GEMINI CRIMINOLOGY ONLINE REVIEW AND TRAINING CENTER P E N E T E E A P Dr. MANUEL V JAUDIAN, LLB. PhD ETEEAP DIRECTOR NOTES COMPILED AND EDITED BY: PROF. HERMOGENES MALAGAMBA FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION AND INVESTIGATION
INTRODUCTION
Ballistics (gr. ba'llein, "throw") is the science that deals with the motion, behavior, and effects of projectiles , especially bullets , gravity bombs , rockets , or the like; the science or art of designing and hurling projectiles so as to achieve a desired performance.
Ballistics is sometimes subdivided into:
1. Internal ballistics , the study of the processes originally accelerating the projectile, for example the passage of a bullet through the barrel of a rifle ; 2. Transition ballistics , the study of the projectile's behavior when it leaves the barrel and the pressure behind the projectile is equalized. 3. External ballistics , the study of the passage of the projectile through space or the air; and 4. Terminal ballistics, the study of the interaction of a projectile with its target, whether that be flesh (for a hunting bullet), steel (for an anti-tank round), or even furnace slag (for an industrial slag disruptor).
“Ballista” is a gigantic bow or catapult which was used to hurl large objects such as stones at a particular distance to deter animals or enemy forces.
Today, the word Ballistics is frequently used synonymously in the press and in the Police Parlance to Firearms Identification.
BALLISTICS
It is a science in itself because it evolved from systematic knowledge, research and development, training, experience and education of those who pioneered in this field.
BALLISTICS THEORY
The drag of a projectile moving head on is now usually divided into three parts:
1. bow resistance - due to air pressure at the head of the projectile; 2. skin friction - caused by the friction of air moving along the middle portion of the body; and 3. base drag - due to the under-pressure and disturbance of the air behind the base.
Pioneers in the study of force and projectiles:
1. GALILEO, NEWTON, and LEIBNIZ established the principles of dynamics and the methods of calculus, studies which helped the rapid development of external ballistics. 2. GALILEO and NEWTON were both interested in the force called air resistance, now usually called aerodynamic drag, which reduces the speed of a projectile. 3. In 1707, CASSINI , an astronomer suggested measuring firearm’s muzzle velocity.
INTERIOR BALLISTICS
It is the study of motion of projectiles within the gun barrel. The time during which the projectile is influenced by Interior Ballistics is very short. From the release of the firing pin to the moment the sound of the shot can be heard as it leaves the muzzle occupies only about 0.01 seconds, in a modern rifle.
Interior ballistics involves:
1. Ignition of the primer. 2. Flames is produced 3. Combustion of the gunpowder 4. Energy that is generated 5. Force/Pressure developed 6. Velocity of the bullet (from the chamber to the muzzle) 7. Rotation of the bullet 8. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet.
Interior ballistics deals with the temperature, volume, and pressure of the gases resulting from combustion of the propellant charge in the gun; it also deals with the work performed by the expansion of these gases on the gun, its carriage, and the projectile. Some of the critical elements involved in the study of interior ballistics are the relationship of the weight of charge to the weight of projectile; the length of bore; the optimum size, shape, and density of the propellant grains for different guns; and the related problems of maximum and minimum muzzle pressures.
Related Terms in Interior Ballistics
1. Action – term referring to the mechanism of a firearm. 2. Burning Rate - An arbitrary index of the quickness that burning propellant changes into gas. Burning rate is controlled by the chemical composition, the size and shape of the propellant grains, and the pressure at which the burning takes place. IMR 5010 powder is very slow burning and Bulls eye is fast burning. 3. Bulk Density - The ratio of the weight of a given volume of powder vs. the weight of the same volume of water. 4. Chamber Pressure – the pressure generated within the chamber erroneously called breeched pressure. 5. Charge Weight to Bullet Weight ratio - This is the ratio of the weight of the powder charge to the weight of the projectile. 6. Detonation – Chemical rearrangement of molecules into gas instead of solids to cause the high explosives to exert full power of shock. The speed of detonation varies in different explosive but in some it is as high as 7000 yards in a second. 7. Energy - is measured in foot-pounds, and one foot-pound means that amount of energy, which would be capable of lifting a weight of one pound through a distance of one foot Drop-Block Action - That type of action in which the breechblock rises and forces vertically in cuts in the receiver side walls. Lever actuated as a rule. 8. Expansion Ratio - The ratio of the capacity of the powder chamber plus bore (in grains of water) to the capacity of the powder chamber (in grains of water). 9. Foot – Pound - the amount of work required to raise one pound one foot high against the force of gravity. 10. Foot second - velocity expressed in foot per second. 11. Gas - a fluid resulting from the combustion of gun powder with a relatively great expansion and spontaneous tendency. 12. Hangfire - Occurs when a cartridge fails to explode on time or delayed in firing. 13. Knocking Power - the power of the bullet which delivers a very heavy paralyzing blow that put the victim down and may then recover if the wound inflicted upon is not fatal.
