UC Merced Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology

Title Another Great Basin Atlatl with Dart Foreshafts and other Artifacts: Implications and Ramifications

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Journal Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology, 4(1)

ISSN 0191-3557

Author Tuohy, Donald R

Publication Date 1982-07-01

Peer reviewed

eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology VoL 4, No. 2, pp. 80-106 (1982). Another Great Basin Atlatl with Dart Foreshafts and Other Artifacts: Implications and Ramifications

DONALD R. TUOHY

N February, 1981, I received a telephone regional study of any magnitude or signifi­ Icall from a resident of an eastern Nevada cance is Cohn Busby's (1979) study of the community who said he had found a whole prehistory and human ecology of Garden and atlatl, or dart-thrower. The man stated that he Coal vaUeys. had been exploring for prehistoric sites in The purpose of this paper then is to add southem Nevada and he had discovered a cave new data on yet another distinctive Great on the flanks of a mountain range in north­ Basin atlatl with attached weight and associ­ western Lincoln County (Fig. 1). While exca­ ated dart foreshafts, one of which still has a vating a pack rat's nest within the cave, he stone point attached to the shaft, and to had recovered a complete atlatl and several explore the implications of such a find to dart foreshafts, other wood and fiber arti­ studies of Great Basin culture dynamics. At facts, and some unidentified animal bones, the same time, the fallibility of the statistical plant parts, and so on. I expressed my interest support for the discriminant analysis which in seeing the atlatl and other specimens, and purportedly aUows one to classify unknown arranged to meet with him and to borrow the projectUe points as either arrowheads or dart collection for study in April, 1981. The tips (Thomas 1978) is examined. This paper, coUection subsequently has been returned to of course, buUds upon extant studies of Great the finder. Basin atlatls (Hester, Mildner, and Spencer The inventory consists of 40 artifacts, 13 1974), and other studies of atlatls known mammal bones, and 16 botanical specunens, archaeologicaUy and ethnographically in the for a total of 69 items. The coUection, of New Worid (Grant 1979; Hester 1974a, 6 course, represents only what the finder per­ W.Taylor 1966; L. G. Massey 1972 ceived to be important whUe rummaging W. Massey 1961; Driver and Massey 1957 through the cave's deposits. He did note an Metraux 1949; Cressman, WiUiams, and Krei- apparent association between the atlatl and ger 1940; Cressman, et al 1942; Cressman the dart foreshafts. Since neither the sur­ 1944) and particularly in the Southwest rounding envhonment nor the immediate (Kidder and Guemsey 1919; Guemsey and context of the artifacts and ecofacts as yet Kidder 1921; Guemsey 1931; Aveylera, has been examined, very httle can be said Maldonado-KoerdeU, and Martinez del Rio about the local archaeology. The closest 1956). Throughout this study I shall refer to the Donald R. Tuohy, Nevada State Museum, Capitol Complex, find spot of the collection as the "NC" site. Carson City, NV 89710. This temporary designafion should suffice

