space-enabled products and services. It comprises a long value-added chaining, starting with research and development actors and manufacturers of space hardware and ending with the providers of space-enabled products and services to final users." The three major sectors of the space industry are: satellite manufacturing, support ground equipment manufacturing, and the launch industry. The satellite manufacturing sector is composed of satellite and their subsystems manufacturers. The ground equipment sector is composed of manufacturing items like mobile terminals, gateways, control stations, VSATs, direct broadcast satellite dishes, and other specialized equipment. The launch sector is composed of launch services, vehicle manufacturing and subsystem manufacturing.334 With regards to the worldwide satellite industry revenues, in the period 2002 to 2005 those remained at the 35–36 billion USD level. In that, majority of revenue was generated by the ground equipment sector, with the least amount by the launch sector. Space-related services are estimated at about 100 billion USD. The industry and related sectors employ about 120,000 people in the OECD countries, while the space industry of Russia employs around 250,000 people. Capital stocks estimated the worth of 937 satellites in Earth's orbit in 2005 at around 170 to 230 USD billion. In 2005, OECD countries budgeted around USD 45 billion for space-related activities; income from space-derived products and services has been estimated at USD 110–120 billion in 2006 (worldwide). Space industry is heavily dominated by the G7 countries, due to their extensive investment in the aerospace industry.

278 Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the Earth’s atmosphere. Historically, astronomy has included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy, the making of calendars, and even astrology, but professional astronomy is nowadays often considered to be synonymous with astrophysics. Astrophysics is the study of physics of the universe, including the physical properties of astronomical objects. Since the 20th century, the field of professional astronomy split into observational and theoretical branches. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring and analyzing data, mainly using basic principles of physics. Theoretical astronomy is oriented towards the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. The two fields complement each other, with theoretical astronomy seeking to explain the observational results, and observations being used to confirm theoretical results. It is generally believed that the first ‘professional’ astronomers were prophets and priests, and that their understanding of the ‘heavens’ was seen as ‘divine’. In the 20th century with the help of advanced technology, astronomers explore the universe and find out billions of stars and galaxies in the universe, which were hidden and unknown to mankind in the ancient periods. Astronomers estimate that there are at least 70 sextillion (7×1022) stars in the observable universe. These hidden and unknown celestial objects of the ancient periods are now proved to be the subject of religious and spiritual cosmology. Spiritual cosmology divides the universe into the two worlds, this world and the world hereafter. This world is situated on the Earth, a very small part of the universe, separated from rest of the universe by the atmosphere. Everything beyond the Kármán line or outside the atmosphere is known as the outer space or the world hereafter. In spiritual cosmology, this Earth is a test world, also known as the imperfect world and rest of the universe is the world hereafter made up of the hell and paradise.

279 THE ISRA AND MI'RAJ The Isra and Mi'raj are the two parts of a Night Journey to the space that Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) took during a single night around the year 621. A brief statement of the journey is in Sura 17, Al-Isra of the Holy Qur’an, and other details come from the Hadith. In the journey, Prophet Muhammad travels on the steed Buraq to the Masjid Al-Aqsa, in Jerusalem, where he leads other prophets in prayer. He then ascends to the space where he meets distinguished prophets, visits the hells and heavens, speaks to God, who gives Prophet Muhammad instructions to take back to the faithful regarding the details of prayer. The Holy Qur’an describes this mission as a space flight to explore the signs of unknown - the signs for existence of God, hells and heavens. According to traditions, this space mission is associated with the Lailat al-Miraj, as one of the most significant events in the Islamic calendar. Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) was approached by Archangel Gabriel on the command of God on around 621 A.D, the 27th of Rajab (the seventh month of the Islamic calendar) and was given a animal called Buraq, which, according to Sahih al-Bukhari was: “...a white animal which was smaller than a mule and bigger than a donkey was brought to me.”... “The animal’s step (was so wide that it) reached the farthest point within the reach of the animal’s sight. ..." Here the journey started which is known as Al-Isra wa Al-Miraj (Al-Isra is the first half of the journey from Mecca to Jerusalem and Al-Miraj is the journey to space). According to the Surah Al-Isra and Najm in the Holy Qur’an God has said: Most glorified is the One (Allah) who summoned His servant (Muhammad) during the night, from the Sacred Mosque to the farthest Mosque, whose surroundings we have blessed, in order to show him some of our signs. He is the Hearer, the Seer. – (Holy Qur’an, 17: 1).

280 Are you doubting what he saw? He certainly saw him in another descent. At the Lote Tree (Sidratul Muntaha) of the Utmost Boundary - Where the eternal Paradise is located. Behold, the Lote-tree was shrouded (in mystery unspeakable!). (His) sight never swerved, nor did it go wrong! He saw great signs of his Lord. - (Holy Qur’an, 53: 12-18). The twentieth century did see the development in all fields of science. After the invention of the airplanes, the second amazing invention was of the rockets. During the World War II the Germans had developed the rocket propulsion for aircraft and guided missiles notably the V. 2. After their surrender in 1945, the United States, the Great Britain, France and U.S.S.R fell heir to the technical knowledge of the rocket power developed by Germany. The invention of the rocket was the first step in exploration of the space. This unimaginable void of space, which is measured in billions of light years, is not empty. Throughout these vast reaches matter largely hydrogen is scattered at extremely low density of perhaps ten particles per centimeter. Additionally the space is permeated by gravitational field and vide spectrum of electro magnetic radiation including cosmic rays and magnetic fields of unknown intensities and distributions. These great complexities of the space phenomena could be discovered only after the advent of high altitude of sounding rockets and instrumented satellites along with high speed digital computers. In the United States, the National Aeronautic and space administration (NASA) was established in 1958 for the purpose of peaceful exploration of space. The first unmanned artificial satellite launched by U.S for space probe was Explorer I. it was followed by vanguard I. they were launched on January 31 and March 17, in 1958. The United States Mariner program was successful in making probes on Mars and Venus. Mariners 2 and 5 passed Venus within 22,000 and 25,000 miles and made measurements of atmosphere and surface temperatures, magnetic field and radio contact to 54 million and 3 hundred thousand miles. Mariner 4 in 1967 and mariner 6 and 7 in 1969 obtained photographs of

281 Martinian surface and made significant analysis of the atmosphere. Mariner 9 was launched on May, 13 1971. It inserted into Mars orbit on November 13. It obtained exhaustive data and relayed hundreds of photographs. On October 4, 1957, the then Soviet Union launched the world’s first artificial satellite Sputnik I orbited the earth. The big leap in ascending to the sky was the Lunar Module from Apollo on the moon as surface. Apollo II was launched on July 16, 1969. Neil, Armstrong, Edward. E. Aldrin, and Michael Collins manned it. Armstrong and Aldrin transferred themselves to the Lunar Module, and descent and the landing was made on July 2o, at 8:17 Greenwich mean time. The manned space flights began from April 12, 1961 when the U.S.S.R launched Vostok I into a single earth orbit. The U.S launched freedom 7 carrying Alan. B. Shepard Jr. as the first U.S astronaut on May 5, 1961. The manned flights ascending to the sky were many. However, the Qur’an mentioned the possibility of ascent to the sky earlier in the 7th century: Every time a messenger went to them, they ridiculed him. We thus control the minds of the guilty. Consequently, they cannot believe in him. This has been the system since the past generations. Even if we opened for them a gate into the sky, through which they climb; they will say, "Our eyes have been dazzled. We have been bewitched." - (Holy Qur’an, 15: 11-15). Ibn Khathir explaining the above verse said, that their severity in their infidelity and their enmity (against religion) is to the extent that if a gate in space is opened for them and they are made to keep ascending even then they will not believe (in religion) but they would say their eyes have been bewitched. It is to be noted that if Allah mentioned the possibility of any occurrence it can never be infeasible. The Arabic text of the verse under citation is conditional. If the infidels after hearing the revelation had vowed to believe, they would have been made to ascend the sky in any way Allah had so desired. When particularly the bodily ascent of the Prophet Muhammad was the living example of it. It is

282 preceded that Allah has subjected to you all the things whatever is their in the outer space and in the earth. This news was the glad tidings of the advancement of the science and technology. The next half of the 20th century did observe the scientific advancement. Further the Qur’anic contention to open the gate from the sky meant to provide means to ascend in the sky. The rocket technology provided mankind with those means. The Qur’an sounding another note on penetration through the regions of the earth and sky said: O assembly of Jinn and men! If you have power to pass beyond the zones of the heavens and the earth, then pass beyond (them)! But you will never be able to pass them, except with force (from God). - (Holy Qur’an, 55:33). There is a peculiarity in this verse that it did not say that it is impossible to pierce through the regions of the sky but it held its happening on obtaining the desired force. The Arabic word Tanfazu means penetrate, breaking through, infiltration. (Al- Muwrid/Arabic-English) The other word Sultan means power, force, prevails over (Khazin). Imam Razi says the Arabic word, Sultan means utter force. The verse signifies the possibility of piercing through the zones of the sky and the earth with the help of the force, i.e. that man can attain the desired force. This force could be attained with the progress of the science and technology.335 Let us not forget the means of the communication during the advent of the Qur’an were limited to mules, horses, and camels or few boats that sailed across the river and the seas. God has made the winds subservient to the command of the Prophet Solomon. It took him to the month’s journey in the morning and month’s journey in the evening - (Al-Qur’an, 34:12). Ibn Kathir said that Prophet Solomon used to put everything he needed like mules, camels, and tents, and mounted his armies on a wooden large throne and ordered the wind to carry them away. It was a miracle granted to the Prophet Solomon, which ended with him.335

283 For many years the unbelievers denied the religious scriptures. They said the flying of Solomon’s throne is a fable, soled material cannot fly. But time when hundreds of tons of weight fly in the air from place to place. It was Allah’s command Who made the winds subservient to Solomon, and the force of wind flew the throne of Solomon. There is a point to be noted, Solomon flew month’s journey in the morning and so on in the evening that shows his speedy flights. Today we know that the speed is a major factor in making solid things to fly. This conforms the truth of the Qur’an. Those who refute the miracles think that Allah’s power is insufficient in comparison to the man. It was He Who penetrated the body of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) not only through the regions of the atmosphere but to the outer space. It is He who also gave the ability to pass through the regions of the sky and land on the moon. Living in the deserts of the Arabian Peninsula, the Arabs were already fine astronomers, skilled at using the stars for navigation. Much like the Ancient Greek seafarers, a wrong turn or misdirection meant death, so Arabic nomads and merchants could read the stars like a map. They were in tune with the cycles and phenomena of the universe, helped by the crystal clear skies of their homeland in the Arabian Peninsula. According to the teachings of Prophet Muhammad, Muslims had to pray to Mecca five times every day and, whilst the Arabs knew the direction of Mecca in their own lands, Muslims as far afield as Spain and Persia also had to know the direction of their holy site. They had to know the exact time of day, because praying at the correct time is vitally important to the Muslim religion. As a result, astronomy took on a completely new importance and became one of the most important sciences to Muslims, encouraging the development of sophisticated mathematical and trigonometric techniques. In addition, the Islamic calendar is based upon the lunar cycle, and measuring and predicting the timing and position of the moon throughout the years is crucial to the Islamic world.336

284 The Islamic scholars took observation to a new level, breaking away from the ideas of the Greeks, who were mired in the belief that they could theorize and deduce underlying principles. By contrast, the Muslims were great believers in empirical observation and measurement. Islamic astronomy had its roots in making prayer easier, but the astronomers went far beyond. An understanding of the discipline of Astronomy is essential for the appreciation of the religion of Islam. No other religion uses or relies on the heavens and the motion of the moon and sun for timekeeping and calendars as Islam does. Allah created this tremendous Universe that we live in and we are invited to reflect upon it, to understand it and find out the existence of an Intelligent Creator, so that we may be able to practise our religion with conviction based on reason to the best of our abilities. By God’s laws, the laws of Physics, we are glued to the planet earth yet Almighty God granted us eyes, intellect and knowledge that we may see far in excess of our ordinary reach - surely in these things are signs of the existence and omnipotence of our Creator. “We did not create the space and the earth, and everything in them, just to play. We created them for a specific purpose, but most of them do not know.”- (Al- Qur’an, 44: 38-39).

“No doubt, in the alteration of the night and the day, and in all that Allah has created, in the spaces and the earth, are signs for those who fear Him.”- (10: 06). “Say, "Behold all that is in the spaces and on earth"; but neither Signs nor Warners profit those who believe not.”- (Al-Qur’an, 10:101). “Undoubtedly there are signs in the spaces and the earth for the believers.”- (Al- Qur’an, 45:03). In Astronomy the Muslims integrated the astronomical traditions of the Indians, Persians, the ancient Near East and especially the Greeks from the 8th century onward. The Almagest of Ptolemy, the name of which is Arabic in origin, was thoroughly studied and its planetary theory criticized by several astronomers of both the eastern and western lands of Islam. A major critique of the theory was

285 developed by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and his students especially Qutb al-Din al- Shirazi, in the 13th century. The first astronomical observatory as a scientific institution was the observatory of Maraghah in Persia established by al-Tusi. Later European observatories indirectly followed this model. The most famous astronomical instrument, the astrolabe was developed by Muslims to carry out observation. Greek works were translated by Muslim scholars in Arabic and they also added encyclopedias of their own. When Europe later re-awoke, they translated the Arabic works and the Arabic translations of the Greek works. Star names were not translated but transliterated so that to date many many stars names are Arabic in origin. A look through any catalogue of stars, and one is immediately struck by the numerous names that appear to be Arabic in origin such as Aldabaran and Deneb. In an astronomical catalogue of almost 250 stars, over 140 of them had names that were Arabic in origin. Many new stars were discovered by Muslims. The book on stars of 'Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi was in fact translated into Spanish by Alfonso X el Sabio. The Muslims carried out many observations that were contained in astronomical tables called Zij. One of the most keen observers was al-Battani. The zij of al-Ma'mun observed in Baghdad, the Hakimite zij of Cairo, the Toledan Tables of al-Zarqali and his associates, the el-Khanid zij of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi observed in Maraghah, and the zij of Ulugh-Beg from Samarqand are among the most famous Islamic astronomical tables. These tables had significant influence upon Western Astronomy up to the time of Astronomer Tycho Brahe.318-319 The first reference to an “observation tube” is found in the work of al-Battānī (853-929), and the first exact description of the “observation tube” was given by al-Biruni (973-1048), in a section of his work that is “dedicated to verifying the presence of the new crescent on the horizon.” Though these early “observation tubes” did not have lenses, they “enabled an observer to focus on a part of the sky by eliminating light interference.” These “observation tubes” were later

286 adopted in Europe, where they were instrumental in development of the “telescope” about 6 centuries later.337 Galileo was among the first to use a telescope to observe the sky, and after constructing a 20x refractor telescope he discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter in 1610. This was the first observation of satellites orbiting another planet. He also found that our Moon had craters and observed sunspots. Galileo noted that Venus exhibited a full set of phases resembling lunar phases. Galileo argued that these observations supported the Copernican system and were, to some extent, incompatible with the favored model of the Earth at the center of the universe. The Greek philosopher Democritus (450-370 B.C.) proposed that the bright band in the night sky known as Milky Way might consist of distant stars. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), however, believed the Milky Way to be caused by the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars which are large numerous and close together, and that the ignition takes place in the upper part of the atmosphere. The Arabian astronomer, Alhazen (965-1037 A.D.) refuted this by making the first attempt at observing and measuring the Milky Way’s parallax, and he does determined that because the Milky Way had no parallax, it is very remote from the earth and did not belong to the atmosphere. The Persian astronomer Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (973-1048 A.D.) proposed the Milky Way galaxy to be a collection of countless nebulous stars. Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292-1350 A.D.) proposed the Milky Way galaxy to be a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of fixed stars, and that these stars are larger than planets. Actual proof of the Milky Way consisting of many stars came in 1610 when Galileo Galilei used a telescope to study the Milky Way and discovered that it is composed of a huge number of faint stars. The first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of the Sun in it was carried out by William Herschel in 1785. He produced a diagram of the shape of the galaxy with the solar system close to the centre. In the 10th

287 century the Persian astronomer, Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (known in the West as Azophi), made the earliest description of the Andromeda Galaxy, describing it as a little cloud. He mentions it as lying before the mouth of a Big Fish, an Arabic constellation. The first recorded mention of the large Magellanic cloud was also given by al-Sufi. These were the first galaxies other than Milky Way to be observed from the earth. The modern observational study of the universe may be said to date from 1924, when U.S. astronomer Edwin Hubble demonstrated that great spiral nebula in Andromeda lies out side our Milky Way Galaxy, and in fact itself a galaxy similar to our own. It soon became evident that a galaxy is a unit in the structure of the universe. Much as a star is a unit in the structure of galaxy. Astronomers estimate that there are at least 70 sextillion (7×1022) stars in the observable universe. A typical galaxy contains hundreds of billions of stars, and there are more than 125 billion (1.25x1011) galaxies in the observable universe.17 In the seventh century, Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) visited the hell and paradise during his famous night journey to the outer space and meeting with Almighty God. The Ulama and Islamic scholars all over the world have decided from the following two statements of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) that the Sun is a hell. Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said, “You pray at noon until it gets cooler. Because fire of hell is the source of intense heat at noon.” Prophet (pbuh) also said, “Once the hell complained to his Creator, saying Oh my Lord! My one part has engulfed another part. Thus Allah allowed the hell to take two breaths, one in the winter, and another in the summer. So the intensity of winter and summer which is now felt in the earth is due to the two breaths of the hell.”- (Imam Malik, Bukhari, Muslim, Tirmidhi, Nasai, Abu Daud, and Ibn Majah). In the Holy Scriptures of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, it had been stated that at the day of final judgment the earth would be changed to a big field known as the field of resurrection, and it would be surrounded by the hells. A very long bridge will be built over the hells extending from the earth to the paradise. After

288 the judgment believers will pass over the bridge easily and safely. The unbelievers will fall in to the hells. The Hindus and Buddhists compare the Hell to a river of fire — Vaitarani, which will have to pass to reach the gardens of paradise.279, 303 In the 16th century, Italian astronomer Giordano Bruno proposed that the stars were actually other suns like our own. In 1838, German astronomer Friedrich Bessel measured the parallax of 61 Cygni star as 0.314 arc seconds, which given the diameter of the earth’s orbit indicated that the star was about 9.8 light years away that had proved the stars to be far remote from the earth’s atmosphere and all were suns. In the 20th century with the advent of improved technology, it was proven that other stars were similar to our own sun, and the sun was found to be part of a galaxy made up of more than 10 billion stars. A typical galaxy contains hundreds of billions of stars, and there are more than 125 billion (1.25x1011) galaxies in the observable universe. Most galaxies are 1000 to 100,000 parsecs in diameter and are usually separated by distances on the order of millions of parsecs or mega parsecs. The majority of galaxies are organized into a hierarchy of associations called clusters, which in turn can form larger groups called super clusters. These larger structures are generally arranged into sheets and filaments, which surround immense voids in the universe. The Jewish Rabbis teach that there is an upper and a lower paradise containing apartments for the residence and reward of righteous. They believe that there is an upper and a lower hell. In the hell there are seven divisions, in each division six thousand house and in each house six thousand chests, and in each chest six thousand barrels of gall. Each of the division of the hell to be as depth as one can walk in three hundred years. According to religious cosmology, the earth is surrounded by the hells which will have to pass to reach the gardens of paradise in the deeper and distant regions of the universe. The Islamic scholars have been recognizing the Sun as a

289 hell since the Seventh Century. Astronomers all over the world have confirmed that all the stars in the galaxies are Suns. So the Sun and Sun like billions of stars in the galaxies, the quasars, pulsars, and black holes, which are situated around the earth in the regions of hells, all are hells. A typical galaxy contains hundreds of billions of hells, and there are more than 125 billion (1.25x1011) galaxies of hells in the observable universe, which are situated around the earth within 15 billion light years away from the earth. The heavens are larger than the hells. When Allah decreed the Creation He pledged Himself by writing in His book which is laid down with Him: "My mercy prevails over my wrath."- (Muslim, Bukhari, Nasa'i and Ibn Majah). It is stated in the Holy Scriptures that the smallest heaven that will be rewarded to a believer who remembered Allah once in his/her life time in this world, will be ten times larger than the earth. Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said, ‘I know the person who will be the last to come out of the Hellfire and the last to enter Paradise. He will be a man who will come out of the Hellfire crawling, and Allah will say to him, ‘Go and enter Paradise.” He will go to it, but will imagine that it has been filled, and then he will return and say, “Oh Lord, I have found it full.” Allah will say, “Go and enter Paradise, and you will have what equals the world and ten times as much (you will have as much as ten times the like of the world).” – (Al-Bukhari). Therefore, the total number and size of the heavens which will be rewarded to the prophets, their followers and all the believers in the life hereafter, we can not imagine. The number and size of the hells is also very big, as it is stated in the following verse of the Holy Qur’an: “On the Day We (Allah) will say to Hellfire, ‘have you been filled?’ it will say, ‘Are there some more?” - (Al-Qur’an, 50: 30). Abu Hurairah (RA), a faithful companion of Prophet Muhammad, reported that Allah’s Messenger (pbuh) said: “Hell and Paradise fell into a dispute during which Hell said, ‘I have been distinguished by the proud and the haughty.’ And

290 Paradise said, ‘What is the matter with me that only the meek and the humble and the downtrodden and the simple enter me?’ Thereupon, Allah said to Paradise, ‘you are the means of My mercy whereby I show mercy to those of My servants whom I wish.’ Then He said to Hell, ‘you are the means of punishment whereby I punish those of My servants whom I wish. Both of you will be full.’ Hell will not be filled up until Allah puts His foot over it. Then Hell will say, ‘Enough, enough, enough,’ at which point it will be filled up, all of its parts integrated together.”- (Sahih al-Muslim). Anas bin Malik (RA) also reported that Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) said: “Hell will continue to ask, ‘Is there any more?’ until Allah, the Exalted, and High will place His foot thereon, then it will say, ‘enough, enough, by Your honor,’ and some of its parts will draw close together.”- (Sahih al-Muslim). Allah is infinite. “His foot will fill the hell” means the hell is too much big near about infinity which we can not imagine. In another tradition Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said. Allah, the Almighty, has built two abodes in the world hereafter for every person. One in the hell, another in the paradise. The abodes of the inhabitants of the paradise which were built for them in the hell will be bestowed to the inhabitants of the hell and vice versa. - (Bukhari, Muslim). We can not imagine the vastness of the hells and heavens. It is now obvious that there are billions of galaxies of heavens in the deeper and distant regions of the universe beyond the galaxies of hells. God is the creator and prime mover of all the atoms in the universe. He composed human body from soil through biological evolution that contains about 100 trillions of cells and created a will force in it to choose the ways of hell and paradise. Atheists do not choose the way of paradise. They have discovered a portion of the universe and the evolutionary mechanism of creation, but can not identify the existence of Soul and God. The “Big Bang Theory” is still a proposed hypothesis which contains