14. Loading Density - The ratio of the weight of the powder charge to the capacity of the powder chamber (case). It is usually expressed as the ratio of the charge weight to the capacity the powder chamber in grains of water. (See below.) Generally, the more fully
the powder charge fills the case the more consistent and accurate the load will be. On the other hand if the loading density is too low, (too much free space in the case) it can cause erratic ignition, change in the pressure curve (moving the peak towards the muzzle), or even overly rapid burning ("detonation") of the powder charge. (One reason manuals list minimum or starting loads.) 15. Misfire – total failure of a cartridge to discharge. This is different from hang fire which merely a delayed combustion, while misfire a complete failure eve to start combustion. 16. Powder Chamber Capacity - As with most interior ballistics capacity measurements it is usually expressed in grains of water. It is determined by measuring the weight of water that a fired case from the test firearm can contain with a bullet seated to its normal depth. Note that this varies with different bullets or seating depth as well as the dimensions of the chamber, and the brand of case. 17. Pressure – Outward push of gases from powder combustion against cartridge case, chamber and bore. 18. Sectional Density - The ratio of the bullet's weight (in pounds) to its diameter. 19. PSI - Pounds per square inch. It is often seen designated as PSIA. This designation is now used to signify a measurement of chamber pressure taken with a piezo-electric device. Piezo-electric units operate in a similar fashion to the copper crusher units but use a reusable crystal "crusher" that changes its electrical properties in response to pressure. When connected to suitable recording equipment the entire pressure pulse history can be recorded or displayed. The peak pressure recorded by a piezo-electric peak device usually reads about 5,000 psi higher than the figure determined by the copper crusher method. 20. Recoil – the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward movement of the bullet during the explosions. 21. Residual Pressure – the pressure remaining in the chamber after the bullet has left the barrel.
EXTERIOR BALLISTICS
Exterior Ballistics deals with the motion of projectiles from the time they leave the muzzle of the firearm to the time they hit the target. The flight of most bullet or projectile does not exceed 30 seconds at maximum range, which for almost any firearms is obtained at an elevation of about 33.
CONDITIONS - refers to the natural laws. a. velocity - speed per unit of time ex. M16 - 3,300 ft/sec. b. energy - fatal equivalent of a bullet. c. yaw - the unstable rotating motion of a bullet. d. gyroscopic action - refers to the stillness of its rotating motion and attained its highest momentum or stability in flight and penetrating power.
In exterior ballistics, elements such as shape, caliber, weight, initial velocities, rotation, air resistance, and gravity help determine the path of a projectile from the time it leaves the gun until it reaches the target.
Further, exterior (external) ballistics refers to the attributes and movements of the bullet after it has left the gun muzzle. It includes:
1. Muzzle blast - the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun due to the sudden escape of the expanding gas coming in contact with the air in the surrounding atmosphere at the muzzle point. 2. Muzzle energy - energy generated at the muzzle point. 3. Trajectory - the actual curved path of the bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to the target. The following are the kinds of trajectory: straight horizontal line - parabola- like flight - vertical drop 4. Range - the straight distance between the muzzle point and the target. a. Accurate (effective) range - the distance within the shooter has control of his shots, meaning he can place his shots at the desired spots. b. Maximum range - the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm.
* While the range at which the ordinary pistol and revolver are supposed to be effective in only 50-70 yards, all of them can send their bullets much further than that and are capable of inflicting fatal wounds at distances up to one mile , depending on the caliber and gunpowder content.
5. Velocity - rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time.
Long barrel rifle – up to 3,000 yards accurate range and its hinge muzzle velocity of 1000-4000 ft./sec.