[80] GREAT BASIN ATLATL AND DART FORESHAFTS 81

Fig. 1. Map of a portion of western North America showing areas mentioned and the distribution of atlatls and atlatl fragments in the Great Basin and northern Mexico, or in the peripheral Southwest (after Hester, Mildner, and Spencer 1974:Fig. 1). The sites shown are: (1) Plush Cave; (2) Roaring Springs Cave; (3) Last' Supper Cave; (4) Nv-Wa-197, the Nicolarsen Site; (5) Kramer Cave; (6) Lovelock Cave; (7)CouncU Hall Cave; (8) Juke Box Cave; (9) Hogup Cave; (10) "NC" Cave; (11) Virgin Area; (12) Kayenta Area; (13) Cowboy Cave and 42Em70; (14) Santa Barbara and Newberry Cave localities; (15) Big Bend Area of Texas; (16)Coahuila complex; (17) Las Palmas culture, Baja Cahfornia; (18) Potter Creek Cave, California; (19) Hidden Cave, Nevada; and (20) Lower Pecos caves, Texas. 82 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY until such time as the cave is visited person­ data are extrapolated, indicates a precipita­ ally and recorded using Smithsonian system tion rate of four to eight inches per year, designators. The "NC" designation conveni­ most of which faUs in the winter. The ently refers to the inifials of the finder whose temperature regime is continental, with the fuU name, I believe, should not be disclosed at winter months averaging close to freezing or this time. I acknowledge "NC's" patience and below, and with warm to hot summers. trust in aUowing me to complete this study, At the elevation of the site the dominant and can only hope the collection wiU find its vegetation has been mapped as part of the way to a permanent repository in the state of Northem Desert Shrub type which is domi­ its origin. One may also hope this experience nated by sagebrush, other shrubs, grasses, and has taught "NC" the importance of not forbs. At lower elevations the blackbrush disturbing or removing anything from community, dominated by the dark-gray deposits in caves unless professional help or blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima) is inter­ supervision is avaUable. spersed with the desert shrubs. The Joshua tree (Yucca brevifolia) is commonly found THE GEOGRAPHICAL REGION throughout the community, as is the banana In lieu of other control data it seems yucca (Yucca baccata), sagebrush (Artemisia pmdent to describe the environment in the spinescens), and a variety of other shmbs vicinity of the cave. In general terms, the (Bradley and Deacon 1967: 213-218). At region may be described as typical Great higher elevations where there is greater rain­ Basin basin and range country of southeastem fall there is an open shmb woodland com­ Nevada. The site is located in the vicinity of a posed mainly of pinyori pines (Pinus mono- high mountain range with elevations over phylla), and junipers (Juniperus osteosperma). 8000 feet (2438 m.). The range trends north- Prior to 1850, the mountain range served as south, and is bordered by two vaUeys, one of habitat for a variety of mammals including which is structuraUy connected with pluvial the mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis nelsoni), White River (Hubbs and MiUer 1948:50), and now extinct there (McQuivey 1979: 13-14). the other with modem drainages cutting The range of mountains is not considered through a semi-bolson and an adjacent range critical habitat for desert bighorn sheep popu­ to drain into a modem playa. (To protect the lations currently present in southem Nevada. identity of the site, both the mountain ranges MISCELLANEOUS ARTIFACTS and the adjacent basins wUl not be named.) Apparently the cave or rockshelter was dis­ The coUection of 40 artifacts may be split covered along the southwest flank of the into three classes. The first class is composed mountain range at a moderate elevation where of chipped stone pieces, of which there are the youngest rocks, of Devonian age, occur. four types and a total of four specimens. The mountain range is quite steep-sided, and Wood artifacts comprise the second class, of contains a variety of other sedimentary depos­ which there are eight types and 18 specimens, its such as limestone, and volcanic and gran­ including a stone-tipped dart foreshaft. The itic rocks which have been thrust-faulted thhd class, fiber artifacts, was also spht into (Tschanz and Pampeyen 1970). four types also with a total of 18 specimens. According to Houghton, Sakamoto, and Chipped Stone Artifacts Gifford (1975:69), the climate in the vicinity of the site is classified as a semi-arid mid- Only four chipped stone artifacts were latitude steppe type, which, when rainfaU retrieved from the "NC" site. Three of them GREAT BASIN ATLATL AND DART FORESHAFTS 83