291 only about 125 billion (1.25x1011) galaxies of hells and rest of the universe is unknown to those scientists who proposed this theory. The heavens are not yet discovered by the scientists, because they are situated in the deeper and distant regions of the universe near-by the holy throne of God. The locations and characteristics of the hells and heavens are very clear in the Holy Scriptures. The hell is the world of fire made for the punishment of unbelievers, and the paradise is a biological world, where believers will enjoy a happier life forever. The paradise is situated in the deeper and distant regions of the outer space near-by the holy throne of God, and the hell, in the outer space nearer to the earth. The Holy Qur’an says– For the righteous are Gardens, in nearness to their Lord, with rivers flowing beneath where they shall dwell for ever. - (Al-Qur’an, 3:15). As for those who believe and lead a righteous life, we will admit them into gardens with flowing rivers, wherein they live forever. Such is the truthful promise of God. Whose utterances are more truthful than God? - (Al-Qur’an, 4:122). Are you doubting what he saw? He certainly saw him in another descent. At the Lote Tree (Sidratul Muntaha) of the Utmost Boundary - Where the eternal Paradise is located. - (Al-Qur’an, 53:12-15). A typical galaxy contains hundreds of billions of stars, and there are more than 125 billion (1.25x1011) galaxies in the observable universe, which are situated in the region of hells within 15 billion light years away from the earth. All the stars in the galaxies are made up of nuclear fire and all are now identified as the hells of religious scriptures. According to the description of the Holy Qur’an, the eternal heavens are situated in the deeper and distant regions of the universe beyond the boundary of the hells, in the vicinity of the Lote Tree (Sidratul Muntaha) of the Utmost Boundary. Therefore, discovery of billions of galaxies of hells in the outer space around the earth undoubtedly proves the existence of billions of galaxies of heavens in the deeper and distant regions of the universe,

292 near-by the Lote tree and holy throne of God. Modern astronomy complements religious cosmology confirming the existence of hells and heavens in the universe. Actually the prophets and priests were the first ‘professional’ astronomers. Still then many people may not believe that the hells and heavens have been discovered. “Every time a messenger went to them, they ridiculed him. We thus control the minds of the guilty. Consequently, they cannot believe in him. This has been the system since the past generations. Even if we opened for them a gate into the sky, through which they climb; they will say, "Our eyes have been dazzled. We have been bewitched." - (Al-Qur’an, 15: 11-15). Ibn Khathir explaining the above verses said, that their severity in their infidelity and their enmity (against religion) is to the extent that if a gate in space is opened for them and they are made to keep ascending even then they will not believe (in religion) but they would say their eyes have been bewitched. We can not say that America was not discovered by Columbus. We can not disbelieve in the existence of America, but we all believe in the existence of America. Therefore, scientific discovery of spiritual hells and heavens in the universe will lead mankind to submit to Almighty God for salvation from the punishment of hell fire and enjoyment of a happier life in the paradise for ever that might restore peace and discipline all over the world, as it has been stated in the following verses of the Holy Qur’an: In the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the alteration of night and day, there are signs for those who possess intelligence. They remember God while standing, sitting, and on their sides, and reflect on the creation of the space and the earth, and says- “Lord you have not created those celestial bodies (the stars, galaxies, quasars, pulsars, and black holes) in vain. Glory be to you! Save us from the penalty of Hell-fire. Our Lord those whom you will cast into Hell shall be put to eternal shame: non will help the evildoers. "Our Lord, we have heard a caller (Prophet Muhammad)

293 calling to faith and proclaiming: 'You shall believe in your Lord,' and we have believed. Our Lord, forgive us our evil deeds, remit our sins, and let us die as righteous believers.” - (Al-Qur’an, 3:190-193). We will present Hell, on that day, to the disbelievers. They are the ones whose eyes were too veiled to see My message. Nor could they hear. Do those who disbelieve think that they can get away with setting up My servants as gods beside Me? We have prepared for the disbelievers Hell as an eternal abode. - (Al-Qur’an, 18: 100-102). Rationales for Space Exploration Common rationales for exploring space include advancing scientific research, uniting different nations, ensuring the future survival of humanity and developing military and strategic advantages against other countries. The research that is conducted by national space exploration agencies, such as NASA and Roscosmos, is one of the reasons supporters cite to justify government expenses. Economic analyses of the NASA programs often showed ongoing economic benefits, generating many times the revenue of the cost of the program. Another claim is that space exploration is a necessity to mankind and that staying on Earth will lead to extinction. Some of the reasons are lack of natural resources, comets, nuclear war, and worldwide epidemic. Stephen Hawking, renowned British theoretical physicist, said that "I don't think the human race will survive the next thousand years, unless we spread into space. There are too many accidents that can befall life on a single planet. But I'm an optimist. We will reach out to the stars." Overall, the public remains largely supportive of both manned and unmanned space exploration. According to an Associated Press Poll conducted in July 2003, 71% of U.S. citizens agreed with the statement that the space program is "a good investment", compared to 21% who did not.

294 Arthur C. Clarke (1950) presented a summary of motivations for the human exploration of space in his non-fiction semi-technical monograph Interplanetary Flight. He argued that humanity's choice is essentially between expansion off the Earth into space, versus cultural (and eventually biological) stagnation and death. Critics such as the late physicist and Nobel prize winner Richard Feynman have contended that human space travel (as distinguished from space exploration in general, such as robotic missions) has never achieved any major scientific breakthroughs. Since the beginning of the space era, it has been argued that the money spent on space exploration should rather be used on meeting the needs of the underprivileged. "If our nation can spend … twenty billion dollars to put a man on the moon, it can spend billions of dollars to put God's children on their own two feet right here on earth." – were stating respected figures like Martin Luther King Jr. People like him were not necessarily opposing space exploration; they were instead disputing the priorities – is space exploration worth pursuing when money is so badly needed elsewhere? Unfortunately, the benefits of the space exploration are not self-evident, no matter how real they are. And people are genuine in their worry that money is being wasted in space. Their concern with spending priorities needs to be addressed. The high profile of space exploration makes it appear more expensive than it actually is. The uninformed, yet caring citizen, is under the earnest impression that the money would make a genuine difference in the fight against poverty. The real dimensions of the social needs are, in reality, out of proportion with the money spent in space – be it in the past, now or in the immediate future. Otherwise, there won't be any social needs left after the Congress stopped funding the Apollo missions to the Moon.

295 Speaking about personal choice, $31 billion go annually in the US on tobacco products - twice the NASA budget -, and $58 billion is spent on alcohol consumption -almost four times the NASA budget. Forget space spin-offs – here are genuine tangible benefits: $250 billion are spent annually in the US on the medical treatment of tobacco- and alcohol-related diseases - only sixteen times more than on space exploration. In the eve of the launch of Apollo 11, a moving event occurred at NASA's moonport. Reverend Ralph Abernathy, president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and heir to Martin Luther King Jr., came to Cape Canaveral together with several hundred members of the Poor People's Campaign, to protest the money being spent on space exploration, while so many people remained poor. He was met by Thomas Paine, the administrator of NASA, who was informed that in the face of such suffering, space flight represented an inhuman priority and funds should be spent instead to feed the hungry, clothe the naked, tend the sick, and house the homeless. $976.3 billion dollars – almost a trillion - spent every year in the US on pets, toys, gambling, alcohol and tobacco. It is 63 times the amount spent on space exploration – with the difference that NASA has not destroyed lives as the alcohol, tobacco and gambling did. It is not the exploration spirit that Americans need to give up in order to alleviate poverty. It is the consumerist spirit. Instead of not pushing the button, why not kick the habit? If there is any religion that invites man to the study and exploration of the outer space, it is Islam. An understanding of the discipline of Astronomy and space science is essential for the appreciation of the religion of Islam: We did not create the space and the earth, and everything in them, just to play. We created them for a specific purpose, but most of them do not know. The Day of Decision awaits them all. That is the day when no friend can help his friend in any way; no one can be helped. - (Al-Qur’an, 44: 38-42).

296 Space missions are designed to explore the unknown and learn more about the universe around us. Whether it’s a manned space mission to the moon, a robot explorer in the solar system or a probe to the galaxy beyond. The Mi'raj is the space mission of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) during a single night around the year 621. Prophet Muhammad travels on the steed Buraq to the Masjid Al-Aqsa, in Jerusalem, where he leads other prophets in prayer. He then ascends to the space where he meets distinguished prophets, visits the hells and heavens, speaks to God, who gives Prophet Muhammad instructions to take back to the faithful regarding the details of prayer. The Holy Qur’an describes this mission as a space flight to explore the unknown. This space mission is associated with the Lailat al-Miraj, as one of the most significant events in the Islamic calendar.

“Most glorified is the One (Allah) who summoned His servant (Muhammad) during the night, from the Sacred Mosque to the farthest Mosque, whose surroundings we have blessed, in order to show him some of our signs. He is the Hearer, the Seer.” – (Al-Qur’an, 17: 1). The farthest Mosque means "the farthest place where there is prostration", billions of light years away. This verse informs us that Prophet Muhammad was taken to the highest Heaven to see the signs of ultimate truth and reality and speak to God. The Proxima Centauri is the nearest star - hell to the Earth, apart from the Sun. Light from Proxima Centauri takes 4.2 years to reach Earth. Traveling of 4.2 light years at the orbital speed of the Space Shuttle (5 miles per second—almost 30,000 kilometers per hour), will require about 150,000 years. It will take Voyager 1 over 74,000 years to reach this distance. Vehicle designs using other techniques, such as nuclear pulse propulsion are likely to be able to reach the nearest star significantly faster. But it will be completely impossible for mankind to pay the scientists the amount to construct such a space shuttle that may travel 15 billions light years of way over the galaxies of hells to reach the

297 galaxies of heavens in the deeper and distant regions of the universe. In this regard the Holy Qur’an said: Surely, those who reject our revelations and are too arrogant to uphold them, the gates of the space will never open for them, nor will they enter Paradise until the camel passes through the needle's eye. We thus requite the guilty. They have incurred Hell as an abode; they will have barriers above them. We thus requite the transgressors. As for those who believe and lead a righteous life—we never burden any soul beyond its means—these will be the dwellers of Paradise. They abide in it forever. – (Al-Qur’an, 7: 41- 42). In 2005 NASA Administrator Michael Griffin identified space colonization as the ultimate goal of current spaceflight programs, saying: “ ... the goal isn't just scientific exploration ... it's also about extending the range of human habitat out from Earth into the solar system as we go forward in time ... In the long run a single-planet species will not survive ... If we humans want to survive for hundreds of thousands or millions of years, we must ultimately populate other planets. The prophets and priests were the first ‘professional’ astronomers and space explorers. Modern astronomy and space exploration confirms the existence of hells and heavens in the universe. This scientific confirmation of the existence of hells and heavens in the universe will lead mankind to submit to Almighty God and invest in a space industry that has been suggested by God: O you who have believed, shall I guide you to a business deal that will save you from a painful punishment of hell fire? It is that you believe in God and His Messenger and strive in the cause of God with your wealth and your lives. That is best for you, if you should know. He will forgive for you your sins and admit you to the gardens of paradise beneath which rivers flow and pleasant dwellings in gardens of perpetual residence. That is the great attainment. - (The Holy Qur’an, 61: 10-12).

298 DISCOVERY OF HELL 2009 was declared by the UN to be the international year of astronomy 2009. The focus was on enhancing the public’s engagement with and understanding of astronomy. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) launched the year under the theme ‘The Universe, Yours to Discover’. In the ancient periods, thousands of prophets all over the world told their nations about the existence of hell and paradise in the universe. The hell is the world of fire made for the punishment of unbelievers and the paradise is a biological world, where believers will enjoy a happier life for ever. The paradise is situated in the far distant space near-by the holy throne of God, and the hell, in the outer space nearer to the earth. The Holy Qur’an says– For the righteous are Gardens, in nearness to their Lord, with rivers flowing beneath where they shall dwell for ever. - (3:15). In the Holy Scriptures of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, it had been stated that at the day of final judgment the earth would be changed to a big field known as the field of resurrection, and it would be surrounded by the hells. A very long bridge will be built over the hells extending from the earth to the paradise. After the judgment believers will pass over the bridge easily and safely. The unbelievers will fall in to the hells.303

Fig-1: Diagram of Great Bridge over the Hell in Religious Cosmology

299 The Jewish Rabbis teach that there is an upper and a lower paradise containing apartments for the residence and reward of righteous. They believe that there is an upper and a lower hell. In the hell there are seven divisions, in each division six thousand house and in each house six thousand chests, and in each chest six thousand barrels of gall. Each of the division of the hell to be as depth as one can walk in three hundred years. Christian description of hell follows the Jewish popular tradition.303 The Hindus and Buddhists also believe in the existence of Hell and Paradise. They compare the Hell to a river of fire — Vaitarani, which will have to pass to reach the gardens of paradise.279 The Muslim scientists developed a diagram of the universe on the basis of comparative study of astronomy and religious cosmology, where the Hell is placed around the earth, consisting of stars and constellations of ancient astronomy.329

By scientific exploration of the universe, the astronomers have discovered many celestial bodies in the outer space, which were hidden or unknown to mankind in the ancient periods. The hell and paradise are two hidden or spiritual matters

300 of the universe proposed by the prophets. For long time their existence in the universe was a religious belief. Now, by comparative study of astronomical discoveries with the religious cosmology, the distant celestial bodies the stars, galaxies, quasars, pulsars, and black holes, all are identified as the hells of religious cosmology. In the seventh century, Prophet Mohammed (pbuh) visited the hell and paradise during his famous night journey to the outer space and meeting with Almighty God. The Ulama and Islamic scholars all over the world have decided from the following two statements of Prophet Mohammed (pbuh) that the Sun is a hell. Prophet Mohammed (pbuh) said, “You pray at noon until it gets cooler. Because fire of hell is the source of intense heat at noon.” Prophet also said, “Once the hell complained to his Creator, saying Oh my Lord! My one part has engulfed another part. Thus Allah allowed the hell to take two breaths, one in the winter, and another in the summer. So the intensity of winter and summer which is now felt in the earth is due to the two breaths of the hell.”- (Al- Bukhari, Al- Muslim).

Fig-3: The radiating Sun, which was called by the prophet Mohammed (SAW) in the seventh century a Hell, is the source of intense heat at noon in the planet. In the 16th century, Italian astronomer Giordano Bruno proposed that the stars were actually other suns, and may have other planets, possibly even Earth-like,

301 in orbit around them, an idea that had been suggested earlier by such ancient Greek philosophers as Democritus and Epicurus. In 1838, German astronomer Friedrich Bessel measured the parallax of 61 Cygni star as 0.314 arc seconds, which given the diameter of the Earth’s orbit indicated that the star was about 9.8 light years away that had proved the stars to be far remote from the Earth’s atmosphere and all were suns.199 In the 20th century with the advent of improved technology, it was proven that other stars were similar to our own sun, and the sun was found to be part of a galaxy made up of more than 10 billion stars. The Hubble Deep Field, an extremely long exposure of a relatively empty part of the sky, provided evidence that there are about 125 billion galaxies in the universe.235, 236 According to religious cosmology, the earth is surrounded by the hells. The Islamic scholars have been recognizing the Sun as a hell since the Seventh Century. Astronomers all over the world have confirmed that all the stars in the galaxies are Suns. So the sun and sun like billions of stars in the galaxies, the quasars, pulsars, and black holes, which are discovered outside the earth in the region of Hell, all are hells.

302 Although scientific discipline of astronomy has made tremendous stride in understanding the nature of the universe, the astronomers did not explain the aim of creation and ultimate fate of the universe. The religious specialists and scientists also did not evaluate the distant celestial bodies in the light of Holy Scriptures. So it remains unknown for long time that the world of fire consisting of billions of stars and galaxies in the outer space actually is the Hell of religious cosmology. THE HELL SIGHTING EFFECT Humans have many different methods, which attempt to answer fundamental questions about the nature of the universe and our place in it. Religion is one of the methods for trying to answer these questions. In religion, a prophet is a Messenger of God who serves as an intermediary with humanity, delivering his newfound knowledge from the supernatural entity to other humans. Thousands of prophets all over the world told their nations about the existence of hell and paradise in the universe. For long time in scientific point of view, the hell and paradise were two religious beliefs proposed by the prophets. By scientific study of the universe, the existence of spiritual hell now has been discovered in the outer space that makes the religious belief a scientific fact. The hell is now visible in the outer space by thousands of telescopes from all around the world. Astronomers confirm the message of the prophets that the hell is awaiting in the outer space for the punishment of unbelievers. The Hell is the force of Almighty God made for the punishment of unbelievers. This astronomical force will now be imposed upon humankind. According to the Newtonian Laws of Motion and Gravitation humans can be idealized as tiny particles in comparison to God, who will now orbit around God, like planets orbit around the star, for salvation from the punishment of hell fire and enjoyment of a happier life in the paradise forever that might restore peace and discipline all over the world.338

303 The world of stars and galaxies – the spiritual hells, which is now visible in the space with telescopes, is a world of nuclear fire made for the punishment of unbelievers and evildoers. All the prophets and messengers of God said that the intensity of eternal peace in the paradise and punishment in the hell would be much more than that in the earth. Scientists have showed us that the temperature of fire in the interior of a solar-type star in the galaxies is near about 15,000,000 Kelvins, which varies from 4 million Kelvins for a small star to 40 million Kelvins for a massive star.

Fig-5: Clusters of Galaxies or Hells in the visible Universe It is impossible to any human body—man or woman, to take the risk of penalty in such hot fire of hell forever that has been discovered by the astronomers in the space today. Discovery of Hell in the outer space that also suggests the existence of Paradise in the distant and deeper space, according to Newtonian Laws of Motion and Gravitation will activate mankind for a normal life style and behaviour to enter into the eternal paradise and refrain from all sorts of abnormal activities those are punishable by Hell-fire, so that the fire of Hell hanging over the earth like the Sword of Damocles and acting as a preventive and social medicine will eradicate and sterilize the world off evil spirit, the

304 Super Natural Virus, which is responsible for all kinds of physical, mental, social, political, cultural, economical, environmental and spiritual disorders, national, international and inter-religious conflicts and wars that might restore health, peace and discipline all over the world.339, 340 This natural therapy, which has been formulated for exploration of the cosmos by the combined efforts of prophets and astronomers, is known today “Cosmic Therapy”. In ancient India, this natural therapy was known as “Amrita”, which was formulated by Bhagaban Shib, exploring the oceans with the help of deities and demons. Unfortunately, the formula of Amrita, which was used for the treatment of various diseases and spiritual disorders in ancient India, had been lost from the early Indian Holy Scriptures. The most wonderful benefit of this natural therapy will be a spiritual renewal for Hell Sighting Effect all over the world that can save billions of people from the hell fire. This spiritual renewal and submission of mankind to God will also open the doors of paradise in the world hereafter for enjoyment of a happier life forever. Super Natural Theory of Disease Health is a common theme in most of the cultures. All communities have their concepts of health. Probably the oldest concept of health is the absence of disease. WHO defined the health as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely absence of disease or infirmity. The WHO definition envisages three specific dimensions of health—physical, mental, and social. Many more may be cited, which may include spiritual, emotional, vocational, cultural, political, socioeconomic, and environmental dimensions. For long time scientists were groping in darkness about the causation of disease. Several theories were advanced from time to time to explain disease causation, such as the supernatural theory of disease, the theory of humors by Greeks and Indians, the theory of contagion, the theory of spontaneous generation, the miasmatic theory, which attributed disease to noxious air and vapors. The breakthrough came in 1860, when the French bacteriologist Louis Pasteur

305 demonstrated the presence of bacteria in air. He disproved the theory of spontaneous generation. In 1873, Pasteur advanced the germ theory of disease. In 1877, Robert Koch showed that anthrax was caused by bacteria. The discoveries of Pasteur and Koch confirmed the germ theory of disease. The germ theory of disease, though it was a revolutionary concept, led many scientists to take one-sided view of disease causation. It is now recognized that a disease is rarely caused by a single agent, rather a number of factors contribute to its occurrence, which is known today as the multi-factorial theory of disease. After 1900, the pattern of disease began to change. With the control of acute infectious diseases, the modern diseases such as cancers, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, mental illness, and accident came into prominence and have become the leading causes of death. These diseases could not be explained by the germ theory of disease and realization began that there are other factors in the causation of disease, namely social, environmental, economical, genetic, and psychological factors which are equally important. Most of these factors are linked to human life style and behaviours.

Fig-6: The snake is the symbol of Super Natural Virus (SNV) in the Holy Scriptures and Health Sciences since ancient periods. This symbol is also used today by the World Health Organization (WHO) and physicians all over the world.

306 Supernatural theory of disease is the oldest theory of disease causation. According to this theory a Super Natural Virus is responsible for all kinds of physical, mental, social, and spiritual disorders in the world. This virus invades human body and inspires for an abnormal life style and behaviour that alters the dynamic equilibrium between man and environment. Super Natural Virus is the primary agent for disease causation, which activates multiple factors to interact for progression and pathogenesis of disease.339 In the Holy Scriptures and religious terminology, the Super Natural Virus is known as an evil spirit. Human being invaded by this evil spirit acquires an abnormal life style and behaviour, loses the ability to enter into the eternal paradise and progresses to a dangerous punishment in the Hell-fire. This evil spirit acting as the main agent evokes multiple factors in the development of physical, mental, social, spiritual, cultural, political, economical, and environmental disorders, national, international and inter-religious conflicts and wars. All these secondary factors of disease causation will come under control and mankind will be saved from the Hell-fire if we can eradicate this Super Natural Virus administering “Cosmic Therapy” or “Amrita” all over the world. The Sword of Damocles There once was a king named Dionysius who ruled in Syracuse, the richest city in Sicily. He was so unjust and cruel that he won himself the name of tyrant. He knew that almost everybody hated him, and so he was always in dread lest some one should take his life. But he was very rich, and he lived in a fine palace where there were many beautiful and costly things, and he was waited upon by a host of servants who were always ready to do his bidding. One day a friend of his, whose name was Damocles, said to him - “How happy you must be! You have here everything that any man could wish.” “Perhaps you would like to trade places with me,” said the tyrant.