* Bullets from rifled weapons spin at 2000-3000 revolutions per second , but over the first few yards of trajectory – distance varies with the weapon – their flight is slightly unstable; the end of the projectile wobbles before it picks up a smooth flight path. This phenomenon is called “TAILWAG”, and is of considerable important in evaluating gunshot wounds. A bullet with “tailwag” does not strike its target clearly.
6. Air resistance - resistance encountered by the bullet while in flight. 7. Pull of gravity - downward reaction of the bullet while in flight. 8. Penetration - depth of entry on target.
Note on the following Contributors:
1. 1707 - Cassini. Suggested measuring of firearms muzzle velocity
2. 1857 – Monsieur Noiles. Published a thesis titled ‘Les Plaies Feu Courtes’. His thesis dealt with the subject of wounds made by small firearms. 3. 1748 - Henry Shrapnel. He invented the shrapnel, which disperse its load of case shot with a small bursting charge, increasing the effective range of case. 4. 1898 – Mr. Corin in Paris, France. Published an article titled “La Determination de La Distance a’Laguelle un Coup de Feu a e’te’ Tire” (Determination of the distance at which a shot has been discharged from a firearm). 5. 1900 – Dr. Albert Llewellyn Hal in Buffalo, New York (USA). A very significant article entitled “The Missile and the Weapon” was published in the June issue of the Buffalo Medical Journal. 6. 1903 – Mr. E.J. Churchill in London, England (uncle of Robert Churchill of later fame as a firearms examiner for the United Kingdom). He provided testimony as to some experimentation that he had performed involving the distance of which a shot had been fired into a human skull. 7. 1900 - Dr. Albert Llewellyn. He wrote an article entitled “The Missile and the Weapon”, which dealt with a variety of issues to include how measurement of land and groove markings are made on bullets. He also discussed the examination of gunpowder residues in barrels of firearms and the changes that take place over time after the weapon is fired. 8. 1921 - Mr. Jorge T. Filho. He published an article entitled “Estimation of Distance from which a Bullet was Fired” (“Da Diagnose da Distance nos Tiros de Projecteis Multiplos Chumbo de Caca”). 9. Emile Monnin Chamot. He authored a 61-paged monograph entitled “The Microscopy of Small Arms Primers”.
Note on the following Terms in Exterior Ballistics:
1. Accuracy Range – The maximum distance at which a particular gun and cartridges will consistently place all shots in the standard target for that distance. 2. Accurate Range – The distance within which the shooter has control of his shots. 3. Back Curve - This is that portion of the bullets trajectory that drops below the critical zone beyond the point blank range. Past this point the trajectory begins to drop off very rapidly with range and the point of impact becomes very difficult to estimate. 4. Ballistic Coefficient – The means that the bullet may lose its speed very rapidly during its flight the air. This is a number that relates to the effect of air drag on the bullet's flight and which can be used to later predict a bullet's trajectory under different circumstances through what are called "drag tables." 5. Bullet Energy – the power possessed by a moving bullet, or in other words, its ability to keep going when it meets an obstacle and to do work on the obstacle is immense importance, for obviously the more power a bullet has an the harder it is to stop the more effective it can be as a weapon 6. Bullet Trajectory - This is the bullet's path as it travels down range. It is parabolic in shape and because the line of the bore is below the line of sight at the muzzle and angled upward, the bullet's path crosses the line of sight at two locations.
