Issue 1 Spring 2013

hallenging Religious Issues

Jeff Astley on Evolution and Creation

Leslie J Francis on Researching Religious Experience

tephen Parker on Christian exual Ethics

William K Kay on Neo-Pentecostalism and ecularisation

upporting A-level Religious tudies. The t Mary’s and t Giles’ Centre hallenging Religious Issues Supporting Religious Studies at A-level and beyond Issue 1 Spring 2013 ontents volution and Creation Professor Jeff Astley 2 Rsearching Religious xperience in : The Alister Hardy Project Professor Leslie J. Francis 8 Christian Sexual thics: Homosexuality and Marriage Dr Stephen Parker 14 The Growth of Neo-Pentecostalism in Britain: A Critique of Secularisation Professor William K. Kay 19

Editor 3URIHVVRU-HII$VWOH\ *O\QGǒU8QLYHUVLW\ Managing Editor 'U7DQLDDS6L{Q *O\QGǒU8QLYHUVLW\7KH6W0DU\¶VDQG6W*LOHV¶&HQWUH Editorial Advisors Professor Leslie J. Francis (University of Warwick) Libby Jones (The St Giles’ Centre, Wrexham) 3URIHVVRU'DYLG/DQNVKHDU *O\QGǒU8QLYHUVLW\ 3URIHVVRU:LOOLDP..D\ *O\QGǒU8QLYHUVLW\ Phil Lord (System leader, Gw) Professor Peter Neil (Bishop Grosseteste University) Dr Stephen Parker (University of Worcester) -HQQ\5ROSK *O\QGǒU8QLYHUVLW\ 'U3DXO5ROSK *O\QGǒU8QLYHUVLW\ Mary Stallard (The St Giles’ Centre, Wrexham) 7KH5LJKW5HYG'DYLG:DONHU *O\QGǒU8QLYHUVLW\ 3URIHVVRU0LFKDHO:HVW *O\QGǒU8QLYHUVLW\ Design: Phillip Vernon hallenging Religious Issues The St Mary’s and St Giles’ Centre Llys Onnen Abergwyngregyn Gwynedd LL33 0LD Telephone: 01248 680131 -mail: [email protected] Website: www.st-marys-centre.org.uk

Sponsored by the Welsh Government Challenging Religious Issues St Mary’s and St Giles’ Centre Issue 1 Spring 2013 ISSN © Jeff Astley

Evolution and reation Jeff Astley The article describes two elements in the doctrine of creation, arguing that continuous creation is compatible with any scientific theory. The claims of evolution are described, along with the theological responses of deism, evolutionary theism, intelligent design and creationism. riticisms of intelligent design are noted. Specification link: WJE RS3 PHIL: Studies in Philosophy of Religion (A2), 3. Is religious faith compatible with scientific evidence?

reation defunct ‘steady state’ theory of Fred The doctrine of creation asserts that all Hoyle, which was a scientific matter, energy and the laws of their cosmological theory, this religious and interaction were once brought into being metaphysical view does not imply a by God, long ago. But a doctrine that series of separate new acts of bringing- restricts creation to a past event into-existence. Rather, it refers to ‘the (‘making-creation’) is a radical form of incessant act by which [God] preserves deism: ‘an understanding of God as an the world in existence’ (Mascall, 1956, p. absentee landlord . . . [or] retired 132). (If God exists ‘outside time’ this is a potentate’, who made the world but does timeless act from God’s standpoint.) It not sustain it (McGrath, 2001, p. 184). implies that all realities other than God More significant is the idea of are and always will be dependent on ‘preserving-creation’, which implies that God for their continued existence. without God everything would be The universe is not to be thought of, reduced again to nothing: ‘the world therefore, as analogous to a mechanical exists just so long as God wills it to, clock which can continue without its since its existence depends on his will as clockmaker (as in deism). It is more like on its cause’ (Aquinas, 1967, vol. 8, an electric clock that needs continued pp. 69–71). contact with its power source; or a baby This second aspect of creation is kept in existence within its mother’s sometimes called ‘continuous (or womb, as in the image of God as a continuing) creation’. Unlike the now- pregnant female who ‘creates a world

Challenging Religious Issues, Issue 1, Spring 2013 2 Evolution and reation that is, in principle and in origin, other Theological responses than him/herself, but creates it, the world, volutionary theism (theistic within him/herself’ (Peacocke, 1979, evolution) 2004, p. 142). This is the view of most mainstream If the doctrine of creation speaks of the Christians and academic theologians that continuing dependence of Nature on evolution is the way God makes new God, rather than just its ultimate origin types of living thing ‘through evolution’, (and is not another, competing scientific having designed the processes of Nature explanation even there), it can – including mutation and natural selection accommodate almost any science. When – so that God ‘makes things make science proposes an account of the themselves’. development of the physical universe or The account may take different forms. of biological life, the believer may always Theism goes beyond the extreme deistic agree but add ‘and God sustains all this’. view that God’s role is limited to initiating a creation that eventually gives rise to Evolutionary claims evolving living things, by claiming that The evolutionary perspective is key to all God both originates and continues to aspects of the life sciences today. uphold the evolutionary process. Theodosius Dobzhansky claimed that Many theists understand Nature to nothing in biology makes sense ‘except have an open structure that also allows in the light of evolution’. Biologists widely the creator to influence, in a way that is endorse the proposal by Charles Darwin undetectable to science, the largely and Alfred R. Wallace that the natural unpredictable or even wholly selection of chance variations is the main indeterminate events that lead to genetic process that explains the adaptation of mutation (perhaps at the subatomic living things to their environments. level) and/or the selection pressures The evidence for evolution includes the exerted by the environment. On this view, sequence of fossilised remains, including God does not intervene in creation by ‘missing links’, discovered within suspending his own laws, but geological strata; together with providentially steers the course of comparative studies of the similarities of evolution in one way rather than another present-day living things to one another – but always within the range of natural in their early development, anatomy and outcomes that are possible within Nature biochemistry (DNA), and the pattern of (like a rower steering her boat close to their geographical distribution. This one bank rather than the other, but still evidence is best explained by the idea of within the confines of the river’s banks). their ‘descent with modification’ from Thus Robert Russell argues that common ancestors in a single, great ‘tree adaptations are partly explained by of life’ (Darwin’s terms), rather than by God’s non-interventionist activity the account in Genesis 1 of quite influencing genetic mutation at the level separate special creations of the of quantum indeterminacy. different ‘kinds’ of creatures, and Others, however, assert that (in especially of human beings. The vast addition to God’s initial and sustaining age of the earth and of life makes creative acts, and God’s providential massive but gradual evolutionary activity) God may also intervene in changes possible. evolution, performing miracles that are