307 “No, not that, O king!” said Damocles; “but I think that, if I could only have your riches and your pleasures for one day, I should not want any greater happiness.” “Very well,” said the tyrant. “You shall have them.” And so, the next day, Damocles was led into the palace, and all the servants were bidden to treat him as their master. He sat down at a table in the banquet hall, and rich foods were placed before him. Nothing was wanting that could give him pleasure. There were costly wines, and beautiful flowers, and rare perfumes, and delightful music. He rested among soft cushions, and felt that he was the happiest man in the world. Then he chanced to raise his eyes toward the ceiling. What was it that was dangling above him, with its point almost touching his head? It was a sharp sword, and it was hung by only single horsehair. What if the hair should break? There was danger every moment that it would do so. The smile faded from the lips of Damocles. His face became very pale. His hands trembled. He wanted no more food; he could drink no more wine; he took no more delight in the music. He longed to be out of the palace, and away, he cared not where. “What is the matter?” said the tyrant. “That sword! That sword!” cried Damocles. He was so badly frightened that he dared not move. “Yes,” said Dionysius, “I know there is a sword above your head, and that it may fall at any moment. But why should that trouble you? I have a sword over my head all the time and there is always the chance someone or something may cut the slim thread.” “Let me go,” said Damocles. “I now see that I was mistaken, and that the rich and tyrant are not so happy as they seem. Please take your palace, and let me go back to my own house for a pious life.” And as long as he lived, Damocles never again wanted to change places, even for a moment, with the king.340

308 The world of stars and galaxies, the spiritual hells, which is now hanging over the earth like the Sword of Damocles, will activate mankind for a pious life to remain safe from the hell fire and enter into the eternal paradise that might restore peace and discipline all over the world. Newton’s Laws of Motion and Gravitation Newton’s laws of motion are three physical laws that form the basis for classical mechanics. They describe the relationship between the forces acting on a body and its motion due to those forces. They have been expressed in several different ways over nearly three centuries and can be summarized as follows: 334 First law: Every body remains in a state of rest or uniform motion unless it is acted upon by an external unbalanced force. This means that in the absence of a non-zero net force, the center of mass of a body either remains at rest, or moves at a constant speed in a straight line. Second law: A body of mass m subject to a force F undergoes an acceleration a that has the same direction as the force and a magnitude that is directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass, i.e., F = ma. Alternatively, the total force applied on a body is equal to the time derivative of linear momentum of the body. Third law: The mutual forces of action and reaction between two bodies are equal, opposite and collinear. This means that whenever a first body exerts a force F on a second body, the second body exerts a force −F on the first body. F and −F are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. This law is sometimes referred to as the action-reaction law, with F called the ‘action’ and −F the ‘reaction’. The three laws of motion were first compiled by Sir Isaac Newton in his work Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first published on July 5, 1687. Newton used them to explain and investigate the motion of many physical objects and systems. For example, Newton showed that these laws of motion,

309 combined with his law of universal gravitation, explained Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. Newton’s laws are applied to bodies (objects) which are considered or idealized as a particle, in the sense that the extent of the body is neglected in the evaluation of its motion, i.e., the object is small compared to the distances involved in the analysis, or the deformation and rotation of the body is of no importance in the analysis. Therefore, a planet can be idealized as a particle for analysis of its orbital motion around a star. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation states that every massive particle in the universe attracts every other massive particle with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This is a general physical law derived from empirical observations by what Newton called induction. It was formulated in Newton’s work Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. In modern language, the law states the following: Every point mass attracts every single other point mass by a force pointing along the line intersecting both points. The force is directly proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the point masses. The value of the constant G was first accurately determined from the results of the Cavendish experiment conducted by the British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798, although Cavendish did not himself calculate a numerical value for G. This experiment was also the first test of Newton’s theory of gravitation between masses in the laboratory. It took place 71 years after Newton’s death, so none of Newton’s calculations could use the value of G; instead he could only calculate a force relative to another force. Newton’s law of gravitation resembles Coulomb’s law of electrical forces, which is used to calculate the magnitude of electrical force between two charged bodies. Both are inverse-square laws, in which force is inversely

310 proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies. Newton’s law has since been superseded by Einstein’s theory of general relativity, but it continues to be used as an excellent approximation of the effects of gravity. Relativity is only required when there is a need for extreme precision, or when dealing with gravitation for extremely massive and dense objects. Theory of Relativity The Theory of Relativity, proposed by Albert Einstein (1879-1955) in the early part of the 20th century, is one of the most significant scientific advances of our time. Although the concept of relativity was not introduced by Einstein, his major contribution was the recognition that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant and an absolute physical boundary for motion. This does not have a major impact on a person’s day-to-day life since we travel at speeds much slower than light speed. For objects travelling near light speed, however, the theory of relativity states that objects will move slower and shorten in length from the point of view of an observer on Earth. Einstein also derived the famous equation, E = mc2, which reveals the equivalence of mass and energy. When Einstein applied his theory to gravitational fields, he derived the “curved space-time continuum” which depicts the dimensions of space and time as a two-dimensional surface where massive objects create valleys and dips in the surface. This aspect of relativity explained the phenomena of light bending around the sun, predicted black holes as well as the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMB) - a discovery rendering fundamental anomalies in the classic Steady-State hypothesis. The Theory of Relativity encompasses two theories of Albert Einstein: The first is the Special Theory of Relativity, which essentially deals with the question of whether rest and motion are relative or absolute, and with the consequences of Einstein’s conjecture that they are relative. The second is the General Theory of Relativity, which primarily applies to particles as they accelerate, particularly due to gravitation, and acts as a radical revision of Newton’s theory, predicting

311 important new results for fast-moving and/or very massive bodies. The General Theory of Relativity correctly reproduces all validated predictions of Newton’s theory, but expands on our understanding of some of the key principles. Newtonian physics had previously hypothesized that gravity operated through empty space, but the theory lacked explanatory power as far as how the distance and mass of a given object could be transmitted through space. General relativity irons out this paradox, for it shows that objects continue to move in a straight line in space-time, but we observe the motion as acceleration because of the curved nature of space-time. Einstein’s theories of both special and general relativity have been confirmed to be accurate to a very high degree over recent years, and the data has been shown to corroborate many key predictions; the most famous being the solar eclipse of 1919 bearing testimony that the light of stars is indeed deflected by the sun as the light passes near the sun on its way to earth. The total solar eclipse allowed astronomers to - for the first time - analyze starlight near the edge of the sun, which had been previously inaccessible to observers due to the intense brightness of the sun. It also predicted the rate at which two neutron stars orbiting one another will move toward each other. When this phenomenon was first documented, general relativity proved itself accurate to better than a trillionth of a percent precision, thus making it one of the best confirmed principles in all of physics. Applying the principle of general relativity to our cosmos reveals that it is not static. Edwin Hubble demonstrated in 1928 that the Universe is expanding, showing beyond reasonable doubt that the Universe sprang into being a finite time ago. The most common contemporary interpretation of this expansion is that this began to exist from the moment of the Big Bang some 13.7 billion years ago. However this is not the only plausible cosmological model which exists in academia, and many creation physicists such as Russell Humphreys and John Hartnett have devised models operating with a biblical framework,

312 which - to date - have withstood the test of criticism from the most vehement of opponents. Using the observed cosmic expansion conjunctively with the general theory of relativity, we can infer from the data that the further back into time one looks, the universe ought to diminish in size accordingly. However, this cannot be extrapolated indefinitely. The universe’s expansion helps us to appreciate the direction in which time flows. This is referred to as the cosmological arrow of time, and implies that the future is - by definition - the direction towards which the universe increases in size. The expansion of the universe also gives rise to the second law of thermodynamics, which states that the overall entropy (or disorder) in the Universe can only increase with time because the amount of energy available for work deteriorates with time. If the universe was eternal, therefore, the amount of usable energy available for work would have already been exhausted. Hence it follows that at one point the entropy value was at absolute 0 (most ordered state at the moment of creation) and the entropy has been increasing ever since - that is, the universe at one point was fully “wound up” and has been winding down ever since. This has profound theological implications; for it shows that time itself is necessarily finite. If the universe were eternal, the thermal energy in the universe would have been evenly distributed throughout the cosmos, leaving each region of the cosmos at uniform temperature (at very close to absolute 0), rendering no further work possible. The General Theory of Relativity demonstrates that time is linked, or related, to matter and space, and thus the dimensions of time, space, and matter constitute what we would call a continuum. They must come into being at precisely the same instant. Time itself cannot exist in the absence of matter and space. From this, we can infer that the uncaused first cause must exist outside of the four dimensions of space and time, and possess eternal, personal, and intelligent qualities in order to possess the capabilities of intentionally space, matter - and indeed even time itself - into being.

313 Moreover, the very physical nature of time and space also suggest a Creator, for infinity and eternity must necessarily exist from a logical perspective. The existence of time implies eternity (as time has a beginning and an end), and the existence of space implies infinity. The very concepts of infinity and eternity infer a Creator because they find their very state of being in God, who transcends both.341 The prophets and their followers have been promoting the messages of Hell and Paradise since antiquity. Today scientific discovery of spiritual Hell in the universe that also suggests the existence of spiritual Paradise in the distant and deeper regions of the universe is a clear astronomical sign for the existence of God. The Hell is the force of Almighty God made for the punishment of unbelievers. This astronomical force will now be imposed upon humankind. According to the Newtonian Laws of Motion and Gravitation humans can be idealized as tiny particles in comparison to God, who will now orbit around God, like planets orbit around the star, for salvation from the punishment of hell fire and enjoyment of a happier life in the paradise forever that might restore peace and discipline all over the world.338 Abrahamic Declaration of Faith Abrahamic religions are the monotheistic faiths emphasizing and tracing their common origin to Abraham. They are one of the three major divisions in comparative religion, along with Indian religions and East Asian religions. As of the early twenty-first century, it was estimated that 54% of the world’s population (3.8 billion people) considered themselves adherents of the Abrahamic religions, about 30% of other religions, and 16% of no religion. The three major Abrahamic religions are, in chronological order of founding, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Judaism regards itself as the religion of the descendants of Jacob, a grandson of Abraham. Christianity began as a sect of Judaism in the Mediterranean Basin of the 1st century CE and evolved into a

314 separate religion—the Christian Church—with distinctive beliefs and practices. Islam arose in Arabia in the 7th century CE with a unitary vision of God.301-304 In Islam, Abraham is recognized as a prophet, patriarch and messenger of God, and reformer of the Kaaba. The Kaaba in Mecca of Saudi Arabia is the most sacred site in Islam. All Muslims around the world face the Kaaba during their prayers. The Qur'an states that Abraham, together with Ishmael, raised the foundation of the Kaaba. God had shown Abraham the exact site, very near to the Well of Zamzam, where Abraham and Ishmael began work on the Kaaba's construction. The Qur'an has many stories about Abraham and his offspring that are similar to the Bible. Nearly four thousand years ago, in the Sumerian town of Ur in the valley of the river Euphrates lived Abraham. The people of Ur had once worshipped One God but as time passed they forgot the true religion, and started praying to idols. Even as a small child Abraham could not understand how his people, and especially his father, could make these idols with their own hands, call them gods, and then worship them. He had always refused to join his people when they paid respect to these statues. He would leave town to sit alone and think about heavens and the worlds around him. He was sure his people were doing wrong and so alone he searched for the right way. One clear night as he sat staring at the sky he saw a beautiful shining star, so beautiful that he cried out: 'This must be Allah!' He looked at it in awe for some time, until suddenly it began to fade and then it disappeared. He turned away in disappointment saying: I love not things that set. On another night Abraham was again looking at the sky and he saw the rising moon, so big and bright that he felt he could almost touch it. He thought to himself: This is my Lord. But it was not long before the moon set as well. Then he said, unless my Lord guides me, I surely shall become one of the folk who are astray. Abraham then saw the beauty and splendor of the sunrise and decided that the sun must be the biggest and most powerful thing in the

315 universe. But for the third time he was wrong, for the sun set at the end of the day. It was then that he realized that Allah is the Most Powerful, the Creator of the stars, the moon, the sun, the earth and of all living things. Suddenly he felt himself totally at peace, because he knew that he had found the truth.299 The Most Wonderful and Biggest Scientific Discovery In the History of Mankind Discovery of planets, stars, galaxies, extra-solar planets, quasars, pulsars, black holes, ozone holes, and dark matter all are wonderful and greatest scientific discoveries in the history of mankind. The Science Channel has listed 100 discoveries as the big or greatest discoveries that change the science, history, and the world. The Science Channel has presented this list in eight different categories including astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, genetics, evolution, and the earth science.342 Astronomical discovery of spiritual hell in the universe has been proved today to be the most wonderful and biggest scientific discovery in the history of mankind for an expected spiritual resurrection for Hell Sighting Effect all over the world. The Nature published a list of one hundred greatest discoveries of twentieth- century made by the famous scientists of the world in chronological order, including 21 discoveries that changed science and the world.343 The list of 100 greatest discoveries of the twentieth century including most influential 21 (star marked) is presented here for comparison with the astronomical discovery of spiritual hell in the universe, which is expected to be the most influential and biggest scientific discovery in the history of mankind for Hell Sighting Effect all over the world.308, 309 Chronology of twentieth-century science from a century of nature: twenty- one discoveries that changed science and the world. 1900 Quantum theory proposed / Planck 1901 Discovery of human blood groups / Landsteiner

316 1905 Wave-particle duality of light / Einstein 1905 Special theory of relativity / Einstein 1906 Existence of vitamins proposed / Hopkins 1906 Evidence that Earth has a core / Oldham 1908 Synthesis of ammonia from its elements / Haber 1909 Idea of genetic disease introduced / Garrod 1909 Boundary between Earth’s crust and mantle identified / Mohorovicic 1909 Discovery of Burgess Shale: ancient invertebrate fossils / Walcott 1910 First mapping of a gene to a chromosome / Morgan and others 1911 Discovery of the atomic nucleus / Rutherford 1911 Superconductivity discovered / Onnes 1912 Discovery of cosmic rays / Hess 1912 Idea of continental drift presented / Wegener 1914 Discovery of neurotransmitters / Dale; Barger; Loewi 1914 Astronomical theory of climate change / Milankovitch 1915 General theory of relativity / Einstein 1918 Synthesis of Neo-Darwinism / Fisher; Haldane; Wright 1921 Isolation of insulin / Banting & Best 1923 Nature of galaxies discovered / Hubble 1925* Description of Australopithecus africanus / Dart 1925-26 Matrix and wave formulations of quantum mechanics / Heisenberg 1927* Matter is proved to be wavelike / Davisson & Germer 1928 Discovery of penicillin / Fleming 1929 Expansion of the Universe established / Hubble 1929 First suggestion that Earth’s magnetic field reverses / Matuyama 1930 First absolute geological timescale / Holmes 1930s Theory of chemical bonds developed / Pauling 1930s Scientific study of animal behavior / von Frisch; Lorenz; Tinbergen 1931 Birth of radioastronomy / Jansky

317 1931 First electron microscope / Ruska 1932 * Discovery of the neutron / Chadwick 1932 Discovery of the positron, first antimatter particle / Anderson 1935 Magnitude scale for earthquakes / Richter 1935 Theory of the nuclear force / Yukawa 1937 Discovery of the citric acid cycle / Krebs 1938 Nuclear reactions in stars / Bethe; von Weizsäcker 1938* First observation of superfluidity / Kapitza 1939* Discovery of nuclear fission / Meitner & Frisch 1943 Mutations in bacteria identified / Luria & Delbrück 1944 Evidence in bacteria that DNA is the genetic material /MacLeod 1944 Mexican wheat improvement program, ‘green revolution’ / Borlaug 1945 Formulation of the one-gene, one-enzyme hypothesis / Beadle et al. 1946 Radiocarbon dating / Libby 1946 Initial elucidation of the reactions involved in photosynthesis / Calvin 1947 Invention of the transistor / Shockley, Bardeen, and Brattain 1948 Big Bang theory for origin of the Universe / Gamow et al. 1948 Quantum electrodynamics / Feynman; Schwinger; Tomonaga 1949 Immunological tolerance hypothesis proposed / Burnet 1951 Presentation of the idea of gene transposition/McClintock 1952 First polio vaccine / Salk 1952 Theory of nerve-cell excitation announced / Hodgkin & Huxley 1953 Production of amino acids in ‘early Earth’ conditions / Miller & Urey 1953 First determination of amino-acid sequence of a protein / Sanger et al. 1953* Structure of DNA: the double helix / Watson & Crick 1956 Discovery of the neutrino / Cowan & Reines 1957 Superconductivity explained / Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer 1958 Quantum tunneling of electrons in semiconductors / Esaki 1958* First three-dimensional protein structure published / Kendrew et al.

318 1960* First laser / Maiman 1960 Discoveries of fossils of early Homo in East Africa / Leakeys et al. 1961 Nature of the genetic / triplet code proposed / Crick et al. 1963 Deterministic chaos: the butterfly effect / Lorenz 1963* Discovery of quasars / Schmidt 1963* Magnetic stripes on the sea floor: seafloor spreading / Vine & Matthews 1964 Existence of quarks proposed / Gell-Mann; Zweig 1964 Genetic explanations proposed for animal social behavior / Hamilton 1965 Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation / Wilson 1967 First warning of an anthropogenic greenhouse effect / Manabe & Wetherald 1967 Theory of plate tectonics / McKenzie & Parker; Morgan 1967 Unification of fundamental forces / Weinberg; Glashow; Salam 1967 Certain cell organelles are descended from free-living bacteria / Margulis 1968* Pulsars discovered / Hewish et al. 1968 Theory of random molecular evolution / the neutral theory / Kimura 1970* Reverse transcriptase discovered / Baltimore; Temin & Mizutani 1973 Gamma-ray bursts from outer space / Klebesadel, Strong, and Olsen 1973 Advent of genetic engineering techniques / Cohen, Boyer, and Berg 1973* Invention of magnetic resonance imaging / Lauterbur 1974 Identification of CFCs as threat to ozone layer / Molina & Rowland 1974* Principles of cell-mediated immunity unveiled / Zinkernagel 1974 Discovery of ‘Lucy’, Australopithecus afarensis / Johanson & Taieb 1974 First Grand Unified Theory of particle physics / Georgi & Glashow 1975 Monoclonal antibodies created / Köhler & Milstein 1976* Patch-clamp technique for studying single ion channels / Neher 1977* First complete DNA sequence of an organism / Sanger et al.

319 1977 Discovery of deep-sea hydrothermal vents / Corliss et al. 1978 Observation of astronomical dark matter / Rubin 1980* Unveiling of genetic controls on animal body /Nüsslein-Volhard 1980 First human oncogene / ‘cancer gene’ identified / Weinberg 1980 Impact hypothesis for extinctions at the Cretaceous/Alvarez et al. 1981 Superstring theory / Green & Schwarz 1982 Prion hypothesis proposed / Prusiner 1983 AIDS virus identified / Barré-Sinoussi et al. 1985 Genetic fingerprinting invented / Jeffreys 1985* Ozone hole discovered / Farman et al. 1985* Discovery of buckminsterfullerene / Kroto et al. 1986 First high-temperature superconductor / Bednorz & Müller 1987 ‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis of human evolution /Cann, Stoneking, and Wilson 1995 Bose-Einstein condensation of trapped atoms / Cornell & Wieman 1995* First extrasolar planet identified / Mayor & Queloz 1997* Dolly the sheep created by cloning / Wilmut et al. 2001 Publication of human genome / Venter et al. Today the United Nations, scientists and experts all over the world have been failed to resolve national, international, and inter-religious conflicts and wars. They are also unable to eliminate environmental pollution, poverty, social injustice, corruption, terrorism, abuse of drugs and incurable diseases like AIDS and cancers from the world. Astronomical discovery of hell in the universe solving all these problems eradicating the Super Natural Virus by Hell Sighting Effect can ensure health, peace, and discipline all over the world. The solution of the global problems which is not possible by the greatest discoveries of science, discovery of spiritual hell in the universe, can make it possible in a very short period of time,

320 if the message of this astronomical discovery would effectively be circulated all over the world. The most wonderful and miraculous effect of this message will be a spiritual renewal all over the world for automatic submission of mankind to the will of God that can save billions of people from the hell fire. This spiritual renewal and automatic submission of mankind to God will also open the doors of paradise in the world hereafter for enjoyment of a happier life forever. Questionnaire Results On the occasion of International Year of Astronomy 2009, a questionnaire was designed to evaluate people’s response on “Astronomical Discovery of Hell in the Universe and Hell Observation Effect on Modern Civilization”. The questionnaire was distributed to 2500 participants. The participants were scientists, religious specialists, astronomers, politicians, civic leaders, and educated peoples of all walks of life. 2050 participants responded to the questionnaire. Their answers were collected, analyzed and examined by a committee of experts. The questions presented to the participants on the occasion of International Year of Astronomy 2009 and their answers were as follows: 01. What is Astronomy? 02. What is Cosmology? 03. What is Physical Cosmology? 04. What is Religious Cosmology? 05. What do you mean by Universe? 06. What is the theme of IAU on the occasion of International Year of Astronomy 2009? 07. Who is an Astronomer? 08. What are the celestial bodies discovered by the astronomers? 09. What is Galaxy? How many Galaxies are discovered in the Universe? 10. What is star? What is black hole? What is Pulsar? What is Quasar?

321 11. What is solar system? 12. How many planets are observed in the solar system? 13. What is Hell? What is Paradise? 14. Who is a Prophet? 15. What are the locations of Hell and Paradise in the Universe? 16. Do you agree that the celestial bodies the stars, galaxies, black holes, pulsars, and quasars all are situated in the region of Hell? 17. Do you agree that the celestial bodies the stars, galaxies, black holes, pulsars, and quasars all are hells of religious cosmology? 18. Is it possible by the scientists that they could observe the Hell from the Earth? 19. What will be the Hell Observation and Hell Sighting Effect on modern civilization? 20. What will be the ultimate fate of the Universe? Answers to the question No.1--15 The questions No. 1—15 were open ended, blank spaces were provided for writing answers according to guidelines supplied with the questionnaire. Most of the participants answer these questions according to guidelines, which were prepared on the basis of “Astronomy” and “Religious Cosmology”. Answers to the question No.16--17 In the answer of these questions, most of the participants, more than 90 per cent out of 2050 agreed that the celestial bodies the stars, galaxies, black holes, pulsars, and quasars all are made of nuclear fire, all are situated in the region of hells, and all are hells of religious cosmology described in the Holy Scriptures. Answers to the question No.18 In the answer of this question, most of the participants, more than 90 per cent out of 2050 agreed that the Hell could be observed from the Earth with telescopes and other astronomical tools, like observation of fetus by sonologist in the uterus of pregnant women imaging with ultrasonogram.

322 Answers to the question No.19 In this closed ended question all possible answers were listed. Most of the participants, more than 90 per cent out of 2050 responded as follows:

(a) There will be a spiritual resurrection all over the world.

(b) Mankind will refrain from all kinds of abnormal activities those are punishable by hell fire.

(c) Evil will be reduced dramatically on the Earth.

(d) Mankind will return to a normal life style and behaviour.

