SOME ASPECTS OF THE ECOLOGY & SUSTAINABLE UTILIZATION OF THE WORM

Gonimbrasia belina Phane (Tswana) Amacimbi (Indebele) Masonja (Venda) Madora (Shona) Mopane Worms

Alan Gardiner (SAWC) Hendrik Sitole (SANParks) Richard Sowry (SANParks) Stephen Midzi (SANParks) National image 15ºS

Main hostplants

Distribution: G. belina Colophospermum mopane Colophospermum mopane Brachystegia / Ozoroa spp.

Sclerocarya birrea belina brachypetala / Acacia karroo Economics local scale

• In MW areas most households harvest. • Large quantities e.g. two villages S.W. 3t (1.66 million MW’s). • Zimbabwe 36 - 217kg dry mass/household R500- 3300/household. • 75 - 350kg dry mass/household P975- 4550/household. • KNP study R612-858 per household (L. Swemmer this conf.) • Income. • Family nutrition. Broader economic scale

• Botswana 1992 export worth P2.2m (Ditlhogo 1996) • Botswana 1994 export 980 tonnes to SA worth P5.3m (Taylor 2000) • Botswana industry estimated to be worth P18.9million employing 10 000 people (Taylor 2000) • Styles (1996) estimated the potential for MW production in SA to be R741million Dry frass/dung produced/ha Egg Kg dry Location density/ha frass/ha Selibwe Pikwe (Ditlhogo 1960) 21600 Messina (Styles 1996) 171 (1st) Punda Maria (OTS 2010) 25180 49 (2nd) Mapungubwe (OTS 2011) 55255 99 (2nd) Elephant KNP Total 2012 28 (yr)

In 4000ha near Messina Mopane Worms consumed 13 times more leaf matter in 6 weeks than elephants, at KNP density, in 12 months (Styles 1996). Factors influencing Mopane worm population

• Host plant(s) (Mopane • Geology & tree) Topography • Parasites • Climatic conditions • Predators • Disease Egg parasitoids

Higher second generation Mortality variable 0-90%

e.g. Mesocomys pulchriceps Parasitoid: Chalcid

Mortality can be high but local e.g. 33, 57, 100% (Ditlhogo 1996) Disease Bacteria Virus nuclear polyhedrosis virus Iridovirus Mortality variable 3.7% R. Knell unpub. 100% Parasite: Ichneumonid

Mortality low 0-10% Predators

Mortality variable up to 100% but predators can get saturated Abiotic Factors

Outbreak conditions Emergence Rainfall

Emergence of G. belina over one season Emergence & survival of pupae over a two year period Future direction within KNP & neighbouring land

• Further understanding on the ecological significance of MW’s • Tracking MW population levels • Mapping outbreak areas • Relating results to conditions, especially amount & timing of rainfall

• Developing a harvesting stratergy “model” – Dynamic (suitable to certain groups of people) – Key measurables – Management depends on political, economic and ecological decisions

Acknowledgements M. Mushongohande P. Frost T. Gondo J. Stack F. Taylor W. Kozanayi OTS team R. Oberprieler

Gynanisa maja Large Mammal herbivores

Mopane woodland/savanna Gonometa rufrobrunea (Colophospermum mopane)

At least 143 articles

At least 9 dissertations: Porter, R.N. 1968 Wood source Eyles, P.A. 1971 Henning, A.C. 1976 Kelly,R.D. 1975 Dye, P.J. 1977 Madams, R.W. 1990 Ditlhogo, M.K. 1996 Du Plessis, 2001 De Nagy Koves Hrabar, H, Mopane psylla 2006 Mopane Worm Farming

Tying Eggs Egg Protection Larval Protection Moving Larvae Bird Deterrents Pupation pit Removal of Hatching Post Harvest Preparation Squeezing

Cooking

Traditional Drying Solar Drying Traditional Roasting Quick Roasting Storage: Sterilization

• 5-6 months Content % by dry weight g/100g

• Moisture 7.31 • Ash 9.28 • Proteins 59.03 (Biltong 55.4; Beef cooked 22.6) • Carbohydrates 8.16 • Fats 15.7 • Potassium 0.581 • Sodium 0.516 • Phosphorus 0.0169 • Iron 0.2992 • Calcium 0.0199 • Calories (KJg-1) 24.21

Amino Acid Adequacy (amount g/100g)

• Amino acid amount Infants School Adults • Histidine 2.92 a a a • Threonine 4.60 a a a • Valine 4.07 Low a a • Methionine 3.13 L OK a a • Isoleucine 3.02 L a a • Leucine 5.03 L a a • Phenylalanine 10.3 a a a • Tyrosine • Lysine 4.72 L a a • Tryptophan 1.10 L ina ina

Male Female (Two Generations/yr) Indication of Ecological Importance

• Styles 1996 • Messina 4000ha area first generation consumed 855 tonnes dry mass; 684 tonnes dry mass frass (dung). • Elephants in same are; MW’s consume 13 times more leaf matter in 6 weeks than elephants in 12 months and 8 times more dung.

Male Female We would like to acknowledge inputs from the following people:

Member Mushongohande Peter Frost Tendayi Gondo Jayne Stack Frank Taylor Witness Kozanayi OTS team Rolf Oberprieler

Illgner & Nel 2000 Mopane Worm (Imbrasia belina) Life Cycle

Male Female Egg Cluster 1st Instar 2nd Instar 3rd & 4th Instar 5th Instar Burrowing Pupation