Challenging Religious Issues, Issue 1, Spring 2013 3 Evolution and reation outside the limits of the laws of Nature earth is only 6,000 to 10,000 (rather than (like a rower dragging her boat out of the 4.5 billion) years old. On this view, fossils river and across dry land). For example, of extinct species are mainly explained God might have introduced entirely new as victims of the worldwide biblical flood, elements within the evolution of which they date about 4,000 years ago. human beings. ‘Old-earth’ creationists, by contrast, , however, denies any acknowledge the findings of modern ‘kind of special guidance . . . whereby geology but retain a revised account of God pushes or pulls evolution in a the Genesis story of special creation. direction it would not otherwise have Some propose a long ‘gap’ (unrecorded taken by its own natural processes and period) within the biblical creation propensities’ (Peacocke, 2001, p. 75). sequence; others adopt the ‘day-age system’ of interpreting the days Creationism of creation as geological Creationists reject, either wholly or in (or astronomical) ages. large part, the claim that all living things have evolved from earlier forms of life. Intelligent design (ID) They are most concerned with creation in Although frequently described as terms of origins, and retain the biblical ‘creationist’ or ‘neocreationist’, the account of a special creation (at least of exponents of this more moderate the different ‘kinds’ of creatures and of position often accept that evolution human beings, as in Genesis 1:11-12, (sometimes even human evolution) does 20-27). take place, parts of it by means of natural ‘Creation science’ claims scientific selection. They insist, however, that the grounds for challenging evolution, but intervention of conscious design is scientists themselves dismiss this required because natural processes literature as ideology and polemic rather cannot be the complete explanation of all than scientific argument. Creationism is the adaptations of living things. most common among those who view Michael Behe argues that many their Scriptures as wholly inerrant organic phenomena show irreducible (without error). complexity. As these biochemical The most extreme creationists reject all mechanisms or ‘molecular machines’ are evolution as an unproven, and made up of interacting components each sometimes as a disproved hypothesis. of which is needed for the functioning of Others only reject claims about the the whole, their complexity is impossible ‘macroevolution’ of all life from a common to explain by its being gradually built up ancestor and especially between biblical over generations through a series of ‘kinds’ of living things (for example, successive slight modifications. The reptiles evolving into birds), while argument is that the structure or process allowing that small-scale ‘microevolution’ will only work (and therefore be selected may take place (for example, the for) when all its parts are in place: evolution of bacteria resistant to otherwise it would be like a mousetrap antibiotics, as susceptible varieties are that lacks a hammer or spring. Behe’s killed off before they can multiply, while examples of such systems include the resistant strains breed unhindered). whip-like flagellum of bacteria and the ‘Young-earth’ creationists hold that the blood clotting ‘cascade’.

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Critics respond that ‘no Darwinian by chance, but also being located in the would deny that in organisms there are same region of the cell by chance and parts which, if removed, would lead at being assembled in the right order by once to the malfunctioning . . . of the chance. On these assumptions, the systems in which they occur. The point is evolution of even simple cell structures is . . . whether [the parts] could have been just too unlikely. But evolutionary theory put in place by natural selection’ (Ruse, also involves the anti-chance element of 2003, p. 320). Further, the bacterial natural selection, and assumes a flagellum can in some cases lose parts cumulative process in which the results and still function, and the blood-clotting of one selection process forms the basis cascade in dolphins still works though it of the next, rather than ‘single-step lacks one of the standard components. selection (in which each new “try” is a Complex mechanisms in living things fresh one)’ (Dawkins, 1988, 1991, p. 49). normally evolve by amending simpler ID is dismissed by almost all biologists. mechanisms that either function less It insists that every unexplained gap in efficiently, or already perform a different evolutionary biology must be explained useful function. by a supernatural, or at least a non- William Dembski applies to biology the natural, cause. But science must always probability criterion used by forensic continue to search for natural scientists and archaeologists to identify explanations; and ‘God does not compel intelligently caused objects and events. the belief of sceptics by leaving puzzles According to Dembski, the probability of in creation which science can’t solve’ assembling an irreducibly complex (George Murphy, quoted in Dembski and system is a function of the probability of Ruse, 2004, p. 186). each of its components not only arising

Challenging Religious Issues, Issue 1, Spring 2013 5 Evolution and reation

Glossary DNA is deoxyribose nucleic acid. for existence in which those best Certain sequences of ‘base pairs’ of adapted to the prevailing conditions DNA produce a particular inherited are on average likely to survive effect, according to the rules of the longer and produce more offspring. genetic code: the association Natural selection only occurs when a between triplets of bases in DNA and population contains variations that particular amino acids that make up are inherited. proteins. This sequence constitutes a Quantum indeterminacy is the view gene, which is the unit of inheritance. that events at the subatomic level are Evolution denotes changes in not wholly determined by prior populations of living things down the natural events. generations. Sexual selection is a secondary Mutation is an inherited change mechanism of evolution, in which (variation) in genetic material, often individuals with certain features are as a result of (random) errors selected by access to (and often introduced when DNA copies itself. choice by) members of the other sex. Natural selection is the inevitable It explains phenomena such as the result of over breeding where peacock’s dazzling but resources are limited. Competition for cumbersome tail. food, territory, etc., leads to a struggle

Links http://campaigndirector.moodia.com/ http://www.talkorigins.org/ (‘The Talk lient/Theos/Files/RescuingDarwin. Origins Archive’ – scientific responses pdf N., & Alexander, D., Rescuing to creationism/ID) Darwin, 2009) http://www.counterbalance.net/evoluti http://www.arn.org/authors/behe.html on/index-frame.html (‘Counterbalance (Michael Behe) Foundation’ – some more basic http://www.arn.org/authors/dembski.h accounts of the debate) tml (William Dembski) http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/ab http://www.icr.org/ (‘Institute for out/sitemap.html (‘Public Creation Research’ – promoting Broadcasting Service’ website) scientific young earth creationism)

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Discussion points 1. ‘Strictly speaking, evolution has 2. Can God be justified in leaving nothing to do with “creation” itself . . evolution to chance mutations and They are talking about different natural selection? sides of the same reality’ 3. Is intelligent design science or (Moltmann, 1985, p. 196). To what theology? extent is this true?