(e) The whole world will be converted to a pious, happier, healthier, and prosperous world. Answers to the question No.20 In the answer of this question, most of the participants, more than 90 per cent out of 2050 responded as follows: (a) Astronomers do not know the ultimate fate of the Universe. (b) The universe is created by God made up of Hell, Paradise and the Earth. After final judgment on the Earth mankind will be sent to their eternal destination, Hell or Paradise. (c) The Hell is already discovered in the outer space by the astronomers consisting of billions of stars, galaxies, black holes, pulsars, and quasars. (d) The Paradise is situated in the deeper and distant regions of the universe, yet to be discovered. (e) Discovery of Hell in the universe strongly suggests the existence of Paradise in the deeper and distant regions of the universe. THE GREEN HOUSE EFFECT The earth is 4.5 billion years old, positioned within solar system far from the centre of the Milky Way Galaxy, facing dangers many of which are natural to the cosmos, but others may prove to be of our own doing and avoidable if we can control our destructive activities. The earth has two protective shields—the magnetic field and ozone layer. Earth’s magnetic field, generated by the earth’s

323 inner currents and the planet’s rotation, coupled with our atmosphere are strong enough to protect the planet from radiation emanating from outer space. Reversal of the magnetic field can weaken this protective shield and can also make earth more vulnerable to strikes by meteors and comets as well as exposure to strong cosmic radiation, which can pass through with disastrous effects on living beings.344 On Earth, the record of the reversal of the magnetic field is preserved in magnetic rocks, which lie along the ocean floor. The magnetism preserved in these rocks points first in one direction, then in another direction, giving the ocean floor a stripped appearance (from a magnetic point of view). This means that many times in the past the North Pole has become the South Pole, and viceversa. Since no one knows how long this can take, no one can say whether it could happen over night or take thousands of years. Cosmic radiation from the supernova or an abnormally large solar flare coupled with the intermission or magnetic reversal of the planet’s poles can cause mass extinction of organisms. Such events that may have either killed the dinosaurs outright or have caused such genetic mutations that they effectively disappeared. A particular source of radiation would be a nova flare-up leaving a black hole and dust cloud behind. Furthermore, cosmic dust, dying stars, blasts of meteorites or comets, exploding bombs, seismic and volcanic disturbances may all contribute to cosmic dust clouds that cut down the warming effects of the sun, raising the possibility of a New Ice Age. New Ice Age theory is posited on an ice increase in Antarctica, widening of ice cap in the Arctic, cooling of the North Atlantic, intensity and lengthening of winters during past decades, and the fact that glaciers in the northern hemisphere—retreating until 1940—have began once more to advance, all culminating in a gloomy climatic outlook. However, the theory of a New Ice Age has more recently been superseded by the theory of Global Warming or the Greenhouse Effect.345, 346

324

Fig-7: Mechanism of Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming Currently the amount of radiation we receive from the sun is about one-third more than it was 4000 million years ago due to the entrapped temperature within the atmosphere owing to the carbon dioxide layer and water evaporation from the oceans, lakes and rivers which in turn causes a thicker atmospheric blanket (similar to greenhouse glass) which is transparent to short wave radiation but opaque to long wave radiation, thus trapping heat. Volcanic eruptions, oil production, industrial pollution, burning of biomass and desertation owing to deforestation are the main causes for the increased carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere. Other greenhouse gases include methane, nitrous oxide and chloro-fluro-carbons. Methane is released as a natural gas from coal mining and after burning forests. About 120 million tonnes a year are produced from rice paddies and 90 million tonnes a year are produced from the eructations of cattle by bacteria living in cows’ guts. Each molecule of methane is 20 times more efficient at trapping heat than a single molecule of carbon dioxide. Whereas carbon dioxide in the air has increased by a quarter, methane has doubled over the past 200 years and is increasing at a rate of 1% a year. Nitrous oxide is produced from nitrogen fertilizers in arable farming and from burning forests. Nitrous oxides may

325 contaminate growing fruits and vegetables and when ingested may become carcinogenic nitrosamines. All the greenhouse gases are natural components of atmospheric air; it is simply their quantities that have been increased by human activity. Chloro-fluro- carbons (CFCs), however, were not present in the atmosphere at all until they were manufactured by industrial chemists in the 1930s. CFCs are the main ozone layer destroyer and are extremely efficient greenhouse gases: molecule for molecule, some CFCs are 10000 times more effective at trapping heat than carbon dioxide.347 Deforestation or mass clearing of tropical rain forests by cutting for timber or burning to release land for agriculture and cattle farming can lead to many devastating consequences. Forests are delicate and complete ecosystems and represent the lungs of the planet for absorbing accumulated carbon dioxide from atmospheric air and maintaining the carbon cycle in nature. It is estimated that deforestation is responsible for the release of 2 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide into the air each year. Trees are also the biggest sponge for maintaining the water cycle absorbing water from soil by capillary action and releasing water vapour in to the atmospheric air. Trees also maintain the nitrogen cycle by absorbing nitrogen from air and soil and fixing it in their roots, and then releasing nitrogen into air and soil on decay and plant death. Deforestation deprives mankind of rain forest medicines. About 70% of 3000 plants identified by the US National Cancer Institute as having ant-cancer properties are found in the rain forest.348, 349 The ozone layer, which exists high in the earth’s stratosphere, is a natural protective shield of the earth, to which we owe our continued existence. The atmosphere consists of following five layers: - 1. Troposphere - up to 50 km above ground level with a temperature of 150C containing the carbon dioxide blanket and part of the ozone layer.

326 2. Stratosphere - at 200 km above ground level with a temperature of –650C. The ozone layer here contains 95% of the entire world’s atmospheric ozone. 3. Mesosphere - at 500 km above ground level with a temperature of 11170C containing the solar radiation. 4. Ionosphere - at 700 km above ground level with a temperature of 11800C containing cosmic rays and Aurora. 5. Exosphere - at 800 km above ground level with a temperature of 11870C. The ozone layer is a layer of gas in the upper atmosphere which protects humans and other living things from the harmful ultraviolet (UV-B) rays of the sun. In the 1970s scientists discovered that certain man-made chemicals could destroy ozone and deplete the ozone layer. Further research found that the growing production and use of chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in aerosol sprays, refrigeration, insulation and air conditioning was contributing to the accumulation of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) in the atmosphere. They also observed that an ‘ozone hole’ was developing above the Antarctic.350

Fig-8: Image of the largest Antarctic ozone hole ever recorded A thinning ozone layer leads to a number of serious health risks for humans. It causes greater incidences of skin cancer and cataract of the eye, with children

327 being particularly vulnerable. There are also serious impacts for biodiversity. Increased UV-B rays reduce levels of plankton in the oceans and subsequently diminish fish stocks. It can also have adverse effects on plant growth, thus reducing agricultural productivity. Severe depletion of the Antarctic ozone layer was first observed in the early 1980s. The international response embodied in the Montreal Protocol. Today 191 countries worldwide have signed the Montreal Protocol, which is widely regarded as the most successful Multinational Environmental Agreement ever reached to date. Furthermore the phasing out of ozone depleting substances (ODS) has helped to fight climate change since many ODS are also powerful greenhouse gases. The ozone layer is a field of unstable ionization so that the air contains atomic oxygen (O), ordinary molecular oxygen (O2), and ozone (O3) and each time a molecule breaks down some ultraviolet radiation (UV) is absorbed; in effect, therefore, the ozone layer maintains a transparent wall between earth’s upper atmosphere and the sun, permitting us to benefit from the life giving heat and light of the sun and protecting us at the same time from the sun’s UV (short wave) radiation.351 However, an ozone layer near the ground is highly undesirable, and is building up over northern continents at a rate of 2%. It is another greenhouse gas and contributes to acid rain and photochemical smog. Acid rain caused by nitrogen and sulphur oxides emitted from vehicle exhausts and power plants form acid in the air which falls in rain to poison plants, resulting in massive agricultural damage. Photochemical smog is a poison to humans produced by sunlight action on nitrous oxides, hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emitted from, for example, vehicle exhausts. Its concentration rises with industrial pollution, the results can be seen as the ‘Valley of Death’ (Cubatao in Brazil), which has one of the highest world rates of infant death, birth defects, lung diseases and skin disorders.

328 The environmental pollution is reported to be second only to what might be expected from a nuclear war. However, it is the stratospheric protective ozone shield that really matters most. This is being increasingly damaged by chloro- fluro-carbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides. CFCs are widely used in refrigerators, freezers, air conditioners, as propellants in aerosol cans and as bubbles in plastic foam. The worldwide use of spray cans of nitrogen based pesticides and fertilizers used by farmers release nitrogen oxides in the air, which react with oxygen and ozone to form stable compounds and thus deplete the stratospheric ozone layer. Nitrogen oxides are massively produced by burning fossil fuel in the oil industries and by the engine exhaust of supersonic jets as they pass through the stratospheric ozone layer. Thermonuclear testings may also add to ozone layer depletion, and nuclear war would be devastating. 350, 351

Increasing environmental pollution, greenhouse effect, global warming and ozone layer depletion will desert the fertile lands, flood the entire earth dissolving ice which is now deposited at the top of the mountains, in Antarctica and the Arctic. All the factors will ultimately cause total extinction of life from the earth. If immediate measures could be taken for protection of ozone layer and prevention of global warming, devastation may be delayed and life could be prolonged on the earth. In the Holy Qur’an 1400 years ago, Almighty God praised the scientists who would investigate into the matters of the space and the earth, and on the basis of their findings they would beg refuge from the punishment of Hell-fire. The Holy Qur’an says- “To Allah belongs the kingdom of the space and the earth. He has power over all things. In the creation of the space and the earth, and in the variation of night and day are signs for those who posses intelligence, those that remember Allah when standing, sitting and lying down, and reflect on the creation of the space and the earth, and says; Lord you have not created those celestial masses (the

329 stars, galaxies, quasars, pulsars, and black holes) in vain. Glory be to you! Save us from the penalty of Hell-fire, Lord those whom you will cast into Hell shall be put to eternal shame: non will help the evildoers. Lord, we have heard the call of one calling us to faith, saying: “Believe in your Lord,” and we believed, Lord forgive us our sins and remove from us our evil deeds and make us die with the righteous. Lord, grant us what you promised through your Apostles, and do not cast shame upon us on the day of Resurrection.” - (The Holy Qur’an, 3:189-195). These astronomical verses of the Holy Qur’an are clearly indicating us that the astronomical discovery of spiritual Hell in the universe and discovery of ozone hole in the Earth’s atmosphere might lead the scientists and peoples of all walks of life to appeal to Almighty God for salvation from the Hell-fire, and cosmic radiation which is now coming in excess through the ozone hole from the Hell- fire. These discoveries will also activate mankind for a normal life style and behaviour to remain safe from the hell fire and enter into the eternal paradise that might prevent greenhouse effect and ozone depletion and change our sick world to a pious, happier, healthier, and prosperous world like a paradise. EXISTENCE OF GOD We are in the position of a little child entering a huge library filled with books in many different languages. The child knows someone must have written those books. It does not know how. It does not understand the languages in which they are written. The child dimly suspects a mysterious order in the arrangement of the books but doesn't know what it is. That seems to me, is the attitude of even the most intelligent being toward God. We see a universe marvelously arranged and obeying certain laws, but only dimly understand those laws. Our limited minds cannot grasp the mysterious force that moves the constellations. ~ Albert Einstein, in a 1929 interview, in Denis Brian, Einstein: A Life (NY: J. Wiley, 1996, p. 186).

330 All the scientific mechanisms, principles and laws in the nature are indicating us existence of an intelligent designer and creator of the universe who is identified as God. The origin of the universe and living things are best explained by an intelligent designer, not an undirected and blind process such as natural selection. God is not part of the natural order, but the ultimate creator of nature and of the scientific laws. Therefore God is immeasurable, infinite and invisible. The Holy Scriptures discussed many evidences in favour of existence of God and encouraged mankind to study the God’s messages and look into the God’s creatures in the space and the earth to find out clear proofs, signs and evidences to confirm the existence of God: Then do they not reflect upon the Qur'an? If it had been from other than God, they would have found within it much contradiction. – (Holy Qur’an, 4: 82). We did not create the space and the earth, and everything in them, just to play. We created them for a specific purpose, but most of them do not know. - (Holy Qur’an, 44: 38-39). In the creation of the space and the earth, and the alteration of night and day, there are signs for those who possess intelligence. - (Holy Qur’an, 3: 190). So many proofs in the heavens and the earth are given to them, but they pass by them, heedlessly! - (Holy Qur’an, 12: 105). Has there not reached you the news of those before you - the people of Noah and 'Aad and Thamud and those after them? No one knows them but God. Their messengers brought them clear proofs, but they returned their hands to their mouths and said, "Indeed, we disbelieve in that with which you have been sent, and indeed we are, about that to which you invite us, in disquieting doubt." Their messengers said, "Can there be doubt about God, Creator of the heavens and earth? He invites you that He may forgive you of your sins, and He delays your death for a specified term." They said, "You are not but men like us who wish to avert us from what our fathers were worshipping. So bring us clear sign." - (Holy Qur’an, 14: 9-10).

331 A sign is a representation of an object that implies a connection between itself and its object. A natural sign bears a causal relation to its object—for instance, thunder is a sign of storm. A conventional sign signifies by agreement, as a full stop signifies the end of a sentence. Medical sign, in medicine: objective evidence of the presence of a disease or disorder, as opposed to a symptom, which is subjective. Murphy's sign refers to a maneuver during a physical examination as part of the abdominal examination and a finding elicited in ultrasonography. It is useful for differentiating pain in the right upper abdomen. Typically, it is positive in acute cholecystitis. After physical examination, a surgeon confirms presence of a disease in the human body with the help of laboratory tests, radiology, imaging techniques and biopsy. We have presented here a few clear signs after examination of the nature and investigation of the matters of the universe and related objects that indicate there is sufficient reason to believe in the existence of God. The Watchmaker Analogy A Specific Sign for the Existence of God The watchmaker analogy is a teleological argument for the existence of God. The argument states that design implies a designer. The analogy has played a prominent role in natural theology and the "argument from design," where it was used to support arguments for the existence of God and for the intelligent design of the universe.352 The most famous statement of the teleological argument using the watchmaker analogy was given by William Paley in 1802. The watchmaker analogy consists of the comparison of some natural phenomenon to a watch. Typically, the analogy is presented as a prelude to the teleological argument and is generally presented as the complex inner workings of a watch necessitate an intelligent designer. As with a watch, the complexity of a particular organ or organism, the structure of the solar system, life, the universe, everything necessitates a designer.

332

Fig-9: The complex inner workings of a watch Paley went on to argue that the complex structures of living things and the remarkable adaptations of plants and animals required an intelligent designer. He believed the natural world was the creation of God and showed the nature of the creator. According to Paley, God had carefully designed "even the most humble and insignificant organisms" and all of their minute features (such as the wings and antennae of earwigs). He believed therefore that God must care even more for humanity. When Charles Darwin (1809–1882) completed his studies of theology at Christ's College, Cambridge in 1831, he read Paley's Natural Theology and believed that the work gave rational proof of the existence of God. This was because living beings showed complexity and were exquisitely fitted to their places in a happy world. Richard Dawkins demonstrates through computer simulation that "highly complex" systems can be produced by a series of very small randomly generated yet naturally selected steps, rather than an intelligent designer. He further claims that the watchmaker analogy is a self-refuting argument: if complex things must have been intelligently designed by something more complex than themselves, then anything posited as this complex designer (i.e. God) must also have been designed by something yet more complex.

333 God is not part of the natural order, but the ultimate creator of nature and of the scientific laws. Therefore God is infinite, invisible and not a simple or complex thing that can be designed. We believe in the existence of God, not only on the basis of our scientific study of the nature, but the existence of God’s will and power over all things of the universe had been tested and verified by a spiritual technique and meditation by thousands of prophets all over the world, like the existence of force of gravitation over all things had been tested and verified by the scientists all over the world. In religion, a prophet is a Messenger of God who serves as an intermediary with humanity, delivering his messages from God to other humans. They were chosen by God and connected to God in a spiritual way and meditation to receive the guidelines and messages for humanity, as we are talking today with a remote person establishing a secure connection via internet. Thousands of prophets all over the world told their nations about the existence of God. The message of all the prophets was same. Richard Dawkins in his book, The God Delusion, argues that life was the result of complex biological processes. Dawkins makes the argument that the comparison to the lucky construction of a watch is fallacious because proponents of evolution do not consider evolution "lucky"; rather than luck, the evolution of human life is the result of billions of years of natural selection. He therefore concludes that evolution is a fair contestant to replace God in the role of watchmaker. Evolution is the mechanism of creation of the universe and its contents. Evolution may be cosmological, biological, cultural, and many more. Evolution does not exclude existence of a creator God. Theory of Biological Evolution is a system of ideas that suggests humans and apes evolved from a common ancestor. Scientific evidence for evolution comes from many aspects of biology and includes comparative anatomy and physiology, homologous and vestigial structures, fossils, and genetic mutations.

334 Fossil discoveries in paleontology, advances in population genetics and a global network of scientific research have provided further details into the mechanisms of evolution. Evolution is the principal theory today that biologists use to understand life and is used in many disciplines, including medicine, psychology, conservation biology, anthropology, forensics, agriculture and other socio- cultural applications.353 The implication that all life on Earth has a common ancestor has met with objections from some religious groups who believe even today that the different types of life are due to special creation. Their objections are in contrast to the level of support for the theory of evolution by more than 99 percent of those within the scientific community today. These religious groups agree that plants and animals on earth including humans were originated from inorganic matters or mixture of soil and water by a mechanism that had not been described in the Holy Scriptures. The mechanism of creation of life from inorganic matters is the Theory of Biological Evolution that has been developed by the scientists today. So the special creation theory has been improved by the theory of biological evolution that does not contradict the Holy Scriptures. Our universe has been endowed with laws of nature favorable to the creation and development of intelligent life on the earth. Nuclear reactions, for example, involve balance of the strong nuclear force and electric force: the former attracting two protons together and the latter repelling them. If the strong nuclear force were just a little bit weaker, then sub-atomic particles could not join together to form the nuclei of the atoms. The only type of atom would be ordinary hydrogen which has a single proton in its nucleus, and without the other elements like carbon, oxygen and nitrogen, life just could not exist. On the other hand, if the strong nuclear force were just a little stronger, then all the hydrogen of the universe would have turned in to helium and there would be no hydrogen today. Hydrogen is a vital component of the chemicals which make up

335 living cells and it is the fuel which keeps the sun and other stars shining for thousands of millions of years.354 The actual masses of the subatomic particles are important too. If the proton were not 1836 times heavier than the orbiting electrons in an atom, then chemistry would be different, and in particular, the complex molecules essential to life like protein and DNA would not be stable. If the earth were a few percent closer to the sun, it would have gone the way of Venus, backed red hot under a thick blanket of atmosphere: only one percent further away, it would be in the grip of permanent ice age, like Mars.

Fig-10: Protons are 1836 times heavier than the orbiting electrons If the rate of expansion of the universe had been less by an almost insignificant amount in the first second, then the universe would have collapsed long before any biological evolution could have taken place. Conversely if the rate had been marginally greater, then the expansion would have reached such a magnitude that no gravitationally bound system, i.e. galaxies and stars could have formed.306

336 Socrates (c. 469-399 B.C.) argued that the adaptation of human parts to one another, such as the eyelids protecting the eyeballs, could not have been due to chance and was a sign of wise planning in the universe. The Muslim philosopher Averroes argues that the combination of order and continual motion in the universe cannot be accidental and requires a Prime Mover, a Supreme Principle, which is in itself pure Intelligence. Therefore it is very much clear that the universe and the earth had been created in a reasonable design and right proportion. All the scientific mechanisms, principles and laws in the nature are indicating us existence of an intelligent designer, an ever sensitive creator, sustainer and cherisher of the universe who is identified as God. “Do you not see that God created the universe and the earth for a specific purpose (in a true proportion)? If He so will, He can remove you and put in your place a new creation. And for God that is not hard or difficult. - (The Holy Qur’an, 14: 19-20). Evolution is the Mechanism of Creation By God, Not a Specific Evidence for Atheism The Holy Qur’an contains the following verses regarding creation of the universe and origin of life from water: Do the unbelievers (atheists) not realize that the heaven and the earth used to be one solid mass that we exploded into existence? We made from water every living thing. Will they not then believe?—(Al-Qur’an, 21: 30). And Allah has created every animal from water: of them there are some that creep on their bellies, some that walk on two legs; and some that walk on four. Allah creates what He wills; for verily Allah has power over all things.—(Al- Qur’an, 24: 45).

337 O mankind! Be careful of your duty to your Lord, Who created you from a single soul and from that soul He created its mate, and through them He bestrewed the earth with countless men and women.—(Al-Qur’an, 4: 1). Say: Travel through the earth and see how Allah did originate creation; so will Allah produce a latter creation; for Allah has power over all things.—(Al- Qur’an, 29: 20). A best example of acquisition of knowledge and insight into the mysteries of creation is illustrated by the journeys of the British biologist, Charles Darwin. He studied vast numbers of creatures, the pattern of life and rocks in many countries to develop his theory of biological evolution. He first began to formulate his theory when he visited the Galapagos Islands in the Pacific Ocean. A deep study into the nature by traveling through the world would convince any one about the grand design of every thing that God did create, and bring back home the truth about the conviction that God will, likewise, produce a latter creation. At the time the Holy Qur’an was revealed, the human understanding of the nature of the cosmos and the movement or the stillness of the heavenly bodies was extremely primitive and obscure. This is no longer the case, as our knowledge of the universe has considerably advanced and expanded by the present age. Some of the theories relating to the creation of the universe have been verified as facts, whereas some others are still being explored. The concept of the expanding universe belongs to the former category, and has been universally accepted by the scientific community as fact. This discovery was first made by Edwin Hubble in the 1920s. Yet some thirteen centuries before this, it was clearly mentioned in the Holy Qur’an: And the heavens We did create with Our Hands, and We do cause it to expand. - (Al-Qur’an, 51:48). The discovery that the universe is constantly expanding is of prime significance to scientists, because it helps create a better understanding of how the universe

338 was initially created. It clearly explains the stage by stage process of creation, in a manner which perfectly falls into step with the theory of the Big Bang. The first step of creation as related in the Qur’an accurately describes the event of the Big Bang in the following words: Do the unbelievers (atheists) not realize that the heaven and the earth used to be one solid mass that we exploded into existence? — (Al-Qur’an, 21:30). Astronomers explore the universe and find out billions of stars and galaxies which were hidden and unknown to mankind in the ancient periods. The Greek philosopher Democritus (450-370 B.C.) proposed that the bright band in the night sky known as Milky Way might consist of distant stars. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), however, believed the Milky Way to be caused by the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars which are large numerous and close together, and that the ignition takes place in the upper part of the atmosphere. The Arabian astronomer, Alhazen (965-1037 A.D.) refuted this by making the first attempt at observing and measuring the Milky Way’s parallax, and he does determined that because the Milky Way had no parallax, it is very remote from the earth and did not belong to the atmosphere.