were made from a variety of obsidian which, smaU size and weight; 5.3 cm. long, 3.4 cm. when candled, has a banded gray, dendritic wide, 1.5 cm. thick, and weighing 24.8 g. appearance. Since all of the obsidian pieces Both faces of the core exhibit overall flake had this attribute and other surficial similari­ removal, but one face shows an imperfect ties, the immediate (and possibly erroneous) collateral flaking pattem, whUe the obverse conclusion was that all material for these face exhibits random, or non-patterned flake tools probably came from the same source. removal scars. Secondary flake removal The fourth specimen was a dart point made attempts along the convex edges have resulted from a mottled and banded brown jasper. It in step fractures being located closer to the was attached to a hardwood dart foreshaft by edges than to the mid-line. The non-patterned means of wrapped sinew. The foreshaft and chipped face contains one smaU area of the the hafting detaU wUl be described more fuUy original cortex. The cortex suggests the parent later. Description of the lithics, three bifaces material was an obsidian nodule. All edges of and a uniface, foUows, and they are iUustrated the core tool are quite sharp, seemingly in Fig. 2a, b, c, d. lacking any type of obvious use wear. In fact, The terminology used in the descriptive the only obvious "EU" (employable unit) analysis follows Crabtree (1972) for the flint- (Knudson 1979:105), or segment of an imple­ working, and Heizer and Hester (1978) for ment individually defined, is located at the the projectUe point typology. WhUe many distal tip where a small retouched protuber­ Great Basin archaeologists prefer to use ance, possibly a functional graving tip, exists Thomas's "Key 1" system (1970: 27-60) to (Fig. 2a). quantify and to classify Great Basin projectUe Ovate Keeled Flake Scraper. The second point types, I prefer to foUow Heizer and obsidian artifact to be considered is an ovate- Hester (1978). As the latter typologists note, shaped flake with one concave, and one the "Key 1" system as promulgated by convex, or keeled face. It is 4.4 cm. long, 2.3 Thomas (1970) and his foUowers (Hatoff and cm. wide, and 1.0 cm. thick. It weighs 6.5 g., Thomas 1976; Bettinger 1976; Thomas, Lev- and is more a uniface than a biface (Fig. 2b). enthal, and Williams 1976; Thomas 1981&) When viewed from the proximal end of the reproduces the accepted Great Basin morpho­ planar face the scraper does show retouching logical types (Heizer and Hester 1978:1) at both ends. The convex distal end also (italics mine). Since the "Key 1" system does shows use wear that is obvious even when not perform its function without great invest­ viewed through a low-power hand lens. The ments in time and funds, the typology I proximal end which contains a platform prefer foUows Heizer and Hester's (1978) remnant has also been retouched creating the morphological groupings buttressed by tech­ "EU" there. When the flake scraper is turned nological analyses of flake removal pattems as over to the keeled side, all of the retouching is codified by Crabtree (1972), Knudson confined to both convex edges of the imple­ (1979), and Green (1975), among others. ment. The retouching on one edge appears to Tucker (1980: 1-11) recently has summarized be use-wear nibbhng rather than purposeful the arguments in favor of, and quantified an secondary retouching. affirmation of, an intuitive Great Basin pro­ Elko Corner-notched Point of Obsidian. jectUe point typology, and his position on this The unhafted obsidian point is rather large, matter is not far from mine. being 5.7 cm. long, 2.8 cm. wide, and 0.5 cm. Obsidian Biface Core. The obsidian biface thick, and weighing 5.9 g. The base is not classified as a core is a bidirectional core of deeply notched, but it shows considerable 84 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