7. Critical Zone - This is the area of the bullet's path where it neither rises nor falls greater than the dimension specified. Most shooters set this as ± 3" to 4" from the line of sight, although other dimensions are sometimes used. The measurement is usually based on one-half of the vital zone of the usual target. Typical vital zones diameters are often given as: 3" to 4" for small game, and 6" to 8" for big game and anti-personnel use. 8. Drift - is the curve taken by the bullet while in flight. A right hand rifling curves to the right while that of the left and rifling curves to the left. 9. Effective Range - The maximum distance at which a bullet may reasonably be expected to travel accurately and kill a particular type of live targe 10. Extreme Range – The greatest distance the bullet will travel when the cartridge is fired. 11. Flat Trajectory - A comparative term used to indicate very little curvature in the flight in the bullet from muzzle to point of impact. When the velocity is high, comparatively flat trajectory. 12. Gallery Range - The indoor target range. National rifle association of America, gallery rules required stance from firing point to target of 50 feet or 75 feet for.22 rim fire riffle; 50 feet or 60 feet for .22rim-fire pistols. On properly constructed indoor ranges, firing may be conducted with center fire pistol and revolvers at ranges of 25 yards and 50 yards. Such installation are generally referred to as “indoor range” the term “gallery” being applied usually only to the short range .22 caliber installation. 13. Gallery Range - The indoor target range. National rifle association of America, gallery rules required stance from firing point to target of 50 feet or 75 feet for.22 rim fire riffle; 50 feet or 60 feet for .22rim-fire pistols. On properly constructed indoor ranges, firing may be conducted with center fire pistol and revolvers at ranges of 25 yards and 50 yards. Such installation are generally referred to as “indoor range” the term “gallery” being applied usually only to the short range .22 caliber installation. 14. Initial Point - The range at which the bullet's trajectory first crosses the line of sight. This is normally occurs at a range of about 25 yards. 15. Instrument Velocity - the velocity of a projectile measured by the scientific instrument called chronograph, at a specified point on its trajectory. Always lower than the muzzle velocity. 16. Key-hole Shot – the tumbling of the bullet in its flight and hitting the target sideways as a result of not spinning on its axis.
17. Maximum Point Blank Range - This is the farthest distance at which the bullet's path stays within the critical zone. In other words the maximum range at which you don't have to adjust your point of aim to hit the target's vital zone. Unless there is some over riding reason to the contrary shots should not generally be attempted much past this distance. In the words of the Guru, "It is unethical to attempt to take game beyond 300 meters." If you do, you should write yourself a letter explaining why it was necessary to
do so. An approximate rule of thumb says that the maximum point blank range is approximately your zero range plus 40 yards. 18. Maximum Range – the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm. 19. Maximum Ordinate - This is the maximum height of the projectile's path above the line of sight for a given point of impact and occurs somewhat past the halfway point to the zero range and it is determined by your zeroing range. 20. Mid-range Trajectory - This is the height of the bullets path above the line of sight at half way to the zero range. It does not occur at the same range as the maximum ordinate height which can be greater. 21. Minute of Angle (MOA) - A "minute" of angle is 1/60 of a degree which for all practical purposes equates to 1 inch per 100 yards of range. Thus 1 MOA at 100 yards is 1 inch and at 300 yards it is 3 inches. The term is commonly used to express the accuracy potential of a firearm. 22. Point Blank Range – Popularly used to indicate the distance the bullet will travel before it drops enough to require sight adjustment. A short fired so closed to the target that no sighting is necessary for effective aiming. 23. Ricochet – The bouncing off or deflection of a bullet from its original trajectory (normal path) after striking a resistant surface. 24. Shocking Power – the power of the bullet that results in the instantaneous death of the victim. 25. Stopping Power – the power of the bullet that put the victim out of action instantly. So it should be understood that stopping power is not necessarily the same thing as killing power. However, stopping power depends very largely on the location of the sot. 26. Target – an object at which the firearm is aimed and discharged. 27. True Drop – the actual distance the bullet falls during the time of flight to the target. This is not the same as what we speak of when we discuss drop in the ordinary sense, which is more properly termed effective or apparent drop 28. Zero Range - This is the farthest distance at which the line of sight and the bullet's path intersect.
TERMINAL BALLISTICS
It is the study dealing with the effect of the impact of the bullet on the target. Penetration of the bullet is of prime interest. Penetration is important also in determining safety requirements for target backstops. They are important to both sportsman and military.
TERMINAL BALLISTICS involves:
1. Terminal accuracy - size of the bullet grouping on the target.
2. Terminal energy - energy of the projectile when it strikes the target. Also known as striking energy. 3. Terminal penetration - depth of entry of the bullet in the target. 4. Terminal velocity - speed of the bullet upon striking the target.
Terminal ballistics also deals with the destructive actions and effects that occur at the end of the projectile's flight as an integral and un-deformed body. The flight may end in one of two ways:
1. the projectile may strike a solid obstruction, or 2. its metal case may be broken by the explosion of a bursting charge
SHOTS BALLISTICS - deals with the attributes and properties of shots and pellets.
CHOKE - When the diameter of a barrel of a shotgun is the same throughout the bore, it is called true cylinder .
The bore of the gun is sometimes constricted near the muzzle end. That is, the diameter near the muzzle end is slightly smaller than the diameter of the bore of the rest of the barrel. The barrel is said to be choked.