Fig-11: Location of Sun within the Milky Way Galaxy

339 The Persian astronomer Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (973-1048 A.D.), proposed the Milky Way galaxy to be a collection of countless nebulous stars. Actual proof of the Milky Way consisting of many stars came in 1610 when Galileo Galilei used a telescope to study the Milky Way and discovered that it is composed of a huge number of faint stars. The modern observational study of the universe may be said to date from 1924, when U.S. astronomer Edwin Hubble demonstrated that great spiral nebula in Andromeda lies out side our Milky Way Galaxy, and in fact itself a galaxy similar to our own. Beginning in the 1990s, the Hubble Space Telescope yielded improved observation of the galaxies. The Hubble Deep Field, an extremely long exposure of a relatively empty part of the sky, provided evidence that there are about 125 billion (1.25x1011) galaxies in the universe. The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. The Earth and other planets orbit the Sun. The mean distance of the Sun from the Earth is approximately 149.6 million kilometers. This distance varies throughout the year from a minimum of 147.1 million kilometers on the perihelion (around 3 January), to a maximum of 152.1 million kilometers on the aphelion (around 4 July). Energy from the Sun, in the form of sunlight, supports almost all life on Earth via photosynthesis, and drives the Earth’s climate and weather. The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by gravity, all of which formed from the collapse of a giant molecular cloud approximately 4.6 billion years ago. The Sun’s retinue of objects circle it in a nearly flat disc called the ecliptic plane, most of the mass of which is contained within eight relatively solitary planets whose orbits are almost circular. The four smaller inner planets; Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, also called the terrestrial planets, are primarily composed of rock and metal. The four outer planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, also called the gas giants, are composed largely of hydrogen and helium and are far more massive than the terrestrials.

340 Home to millions of species, including humans, Earth is the only place in the universe where life is known to exist. The planet formed 4.54 billion years ago, and life appeared on its surface within a billion years. Since then, Earth’s biosphere has significantly altered the atmosphere and other abiotic conditions on the planet, enabling the proliferation of aerobic organisms as well as the formation of the ozone layer which, together with Earth’s magnetic field, blocks harmful radiation, permitting life on land. The physical properties of the Earth, as well as its geological history and orbit, allowed life to persist during this period. Highly energetic chemistry is believed to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all life existed. The current scientific consensus is that the complex biochemistry that makes up life came from simpler chemical reactions. Life process comprises a series of chemical reaction using carbon based molecules by which matter is taken into a system. Organisms are composed of one or more cells containing an infinite array of organic and inorganic molecules. Codes for reproduction and multiplication are contained in the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) located in a central nucleus. Chemical reactions occurring in the primitive environment that surrounded the earth during its early history could give rise to the first speck of life. The beginning of life may have included self-replicating molecules such as RNA, and the assembly of simple cells. The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6 – 2.7 billion years ago. The next major change in cell structure came when bacteria were engulfed by eukaryotic cells, in a cooperative association called endosymbiosis. The engulfed bacteria and the host cell then underwent co-evolution, with the bacteria evolving into either mitochondria or hydrogenosomes. Another engulfment of cyanobacterial-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants.

341 The history of life was that of the unicellular eukaryotes, prokaryotes and archaea until about 610 million years ago when multicellular organisms began to appear in the oceans in the Ediacaran period. The evolution of multicellularity occurred in multiple independent events, in organisms as diverse as sponges, brown algae, cyanobacteria, slime moulds and myxobacteria. Soon after the emergence of these first multicellular organisms, a remarkable amount of biological diversity appeared over approximately 10 million years, in an event called the Cambrian explosion. Here, the majority of types of modern animals appeared in the fossil record, as well as unique lineages that subsequently became extinct. Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere from photosynthesis.

Fig-12: Evolution Timelines About 500 million years ago, plants and fungi colonized the land and were soon followed by arthropods and other animals. Insects were particularly successful and even today make up the majority of animal species. Amphibians first appeared around 300 million years ago, followed by early amniotes, then

342 mammals around 200 million years ago and birds around 100 million years ago. However, despite the evolution of these large animals, smaller organisms similar to the types that evolved early in this process continue to be highly successful and dominate the Earth. Evolution influences every aspect of the form and behaviour of organisms. Most prominent are the specific behavioural and physical adaptations that are the outcome of natural selection regulated by creator God: Allah has created every living creature from water. Some of them walk on their bellies, some walk on two legs, and some walk on four. Allah creates whatever He wills. Allah is Omnipotent. . - (Al-Qur’an, 24:45). We have honored the children of Adam, and provided them with transport on land and in the sea. We provided for them good provisions, and We gave them greater advantages than many of Our creatures. - (Al-Qur’an, 17: 70). These adaptations increase fitness by aiding activities such as finding food, avoiding predators or attracting mates. Organisms can also respond to selection by co-operating with each other, usually by aiding their relatives or engaging in mutually beneficial symbiosis. In the longer term, evolution produces new species through splitting ancestral populations of organisms into new groups that can not or will not interbreed. These outcomes of evolution are sometimes divided into macroevolution, which is evolution that occurs at or above the level of species, such as extinction and speciation and microevolution, which is smaller evolutionary changes, such as adaptations, within a species or population. In general, macroevolution is regarded as the outcome of long periods of microevolution.353 Discovery of Eternal Soul A Specific Sign for the Existence of God Highly energetic chemistry is believed to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all life existed. The current scientific consensus is that the

343 complex biochemistry that makes up life came from simpler chemical reactions. The beginning of life may have included self-replicating molecules such as RNA, and the assembly of simple cells. Heritable traits are known to be passed from one generation to the next via DNA, a molecule that encodes genetic information. DNA is a long polymer composed of four types of bases. The sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule specify the genetic information, in a manner similar to a sequence of letters spelling out a sentence. Before a cell divides, the DNA is copied, so that each of the resulting two cells will inherit the DNA sequence. Portions of a DNA molecule that specify a single functional unit are called genes; different genes have different sequences of bases. Within cells, the long strands of DNA form condensed structures called chromosomes. The specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is known as a locus. If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles. DNA sequences can change through mutations, producing new alleles. If a mutation occurs within a gene, the new allele may affect the trait that the gene controls, altering the phenotype of the organism.355

Fig-13: DNA Double Helix

344 Every living organism (with the possible exception of RNA viruses) contains molecules of DNA, which carries genetic information. Genes are the pieces of DNA that carry this information, and they influence the properties of an organism. Genes determine an individual's general appearance and to some extent their behavior. If two organisms are closely related, their DNA will be very similar. On the other hand, the more distantly related two organisms are, the more differences they will have. For example, brothers are closely related and have very similar DNA, while cousins share a more distant relationship and have far more differences in their DNA. Similarities in DNA are used to determine the relationships between species in much the same manner as they are used to show relationships between individuals. For example, comparing chimpanzees with gorillas and humans shows that there is as much as a 96 percent similarity between the DNA of humans and chimpanzees. Comparisons of DNA indicate that humans and chimpanzees are more closely related to each other than either species is to gorillas.353

Fig-14: Molecular Structure of DNA

345 The molecular structure of DNA, the code or master blueprint of life looks like a twisted ladder, a double helix. The steps in the ladder are made up from the joining of various pairs of four molecules, namely, adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). Each step of the ladder is always formed by pairing molecules like AT or TA, GC or CG. The order of AT, CG, GC, and TA varies from gene to gene ensuring hereditary traits being passed over to the offspring. The steps of the DNA molecules are the same in all living things. The differences among all living things results from the way the steps are arranged, as well as from the ratio of the number of AT (or TA) to GC (or CG). This order and ratio makes all the differences between a flea and a dog, a rose and cactus, a man and a monkey. The complex molecular structure of DNA puts an overwhelming problem for its beginning by chance. For example, the DNA of virus contains about two hundred thousand steps and a DNA molecule within a human chromosome is made of at least six billion steps (base pairs). If a step is misplaced a mutation occurs. Thus from various combinations of the steps only one combination has been suitable for human being. All information about our traits and biological activities are located in the DNA in the form of codes or signals. In unicellular organisms, all vital processes occur in a single cell. As the evolution of multicellular organisms has progressed, various cell groups have taken over particular functions.356 According to the Holy Qur’an the soul (blueprint of life – the sequence of base pairs in DNA) is a command from Allah (God). “They put questions to you concerning the spirit. Say the spirit is at my Lord’s command. ..and of knowledge only a meager part has been imparted to you.”- (Al-Qur’an, 17:85). The scientific study relating to the soul has involved investigating the soul as an object of human belief, or as a concept that shapes cognition and an understanding of the world, rather than as an entity in and of itself. The phenotypic, genotypic, behavioral and emotional characteristics or states of a

346 human can be identified as bearing physio-chemical cause. Neurochemicals (most famously endorphins) are responsible for what can be described as feelings of well being, love and pain. Similarly, memory can be seen as an atomic reconstruction of an image in the brain at the expense of chemical energy intaken by food. Wilson suggested that biologists need to investigate how human genes predispose people to believe in a soul. The latest study on the living cell and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is suggesting us existence of an invisible soul that the blueprint of life or the sequence of base pairs in DNA is an eternal command from God which is different for different individuals and different species of living organisms. This eternal command from God for sequence of base pairing in DNA of living organisms was described in the Holy Scriptures as eternal soul. The Christian view of the soul is based upon the teaching of both the Old Testament and New Testament. The Old Testament contains the statements “Then shall the dust return to the earth as it was: and the spirit shall return unto God who gave it”- (Ecclesiastes 12:7) and “And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul.”- (Genesis 2:7). The codes for reproduction and multiplication are contained in the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) located in cell nucleus. A single cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes made of a long DNA in coiled and folded form. Total DNA of a cell is made of six billion base pairs, which is about 1.5-2.0 m long in uncoiled straight form. All information about our traits and biological activities are located in the DNA of cell in the form of codes or signals. This primary framework and blueprint of life or the sequence of base pairs in DNA is an eternal command from God. Without a command for design of base pairs in DNA, life can not originate from inorganic matters. This eternal command from God is independent of matters and will persist forever with its all attributes after damage of the body on the Earth. This discovery was first made by the scientists

347 in the 1950s. Yet some thirteen centuries before this, it was clearly mentioned in the Holy Qur’an: He is the One who created you from clay, then predetermined your life span, a life span that is known only to Him. Yet, you continue to doubt. .—(6: 2). During nuclear division the two strands of DNA molecule separate and each strand acts as a templete and organises the formation of a new complemenatary strand from a pool of nucleotides as a result of specific base pairing.356 In this way when the cells are divide, the genetic information are transmitted unchanged to each daughter cell that has been stated in the Holy Qur’an: O mankind! Be careful of your duty to your Lord, Who created you from a single soul and from that soul He created its mate, and through them He bestrewed the earth with countless men and women.—(Al-Qur’an, 4: 1).

Fig-15: God created you from a single soul and from that soul He created its mate.—(Al-Qur’an, 4: 1).

348 The human body as we have studied over the last hundred years is appearing to be a micro cosmos, and the whole universe a macro cosmos. Scientific study and observation of both the cosmos are indicating us existence of an intelligent designer and a creator displaying a very beautiful and wonderful organization, design, and planning, which should make any human being turn towards that intelligent creator in awe and wonder. In an astonishing prophecy 1400 years ago, the Holy Qur’an says – We will show them Our signs in the universe and within themselves, until it becomes manifest to them that this message (Qur’an) is truth. – (Al-Qur’an, 41:53). Astronomical Discovery of Spiritual Hell

A Specific Sign for the Existence of God 2009 was declared by the UN to be the international year of astronomy 2009. The focus was on enhancing the public’s engagement with and understanding of astronomy. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) launched the year under the theme ‘The Universe, Yours to Discover’. In the ancient periods, thousands of prophets all over the world told their nations about the existence of hell and paradise in the universe. The hell is the world of fire made for the punishment of unbelievers and the paradise is a biological world, where believers will enjoy a happier life for ever. The paradise is situated in the deeper and distant regions of the universe near-by the holy throne of God, and the hell, in the outer space nearer to the earth. The Holy Qur’an says– For the righteous are Gardens, in nearness to their Lord, with rivers flowing beneath where they shall dwell for ever. - (3:15). In the Holy Scriptures of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, it had been stated that at the day of final judgment the earth would be changed to a large field known as the field of resurrection, and it would be surrounded by the hells. A very long bridge will be built over the hells extending from the earth to the paradise. After the judgment believers will pass over the bridge easily and safely. The

349 unbelievers will fall in to the hells. The Hindus and Buddhists also believe in the existence of Hell and Paradise. They compare the Hell to a river of fire — Vaitarani, which will have to pass to reach the gardens of paradise.279, 303 By scientific exploration of the universe, the astronomers have discovered many celestial bodies in the outer space, which were hidden or unknown to mankind in the ancient periods. The hell and paradise are two hidden matters of the universe proposed by the prophets. For long time their existence in the universe was a religious belief. Now, by comparative study of astronomical discoveries with the religious cosmology, the distant celestial bodies the stars, galaxies, quasars, pulsars, and black holes, all are identified as the hells of religious cosmology. Prophet Mohammad (pbuh) visited the hell and paradise during his famous night journey to the outer space and meeting with Almighty God. Prophet Mohammad (pbuh) visited a Lote tree in the deeper and distant regions of the universe which is known as the “Sidratul Muntaha”. The holy throne of Almighty God and gardens of paradise are situated adjacent to that “Sidratul Muntaha”. “At the Lote Tree (Sidratul Muntaha) of the Utmost Boundary - Where the eternal Paradise is located.” - (Holy Qur’an, 53: 14-15). According to religious cosmology, the earth is surrounded by the hells. Astronomers all over the world have confirmed that all the stars in the galaxies are Suns. The Islamic scholars have been recognizing the Sun as a hell since the Seventh Century. So the sun and sun like billions of stars in the galaxies, the quasars, pulsars, and black holes, which are discovered around the earth in the region of Hell, all are hells. Although scientific discipline of astronomy has made tremendous stride in understanding the nature of the universe, the astronomers did not explain the aim of creation and ultimate fate of the universe. The religious specialists and scientists also did not evaluate the distant celestial bodies in the light of Holy

350 Scriptures. So it remains unknown for long time that the world of fire consisting of billions of stars and galaxies in the outer space actually is the Hell of religious cosmology. This astronomical discovery is now a specific sign for the existence of God that will activate mankind to believe in and submit to Almighty God and return to a normal religious life style and behaviour to remain safe from the hell fire and enter into the eternal paradise that might restore peace and discipline all over the world. Second Coming of Jesus A Specific Sign for the Existence of God The Christians as well as Muslims believe that Jesus will return at a time close to the end of the world. In Islam, Jesus is considered to be a Prophet and Messenger of God who was sent to guide the Children of Israel with a new scripture, the Injīl or Gospel. He is considered the Messiah. He is also a word from God and a spirit from Him. He is considered honoured in this world and in the Hereafter, and he is one of those brought nearest to God. The Qur’an, considered by Muslims to be God’s final and authoritative revelation to humankind, mentions Jesus twenty-five times. Islamic tradition and commentaries states that he will return to earth near the Day of Judgment to restore justice and save mankind from hell fire. The Hindus, Buddhists and Jews are also believe in the emergence of a saviour of mankind close to the end of the world like Jesus Christ. In Hinduism he is known as the Kalki Avatar, in Buddhism Maitraya, and in Judaism Messiah. The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported several likely scenarios for climate change in the future, including an expected global warming of 30C over the course of the 21st century with largely negative effects on plant and animal life and on human water and food supplies. The IPCC noted that at this rate of temperature change, 20-30% of plant and animal species could be at increased risk of extinction. Greenhouse effect and global warming will desert the fertile lands, sink the entire earth dissolving ice deposited at the

351 top of the mountains, in Antarctica and the Arctic. The study of IPCC suggests us mass extinction of life from the earth within next century by a big flood all over the world. Almost all the religious nations believe in the appearance of a Messiah or saviour of mankind close to the end of the world. According to the light of the Holy Scriptures and Environmental Sciences we are now sure that Messiah will come to the world before extinction of its inhabitants by a flood all over the world rising sea levels for global warming or the greenhouse effect due to entrapped temperature within the atmosphere owing to the carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Scientists have estimated that 5 degrees Celsius rise of global temperature is sufficient to melt the stored ice and flood the whole world. Therefore, the Messiah – the saviour of mankind will come very soon, before extinction of life on the earth by a big flood. The Holy Qur’an A Specific Sign for the Existence of God The Holy Qur’an is the earliest and by far the finest work of classical Arabic prose. For Muslims it is the infallible word of God, a transcript of a tablet preserved in heaven, revealed to Prophet Mohammad (pbuh) by Archangel Gabriel. Except in the opening verses and some few passages and in which the prophet or the Angel speaks in the first person, the speaker throughout is God. Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), born in 570 in the Arabian city of Mecca, is the last and greatest of all the prophets. Muslims consider him the restorer of the uncorrupted original monotheistic faith of Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and other prophets. He was also active as a diplomat, merchant, philosopher, orator, legislator, reformer, military general, and according to Muslim belief, an agent of divine action.299

He was orphaned at a young age and brought up under the care of his uncle Abu Talib. He later worked mostly as a merchant, as well as a shepherd, and was

352 first married by age 25. Discontented with life in Mecca, he retreated to a cave in the surrounding mountains for meditation and reflection. According to Islamic beliefs it was here, at age 40, in the month of Fasting, where he claimed to receive his first revelation from God. Three years after this event Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) started preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that "God is One", that complete submission to Him is the only way to enter the Paradise. Prophet Muhammad gained few followers early on, and was met with hostility from some Meccan tribes; he and his followers were treated harshly. To escape persecution Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and his followers migrated to Medina in the year 622. In Medina, Prophet united the conflicting tribes, and after eight years of fighting with the Meccan tribes, his followers, who by then had grown to ten thousand, conquered Mecca. In 632, a few months after returning to Medina from his Farewell pilgrimage, Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) fell ill and died. By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam.

The revelations which Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) reported receiving until his death—form the verses of the Qur'an, regarded by Muslims as the God’s final message to mankind and the culmination of a series of divine messages that started with the messages revealed to Adam, and continued with the Scrolls of Abraham, the Torah of Moses, the Zabur of David, and the Injil (Gospel) of Jesus. As proof of the divine authorship of the Qur’an Almighty God says,

“Is it not enough for them that we have revealed to you the Book for their instruction? Surely in this there is a blessing and an admonition to true believers.”- (Holy Qur’an, 29: 51). Here “You” is Prophet Muhammad who was an absolutely unlearned person. An ‘Ummi’ prophet, one who can not read or write, who can not sign his own name. Thomas Carlyle testifies regarding the educational qualifications of the prophet Muhammad:

353 “One other circumstance we must not forget: that he had no school learning; of the thing we call school learning none at all.” – (On Heros and Hero Worship). God Almighty also testifies to the reality of Prophet Mohammed’s claim that he could never have composed the Holy Qur’an; he could not have been its author: Never have you read a book before this, nor have you ever transcribed one with your right hand. Had you done either of these, the unbelievers might have justly doubted. But to those who are endowed with knowledge it is an undoubted sign. None deny our signs except the wrongdoers. – (Holy Qur’an 29: 48). In the event of him being a literate person, the insinuations of his critics that he had probably copied his book from the Jews and the Christians, or that perhaps he had been studying Aristotle and Plato and must have browsed through the Torah of Moses, the Zabur of David, and the Injil (Gospel) of Jesus and re- hashed it all in a beautiful language, might have carried some weight. Then the unbelievers and doubters might have had a point. But even this flimsy point has been denied the unbeliever and the cynic: a point hardly big enough to hang a fly upon! 357 This Book itself carries its own testimony that it is from God. Study it from any angle, scrutinize it, its author challenges the doubters: Then do they not reflect upon the Qur'an? If it had been from other than God, they would have found within it much contradiction. – (Holy Qur’an, 4: 82). Its author also challenges the jinn and mankind all over the world saying: If the whole of mankind and jinn were to gather together to produce the like of this Qur’an, they could not produce the like thereof, even if they backed up each other with help and support. - (Holy Qur’an, 17: 88). Dr. Rashad Khalifa discovered a mathematical structure (Rule of 19) investigating the Arabic verses and letters of the Holy Qur’an, which he presented in his famous book, “The Perpetual Miracle of Muhammad”. His study proved that the Holy Qur’an is a divine and supernatural book, which is impossible to the whole of mankind to produce the like of this Qur’an.

354 The Qur’an is characterized by a unique phenomenon never found in any human authored book. Every element of the Qur’an is mathematically composed — the chapters, the verses, the words, the number of certain letters, the number of words from the same root, the number and variety of divine names, the unique spelling of certain words, the absence or deliberate alteration of certain letters within certain words, and many other elements of the Qur’an besides its content. There are two major facets of the Quran's mathematical system: (1) The mathematical literary composition, and (2) The mathematical structure involving the numbers of chapters and verses. Because of this comprehensive mathematical coding, the slightest distortion of the Quran's text or physical arrangement is immediately exposed: 357 If you have any doubt regarding what we revealed to our servant, then produce one sura (chapter) like these, and call upon your own witnesses against God, if you are truthful. If you cannot do this—and you can never do this—then beware of the Hellfire, whose fuel is people and rocks; it awaits the disbelievers. - (Holy Qur’an, 14: 23-24). Dr. Maurice Bucaille (1920 -1998) was a French scientist and surgeon, who worked as chief of the Surgical Clinic, University of Paris, was deeply interested in the comparative study of Holy Scriptures and modern science. In order to be able to read Qur’an in its original text and to study its meaning through direct access to its early and modern commentaries, he devoted himself to the learning of Arabic. After a decade-long study, Dr. Bucaille published his book, “The Bible, The Qur'an and Science”, where he declares that the Qur'an contains not a single statement that contradicts findings of the modern science. His analysis proves that the Qur’an’s descriptions of natural phenomena make it compatible with the modern science.278 The Holy Qur’an is a perfect guideline for mankind sent down from Almighty God. This guidance is for the whole of mankind and covers all the activities of mankind:

355 This is a book which we have revealed to you in order to lead the people out of darkness into the light—in accordance with the will of their Lord —to the path of the Almighty, the Praiseworthy.- (The Holy Qur’an, 14:1). Since science is an important human activity and is an essential one for the progress of mankind, it is natural to expect that the Qur’anic guidance will address itself to the aspects of science. Almost one-eighth of the total number of verses in the Qur’an is devoted to science. The Qur’an is not a book of science as such and hence one can not hope to find all the principles of science embedded in it; nevertheless, the Qur’an has its own style of dealing with the facts and principles of science. It deals with the essence of scientific principles and makes statements about a number of phenomena in a suggestive form hinting at the highest organinising principles. One Qur’anic statement speaks volumes about a particular scientific discipline. It is very clear that the Qur’an has a particular style of inviting attention to the study of nature and that in such invitation, the Qur’an has placed one of its highest emphasis on the acquisition of knowledge. The question which disturbs the mind of the billions of non- Muslims today is why in spite of the strongest Qur’anic urges from the beginning to the end of the Qur’an, about two third of the Muslim nations remain illiterate, economically poor and backward in science and technology. This is indeed a very vital question which needs to be to deal in a very scientific manner. The answer to this may be in the fact that although we recite the Holy Qur’an, many of us can not comprehend its meaning because of lack of knowledge. Allah himself has proclaimed the Holy Qur’an is for “a people who think”. At other places in the Qur’an, it has been mentioned that only the people with ilm can comprehend his signs. Incidentally most of the phenomena which have been mentioned as signs in the Holy Qur’an are scientific and technological nature, thus it is no wonder that ilm unless otherwise specified stands for science. The early Muslims derived inspiration from the Holy Qur’an for the acquisition of knowledge. They considered knowledge in its entirety, and

356 the humanities and the sciences were studied in an integrated manner. It is the pursuit of ilm which gave the Muslims the power and prestige with which they ruled a vast empire for more than a thousand years. In fact, according to the Qur’anic mandate, science like other human activities is an integral part of religion. Science imparts material knowledge and religion teaches the ethics of using that knowledge. Religion invites man to ponder over creation to discover the existence of creator God. Science provides the language for understanding creation, and it is the creation which acts as the signature of the creator God. Therefore there is no conflict between science and religion.306 Today people recite from the Qur’an but do not understand the meaning of the verses due to their not having a good knowledge of Arabic. Most of those who know Arabic and know the meaning of the verses can not appreciate the scientific indications because of not having an exposure to the elementary fact of science. The Islamic scholars and theologians when speak to the public, dwell upon scientific verses; they usually talk of the social justice and punishments in the graves, hells and rewards in the paradise. Thus the people get an erroneous idea in their heads that the culture of science and the culture of Islam do not go hand in hand. The scientific backwardness of the Muslim countries and their strong dependence on the developed nations lend further support to their erroneous ideas about Islam. It is the ilm – integrated science and religion, which if properly practiced like Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and early Muslims, can be used today as a device for the development of all the nations.