References Aquinas, T. (1967). Summa questions on their relations. London: Theologiae. ds T. Gilby & T.C. Longmans, Green. O’Brian. London: yre and Moltmann, J. (1985). God in creation: Spottiswoode (60 vols). An ecological doctrine of creation. Dawkins, R. (1988, 1991). The blind London: SCM Press. watchmaker. London: Penguin. Peacocke, A.R. (1979, 2004). Dembski, W.A., & Ruse, M. (ds) reation and the world of science. (2004). Debating design: From : Clarendon Press. Darwin to DNA. Cambridge: Peacocke, A.R. (2001). Paths from Cambridge University Press. science towards God: The end of all McGrath, A.. (2001). A scientific our exploring. Oxford: Oneworld. theology: Nature (vol.1). dinburgh: Ruse, M. (2003). Darwin and design: T. & T. Clark. Does evolution have a purpose? Mascall, .L. (1956). hristian Cambridge, Massachusetts and theology and natural science: Some Harvard University Press.

The Revd Professor Jeff Astley was the founding Director of the North of England Institute for hristian Education, which ran an annual study day for over 750 A level VWXGHQWVIRUPDQ\\HDUV+HLVFXUUHQWO\DQKRQRUDU\SURIHVVRULQ'XUKDP*O\QGǒU and York St John Universities. He is the author or editor of many books, including Jeff Astley, David Brown and Ann Loades (eds), reation: A Reader, London: T & T lark, 2003; Science and Religion: A Reader, London: T & T lark International, 2004.

Challenging Religious Issues, Issue 1, Spring 2013 7 Challenging Religious Issues St Mary’s and St Giles’ Centre Issue 1 Spring 2013 ISSN © Leslie J. Francis

Researching Religious Experience in hina: The Alister Hardy Project Leslie J. Francis This article describes the vision of Sir Alister Hardy in setting up the Religious Experience Research Unit (later the Alister Hardy Religious Experience Research entre), and the issues surrounding the extension of the research to hina and the claims made for it. Specification link: WJE RS1/2 PHIL: Introduction to Philosophy of Religion (AS), 4. An introduction to religious experience: Mysticism.

Sir Alister Hardy and had served as Professor of Zoology Sir Alister Hardy set going a very at the . His academic important tradition in the scientific career had been devoted to a careful investigation of religious experience, examination of the habits of marine initially through his own writings and animals. He well understood the subsequently through the legacy of the scientific merit in the collection and Religious xperience Research Unit that organisation of specimens in the world of he created in Oxford in 1969. The Unit the natural sciences. His inspiration was was subsequently re-named the Alister to transfer this methodology to the Hardy Religious xperience Research sphere of the spiritual sciences in the Centre. Hardy’s own work in the field is field of religious experience. The Alister perhaps best known through his books: Hardy archive of religious experiences The Divine Flame (1966), The Biology of had its origin in an invitation published in God (1975) and The Spiritual Nature of the British press. Hardy’s now classic Man (1979). The early work of the question simply asked: Religious xperience Research Centre Have you ever been aware of or was well displayed by the pioneering influenced by a presence or power, work of dward Robinson in studies like: whether you call it God or not, which The Original Vision (1977), This Time- is different from your everyday self? Bound Ladder (1977) and Living the Questions (1978). Accounts of religious experiences Alister Hardy had trained as a zoologist flowed in, in response to Hardy’s original

Challenging Religious Issues, Issue 1, Spring 2013 8 Religious Experience in hina invitation, and have continued to do so thinking in the right direction. A more ever since. The archive has been realistic scientific quest (and one carefully stored and managed (initially at endorsed by the Alister Hardy Religious Manchester College, Oxford, then at xperience Research Centre) is to Westminster College, Oxford, and later examine and to chart the varieties of at the University of Wales, Lampeter). religious and spiritual experience. Here is a rich resource that has allowed and continues to allow detailed Why hina? examinations of focused themes, as The study of religious experience in illustrated by Mark Fox’s studies: contemporary China provides a powerful Religion, Spirituality and the Near-Death environment in which to test the ubiquity Experience (2003), and Spiritual of religious experience and to test for Encounters with Unusual Light common core components of such Phenomena: Lightforms (2008). experience. Historically the religious One of the initial strengths of the Alister culture of China had been shared by Hardy archive is that the main body of three major traditions: Confucianism, specimens was assembled from a Daoism and Buddhism which have defined and homogeneous context, become intertwined, at least since the namely Britain. At the same time there is Tang dynasty (618-906 C), and are now a significant weakness in the sense that found alongside traditional folk religion. this very strength also limits the At points China has also been influenced generalisability of the findings. It is for by Christianity and Islam. Not only has this reason that the Alister Hardy the historic approach to religion been Religious xperience Research Centre very different in China, since 1949 China has been determined to extend St Alister has been an officially atheist country. If Hardy’s vision more widely afield. religious experience can be found The importance and implications of anywhere, surely an atheist country must extending research into religious be the least likely environment. experience in this way was underlined in There are three reasons, therefore, for 1990 by Robert Runcie, when as giving serious attention to the research Archbishop of Canterbury he launched conducted by the Alister Hardy Religious an appeal for the Research Centre. xperience Research Centre (supported He said: with significant funding by the Templeton Foundation) and reported by Xinzhong If it can be shown that there is a Yao and Paul Badham (2007) in their ‘common core’ or ‘ultimate sameness’ book, Religious Experience in to all religious experience, irrespective ontemporary hina. The first reason is of creed, race or society, this could to examine how they went about their have profound implications for the research, and the kind of difficulties they evolution of common understanding faced in studying religious experience in across many of the current barriers a context that may not be familiar with which divide people in the world. talking about religion. The second This search for a ‘common core’ or reason is to examine the kind of ‘ultimate sameness’ of religious evidence that their research uncovered. experience may turn out to be both The third reason is to examine whether illusory and unhelpful, but it does set us this specific study offers any more