Full – if reduced by one mm; half if reduced by one-half mm; quarter if reduced by ¼ mm; and improved cylinder if reduced by about 1/10 mm.
The amount of spread in the shot is controlled by the choke. If a barrel will put 70 percent of its shot charge in a 30-inch (76-centimeter) circle at 40 yards (37 meters), it is called full choke. Modified choke will deliver about 60 percent; improved cylinder about 50 percent. A full choke 12-gauge gun will kill ducks that are about 60 to 65 yards (55 to 59 meters) away.
Chilled Shot – shotgun pellets made from lead especially hardened by the addition of a slight amt. of antimony.
WOUND BALLISTICS – It is the study of the effects of projectile to human body .
Gunshot Wound (GSW). It is an open wound produced by the penetration of bullet slug within the tissues of the body. The bullet which was propelled from the gun as well as the flame from the heated expanded gases in short range fire is the one that produces injury.
Three Basic Kinds of GSW Distinguished by the Proximity of the Weapon
1. Contact – gun muzzle pressed against, or within an inch or two, of the body. 2. Close discharge – 6 inches to 2 ft. 3. Distance Discharge – over 2 ft. or 3 ft.
Range of Fire - an important aspect of forensic ballistics.
1. Muzzle Pattern – indicates contact wound and are often observed in suicide cases. The whole charge (projectile, wads, if any, smoke, unburnt or semi-burnt powder particles and hot gases) enter into the target. No burning, blackening and tattooing are observed. Instead, they are observed inside the hole through careful examination. The edges are found ragged (torn in star shape) and the wound is like an exit wound. 2. Scorching – caused by the flame or hot gases not by the hot projectiles as is commonly believed. It is also known as burning or charring. 3. Blackening – caused by the deposition of smoke particles by all types of powders at close ranges. Being light particles, they soon lose their velocity and get deposited on any material available in the path. 4. Tattooing (a.k.a. peppering) – caused by the embedding of unburnt and semi-burnt powder particles into the surface of the target. These particles are slightly heavier than the smoke particles. They retain motion to somewhat longer intervals and consequently cause tattooing to a distance of about one and a-half times blackening range.
Other GSW Characteristics
1. Pink Coloration – caused by absorbed carbon monoxide in the skin and flesh. 2. Dirt Ring – deposited by some projectile (which carry greases on them) around the wound. Existence of this indicates the entrance side of a firearm injury & does not indicate range. 3. Contusion – caused by the impact of the projectile (reddish dark to bluish black - varies somewhat with the age of the injury). It takes the form of a belt around the wound. It is of uniform in thickness. 4. Foreign Materials – Their presence not only permits the identification of the firearms injury but they also permit a fairly reliable guess of firearm.
Factors influencing entrance and exit gunshot wounds
1. Kind of weapon - The higher power the weapon is the more destructive to the tissues of the body. 2. Caliber of the weapon - The higher the caliber of the wounding bullet, the greater will be the size of the wound of entrance, hence, greater destruction to the tissues. 3. Shape and composition of the missile - The conical shape free end of the bullet slug has more penetrating power but less tissue destruction, while bullet slug with hemispherical free end had less penetrating but more destruction to the tissues.
* Some bullets were made to be deformed upon heating the target like the hallow point, dum-dum and soft point bullet. Bullets made of hard metals like the magnum 44 and the armor-piercing bullet are not usually deformed upon hitting the
target. Other bullets and the fragments may cause further injury to the body. The tracer bullet is in flame during its flight to the air and may caused burn upon hitting the body and this bullet is also used in targeting the low flying airplane.
4. Range of fire - the injury is not only due to the missile but also due to the pressure of the heated expanded gases, flame and articles of gunpowder. However, in long range fire, the characteristic effect of the bullet alone will produce the injury. 5. Direction of fire - A right angle approach of the bullet to the body will produce a round shape wound of entrance in short distance fire, while in acute angle of approach the bullet will produce an oval shape wound of entrance with contusion collar widest on the side of the acute angle of approach and a tendency for the bullet to deflect to another direction upon hitting the target. 6. Part of the body involved - When the bullet hit the soft tissues of the body; the bullet penetrates and usually without any change in direction, however upon hitting the bones and other hard body structures the bullet may fracture the bones causing further injury or may deflect to another direction.
Studies involving Terminal and Wound Ballistics