Final Comments All the arguments indicate there is sufficient reason to believe in the existence of God. Therefore one should not believe in atheism. Evolution is the mechanism of creation by God, not a specific evidence for atheism. The origin of the universe and living things are best explained by an intelligent designer, not an undirected and blind process such as natural selection. The underlying

357 laws of nature were designed by God for a purpose, and are so self-sufficient that the complexity of the entire physical universe evolved from fundamental particles in processes such as stellar evolution, life forms developed in biological evolution, and in the same way the origin of life by natural causes has resulted from these laws. Evolution may be cosmological, biological, cultural, and many more. It is the process of creation of the universe and its contents. Evolution does not exclude existence of a creator. God’s will and power is the driving force of evolution. Atheists believe they will be extinct and dismissed in an evolutionary process but they can not identify the existence of Soul and God. The teleological argument, or argument from design, attributes the existence of order and direction in nature to some kind of purpose, thereby essentially proving the existence of God. Socrates (c. 469-399 B.C.) argued that the adaptation of human parts to one another, such as the eyelids protecting the eyeballs, could not have been due to chance and was a sign of wise planning in the universe. Marcus Tullius Cicero (c. 106–c. 43 B.C.) stated, "The divine power is to be found in a principle of reason that pervades the whole of nature. When you see a sundial or a water-clock, you see that it tells the time by design and not by chance. How then can you imagine that the universe as a whole is devoid of intelligence and purpose?" The Muslim philosopher Averroes argues that the combination of order and continual motion in the universe cannot be accidental and requires a Prime Mover, a Supreme Principle, which is in itself pure Intelligence. God is the creator and prime mover of all the atoms in the universe. He composed human body from soil through biological evolution that contains about 100 trillions cells and created a will force in it to choose the ways of hell and paradise. Atheists do not choose the way of paradise. They have discovered a portion of the universe and the evolutionary mechanism of creation, but can not identify the existence of Soul and God. The “Big Bang Theory” is still a

358 proposed hypothesis which contains only about 125 billion (1.25x1011) galaxies of hells and rest of the universe is unknown to those scientists who proposed this theory. If the eternal Soul and creator God exist, the spiritual hell and paradise are discovered in the universe; mankind will be deprived from the reward of paradise and punished in the hell fire. Atheists then can not save themselves and mankind from the punishment of hell fire. The existence of spiritual hells in the universe has already been discovered by the astronomers, which is also suggesting us existence of billions of galaxies of spiritual heavens in the deeper and distant regions of the universe. So the atheists with their insufficient knowledge about the contents of the universe can not challenge the following statement of the Holy Qur’an: Indeed We give Moses nine clear signs, —ask the Children of Israel. When he went to them, Pharaoh said to him, "I think that you, Moses, are bewitched." He said, "You know full well that these signs have been sent down by none but the Lord of the heavens and the earth (as proofs of His existence). I think that you, Pharaoh, are doomed to destruction (away from all good)." When he pursued them, as he chased them out of the land (of Egypt), we drowned him, together with those who sided with him, all of them. – (Holy Qur’an, 17: 101-103). Is it not a fact that there was a time when the human being was nothing to be mentioned? We created the human from a liquid mixture, from two parents, in order to test him. Thus, we made him a hearer and a seer. We showed him the two paths, then, he is either appreciative, or unappreciative. We prepared for the disbelievers chains, shackles, and a blazing Hell. - (Al-Qur’an, 76: 1- 4). SECOND COMING OF JESUS The Christians as well as Muslims believe that Jesus will return at a time close to the end of the world. In Islam, Jesus is considered to be a Prophet and Messenger of God who was sent to guide the Children of Israel with a new scripture, the Injīl or Gospel. He is considered the Messiah. He is also a word from God and a spirit from Him. He is considered honoured in this world and in

359 the Hereafter, and he is one of those brought nearest to God. As a result, Islam teaches Muslims to love Jesus, honour him, and believe in him.358 The Qur’an, considered by Muslims to be God’s final and authoritative revelation to humankind, mentions Jesus twenty-five times. It states that Jesus was born to Mary as the result of virginal conception, a miraculous event which occurred by the decree of God. Islamic tradition and commentaries states that he will return to earth near the Day of Judgment to restore peace and justice all over the world. Jesus is seen in Islam as a precursor to Muhammad, and is believed by Muslims to have foretold the latter’s coming. The Qur’an describes virginal conception of Jesus in Mary, which is recounted throughout several passages in the Qur’an. According to the Qur’anic narrations, Mary had withdrawn into a temple and was visited by angel Gabriel to give the glad tidings of a holy son. The Qur’an states that God sent the message through the angel Gabriel to Mary that God had honoured Mary among the women of all nations as she will give birth to a holy son, named Isa’ (Jesus), the Messiah (translated Christ) and he (Jesus) will be a great prophet, to whom God will give the Injil (the original Gospel) and he (Jesus) will speak in infancy and maturity and will be a companion to the most righteous. When this good news was given to Mary, she asked the angel how she can have a baby when no man has touched her. This same question of Mary is found in the Bible. But, in the answer of this question, the Qur’an differs from the Bible; the Bible says Mary was found to be with child (Jesus) from the Holy Spirit, but the Qur’an denies it and states that the reply of the angel to Mary was “Even though when God wants to create a matter, he merely wills it and the things come into being”. So, the Qur’anic version is, Jesus was created from the act of God’s will. The Qur’an compares this miraculous creation of Jesus with the creation of Adam where God created Adam by His act of will. According to the Qur’an, the same answer was given to the question of Zechariah, when he asked how his wife could conceive a baby while she was old.

360 The angel Gabriel was asked by God to make a small river run under Mary from which she could drink, and should she shake the trunk of the date palm tree next to her, it would turn green and moist dates would fall down from which she could eat and be nourished. Gabriel told her when she faces her people with her son to tell anyone who questions her about him that she had made a vow not to talk to any human for that day. That day, Mary gave birth to her son Jesus. Forty days later she carried him back to her people. They accused her of having fornicated. In response, Mary pointed to her son, meaning to tell them to talk to him. They were angered at this and thought she was mocking them by asking them to speak with a 40-day old baby lying in a small cradle. At this, Allah made Jesus speak. He said which are verses 30-33 in the chapter of Mariam in the Qur’an: “I am a slave of Allah. He will reveal the Book to me and make me a prophet. He blessed me wherever I am. In the rules revealed to me there will be a special attention given to prayers and charity. Allah predestined that I will be kind to my mother and not a tyrant with a bad ending. Peace was on me the day I was born. Peace will be on me on the day I will die and on the day I am raised alive again.” The Jordan River, where some Muslim accounts narrate that Jesus met with Yahya ibn Zakariyya (known as John the Baptist). According to Islamic texts, Jesus was divinely chosen to preach the message of monotheism and submission to the will of God to the Children of Israel. Muslims believe that God revealed to Jesus a new scripture, the Injīl (gospel), while also declaring the truth of the previous revelations – the Tawrat (Torah) and the Zabur (Psalms). Descended 600 years after Jesus’ life on earth, the Qur’an speaks favorably of the Injīl, which it describes as a scripture that fills the hearts of its followers with meekness and piety. In Chapter 3, verse 3, and Chapter 5, verses 46-47, of the Qur’an, the revelation of the Gospel is mentioned:

361 It is He Who sent down to thee (step by step), in truth, the Book, confirming what went before it; and He sent down the Law (of Moses) and the Gospel (of Jesus) before this, as a guide to mankind, and He sent down the criterion (of judgment between right and wrong). And We caused Jesus, son of Mary, to follow in their footsteps, confirming that which was (revealed) before him in the Torah, and We bestowed on him the Gospel wherein is guidance and a light, confirming that which was (revealed) before it in the Torah - a guidance and an admonition unto those who ward off (evil). Let the people of the Gospel judge by what Allah hath revealed therein. If any do fail to judge by (the light of) what Allah hath revealed, they are (no better than) those who rebel. The Qur’an states that Jesus was aided by a group of disciples (hawāriyūn) who believed in Jesus’ message. While not naming the disciples, the Qur’an does give a few instances of Jesus preaching the message to them. The Qur’an mentions in Chapter 3, verses 52-53, that the disciples, at one point, began to question their belief: When Jesus found unbelief on their part he said: “Who will be my helpers to (the work of) Allah?” Said the disciples: “We are Allah’s helpers: We believe in Allah, and do thou bear witness that we are Muslims. “Our Lord! We believe in what thou hast revealed, and we follow the Messenger; then write us down among those who bear witness.” The longest narrative involving Jesus’s disciples are when they request a laden table to be sent from Heaven, for further proof that Jesus is preaching the true message. This story features in Chapter 5, verses 112-115 of the Holy Quran: Behold! the disciples, said: “O Jesus the son of Mary! Can thy Lord send down to us a table set (with viands) from heaven?” Said Jesus: “Fear Allah, if ye have faith.” They said: “We only wish to eat thereof and satisfy our hearts, and to know that thou hast indeed told us the truth; and that we ourselves may be witnesses to the miracle.” Said Jesus the son of Mary: “O Allah our Lord! Send us from heaven a table set (with viands), that there may be for us - for the first

362 and the last of us - a solemn festival and a sign from thee; and provide for our sustenance, for thou art the best Sustainer (of our needs).” Allah said: “I will send it down unto you: But if any of you after that resisteth faith, I will punish him with a penalty such as I have not inflicted on any one among all the peoples.” According to Islamic tradition which describes this graphically, Jesus’ descent will be in the midst of wars fought by the Mahdi, known in Islamic eschatology as the redeemer of Islam, against the Antichrist and his followers. The autocratic rulers of Middle East like Saddam, Mubarak and Gaddafi who exploited their people are considered to be Antichrists. Jesus, considered in Islam as a Muslim, will abide by the Islamic teachings. Eventually, Jesus will exterminate the Antichrist and false messiah, and then everyone from Jews and Christians will believe in him. Prophet Muhammad said, “The Hour will not be established until the son of Mary (Jesus) descends amongst you as a just ruler. Money will be in abundance so that nobody will accept it as charitable gifts.” - (Al-Bukhari, Al-Muslim). After the death of Mahdi, Jesus will assume leadership. This is a time associated in Islamic narrative with universal peace and justice. Jesus’ rule is said to be around forty years, after which he will die. Mankind will then perform the funeral prayer for him and then bury him in the city of Medina in a grave left vacant beside Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). - (Al-Bukhari, Al-Muslim). THE UNIVERSAL RELIGION Religion is a supernatural reality of the cosmos and nature which yield a set of religious beliefs, laws, ethics, and a particular lifestyle. The development of religion has taken many forms in various cultures. The Torah, as explained in the Talmud, teaches that to obtain eternal life, one must follow the Universal Religion or Deen which is incumbent upon all mankind. This Deen includes monotheism, submission to God, belief in the judgment and good deeds (seven commandments). This is also called the Deen of Islam, Religion of the Prophets

363 and the Universal Religion. There is no reason for humanity to be divided into different religions that are constantly fighting with one another, because religion is one, the Universal Religion.263, 281 Today the Jews or Christians do not recognize any religion except their own. The Hindus and Buddhists believe that all the religions are false except their own. The Muslims do not believe in any religion except the religion of Islam. This conflict in religions leads mankind to unbelief and doubt in religions that different religions give differing accounts as to what God is and what God wants; since all the contradictory accounts cannot be correct, many if not all religions must be incorrect. Professor Toynbee in his famous book “An Historian Approach to Religions” refuting this fundamental basis of non-belief and doubt in religion said, “The religions are agreed with one another in holding that God has a personal as well as an impersonal aspect. For Buddhism this personal aspect of super human presence manifested in the Bodhisattvas, is plural for Hinduism, and Christianity the personal of Absolute Reality is triune, for Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and Islam it is singular. These differences are momentous, all the same, they perhaps not so significance as the point of agreement. Their common tenet that Absolute Reality or God has a personal aspect governs not only their theory but their aim.” The variations which are now observed in the religions, these are actually for the natural diversity of the nations in different languages, cultures and civilizations when the prophets were appeared and Holy Scriptures were revealed, and due to inadequate preservation, bias and ignorance which causes many of the original documents to be perished and teachings of religion distorted.275, 299 The Holy Qur’an recognizes its preceding religions and witnesses that the founders of these religions were prophets and messengers of same God. The Holy Qur’an regards their prophethood as part of Islamic faith and orders to

364 honour them like prophet Mohammed, as it has been stated in the following verses of the Holy Qur’an - “Say: We believe in Allah and what has been revealed to us and what was revealed to Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and what was given to Moses and Jesus and to the prophets from their Lord; we do not make any distinction between any of them, and to Him (Allah) do we submit.” - (3: 83). “There is no doubt that I had sent my messengers to all the communities of mankind all over the world (who were taught) so that they worship only one Lord and are save from ingratitude and sins.”- (16: 36).

According to the Holy Qur’an, there is only one primordial religion which has existed from the beginning of mankind and this has moreover been revealed at regular intervals through prophets. The differences among the religions were due to natural diversity of the nations and peoples distortion of their prophets fundamentally identical teachings. The Holy Qur’an says- "O Mankind! We created you from one male and one female, and made you into different nations and tribes only so you may know each other. Verily the most honoured of you in the sight of God is the one who is most righteous. Truly God has complete knowledge of all things, and is fully aware." – (Qur'an, 49:13). “The same religion has He established for you as that which He enjoined on Noah - The which we have sent by inspiration to thee and that which We enjoined on Abraham, Moses, Jesus; Namely, that ye should remain stead fast in religion, and make no divisions therein...... And they became divided only after knowledge reached them,—through selfish envy as between themselves.”- (Qur'an, 32: 13-14). Muslims were ordered to protect other divine religious communities. The Qur’an itself says one of its purposes is to protect the other revelations and that war is even necessary sometimes to protect people of other religions to have the

365 right to worship. Allah specifically says He could have made one nation (Ummah), but He chose not to: To each among you have we prescribed a Sharia (law) and Minhaj (way). If Allah had so willed, He could have made you a single nation (Ummah), but (His plan is) to test you in what He hath given you: so strive as in a race in all virtues. The goal of you all is to Allah; it is He that will show you the truth about the matters in which you are different. - (Al-Qur’an, 5: 48). They were evicted from their homes unjustly, for no reason other than saying,"Our Lord is Allah." If it were not for Allah's supporting of some people against others, monasteries, churches, synagogues, and masjids—where the name of Allah is commemorated frequently—would have been destroyed. Absolutely, Allah supports those who support Him. Allah is Powerful, Almighty. - (Al-Qur’an, 22: 40). If one of the “Mushrik” (polytheists, pagans, idol worshipers, disbelievers in oneness of Allah) seeks your protection, you shall grant him protection, so that he can hear the word of Allah, and then send him back to his place of security. That is because they are people who do not know. - (Al-Qur’an, 9: 6). The word “Muslim” means one who submits to the will of God, regardless of their race, nationality or ethnic background. While in Mecca, though Prophet Muhammad condemned paganism (for the most part), he showed great respect for the monotheism of the Christian and Jewish inhabitants. Indeed, the Allah of the Qur’an claimed to be the same God worshipped by Jews and Christians, who now revealed himself to the Arab people through his chosen messenger, Muhammad. The religion of Islam was spread throughout the world in a democratic process. In the Holy Qur’an, God enjoins Muslims to issue the following democratic call to other religious believers: "And I shall not worship that which you are worshipping.” "Nor will you worship that which I worship.” "To you be your religion, and to me my religion."- (Qur'an, 109: 4-6).

366 “There shall be no compulsion in religion: the right way is now distinct from the wrong way. - (Al-Qur'an, 2:256). “Had your Lord willed, all the people on earth would have believed. Do you want to force the people to become believers. No soul can believe except in accordance with God's will. For He places a curse upon those who refuse to understand.” - (Al-Qur'an, 10: 9-10). The Orthodox Judaism clearly teaches that Allah of Muslims and the God of the Children of Israel are the same. The Jewish Rabbis also teach that Islam and Judaism are the same religion with different customs (Sharia, covenant). Muslims believe that there is one universal religion which is incumbent upon all mankind, which they call the religion of Islam and religion of the prophets. Religion of all the prophets was same. The universal religion is manifested in different covenants (Sharia) and these different covenants are due to natural diversity of the nations. The precepts of Sharia in Islam are derived from the commandments of the Qur’an and the Sunnah (the teachings and precedents of Prophet Muhammad).359 The Sharia or covenants of different nations originated from the fundamental principles of universal religion. Sharia is the legal code ordained by God. But Sharia is variable according to race, culture, nationality, ethnic background and public opinions, which must be approved by the governments and parliaments. Prophet Mohammad was sent with a Sharia to correct the social culture of the ancient Arabs, not to change the language, geographic cultures and diversity of any nation. So ancient Arabian culture is not the Islamic Sharia that could be imposed upon any nation. Talibans are actually fighting to establish the ancient Arabian culture in the name of Islamic Sharia, which is a great mistake and misinterpretation of the Qur’an and Sunnah. Therefore, they are misguided and violating the fundamental principles of universal religion of the Qur’an and Sunnah. Sharia is the constitution of a nation according to guidelines and dictations of God which is compatible with the natural laws, public opinions and

367 principles of universal religion. To violate Sharia or not to accept its authority is to commit rebellion against God and Governments, which God’s faithful and Governments are required to combat.359 Scientific Reconstruction of Religious Thoughts The watchmaker analogy is a teleological argument for the existence of God. By way of an analogy, the argument states that design implies a designer. The analogy has played a prominent role in natural theology and the ‘argument from design’, where it was used to support arguments for the existence of God and for the intelligent design of the universe. The watchmaker analogy consists of the comparison of nature to a watch. The complex inner workings of a watch necessitate an intelligent designer. As with a watch, everything in the universe necessitates a designer. Richard Dawkins claims that the watchmaker analogy is a self-refuting argument: if complex things must have been intelligently designed by something more complex than themselves, then anything posited as this complex designer (i.e. God) must also have been designed by something yet more complex. In his book, The God Delusion, Dawkins argues that life was the result of complex biological processes and the evolution of human life is the result of billions of years of natural selection. He therefore concludes that evolution is a fair competitor to replace God in the role of watchmaker. The Holy Scriptures approved the watchmaker analogy and refuted Dawkins’ God Delusion hypothesis. The Holy Scriptures state that God is not part of the natural order, but the ultimate creator of nature and the natural laws. Therefore God is infinite, invisible and not a simple or complex thing that could be designed. The Holy Scriptures discussed many evidences in favour of existence of God and encouraged mankind to investigate the matters of the universe to find out profound evidences and clear signs to confirm the existence of God. All the scientific mechanisms, principles and laws in the nature are indicating us

368 existence of an intelligent designer and creator of the universe who is identified as God. We believe in the existence of God, not only on the basis of our scientific study of the nature, but the existence of God’s power over all things of the universe had been tested and verified by a spiritual technique and meditation by thousands of prophets all over the world, like the existence of force of gravitation over all things have been tested and verified by the scientists all over the world. The prophets were messenger of God who served as an intermediary with humanity delivering their messages from God. All the prophets were chosen by God and connected to God in a spiritual way to receive the guidelines and messages for humanity, as we are talking today with remote persons establishing connection through an electronic way via internet. The message of all the prophets was same. In the ancient periods, when there were no scientific procedures to study the nature and universe to identify the existence of God, God revealed His identity to the prophets in a spiritual way and sent guidelines to mankind to take measures for salvation from the punishment of hell fire and enjoyment of a happier life in the paradise forever. Darwin's theory of biological evolution suggests that humans and apes evolved from a common ancestor. Research in the field of paleontology supports the idea that all living organisms are related. The implication that all life on Earth has a common ancestor has met with objections from some religious groups who believe even today that the different types of life are due to special creation. But these religious groups agree with the scientists that the plants and animals on the earth including humans were originated from inorganic matters or mixture of soil and water by a mechanism that had not been described in the Holy Scriptures. The mechanism of creation of life from inorganic matters is the biological evolution that has been discovered by the scientists today.

369 God is the creator and prime mover of all the atoms in the universe. He produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago through a series of chemical reaction. A living cell is differentiated into multicellular organisms through genetic mutations and adaptations. The human body originated from this single cell through biological evolution that contains about 100 trillions cells. God’s will and power on those chemical reactions and genetic mutations was the driving force for evolution of humankind. The scientific study relating to the soul has involved investigating the soul as an object of human belief, or as a concept that shapes cognition and an understanding of the world, rather than as an entity in and of itself. The phenotypic, genotypic, behavioral and emotional characteristics or states of a human can be identified as bearing physio-chemical cause. But the latest study on the living cell and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) suggests us existence of an invisible soul that the blueprint of life or the sequence of base pairs in DNA is an eternal command from God which is different for different individuals and different species of living organisms. This eternal command from God for sequence of base pairing in DNA (blueprint of life) of living organisms was described in the Holy Scriptures as eternal soul. All information about our traits and biological activities are located in the DNA in the form of codes or signals. Without a command for design of base pairs in DNA, life can not originate from inorganic matters. This eternal command from God is independent of matters and will persist forever with its all attributes after damage of the body on the Earth. All the divine religions teach us continued existence of the soul and a transformed physical existence after death. There will be a day of judgment when all humans will be divided between the eternal destinations of Hell and Paradise. The resurrection that will take place on the Last Day is physical, and is explained by suggesting that God will re-create mankind.