Challenging Religious Issues, Issue 1, Spring 2013 9 Religious Experience in hina general insights into the nature and interviews were conducted in ten sites in meaning of religious experience. astern, Central and Western parts of China. No fewer than 110 assistants Researching religious recruited at Renmin University in China experience in hina. conducted 3,196 interviews completing a The first key issue faced by the research detailed 24-page questionnaire group concerned the problem of in Chinese. language. Translated into Chinese, the term ‘religious experience’ gains little Finding religious recognition outside Christian or experience in hina academic circles. However, failure to Two headline findings emerged from the recognise the language does not imply interviews. The first headline finding is absence of the range of experiences to this: if self-assigned religious affiliation is which that language applies. Indeed taken as a marker of religiosity, the experiences that we might interpret or Chinese emerge as an irreligious people. classify as being of a religious nature The second headline finding is somewhat have been a clear part of historic different: if we listen to their religious Chinese culture, where scholars and experience and to their religious writers have referred to the importance practices, the Chinese appear to be far and to the effects of ‘seeing’, ‘feeling’, from an irreligious people. For example, ‘knowing’, ‘hearing’ or ‘dreaming’ of a while only 4% of the Han Chinese would power that transcended themselves. describe themselves as Buddhists, 27% Consequently questions needed to be had prayed to the Buddha or to one of framed in ways that Chinese people can the Bodhisattvas in the past year, and recognise, and yet remain consistent 18% acknowledged the influence or with Hardy’s view that religious control of the Buddha or one of the experience is associated with awareness Bodhisattvas in their lives. While only 5% of ‘a power or presence different from said that they believed in reincarnation, everyday self.’ For this reason the first when speaking about their own year of the four-year China project experience 51% of the Han Chinese felt concentrated on indigenising the that their spouse, their relatives and their questionnaire and testing responses to friends all resulted from what they had different ways of posing questions. The done in a previous life. complexity of what was being Only 9% of the Han Chinese describe undertaken is illustrated by the fact that themselves as religious. However, the survey instrument went through nine speaking about their own experience: editions before the final version Ɣ 29% say that they feel comforted or was agreed. empowered through prayer and The second lesson learned from the worship; time spent carefully developing and testing the research method concerned Ɣ 46% believe that they have been the importance of conducting the influenced or controlled by the God research by means of long in-depth of Fortune; interviews conducted by trained research Ɣ 44% agree that life and death assistants. Once the questions and the depend on the Will of methodology had been refined, the Heaven;

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Ɣ 41% agree that we must do our Not all of the reported experiences fitted best to glorify God/Lord of these six main categories, however, Heaven/Buddha/our ancestors. leading Yao and Badham (2007, p. 33) to define a seventh category as follows: It was, however, the Chinese version of the classic Alister Hardy question that Ɣ others, as a broad category for all generated the most interesting and most that are not or cannot be included revealing findings. In the Chinese survey in the other six. the question took the following form: Nature and meaning of Some people have experienced that religious experience they were once and/or are frequently Yao and Badham’s study of Religious influenced by a kind of power that Experience in ontemporary hina is ordinary people cannot control or part of a significant scientific endeavour, explain clearly. Have you ever had inspired by Sir Alister Hardy, to collect, such an experience? analyse and interpret accounts of An experience of this nature was in fact religious and spiritual experiences reported by 57% of those who across the globe. Much of this research participated in the study. has been carried out in the tradition of Yao and Badham (2007, pp. 32-33) the zoologist whose concern is to map argue that in a Han Chinese context, the varieties and characteristics of the religious experience is typically reflected specimens observed. Such research in six main categories, which they provides the essential platform on which characterise as follows: scientific enquiry can be based and on which knowledge can be built. Ɣ experiencing the influence or At the same time, however, caution control of a spiritual being has to be exercised concerning the kind or power; of claims that can be formulated on the Ɣ experiencing a new understanding basis of these kinds of data. Do accounts that has caused a change to the of religious experience really allow way of life; anything to be said about the truth claims Ɣ having a dream that is made by religious traditions, or even extraordinary but is believed to about the purposes that such be true; experiences play in human life? Ɣ having a mysterious feeling such Reflecting on these wider issues in a as hearing, seeing, smelling or paper that draws not only on the China being touched; project but also on similar projects Ɣ having a visionary experience conducted in Turkey, Tamilnadu and either alone or together Taiwan, Professor Paul Badham (2011) with others; makes two interesting claims. Badham’s first claim is: Ɣ experiencing union with the universe, in which one has What these various figures suggest forgotten the existence of one’s is that a capacity for religious self and become one body with experience is part of humankind’s the universe. evolutionary heritage and represents

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a common human response to Two aspects of this second claim are transcendent reality. As such the worth further interrogation. What kind of experiences are likely to be broadly intellectual activity is involved in moving similar across different from the description of religious cultures. (p. 26) experience, to ascribing the observed experience to the activity of a personal Two aspects of this first claim are worth deity or of an impersonal force? Does further interrogation. What is meant by the careful scientific examination of ‘evolutionary heritage’? Is there any real religious experience really rule out any evidence that the capacity for religious exclusivist claim on behalf of any experience carries evolutionary one religion? advantage (as the notion suggests)? And The Hardy research tradition is what is meant by ‘broadly similar’, and concerned primarily with the collection, how has this been established? description, and organisation of the Badham’s second claim is: varieties of religious experiences. There One cannot pass from seeing a are other research traditions concerned commonality in experience to with the social scientific study of religious asserting a commonality in belief. To experience, drawing on sociological and claim that the ultimate reality is a psychological methods, that set out to personal deity is to assert something ask other kinds of questions concerning different from the claim that the the correlates, causes and ultimate reality is an impersonal force consequences of religious experience. . . . I suggest that to take seriously the These perspectives are discussed, for reality of human religious experience example, by Miles (2007). Different rules out any exclusivist claim on traditions make different contributions behalf of any one religion. (p. 20) to knowledge.

Postscript Much nearer to home the St Mary’s from you. All contributions are Centre has been researching anonymous and completely religious and spiritual experience confidential. To find out more please among young people. If you would go to http://www.st-marys-centre.org. like to contribute to our growing uk/research/Onlinesurveys.html. archive we would really like to hear

Glossary Exclusivism is the claim that only one particular religion or belief system is true (or leads to salvation).

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Discussion points 1. Have you ever been aware of or 4. Does the scientific investigation of influenced by a presence or power, religious experience really allow whether you call it God or not, anything to be said about the truth which is different from your claims of religion? everyday self? 5. Does the scientific investigation of 2. What would you say counts as a religious experience rule out any ‘religious experience’? exclusivist claim made by any 3. What is meant by the search for one religion? the ‘common core’ of religious experience?

References Badham, P. (2011). Researching Miles, G. (2007). Science and religious experience from a religious experience: Are they comparative perspective: The similar forms of knowledge? Alister Hardy global project. Brighton: Sussex Academic Press. Interreligious Insight, 10(2), 18-27. Robinson, . (1977). The original Fox, M. (2003). Religion, spirituality vision. Oxford: Religious and the near-death experience. xperience Research Unit. London: Routledge. Robinson, . (d.) (1977). This time- Fox, M. (2008). Spiritual encounters bound ladder. Oxford: Religious with unusual light phenomena: xperience Research Unit. Lightforms. Cardiff: University of Robinson, . (d.)( (1978). Living the Wales Press. questions. Oxford: Religious Hardy, A. (1966). The divine flame. xperience Research Unit. London: Collins. Yao, X., & Badham, P. (2007). Hardy, A. (1975). The biology of God. Religious experience in London: Jonathan Cape. contemporary hina. Cardiff: Hardy, A. (1979). The spiritual nature University of Wales Press. of man. Oxford: .

The Revd anon Professor Leslie J Francis is an Anglican priest and a Fellow of the British Psychological Society. He is currently Director of the Warwick Religions and Education Research Unit and also serves as anon Theologian to Bangor athedral in Wales. He researches and publishes in three main areas: religious education, practical theology and the psychology of religion. Further information may be found at: http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/wie/research/wreru/aboutus/staff/lf/

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hristian Sexual Ethics: Homosexuality and Marriage Stephen Parker This article explores some reasons for opposition to same-gender marriage on the part of some hristians, how such hristians frame their ethic and on what this ethic is based. Finally, it describes an alternative hristian ethical perspective in the views of the Anglican cleric, Jeffrey John. Specification link: WJE RS1/2 ETH: Introduction to Religion and Ethics (AS), 4. Applied ethics.

Christian sexual ethics and The Bible and understandings of marriage are currently homosexuality a particularly contentious area. Christians understand the Bible to be the Campaigns for same-sex marriage, an word of God, though theologically this extension of the arrangements for the means different things to different Civil-Partnership Act of 2004, have Christians. For some Christians (who caused consternation amongst some may be described as vangelical) the Christians, who see this as potentially revelation to be found in the Bible is undermining the traditional readable as directly applicable to the understanding of what marriage is. In this present: the Bible is read normatively as liberalising context, Christian opposition having authority to guide Christians’ to what seems to be a more tolerant and spiritual and moral lives. That is not to progressive situation seems outmoded, say that these Christians take biblical even bigoted. Indeed, such opposition texts out of their context or historical seem barely intelligible, and to fly in the setting, just that these external factors face of the idea that Christianity is a are less important than the personal religion of love. encounter between the text and the What are the reasons for this principled reader. Generally, these Christians hold opposition to same-gender marriage on the view that same-sex relationship are the part of some Christians? How do immoral because their reading of the such Christians frame their ethic, and on Bible is that it is strictly opposed to such what is this ethic based? relationships. The biblical texts which are

Challenging Religious Issues, Issue 1, Spring 2013 14 hristian Sexual Ethics read and cited as relevant in framing an complementarity and that traditional opposition to same-gender sex are marriage was God’s means of doing so these: Genesis 1:26-28; Genesis 19; from the beginning. The obvious physical Leviticus 18:22, 20:13; Romans 1:26-27; gender differences between human 1 Corinthians 6:9 and 1 Timothy 1:10. (It beings prescribes what is normative. is probably worth finding a Bible and Simply put, having sex with someone of reading these texts at this point.) the same gender is unnatural (in For other Christians, in contrast – and opposition to what God intended) and is this cuts across Christian denominational therefore immoral. Some Christians use lines – the Bible is read differently this text as the basis for a natural law because the idea that it is the word of ethic: same-sex relationships are against God is understood differently. For these God’s design for us. Crucially, it is this Christians (who might describe view that underpins opposition to the themselves as ‘radical’ or ‘liberal’, but at notion of same-sex marriage in favour of any rate as less conservative than those a traditional view of marriage as life-long described above), the humanness of the and monogamous. Bible is heightened in significance. The An alternative reading: Bible, they would argue, is a plethora of Some Christians assert that, in reality, historical documents and different kinds the creation narrative does not represent of literature, which at certain points in things as they really are in their diversity. Jewish and Christian history were In fact many human beings are born with amassed into a single volume of books. a sense of sexual attraction to individuals They would assert that reading the Bible of the same gender: sexuality is much is immensely more complex than any more complex than the binary opposition prima facie reading does justice to. If one that physical gender differences reads the Bible devotionally, in the way represent. Moreover, the creation described above, one must do so narrative is not meant to be read in a cautiously, not forgetting its contingent literalistic way (e.g. the universe did not qualities: the historical and social context instantaneously come into being over a in which it was written, the political period of six days); rather the story is purposes it served and the editorial expressive of the ultimate origins of the processes engaged in, in putting it universe in God. Just as the details of together. Reading the Bible, they would the story, such as the order in which argue, is a communal activity, one done events of creation occurred, are not to be best in a critical way in the context of the read as factual, so the whole creation church, taking into account academic narrative is ultimately metaphorical and scholarship. therefore cannot be taken to be How biblical texts are read ethically prescriptive. differently by hristians Genesis 19 This text is read by some Christians as Genesis 1:26-28 God’s judgement on the homosexual The creation narrative has it that God lifestyle of the men of Sodom (hence the created ‘man’ and ‘woman’ as separate pejorative term ‘sodomy’), who but complementary beings. For many demanded that visitors to the town be Christians this indicates that what God given to them so that they might be intended was physical, sexual