370 Evolution is the process of creation of the universe and all its contents. There are many evidences in favour of the theory of evolution. Evolution may be cosmological, biological, cultural, and many more. The theory of evolution does not exclude existence of a creator God. God’s will and power is the driving force of evolution. Atheists do not believe in the existence of God. They believe in materialistic evolution that is easily explainable with modern science. Atheists believe they will be dismissed in an evolutionary process and not believe in the existence of Soul and God. They discovered a portion of the universe and the evolutionary mechanism of creation, but can not identify the existence of Soul and God. The “Big Bang Theory” is still a proposed hypothesis which contains only about 125 billion (1.25x1011) galaxies and rest of the universe is unknown to the scientists who proposed this theory that can not be a scientific foundation for philosophy of human life. The existence of eternal Soul has already been identified in the nucleus of the human cell. If the creator God exists, hell and paradise are discovered in the universe; mankind will be deprived from the eternal life of paradise and punished in the hell fire. Atheists then can not save mankind or themselves from the punishment of hell fire. For long time in the scientific point of view, the hell was a religious belief proposed by the prophets. By scientific study of the universe, the existence of spiritual hell now has been discovered in the outer space that makes the religious belief a scientific fact. The spiritual hell is now visible in the outer space by thousands of telescopes from all around the world. Astronomers confirm the message of the prophets that the hell is awaiting in the universe for the punishment of atheists and unbelievers. This astronomical discovery will lead mankind to believe in Almighty God and return to a normal religious life style and behavior to remain safe from the hell fire and enter into the eternal paradise that might restore peace and discipline all over the world.

371 Theory of Biological Evolution: Fact or Theory? A theory in science is a logical, systematic set of principles or explanation that has been verified—has stood up against attempts to prove it false. For example, Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a system of ideas that suggests humans and apes evolved from a common ancestor. This is based on evidence which supports it. Scientific evidence for evolution comes from many aspects of biology and includes comparative anatomy and physiology, homologous and vestigial organs, fossils, and genetic mutations. The study of fossils supports the idea that all living organisms are related. During the voyage of the Beagle, Charles Darwin collected fossils in South America, and found fragments of armor which he thought were like giant versions of the scales on the modern armadillos living nearby. On his return, the anatomist Richard Owen showed him that the fragments were from gigantic extinct glyptodons, related to the armadillos. This was one of the patterns of requirement that helped Darwin to develop his theory. Fossil discoveries in paleontology, advances in population genetics and a global network of scientific research have provided further details into the mechanisms of evolution. Evolution is the principal theory today that biologists use to understand life and is used in many disciplines, including medicine, psychology, conservation biology, anthropology, forensics, agriculture and other socio- cultural applications. The implication that all life on Earth has a common ancestor has met with objections from some religious groups who believe even today that the different types of life are due to special creation. Their objections are in contrast to the level of support for the theory of evolution by more than 99 percent of those within the scientific community today. These religious groups agree that plants and animals on earth including humans were originated from inorganic matters or mixture of soil and water by a natural mechanism that had not been described in the Holy Scriptures. The mechanism

372 of creation of life from inorganic matters is the biological evolution that has been discovered by the scientists today. So the special creation theory has been improved by the theory of biological evolution that does not contradict the Holy Scriptures.360 Earth is the only place in the universe where life is known to exist. The planet formed 4.54 billion years ago, and life appeared on its surface within a billion years. Life process comprises a series of chemical reaction using carbon based molecules by which matter is taken into a system. Organisms are composed of one or more cells containing an infinite array of organic and inorganic molecules. Codes for reproduction and multiplication are contained in the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) located in a central nucleus. Genes are the pieces of DNA that carry this information, and they influence the properties of an organism. Genes determine an individual's general appearance and to some extent their behavior. If two organisms are closely related, their DNA will be very similar. On the other hand, the more distantly related two organisms are, the more differences they will have. For example, brothers are closely related and have very similar DNA, while cousins share a more distant relationship and have far more differences in their DNA. Similarities in DNA are used to determine the relationships between species in much the same manner as they are used to show relationships between individuals. For example, comparing chimpanzees with gorillas and humans shows that there is as much as a 96 percent similarity between the DNA of humans and chimpanzees. Comparisons of DNA indicate that humans and chimpanzees are more closely related to each other than either species is to gorillas. About 500 million years ago, plants and fungi colonized the land and were soon followed by arthropods and other animals. Insects were particularly successful and even today make up the majority of animal species. Amphibians first appeared around 300 million years ago, followed by early amniotes, then

373 mammals around 200 million years ago and birds around 100 million years ago (both from reptile-like lineages). However, despite the evolution of these large animals, smaller organisms similar to the types that evolved early in this process continue to be highly successful and dominate the Earth. Although advocates of the "theory of evolution" acknowledge that there many unexplained problems, the view is still considered a "fact" and taught at such in public schools. Note the following statements to the effect from Scientific American and Talk.Origin Archive: “Evolutionary biologists passionately debate diverse topics: how speciation happens, the rates of evolutionary change, the ancestral relationships of birds and dinosaurs, whether Neanderthals were a species apart from modern humans, and much more. These disputes are like those found in all other branches of science. Acceptance of evolution as a factual occurrence and a guiding principle is nonetheless universal in biology.” “Biological evolution is a change in the genetic characteristics of a population over time. That this happens is a fact. Biological evolution also refers to the common descent of living organisms from shared ancestors. The evidence for historical evolution—genetic, fossil, anatomical, etc.—is so overwhelming that it is also considered a fact. The theory of evolution describes the mechanisms that cause evolution. So evolution is both a fact and a theory.” The theory of Biological Evolution has been approved by the following verses of the Holy Quran: Do not the unbelievers (atheists) see that the heaven and earth were joined together (as one unit of creation) before We clove them asunder? We made from water every living thing. Will they not then believe?—(Qur’an, 21: 30). Allah has created every animal from water: of them there are some that creep on their bellies, some that walk on two legs; and some that walk on four. Allah creates what He wills; for verily Allah has power over all things.—(Qur’an, 24: 45).

374 Say: Travel through the earth and see how Allah did originate creation; so will Allah produce a latter creation; for Allah has power over all things.—(Qur’an, 29: 20). In this verse of the Holy Qur’an, we are asked to contemplate on creation and its origin by travelling through the earth. A best example of acquisition of knowledge and insight into the mysteries of creation is illustrated by the journeys of the British biologist, Charles Darwin. He studied vast numbers of creatures, the pattern of life and rocks in many countries to develop his theory of biological evolution. Theory of biological evolution does not exclude existence of a creator God. God is not part of the natural order, but the ultimate creator of nature and of the scientific laws. All the scientific principles and laws in the nature are indirect evidence of existence of an intelligent designer and creator of the universe who is identified as God. Astronomical discovery of spiritual hell in the universe is now a specific sign for the existence of God. The Star=Hell Theory: Fact or Theory? A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be put forward as a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. Once a hypothesis has survived testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a scientific theory. In modern science, a scientific theory is a tested and expanded hypothesis that explains many experiments and fits ideas together in a framework. If anyone finds a case where all or part of a scientific theory is false, then that theory is either changed or thrown out.361 An example of a scientific theory that underwent many changes is the germ theory of disease. In ancient times, people believed that diseases were caused by the gods, or by curses, or by improper behavior. Germs were unknown, because germs are too small to see. With the invention of the microscope, germs were discovered, and the germ theory of disease was proposed. However, the germ theory of disease had to be modified, because some diseases are not caused by

375 germs. The flu and scurvy are examples of diseases that are not caused by germs, but viruses or poor nutrition. Scientists modified the germ theory of disease, so that today we would state that theory as "Some diseases are caused by germs." To be a scientific theory, a theory must be tested a large number of times, by many different scientists in many different places, and must pass the test every time. It must be stated exactly, often using mathematics. And it must fit in with all of the other scientific theories. Science has many branches. Physics, chemistry, biology, geology, and astronomy are some of the major branches of science. A scientific theory in one branch of science must hold true in all of the other branches of science. For example, the atomic theory of matter, that all matter is made up of atoms, was discovered using physics, but the chemicals used in chemistry, the living tissue used in biology, the rocks studied in geology, and the planets studied in astronomy are all made up of atoms. The atomic theory of matter holds in every area of science. Sometimes scientists come up with a theory that is wrong. The discovery of an exception to a scientific theory is a major event, and a scientist can become famous by discovering an exception to a rule. Einstein became famous for his theory of relativity, which found an exception to Isaac Newton's laws of motion. Newton's theory, which had been accepted for hundreds of years, had to be changed, and has been changed. Here is a list of some of the major theories of modern science. These theories have been tested thousands of times, and no exception has been found. 1. The atomic theory of matter: all matter is made up of atoms. 2. The law of conservation of mass and energy: in chemical and physical reactions, mass and energy stay the same, in atomic reactions, mass is changed to energy or energy to mass according to the formula E=mc2. 3. The cell theory of living things: all living things are made up of cells. 4. The theory of evolution: all life on earth evolved from simple forms.

376 5. The tectonic theory of geology: the surface of the earth is composed of tectonic plates, which move slowly. 6. The galactic theory of astronomy: planets orbit stars, stars cluster in galaxies. 7. The periodic table of elements: atoms are distinguished by their atomic number and atomic weight, and can be arranged in a table which illustrates their properties. 8. The theory of relativity: scientific laws hold in different frames of reference. 9. Quantum theory: the smallest amount of energy is a ‘quantum unit’, and all energy comes in multiples of this amount. The galactic theory of astronomy - planets orbit stars, stars cluster in galaxies, and existence of billions of galaxies in the universe has been accepted by the scientists, tested thousands of times, and no exception has been found. So it is not only a theory, but a fact. “The Star=Hell Theory” is based upon a recent finding of the astronomers in the outer space that the universe contains a large number of galaxies that spread through space at least as far as the most powerful telescope can penetrate. The galaxy is a unit in the structure of the universe. Much as a star is a unit in the structure of galaxy. Most galaxies are 1000 to 100,000 parsecs in diameter and are usually separated by distances on the order of millions of parsecs or mega parsecs. One parsec is equal to 3.26 light years. The nearest star to the Earth, apart from the Sun, is Proxima Centauri. Light from Proxima Centauri takes 4.2 years to reach the Earth. “The Star=Hell Theory” is divided into two parts: Discovery of Hell in the Universe and the Hell Sighting Effect on Modern Civilization. In the ancient periods, thousands of prophets all over the world told their nations about the existence of hell and paradise in the universe. For long time in the scientific point of view, it was a religious belief proposed by the prophets.

377 By scientific exploration of the universe, the existence of spiritual hell now has been discovered in the outer space that makes the religious belief a scientific fact. The spiritual hell is now visible in the space by thousands of telescopes from all around the world. The sun and sun like billions of stars in the galaxies, the quasars, pulsars, and black holes, all are identified as the hells. Their location in the universe and physical characteristics all are almost identical to those of the spiritual hells that have been described in the Holy Scriptures. So the Star=Hell theory is not only a theory, also a fact. COSMIC THERAPY

The Cosmic Therapy is a Universal Solution for freedom, peace and justice in the world developed on the basis of science and universal religion, where science meets with the religion in a rail-road technique to eliminate all kinds of physical, mental, social, political, cultural, economical, environmental and spiritual disorders, national, international and inter-religious conflicts and wars from the world. This Universal Solution is also a concrete guideline for implementation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the UNO in 1948 and purposes of the World Spiritual Assembly corporated with the US Department of State in 1999. This Universal Solution is open for signature and adoption by the UNO, all the nations and mankind all over the world. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948, which is considered as the foundation of freedom, peace and justice in the world. In 1948, Saudi Arabia didn't sign the declaration, arguing it violated Islamic law. In 1982, the Iranian representative to the United Nations, said that the UDHR was "a secular understanding of the Judeo-Christian tradition", which could not be implemented by Muslims without trespassing the Islamic law. However, the World Spiritual Assembly found the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

378 (UDHR) compatible with the principles of Universal Religion, which is incumbent upon all mankind.362 The scientific and intellectual achievements encourage a belief in natural law and universal order for freedom, peace and justice in the world. The theory of natural law is the belief that people, as creatures of nature and God, should live their lives and organize society on the basis of rules and guidelines laid down by nature or God. The Human Rights code declares freedom of conscience and religious choice; religions however, reject at least some religious choice and secular atheism. Therefore, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) as a foundation for freedom, peace and justice in the world was not accepted universally by the secular scientists and religious communities all over the world. The declaration will be universal and acceptable to all the communities when it will be scientific, natural and based upon principles of all the religions or the universal religion. We examined the UDHR in the light of Holy Scriptures and Modern Science. In our study UDHR is found to be a scientific secular declaration compatible with the principles of universal religion, but the UNO was unable to develop a definite guideline on the basis of principles of Universal Religion and Modern Science, for implementation of the universal declaration of human rights (UDHR). When science will meet with the principles of all the religions or principles of universal religion to develop a solution for implementation of the universal declaration of human rights, it might be acceptable to all the nations of the world. The Cosmic Therapy is a universal solution where science meets with the principles of all the religions in a rail-road technique for freedom, peace and justice in the world. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly (10 December 1948 at Palais de Chaillot, Paris). The Declaration arose directly from the experience of the Second World War and represents the first global expression of rights to which

379 all human beings are inherently entitled. It consists of 30 articles which have been elaborated in subsequent international treaties, regional human rights instruments, national constitutions and laws. The International Bill of Human Rights consists of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and its two Optional Protocols. In 1966 the General Assembly adopted the two detailed Covenants, which complete the International Bill of Human Rights; and in 1976, after the Covenants had been ratified by a sufficient number of individual nations, the Bill took on the force of international law. The World Spiritual Assembly is a confederation of the assembly of the world religions corporated with US Department of State, State of New York and registered with office of the Attorney General State of New York, USA on Aug 23, 1999. The purpose or purposes for which the corporation is formed are as follows: 363 1. Research work for the unification of all religions, for creation of interfaith programs, and for dissemination of the Millennium Prophecy Heralding a Golden Age. 2. To work for world peace and international sustainable security through inter-religious spiritual campaign for disarmament, sustainable development and human rights, for protection and preservation of the rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). 3. To uphold the Charter of the United Nations and to work under the provisions of Article 71 of the Charter, and to urge all UN Member States to stop arms production and to shift resources to humanity’s socio- economic development. 4. To unify all religious and spiritual leaders and institutions for the betterment of humanity.

380 5. To fight against poverty, hunger, illiteracy, over-populations, to rehabilitate refugees and to help the victims of human and man-made natural disasters. 6. To hold international religious and spiritual seminars to promote world peace and security. 7. To create better understanding among followers of all religious traditions and to foster religious and spiritual tolerance among different religious and ethnic groups. 8. To work to save the world from the scourge of war. 9. To spread the idea of the universality of humanity and to integrate everyone into one peaceful world. 10. To work to gain support of all people in favor of the establishment of world government to ensure peace, security and human rights worldwide. 11. To work together to be permanent peace messengers of God. 12. To establish close working relations with the international financial institutions, such as the World Bank and IMF, to integrate human development, sustainability, justice, and equity in rural and urban development programs worldwide. 13. To work to establish a confederation of the Worlds religious and spiritual institutions. Religion is a supernatural reality of the cosmos and nature which yield a set of religious beliefs, laws, ethics, and a particular lifestyle. The development of religion has taken many forms in various cultures. The Torah, as explained in the Talmud, teaches that to obtain eternal life, one must follow the Universal Religion or Deen which is incumbent upon all mankind. This Deen includes monotheism, submission to God, belief in the judgment and good deeds (Ten Commandments). This is also called the Deen of Islam, Religion of the Prophets and the Universal Religion. There is no reason for humanity to be divided into

381 different religions that are constantly fighting with one another, because religion is one, the Universal Religion. According to the Holy Qur’an, there is only one primordial religion which has existed from the beginning of mankind and this has moreover been revealed at regular intervals through prophets. The differences among the religions were due to natural diversity of the nations and peoples distortion of their prophets fundamentally identical teachings. The Holy Qur’an says- "O Mankind! We created you from one male and one female, and made you into different nations and tribes only so you may know each other. Verily the most honoured of you in the sight of God is the one who is most righteous. Truly God has complete knowledge of all things, and is fully aware." – (Al-Qur'an, 49:13). “The same religion has He established for you as that which He enjoined on Noah - The which we have sent by inspiration to thee and that which We enjoined on Abraham, Moses, Jesus; Namely, that ye should remain stead fast in religion, and make no divisions therein...... And they became divided only after knowledge reached them,—through selfish envy as between themselves.”- (Al- Qur'an, 32: 13-14). The Orthodox Judaism clearly teaches that Allah of Muslims and the God of the Children of Israel are the same. The Jewish Rabbis also teach that Islam and Judaism are the same religion with different customs (Sharia, covenant). Muslims believe that there is one universal religion which is incumbent upon all mankind, which they call the religion of Islam and religion of the prophets. Religion of all the prophets was same. The universal religion is manifested in different covenants (Sharia) and these different covenants are due to natural diversity of the nations. The precepts of Sharia in Islam are derived from the commandments of the Qur’an and the Sunnah (the teachings and precedents of Prophet Muhammad). The Sharia or covenants of different nations originated from the fundamental principles of universal religion. Sharia is the legal code ordained by God. But

382 Sharia is variable according to race, culture, nationality, ethnic background and public opinions, which must be approved by the governments and parliaments. Prophet Mohammad was sent with a Sharia to correct the social culture of the ancient Arabs, not to change the language, geographic cultures and diversity of any nation. So ancient Arabian culture is not the Islamic Sharia that could be imposed upon any nation. Talibans are actually fighting to establish the ancient Arab culture in the name of Islamic Sharia, which is a great mistake and misinterpretation of the Qur’an and Sunnah. Therefore, they are misguided and violating the fundamental principles of universal religion of the Qur’an and Sunnah. Sharia is the constitution of a nation according to guidelines and dictations of God which is compatible with the natural laws, public opinions and principles of universal religion.359 All the scientific mechanisms, principles and laws in the nature are indicating us existence of an intelligent designer and creator of the universe who is identified as God. Astronomical discovery of hell in the universe is a definite sign for the existence of God. We believe in the existence of God, not only on the basis of our scientific study of the nature and universe, but the existence of God’s will and power over all things of the universe had been tested and verified by a spiritual technique and meditation by thousands of prophets all over the world, like the existence of force of gravitation over all things had been tested and verified by the scientists all over the world. Development of Cosmic Therapy God is the king and administrator of the universe. He made the hell and paradise to punish unbelievers and reward righteous. All the divine religions teach us continued existence of the soul and a transformed physical existence after death. In the Day of Judgment mankind will be divided between the eternal destinations of Hell and Paradise. They are either granted admission to Paradise, where they will enjoy spiritual and physical pleasures forever, or condemned to Hell to suffer spiritual and physical torment for eternity.

383 In religion, a prophet is a Messenger of God who serves as an intermediary with humanity, delivering his messages from God to other humans. They were chosen by God and connected to God in a spiritual way and meditation to receive the guidelines and messages for humanity. Thousands of prophets all over the world told their nations about the existence of Hell and Paradise in the universe. Astronomers confirm the message of the prophets that the spiritual hell is awaiting in the outer space for the punishment of unbelievers. It is impossible to any human body—man or woman, to take the risk of penalty in the fire of hell forever that has been discovered by the astronomers in the outer space today. Discovery of spiritual Hell in the outer space that also suggests the existence of spiritual Paradise in the deeper and distant space, according to the Newtonian Laws of Motion and Gravitation will activate mankind for a normal and natural life style and behavior to enter into the eternal paradise and refrain from all sorts of abnormal activities those are punishable by hell fire, so that the fire of hell hanging over the earth like the Sword of Damocles and acting as a preventive and social medicine (alternative vaccine) will eradicate and sterilize the world off evil spirit, the Super Natural Virus, which is responsible for all kinds of physical, mental, social, political, cultural, economical, environmental and spiritual disorders, national, international and inter-religious conflicts and wars that might restore health, peace, justice and discipline all over the world. The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported several likely scenarios for climate change in the future, including an expected global warming of 30C over the course of the 21st century with largely negative effects on plant and animal life and on human water and food supplies. The IPCC noted that at this rate of temperature change, 20-30% of plant and animal species could be at increased risk of extinction. 191, 192

384 Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said, “At the near of ending life on the earth, a fire will appear in the sky to resurrect mankind all over the world”. - (Al-Bukhari, Al-Muslim). Astronomical discovery of hell in the universe and sighting of fire of hell in the sky with telescopes that also suggests the existence of paradise in the deeper and distant regions of the universe will activate mankind for a normal religious life style and behaviour to remain safe from the hell fire and enter into the eternal paradise. This discovery will also unite all the nations of the world for integrated effort for salvation from the punishment of hell fire that might cause a spiritual resurrection all over the world. The Holy Scriptures predicted two resurrections in the world. The first resurrection is due to appearance of a fire in the sky and the second, after ending life on the earth. The first resurrection, which is now imminent all over the world for astronomical discovery of spiritual hell in the universe, purifying mankind and sterilizing the world off sins and evil deeds will save billions of people from the hell fire, open the doors of eternal paradise, prevent greenhouse effect and ozone depletion, prolong life on the earth that might change our sick world to a pious, happier, healthier, and prosperous world like a paradise. This state of paradise might be administered by Jesus Christ that had been foretold in the Holy Scriptures. Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said, “The Hour (Judgement Day) will not be established until the son of Mary (Jesus) descends amongst you as a just ruler. Money will be in abundance so that nobody will accept it as charitable gifts.” - (Al- Bukhari, Al-Muslim). Medical Application of Cosmic Therapy Modification of life style, physical exercise, meditation and mental relaxation, avoidance of smoking, allergens, and alcohol all are natural therapies for the prevention and management of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus, cancers, road traffic accidents, skin and respiratory disorders. Most of the infectious diseases can be prevented by taking specific natural protections and

385 vaccines. Hand washing, personal hygiene, marriage, and breast feeding all are natural therapies for the prevention of many dreadful diseases and social disorders. Cosmic Therapy for the prevention of all kinds of diseases of the human body and management of social disorders can be administered as a natural therapy without use of any physical agents like synthetic drugs, chemicals or radiation on the host. Hence it has no adverse effects on the human body. The concept of a ‘universal medicine’ - Zauberkugel that could eradicate all the disease agents without harm to the host now becomes a reality with the discovery of this ‘natural therapy’. AIDS, the acquired immune deficiency syndrome is a fatal disease caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which breaks down the body’s immune system, leaving the victim vulnerable to a host of life-threatening opportunistic infections, neurological disorders and unusual malignancies. According to WHO estimates, at the end of 2007 the number of adults and children living with HIV/AIDS world wide were about 33.2 million. An estimated 2.5 million (range 1.8–4.1 million) people were newly infected in 2007, including 420,000 children. The causative virus is transmitted from person to person, most frequently through abuse of sex.364 South Africa has the largest population of HIV patients in the world, followed by Nigeria and India. South & South East Asia are second worst affected; in 2007 this region contained an estimated 18% of all people living with AIDS, and an estimated 300,000 deaths from AIDS. India has an estimated 2.5 million infections and an estimated adult prevalence of 0.36%. Approximately 1.1 million persons are living with HIV/AIDS in the United States, and more than 56,000 new infections occur every single year. There is currently no publicly available HIV vaccine or cure for HIV or AIDS. Most patients die from opportunistic infections or malignancies associated with the progressive failure of the immune system. Life expectancy has fallen

386 dramatically in the worst-affected countries; for example, in 2006 it was estimated that it had dropped from 65 to 35 years in Botswana. HIV and AIDS affect economic growth by reducing the availability of human capital. Without proper nutrition, health care and medicine that is available in developed countries, large numbers of people suffer and die from AIDS-related complications. They will not only be unable to work, but will also require significant medical care. The forecast is that this will probably cause a collapse of economies and societies in countries with a significant AIDS population. In some heavily infected areas, the epidemic has left behind many orphans cared for by elderly grandparents. Obesity is the most common health problem and chronic disease in both developed and developing countries that affects children as well as adults. Approximately 40% of adult populations in the developed world are suffering from obesity and its various complications. Overeating is the main cause of obesity all over the world. Overeating is often compulsive and addictive and is commonly associated with little or no physical activity. Severe obesity is a life threatening condition and associated with increased mortality: a 20% weight excess raises the mortality rate by 15%. BMI of 25-30 is regarded as overweight or obese, half of adult population of England is overweight or obese, in other words, obesity is currently an epidemic disease. The 2009-2010 statistics reveal that almost a third of US population are obese with 12.5 million of the children also being overweight. The common ailments plaguing Americans due to obesity includes cardiovascular diseases and strokes, diabetes mellitus, osteoarthritis, cancers, sleep disorders and suicide. The Americans are aware of their condition but fail to battle the condition successfully. In fact they spend almost $147 billion annually on obesity related treatment.365 Cigarette smoking causes more than five million deaths annually worldwide, mostly from cardiovascular diseases, various types of cancers, and chronic

387 respiratory problems. It has been estimated that of people alive today, approximately 500 million will die from tobacco-related illnesses. Cessation of smoking greatly reduces the overall mortality and risk of death from cardiovascular diseases. Tobacco contains between 2000 to 4000 substances, more than 60 of which have been identified as carcinogens. Nicotine, an alkaloid present in tobacco leaves is addictive. Without it, it would be easy for smokers to stop the habit. Nicotine binds to receptors in the human brain.366 Smoking is one of the most common forms of recreational drug use. Tobacco smoking is today by far the most popular form of smoking and is practiced by over one billion people in the majority of all human societies. Estimates claim that smokers cost the U.S. economy $97.6 billion a year in lost productivity, and that an additional $96.7 billion is spent on public and private health care combined. This is over 1% of the gross domestic product.366 Alcohol consumption in moderate amounts is generally not injurious, but in excessive amounts alcohol causes serious physical and psychological damage. More than 50% deaths result from accidents caused by drunken driving and alcohol related homicides and suicides. Worldwide, alcohol accounts for approximately 1.8 million deaths per year. Drug abuse generally involves the use of mind-altering substances, beyond therapeutic and social norms. Drug addiction and overdose are serious public health problems. Earlier in 2002, the World Health Organization estimated that around 140 million people were alcohol dependent and another 400 million suffered alcohol-related problems. Worldwide, the UN estimates there are more than 50 million regular users of heroin, cocaine and synthetic drugs. The UK Home Office estimated that the social and economic cost of drug abuse to the UK economy in terms of crime, absenteeism and sickness is in excess of £20 billion a year. In the year 1995, drug abuse cost the US economy $109.8 billion.367 Control of the major risk factors (smoking, overeating and abuse of drugs, alcohol and sex) with cosmic therapy will decrease morbidity and mortality for

388 cardiovascular and chronic respiratory diseases, cancers, road traffic accidents, obesity and AIDS, reduce financial burden to the community and states, ensure health for all and increase life expectancy throughout the world. Cosmic therapy will block the receptors of Super Natural Virus including the nicotine and other addicting receptors in the human brain and soul. The soul of human body invaded by the Super Natural Virus (SNV) acquires an abnormal life style and behaviour, loses the ability to enter into the eternal paradise and progresses to a dangerous punishment in the Hell-fire. Cosmic therapy will eliminate evil effects of the Super Natural Virus in the human brain and gradually correct the abnormal life style and behaviour restoring normal base sequence of the genetic code that determines the amino acid sequence of the proteins specific for normal function and behaviour of mankind. Cosmic therapy is used according to the Super Natural Theory of disease. Super Natural Virus is responsible for all kinds of diseases and disorders in the human body and society. Cosmic therapy will block the receptors of Super Natural Virus in the human brain and soul and abolish harmful effects of this virus on the human body and society acting on all the dimensions of health (physical, mental, social, political, cultural, economical, environmental and spiritual) which are usually influenced by this virus. This natural therapy will resolve all kinds of conflicts and wars inducing a sense of intimate friendship among the individuals, families, communities, societies, states and nations for salvation from the punishment of hell-fire and enjoyment of a happier life in the paradise forever.339 These benefits can be achieved by individual or group study of the modern cosmology in contrast to the religious cosmology, and circulation of a message all over the world that the Hell is discovered, which will produce life long natural immunity against the Super Natural Virus.

389 Cosmic Therapy for Eradication of Corruption, Terrorism and Poverty Transparency International considers Canada to be among the least corrupt nations in the world. The corruption index scores 183 countries and territories from 0 (highly corrupt) to 10 (very clean) based on perceived levels of public- sector corruption. It uses data from 17 surveys that look at factors such as enforcement of anti-corruption laws, access to information and conflicts of interest.368 While two-thirds of ranked countries scored less than 5, New Zealand ranked first, followed by Denmark, Finland, Sweden, Singapore, Norway, Netherlands, Australia, Switzerland and then Canada. Last year Canada ranked sixth with a score of 8.9 compared to this year’s 8.7. In the past year several cases of corruption in Canada were revealed, including the case of Calgary oil and gas company, Niko Resources, paying nearly $9.5 million in fines and penalties after admitting in court that it had bribed a Bangladeshi government minister. In philosophical, theological, or moral discussions, corruption is a form of spiritual or moral impurity or deviation from an ideal. In economics, corruption is payment for services or material which the recipient is not due, under law. This may be called bribery, kickback, or baksheesh. The word ‘corrupt’ has Latin origins. When used as an adjective, it means "utterly broken." Corruption occurs when people abuse a position of power, whether as a policeman, a politician or a businessman. Forms of corruption vary, but include bribery, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, patronage, graft, embezzlement, and electoral fraud. Worldwide, bribery alone is estimated to involve over 1 trillion US dollars annually. In the US alone, corruption costs more than 100 billion dollars. This money could be put to much better use as for example, for education, housing or

390 eradication of poverty. The Bible does not use the word corruption, but it roundly condemns bribery, extortion, nepotism and many other form of injustice. They are all form of stealing, they are sins. Many countries have organized campaigns against corruption. India is just one example. Corruption carries enormous costs for everyone.368 Terrorism is the systematic use of terror, especially as a means of compulsion and cruelty. Terrorist attacks are usually carried out in such a way as to maximize the severity and length of the psychological impact. Each act of terrorism is a performance devised to have an impact on many large audiences. Terrorists also attack national symbols to show power and to attempt to shake the foundation of the country or society they are opposed to. Terrorist acts frequently have a political, criminal, religious, and social revolutionary purpose. Today’s terrorism differs in many ways from that of earlier eras, not least in terms of the weapons it employs and the mass-media saturated environment in which it operates. Undoubtedly, both have had an effect on how terrorists ply their trade and how the world perceives and reacts to it: so much was apparent from the use of simple box cutters on Sept. 11, 2001, to crash sophisticated airliners into high-profile buildings, at the cost of thousands of lives, and while the world watched transfixed via television. There is also continuity in terrorism, not least in the motives which lie behind it.368 Lack of proper nutrition has become a global epidemic. The facts are startling and tragic. In developing countries, children receive too little of the right kind of food. According to The New York Times, one-third to one half of all children’s deaths in the world is related to malnutrition. One child dies every 6 seconds from malnutrition and related causes. Poverty and India are seemed to be co- related. Each time when a committee is asked to make an estimation of the people living below poverty line, the states are marked with an increase. The Tendulkar committee made an analysis; it stated 37 per cent of population in India is below the poverty line.

391 Poverty is the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money. Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the one who lacks basic human needs, which commonly includes clean and fresh water, nutrition, health care, education, clothing and shelter. About 1.7 billion people are estimated to live in absolute poverty today. The World Bank defines extreme poverty as living on less than US $1.25 per day, and moderate poverty as less than $2 or $5 a day. It estimates that in 2001, 1.1 billion people had consumption levels below $1 a day and 2.7 billion lived on less than $2 a day. Injustice, corruption and terrorism are identified as the main causes of poverty and malnutrition all over the world.368 The Hell is now visible in the universe by thousands of telescopes from all around the world. Discovery of spiritual Hell in the universe is the surest astronomical sign that might lead mankind to believe in Almighty God. This astronomical sign will refrain mankind from all kinds of injustice and evildeeds those are punishable by hell fire and activate for a normal life style and behavior to remain safe from the hell fire and enter into the eternal paradise that might eradicate corruption, terrorism, malnutrition and poverty from the world. Global Zero Declaration The history shows how mankind has to choose right and wrong use of scientific discoveries. Recently in a brief period amazing discoveries have been made and applied to practical purposes. It would be ungrateful not to recognize how immense the benefits are which science has given to mankind. It has shown how malnutrition, hunger, and disease can be overcome. Fields of knowledge, experience and recreation open to a few in the past have been exposed to millions. Most thankfully we must acknowledge all that science has done and is doing for the welfare of mankind. But it is very much shocking that various nuclear weapons have been produced in the past few years. This is a terrible development of science. If there is a nuclear war, most of the world’s population will be exterminated, as the after effect of the war might be more frightful and

392 dangerous. The few living beings surviving the war will be exposed to radiation, which will cause many new diseases. There will also be an acute shortage of food, for all the crops standing and stored will be poisoned by radiation. Therefore, the survivors of a nuclear war will, obviously, be crippled, sick, hungry, and homeless. It might be better, perhaps, to be killed in a nuclear war than to survive it. It would be better still for mankind to try to live in peace with one another. If this can be achieved, there will be no nuclear wars.369

Fig-16: ‘Global Zero’ is an international initiative launched in Paris in 2008 by 100 political, military, business, faith and civic leaders to eliminate all nuclear weapons from the world.

Hell is the prison of Almighty God made up of nuclear fire. This terrible prison of God that has now been discovered in the universe and built for the punishment of atheists and evildoers will refrain mankind from all sorts of evil deeds, misuse of science and power that might eliminate all nuclear weapons from the world achieving the goal of Global Zero Declaration. Prevention of Greenhouse Effect & Ozone Depletion Currently the amount of radiation we receive from the sun is about one-third more than it was 4000 million years ago due to the entrapped temperature within the atmosphere owing to the carbon dioxide layer and water evaporation from the oceans, lakes and rivers which in turn causes a thicker atmospheric

393 blanket (similar to greenhouse glass) which is transparent to short wave radiation but opaque to long wave radiation, thus trapping heat. Volcanic eruptions, industrial pollution, burning of biomass and desertation owing to deforestation are the main causes for the increased carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere. Other greenhouse gases include methane, nitrous oxide and chloro-fluro-carbons.344 All the greenhouse gases are natural components of atmospheric air; it is simply their quantities that have been increased by human activity. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), however, were not present in the atmosphere at all until they were manufactured by industrial chemists in the 1930s. CFCs are the main ozone layer destroyer and are extremely efficient greenhouse gases: molecule for molecule, some CFCs are 10,000 times more effective at trapping heat than carbon dioxide. Forests are delicate and complete ecosystems and represent the lungs of the planet for absorbing accumulated carbon dioxide from atmospheric air and maintaining the carbon cycle in nature. It is estimated that deforestation is responsible for the release of 2 billion tones of carbon dioxide into the air each year. Trees are also the biggest sponge for maintaining the water cycle absorbing water from soil by capillary action and releasing water vapour in to the atmospheric air. Trees also maintain the nitrogen cycle by absorbing nitrogen from air and soil and fixing it in their roots, and then releasing nitrogen into air and soil on decay and plant death. The ozone layer, which exists high in the Earth’s stratosphere, is a natural protective shield of the earth which protects humans and other living things from the harmful ultraviolet (UV-B) rays of the sun. In the 1970s scientists discovered that certain man-made chemicals could destroy ozone and deplete the ozone layer. In 1973, Chemists Frank Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina, then at the University of California, Irvine, began studying the impacts of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the Earth’s atmosphere. They discovered that

394 CFC molecules were stable enough to remain in the atmosphere until they got up into the middle of the stratosphere where they would finally be broken down by ultraviolet radiation releasing a chlorine atom. Rowland and Molina then proposed that these chlorine atoms might be expected to cause the breakdown of large amounts of ozone (O3) in the stratosphere. Their argument was based upon an analogy to contemporary work by Paul J. Crutzen and Harold Johnston, which had shown that nitric oxide (NO) could catalyze the destruction of ozone. The environmental consequence of this discovery was that, since stratospheric ozone absorbs most of the ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation reaching the surface of the planet, depletion of the ozone layer by CFCs would lead to an in increase in UV-B radiation at the surface, resulting in an increase in skin cancer and serious impacts for biodiversity. Increased UV-B rays reduce levels of plankton in the oceans and subsequently diminish fish stocks. It can also have adverse effects on plant growth, thus reducing agricultural productivity.346 The Rowland-Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbon industries. The chair of the board of DuPont was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is “a science fiction tale...a load of rubbish...utter nonsense”. Robert Abplanalp, the president of Precision Valve Corporation wrote to the Chancellor of University of California to complain about Rowland’s public statements. In 1985, British Antarctic Survey scientists Farman, Gardiner and Shanklin shocked the scientific community when they published results of a study showing an ozone hole in the journal Nature — showing a decline in polar ozone far larger than anyone had anticipated. The international response embodied in the Montreal Protocol. Today 191 countries worldwide have signed the Montreal Protocol, which is widely regarded as the most successful Multinational Environmental Agreement ever reached to date.350 Astronomical discovery of Hell in the universe and discovery of ozone hole in the Earth’s atmosphere might lead the scientists and peoples of all walks of life

395 to submit to Almighty God and appeal for salvation from the Hell-fire, and cosmic radiation which is now coming in excess through the ozone hole from the Hell-fire. Supporting this spiritual renewal all over the world, 1400 years ago the Holy Qur’an says – In the creation of the space and the earth, and in the variation of night and day are signs for those who posses intelligence, those that remember Allah when standing, sitting and lying down, and reflect on the creation of the space and the earth, and says; Lord you have not created those celestial masses (the stars, galaxies, quasars, pulsars, and black holes) in vain. Glory be to you! Save us from the penalty of Hell-fire. - (The Holy Qur’an, 3:1190-192). Global Benefits of Cosmic Therapy Astronomical discovery of spiritual hell in the universe is the most wonderful and biggest scientific discovery in the history of mankind. This discovery will activate mankind for a normal life style and behavior by Hell Sighting Effect all over the world. The costs and benefits of the Cosmic Therapy can be assessed analyzing the costs and benefits of Montreal Protocol. The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer. It is believed that if the international agreement is adhered to, the ozone layer is expected to recover by 2050 at the cost of 235 billion US dollars. The costs and benefits of Montreal Protocol calculated from 1987 to 2060 assuming full implementation is as follows: 370 Reduced fisheries damage : US$238 billion Reduced agricultural damage : US$191 billion Reduced damage to materials : US$30 billion Costs : US$235 billion Net Benefits : US$224 billion * All values are reported in US$ at 1997 levels. In comparison to the Montreal Protocol, the benefits of Cosmic Therapy are tremendous, which is impossible to calculate. Cosmic Therapy will activate

396 mankind for a normal life style and behavior by Hell Sighting Effect all over the world. The Hell Sighting Effect will purify and sterilize the world off evil spirit, the Super Natural Virus (SNV), which is responsible for all kinds of physical, mental, social, political, cultural, economical, environmental and spiritual disorders, national, international and inter-religious conflicts and wars that might restore health, peace and discipline all over the world. Cosmic Therapy will decrease global warming antagonizing the greenhouse effect and recover ozone layer much earlier than the Montreal Protocol. The main benefit of the cosmic therapy is the automatic submission of mankind to the will of God for “Hell Sighting Effect” that can save billions of people from the hell fire. The expenditure of such benefit can be evaluated from the following verse of the Holy Qur’an: “Those who disbelieve and die as disbelievers, an earthful of gold will not be accepted from any of them, even if such a ransom were possible. They have incurred painful retribution; they will have no helpers.” - (Al-Qur’an, 3:91). This automatic submission of mankind to God will also open the doors of paradise in the world hereafter for enjoyment of a happier life forever. “Gardens of perpetual bliss – they shall enter them as well as the righteous among their fathers, their spouses, and their offspring. Angels shall enter unto them from every gate with the salutation - ‘Peace unto you for what you endured in patience! Now, how excellent is the final home!”- (Al – Qur’an, 13:23-24). Cosmic therapy is one of the treatment modalities without use of any physical agents like synthetic drugs, chemicals or radiation on the human body. Hence it has no adverse effects on the human body, which is the host of disease agents. The concept of a ‘universal medicine’ - Zauberkugel that could eradicate all the disease agents without harm to the host now becomes a reality with the discovery of this ‘natural therapy’.

397 In comparison to the huge benefits, the cost for global implementation of the Cosmic Therapy is surprisingly very much less. The cost is only for reporting an astronomical message all over the world that the Hell is discovered. This astronomical message acting as a natural vaccine all over the world will eradicate the Super Natural Virus, which is responsible for all kinds of diseases of the human body and social disorders. REFERENCES

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429 347. Fleagle, RG and Businger, JA: An introduction to atmospheric physics, 2nd edition, 1980. IPCC assessment reports, see http://www.ipcc.ch/ 348. Sedjo, Roger.1993, The Carbon Cycle and Global Forest Ecosystem, Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 70, 295-307. 349. Janzen, H. H. (2004), Carbon cycling in earth systems, 104 (3): 399–417. 350. Litfin, Karen T. (1994), Ozone Discourses, Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08137-5 351. Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2006, http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/csd/assessments/2006/report.html 352. The Watchmaker Analogy, Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia. 353. Biological Evolution, Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia. 354. M. A. Wazed Mia, Elementary Nuclear and Reactor Physics, Mullick Brothers, Dhaka, 1995. 355. Swanson TA, Kim SI & Glucksman MJ, 2007, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 4th edition, Lippincott Williums & Wilkins, Philadelphia, USA. 356. Ingram-Smith C & Smith KS, 2005, Biochemistry and Genetics, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill Company, New York, USA. 357. Ahmed Deedat, Al-Qur’an-The Ultimate Miracle, Durban, South Africa, 1980. 358. Second coming of Jesus, Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia. 359. M. H. Kamali, Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence, International Islamic University, Malaysia, 1991. Nurul Anwar, Ashrafia Publishing Company, Deoband, India. 360. Shaikh Sharafuddin, The notion of evolution through the ages, Islamic Foundation Bangladesh, Dhaka, 1981. 361. Scientific Methods, Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia. 362. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia. 363. http://www.The World Spiritual Assembly.com

430 364. AIDS, Park’s Text Book of Preventive and Social Medicine, 20th edition, 2009, Jabalpur, India. 365. Davidson’s Principles and Practice of Medicine, 20th edition, 2006, Churchill Livingstone, New Delhi, India. 366. Robbins & Cotran, Pathologic Basis of Disease, 8th Edition, 2010, Saunders, Philadelphia, USA. 367. Chronic Non-communicable Diseases, Park’s Text Book of Preventive and Social Medicine, 20th edition, 2009, Jabalpur, India. 368. Corruption, Terrorism and Poverty, Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia. 369. The Medical Effects of Nuclear War, The report of the British Medical Association’s Board of Science and Education, published by John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1983. ISBN 0-471-90207-1. 370. Global Benefits and Costs of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Applied Research Consultants, 1997, Environment Canada. List of Publications related to Discovery of Hell BOOKS 1. Fazlul Islam, Paralook Abishker, Medinah Publications, 38/2, Bangla Bazar, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 1986. 2. Fazlul Islam, Discovery of the World Hereafter, The Centre for Islamic Guidance and Welfare, Dhanmondi, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 1990. 3. Fazlul Islam, The Holy Qur’an and Space Science, Bangla Puthighar Ltd., C.K. Gosh Road, Mymensingh, Bangladesh, 1999. 4. Fazlul Islam, The Operation Clean Heart, Bangla Puthighar Ltd., C.K. Gosh Road, Mymensingh, Bangladesh, 2003. SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES 1. Fazlul Islam, In search of Life in the Outer Space, Monthly Medinah, Dhaka, Vol.38, No.05, July, 2002.

431 2. Fazlul Islam, Discovery of Hell and Paradise in the Universe, The weekly Robbar, Dhaka, Vol.28, No.41, 19 November, 2006. 3. Fazlul Islam, In Search of a Paradise, The weekly Robbar, Dhaka, Vol.28, No.31, 10 September, 2006. 4. Fazlul Islam, Evolution of Life in the Outer Space, The weekly Robbar, Dhaka, Vol.28, No.33, 24 September, 2006. 5. Fazlul Islam, Cosmic Surgery, The weekly Robbar, Dhaka, Vol.28, No. Eid Issue - 2006. 6. Fazlul Islam, Discovery of a Vaccine against HIV, The weekly Robbar, Dhaka, Vol.29, No.2, 18 February, 2007. 7. Fazlul Islam, Discovery of Amrita – A Universal Vaccine against Super Natural Virus, The weekly Robbar, Dhaka, Vol.29, No.4, 04 March, 2007. 8. Fazlul Islam, Cosmic Meditation, The weekly Robbar, Dhaka, Vol. 30, No.5-12, 30 March 2008 to 18 May 2008. ABOUT THE AUTHOR Dr. Fazlul Islam, a religious specialist and cosmic therapist, was born in Bangladesh on 01 January 1965. He graduated from Dhaka Medical College and obtained three Masters Degrees in

Theology and Islamic Sciences from the higher Islamic institutions of Bangladesh. After receiving higher training and research fellowship in surgery, he is now working as a Registrar in the department of surgery of Ragib-Rabeya Medical College Hospital of Sylhet, Bangladesh. He is the author of several books and many scientific articles on cosmic therapy, which he has developed incorporating cosmology into the medical sciences. Astronomical discovery of spiritual hell and cosmic therapy is his famous work. He is fluent in Arabic, English, Urdu, Hindi, and Bengali. 

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