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‘known’. God judges Sodom and Romans 1:26-27 Gomorrah for this homosexual violation This text echoes the creation narrative of visitors. God’s judgement is above, but it goes further in suggesting generalised to condemn all same-sex that those who engage in homosexual relationships as immoral. practices are giving up natural (heterosexual) behaviour in favour of An alternative reading: unnatural passions. Homosexuality is Other biblical texts disagree as to what depicted here as being part of the ‘fall’ – Sodom’s sin was. For example, zekiel the wilfulness and sinfulness that comes 16:49 seems to suggest that it was as into existence after Adam and ve’s much due to the injustice that existed in first sin. the town as it was to any isolated act of gang-rape. However, even if it were the An alternative reading: case that such acts of violation resulted An assumption is made in this reading in God’s judgement, can such acts be that anyone who seeks intercourse with equated with loving consensual sex? someone of the same sex is freely and deliberately giving up heterosexual Leviticus 18 and 20 relations in favour of homosexual. The It is these two texts that are most often text starts with the presupposition that cited in relation to the immorality of heterosexuality is the norm, and has no same-gender sex. At face value they conception that individuals may be born seem clearly to be condemnatory of with an alternative sexual orientation. homosexual sex. Indeed, some Christians would argue, this is precisely 1 orinthians 6:9 and 1 Timothy 1:10 what they are condemning. ach of these texts condemns those who practise homosexuality, categorising An alternative reading: them with other sinners living outside of These texts are drawn from what is the Kingdom (the Christian way). Again called the Holiness Code. It is this legal these texts seem to be unambiguous in and moral framework which helped to declaring homosexuality to be immoral distinguish Israel from its neighbours in and therefore as immoral for all time. the ancient world, condemning homosexuality alongside trimming one’s An alternative reading: beard, eating shellfish and using a However, what is it that is being variety of yarns when making clothes. Is condemned here? Some scholars argue such a code therefore useful to us in that the kind of sexual acts under prescribing sexual morality today? If so, condemnation are those engaged in in then why focus moral judgement only on the context of idolatry: that of older men this element of the code and not the having sex with those employed for the others? In the view of many Christians purpose as temple prostitutes. What this text is irrelevant to framing a sexual stands under moral condemnation here ethic in the twenty-first century. It would is not consensual and loving same-sex be inconsistent to use this text and not relationships, but rather the purchase of the other elements of the Holiness Code sex in order to please the gods. if this were to be the basis of a Christian In light of these alternative ways of moral view on the matter. reading these biblical texts, the mixed

Challenging Religious Issues, Issue 1, Spring 2013 16 hristian Sexual Ethics views of Christians on the morality of John argues that contemporary same-sex relationships becomes clear. society has become increasingly tolerant However, where Christians hold to a and accepting of homosexuality, often in liberal view on same-sex relationships the face of opposition from the church. that appears to deviate from a For John the moves towards same-sex straightforward reading of the Bible, an marriage in Britain is emblematic of the accusation of relativism may be made. If normalising of homosexual relationships a reading of the biblical texts is open to so that, rather than being driven qualification in this way, can there then underground, such relationships can be be a Christian sexual ethic and, if so, lived out in a public way fostering the what can this be based upon? Can ‘permanence’ that marks the Christian same-sex marriage be ethical from a ideal. Marriage provides a ritual context Christian moral point of view? in which relationships can be celebrated and publicly affirmed before God, Jeffrey John’s Permanent, something which lesbian and gay Faithful and Stable Christians have thus far been unable Jeffrey John is an Anglican cleric who to do. has been open about his homosexuality. Moral sexual relationships are John hit the news in 2003 when he characterised by faithfulness, John refused an invitation to become a bishop argues. Marriage offers a context for in the Church of ngland because of the such monogamous relationships; without church’s negative reaction to the such a social framework, promiscuity and announcement that an openly gay man impermanence are encouraged. The was to be promoted to such a senior role. permanence of the marital context Long before this, John had argued that a provides emotional and material security, particular style of sexual relationship, which is good for the individuals one characterised by permanence, concerned. Same-sex marriage provides faithfulness and stability, is moral in the a similar context of stability for same-sex Christian sense, regardless of sexual relationships as for heterosexual orientation. John’s argument is that there relationships. By instituting and legalising are no grounds for differentiating the same-sex marriage in the UK, morality of homosexual relationships homosexuality is taken out of the from heterosexual ones. The Bible does ‘immoral’ category and properly not condemn homosexuality per se, normalised. rather it condemns (homo)sexual acts For too long, John argues, which are coercive, violent, abusive and homosexuality has been deemed casual. Moreover, the Bible has no immoral on the basis of its social and sense of human sexuality as it is now religious unacceptability, causing untold commonly understood: that is, as a anxiety, blighting countless individuals’ diverse range or spectrum of orientations. lives. Such intolerance of homosexuality, Because of this, the Bible needs to be based largely on an erroneous reading read in a judicious way, rather than of the Bible, has been backed by the slavishly applied to questions of sexual church, leaving a stain on its history. morality.

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onclusion intolerant of homosexuality. Jeffrey Opinions on the matter of same-sex John’s revisionist reading of the Bible, marriage threaten to divide irreparably and his argument that moral sexual the Anglican Communion (the world-wide relationships stem from the social family of Anglican churches). The structures that are created for them, situation is complicated by the offers an alternative perspective that contrasting views of Christians across appeals to some Christians. the world, which are variously tolerant or

Discussion points 1. Which do you find most convincing: social attitudes towards it, or is the the straightforward readings of the church taking the lead in changing biblical text or their alternatives, and attitudes? why? 4. Does Jeffrey John’s argument, that 2. What are the wider dangers for sexual morality is fostered by external Christians in reading the Bible in a social factors rather than internal morally relativistic way? motives, hold water? 3. Is the church’s attitude to homosexuality driven by changing

References and further reading John, J. (2012). Permanent, faithful, Vardy, P., & Grosch, P. (1994). The stable: hristian same-sex marriage. puzzle of ethics. London: Fount. London: Darton, Longman and Todd. Thatcher, A. (1993). Liberating sex: A hristian sexual theology. London: SPCK.

Dr Stephen Parker is a former school teacher who is currently Head of Postgraduate Studies and Research Student oordinator in the Institute of Education of the University of Worcester. While his particular interests include the recent history of religious education, his research and publications sit at the broader interface between religion, education and society. Among other books, he has published (with Tom Lawson) God and war: The hurch of England and armed conflict in the twentieth- century, Aldershot: Ashgate, 2012, and has written on ‘Life After Death and Personhood’, in Dialogue: A Journal of Religion and Philosophy,

Challenging Religious Issues, Issue 1, Spring 2013 18 Challenging Religious Issues St Mary’s and St Giles’ Centre Issue 1 Spring 2013 ISSN © William K. Kay

The Growth of Neo-Pentecostalism in Britain: A ritique of Secularisation William K. Kay This article describes a theory of secularisation that outlines the way religion has weakened in industrialised societies. After showing in general terms how the theory has been criticised, the article provides an example of a religious movement that has grown despite decline elsewhere. Specification link: WJE RS1/2 S: Introduction to Religion in ontemporary Society (AS), 3. Religion and community.

Secularisation within public life has diminished. Sociological theories describe societies. Religion’s retreat is brought about by One of the best-known sociological industrialisation, urbanisation, the spread theories is concerned with secularisation. of bureaucracy, the rise of individualism, This theory addresses reasons for the successes of science and the entire changes to the scope, importance, gamut of cultural and intellectual function and popularity of religion. The processes that began with the French or theory usually draws upon religious Industrial Revolutions. ‘The basic statistics of church attendance, baptism, proposition is that modernisation creates religious marriage, religious funerals and problems for religion’ (Bruce, 2002, p. 2). religious beliefs and explains why, in The theory notes that religion was many Western societies, most of these once an all-encompassing theoretical indices of religion have declined over system that was expressed by powerful recent centuries. In its general form the institutions. Its theology not only theory states that, starting from a high explained why the world worked as it did point either in the Middle Ages when the but also why society was arranged as it church dominated urope or in Victorian was. Harvests were good or bad times when, in Britain, about half the depending upon the will of God, Divine population would be in church on any Providence explained why some people given Sunday, religious belief and were rich and others were poor or some practice have declined and, as a were ill and others were well. The church, consequence, the impact of religion seen as a powerful multi-layered

Challenging Religious Issues, Issue 1, Spring 2013 19 The Growth of Neo-Pentecostalism institution, supported and endorsed the knowledge as derived from reason and government of the day and reached out therefore questions the value of through schools and hospitals to the knowledge that claims to come from faith whole of society. But, as rationality was or intuition. Historicism sees history as diffused by secular education and the being driven by laws of social authority of scientific explanation spread, development that make the future religion’s intellectual power and social predetermined. role were challenged. There were fewer Max Weber, who had contrasted legal- and fewer mysteries for it to explain. In rational authority with the charismatic the 19th century in what is called the authority of founders of new religious West, as people moved from their settled movements, agreed with rnst Troeltsch villages into the teeming new cities of the in making distinctions between churches, Industrial Revolution, the ancient denominations and sects. Churches are communal agricultural rhythm was inclusive, open to culture and society forgotten in the noisy environment of the and do not make excessive demands on factory. The priest was replaced by the their members; sects are exclusive, scientist, the social worker and the intense, demanding but compensate by therapist. The certainties of religion were offering greater religious certainty; replaced by the certainties of science denominations are at a mid-point and technology. A secular rationalistic between churches and sects and are bureaucracy trapped citizens in an ‘iron notable for their willingness to accept the cage’ (Weber, 1904-5, 2003, p. 183: validity of other religious groups (e.g. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/weber/). Methodists will accept Baptists). Clearly, History appeared to be moving in an social change will impact differently on irreversible direction that would push the three categories of religious group, religion off the public stage and make it a with churches being most influenced by minority interest confined to private life. society and sects being least influenced. In effect, ‘secularization has resulted in a While secularisation theory appeared widespread collapse of the plausibility of to explain the decline of religion in traditional religious definitions of reality . . urope, it appeared to fail to explain . [that] has its correlate on the social- what was happening to religion in the structural level’ (Berger, 1969, 1990 p. USA. After all, the USA is as modern and 128). industrial as urope and yet its religious indices are much higher. Debates Debates about secularisation between sociologists attempted to ‘When I initiated the critique of the reconcile differences on either side of the concept of secularisation in 1965, I Atlantic. Perhaps religion was declining in suggested that it had roots in rationalist urope because of its linkage with and historicist ideology which needed to government – the so-called be exposed’ (Martin, 2005, p. 141). ‘establishment’ of religion – whereas in David Martin understood secularisation the USA a free-market for religion had theory to be a persuasive interpretation always existed and there had never been of religious data that rested on any constitutional connection between philosophical presuppositions that were government and church. Some predisposed to read the evidence in sociologists argued for the inevitable particular ways. Rationalism sees all decay of religion while others saw the

Challenging Religious Issues, Issue 1, Spring 2013 20 The Growth of Neo-Pentecostalism historical process as moving backwards and began to relate to other Christian and forwards with religious revivals groups. alternating with periods of decline. Some In the 1960s the charismatic movement saw religious decline in urope as a began. This was a spontaneous result of wider changes in the function of movement that saw Pentecostal voluntary associations. Others noted that phenomena like miracles and speaking religion might be ‘moving sideways’ into with tongues occurring in the mainstream spirituality and that, for example, the churches. Baptists, Methodists, death of Princess Diana provoked public Anglicans, Roman Catholics and others displays of religious ritual through the welcomed a spiritual renewal that leaving of flowers at sites all over the brought with it an emphasis on the reality country and the televising of her formal and presence of the Holy Spirit. Christian funeral (Davie, 2000, p. 109). In the 1970s the most radical people in Public displays of this kind are evidence the charismatic movement, as well as that British society has not been some Pentecostals, combined to form completely secularised. new churches or house churches or, as they were later called, ‘apostolic Neo-Pentecostalism networks’ whose leaders showed many At the start of the 20th century there was of the characteristics of charismatic a widespread longing for the renewal of leadership first identified by Weber Christianity, and this was most obviously (Walker, 1998; Kay, 2007). As a result seen in the UK by the Welsh revival of there were now three parallel streams: 1904-5 when about 100,000 people Pentecostal, charismatic and neo- either renewed their religious Pentecostal. Pentecostals were commitments or joined churches and organised into denominational patterns chapels for the first time. Out of this with superintendents, conferences and desire for renewal came a series of new other legal ties. Charismatics remained denominations that emphasised the work within their denominational structures of the Holy Spirit as described in the New although they would typically come Testament and which began on the Day together for summer conferences like of Pentecost. These churches were those held under the auspices of Spring called ‘Pentecostal’ and allowed and Harvest. Neo-Pentecostals were more encouraged speaking with tongues, loosely organised into networks under miracles, healing and other similar apostolic leaders whose authority was phenomena. derived from their charismatic ministries During the 1920s and 1930s these rather than from the office they held. churches gradually grew in Britain until there were about 1,000 congregations, Neo-Pentecostalism and some of which had been founded secularisation through large public evangelistic Bruce (2002) and Berger (1970) both meetings where those who were ill acknowledge that the theory of received prayer. The churches continued secularisation allows for the emergence into the 1950s. Their orientation at the of new religious groups within a start was sectarian but they gradually predominantly secular society. Berger, adopted a more denominational attitude for instance, noted that 86 per cent of

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Americans believe in God so that, with (neo-) Pentecostalism with its the support of like-minded religious acceptance of the joy and excitement of people, he understands how new forms miracles appeals to the heart and of religion might come into existence and completely sidesteps the intellectual thrive despite a generally adverse pressures of secularisation. At the same climate (p. 39). We can identify three time its emphasis on healing makes it a ways Pentecostals resisted secularising holistic religion, one of the body as well trends: by holiness teaching, by as the mind. emphasis on the Holy Spirit and by When the (neo-) Pentecostal fostering the emotional aspects of movement is examined outside the religion. confines of the UK, it is evident that it has Pentecostals in Britain in the 1920s spread to every continent. Its appeal has observed holiness rules that kept them been translated into every culture, out of mainstream public life: they did not whether to the struggling post-colonial read novels, go to the cinema, drink countries of Africa or to the immensely alcohol, watch football matches or in rich skyscrapers of Hong Kong. It is a other ways participate in irreligious form of Christianity that underlines the culture. ven in their evangelism they importance of religious experience and in consciously stood against modern ideas this way it transcends rational categories, and, when their ministers needed training, but it does so in line with the ‘subjective set up their own seminaries. In this way turn’ of post-modern culture which has they protected themselves from made personal experience one of the worldviews hostile to their own. great marks of authenticity. But Pentecostals and neo-Pentecostals From a theological perspective, a belief have this in common, that they welcome in the Holy Spirit provides a way of the activities of the Holy Spirit. ven in a thinking about God’s action in the world. scientific age, widespread belief in Believers who pray and anticipate ghosts, spirits and horoscopes show that miracles find what they are looking for by ordinary people are open to inexplicable the agency of God who intervenes in the phenomena. We could say that (neo-) world. And how might a God intervene, Pentecostalism tapped into this sub- so Pentecostals would ask, except by the culture but it did so by reference to the Holy Spirit? In this way mystery and spiritual experiences described in the miracle are reintroduced to the world New Testament. Their teaching on the even while scientific knowledge expands. Holy Spirit brought the world of the Bible The interventionist God who was and today’s world into close coordination expelled from 19th century culture by so that each was relevant to the other. In technology and the Industrial Revolution metaphorical terms the ‘iron cage of finds a way back through the Holy Spirit’s rationality’ could not contain the ancient engagement with the post-modern wind of the Holy Spirit. condition. Indeed, on a global scale, it It is also arguable that mainstream has been argued that Pentecostalism is religion in fine stone buildings with the a ‘harbinger of modernity’ (Martin, 2005, old-fashioned language of the prayer p. 141). Its churches signal the coming of book and the ordered pattern of the technology and informal education to liturgy can be too cerebral to engage the West Africa or parts of Southeast Asia emotional aspect of people’s lives. Here and Latin America with the result that

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Pentecostal Christianity is understood to future. Rather than seeing religion as be a progressive religion helping to being in terminal decline, (neo-) encourage democracy, egalitarianism Pentecostalism sees the world and new ways of thinking about the transformed by a vibrant church.

Links http://www.springharvest.org (Spring http://www.jubilee- Harvest, attended by charismatic centre.org/document.php?id=31 (a churches) challenge to secularisation) http://newfrontierstogether.org (neo- http://www.elim.org.uk (Pentecostal Pentecostal group also called an denomination in the UK) apostolic network) http://pentecostalpioneers.org/George http://www.new-wine.org (attended by Jeffreys.html (information on charismatic churches) George Jeffreys, one of the mid- http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/we century Pentecostal evangelists and ber/ (discussion of Max Weber) founder of many congregations)

Discussion points 1. Can religion help to modernise 3. Can sociological theories predict society? Or is it always against the future with any accuracy? social change? 2. To what extent is the theory of secularisation challenged by new religious growth?

Challenging Religious Issues, Issue 1, Spring 2013 23 The Growth of Neo-Pentecostalism

References Berger, P.L. (1969, 1990). The Kay, W.K. (2007). Apostolic sacred canopy: Elements of a networks in Britain: New ways of sociological theory of religion. New being church. Milton Keynes: York: Anchor Books. Paternoster. Berger, P.L. (1970). A rumour of Martin, D. (2005). On secularization: angels: Modern society and the Towards a revised general theory. rediscovery of the supernatural. Aldershot: Ashgate. London: Pelican. Walker, A. (1998). Restoring the Bruce, S. (2002). God is dead. kingdom. Guildford: agle. Oxford: Blackwell. Weber, M. (2003). The Protestant Davie, G. (2000). Religion in ethic and the spirit of capitalism. modern Europe: A memory New York: Dover. (First published mutates. Oxford: Oxford University in German in 1904-5). Press.

7KH5HYG3URIHVVRU:LOOLDP.D\LV3URIHVVRURI7KHRORJ\DW*O\QGǒU8QLYHUVLW\DQG Professor of Pentecostal Studies at the University of hester. He has written or edited several books on Pentecostalism, including Pentecostalism: A very short introduction, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011; Pentecostalism (SM ore Text), London: SM, 2009 and (with A. E. Dyer) Pentecostal and charismatic studies: A reader, London: SM, 2004.

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