a

I

I h Fig. 2. Obsidian scrapers, projectile points, hafted Elko Corner-notched point, and hardwood foreshafts from "NC"Cave;a, obsidian biface core; Z», ovate keeled flake scraper; c, Elko Corner-notched point; d,Elko Comer-notched pomt; e, the same point showing the full length of the foreshaft;/-/, hardwood foreshafts. GREAT BASIN ATLATL AND DART FORESHAFTS 85 thinning scars from flake removals on both hardwood foreshaft hafted to the jasper Elko faces. Both faces of the blade also exhibit Corner-notched point is rather short, being weU-controUed diagonal thinning scars. These only 19.7 cm. long, and varying in diameter diagonal scars dominate the pattern on one from 0.6 cm. near the distal end to less than face, and are evident on the other. This form 0.3 cm. at the proximal, or pointed end. As of retouching has created partiaUy serrated previously mentioned, the foreshaft was edges on the point blade. The point is notched at the distal end to receive the stone illustrated in Fig. 2c. point. In addition to being spht longitudinally Elko Comer-notched Point of Jasper. The at the notched distal end, one of the lateral single hafted dart point appears to be of the halves adjacent to the notch is also spht. same style as the obsidian dart point, and thus Extending from a point just below the sinew may be classified as an Elko Comer-notched binding to a point about 3.4 cm. from the point, although it is somewhat smaUer, and proximal end, the hardwood mid-shaft area the base appears to be straight rather than exhibits painted decorations. The embeUish- concave. The point and foreshaft together ments appear to be black spirals ranging from weigh only 6.2 g., whUe the point itself is 4.2 0.3 to 0.6 cm. in width. Although difficult to cm. long, 2.2 cm. wide, and 0.5 cm. thick. discern, the final spiral near the tapered end Flake removals on both faces appear to be of the foreshaft appears to have been painted randomly placed, but well-controUed with with red pigment. The foreshaft is shown in some flake scars extending well beyond the Fig. 2d-e. mid-line. The point is iUustrated as Fig. 2d, e. The distal end of the hafted foreshaft is The hafting material is shghtly Z-twisted the tapered end of the foreshaft that fits into sinew which is wrapped in two places around the usual cane mid-shaft of atlatl darts. The the distal end of the foreshaft. The lower of beveling of the distal end appears to have the two sinew wrappings appears to have been been accomplished by rotating the piece while used to bind together a split in the notched holding a sharp cutting edge, such as might be end of the foreshaft. Apparently the maker, provided by one of the obsidian scrapers, whUe notching the distal end of the shaft, against the wood. Many hardwood foreshafts spUt the shaft and had to bind it together. have distal ends that are rounded or blunted Either that had happened, or the shaft had instead of being pointed (Hester, Mildner, and spht at the notch through use, and it was Spencer 1974: Fig. 18&). mended prior to rehafting and reuse. The Other Presumed Foreshafts. There are five upper sinew binding is also slightly Z-twisted other slightly tapered or pointed hardwood and is a one-ply piece which binds the point sticks that may weU have been intended for to the foreshaft. use as foreshafts, as all have appropriate It is interesting to note at this time that diameters and lengths commensurate with the base of the atlatl dart which is 1.4 cm. those of the hafted foreshaft. All have one wide exceeds the diameter of the dart, 0.5 pointed or carbonized end, and one blunted cm., by 9 mm. This discrepancy indicates that end, and all have been partially peeled. The some neck widths of dart points may not be five presumed foreshafts range in length from directly related to shaft diameters (Corhss 21.0 cm. to 13.8 cm., and in diameter from 1972). 0.4 cm. to 0.8 cm. They are Ulustrated as Fig. 2f-i. Wood Artifacts Close inspection reveals all of the fore- The Hafted Foreshaft. The unidentified shafts have blunted tips, and they may well 86 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

have been designed as foreshafts never intend­ once a granny knot, but now appears to be a ed to have stone points on their tips. Their single overhand knot. The end opposite from desiccated state makes identification of the the cordage is V-shaped and it appears to have plant species used difficult, but they appear been made to fit into a slot of some sort. The to be Salix spp. (2), and Sarcobatus vermicu- tapering end is 1.8 cm. long. Janetski (1979: latus (3). Such materials, willow and grease- 306-321) has recently reviewed the distribu­ wood, were commonly used to make atlatl tion and imphcations of small snares in the foreshafts in the Great Basin (DaUey in Desert West. Aikens 1970:159; Hester, Mildner, and Spen­ Promontory Peg. Another useful and diag­ cer 1974). nostic artifact type is the Promontory peg. Other Worked Sticks. There are five other H. G. Wyhe (1974: 46-47) has produced the cut or carved wooden sticks, and a bent and latest summary of the distribution and signifi­ tied twig in the coUection. They are iUustra­ cance of this artifact type in the Desert West. ted in Fig. 3a-f. Greasewood (S. vermiculatus) The specimen from "NC" Cave is 4.1 cm. and wUlow (Salix spp.) are represented. While long, and 0.8 cm. m diameter (Fig. 30- It was all of these sticks are artifacts or implements, made in the usual fashion by first making a suggestions as to their function are offered for deep transverse cut in a twig and then only two of the specimens (Fig. 3c, e). The spUtting away the pointed end. The pointed tabular artifact (Fig. 3c) has a black dot on end is 2.5 cm. in length, and the whole piece one face, and it may very weU be a wooden shows some fire blackening. die, or gaming counter. The peeled withe (Fig. Warp-face Twined Basketry Fragment. 3c) may weU have been part of a snare. The One fragment of a warp-face twined basket bent and tied twig of triangular shape (Fig. was present in the collection. The piece is 4.5 3/) has several counterparts in the eastem cm. long, and 13.3 cm. wide (Fig. 4a). Warps Great Basin, and they were reported at are five in number, and they are peeled wUlow SwaUow Shelter, Utah (Dalley 1976:96). (Salix spp.) twigs 0.3 to 0.6 cm. in diameter. Snare Parts. Two wooden sticks with They are held together by double ply, S- cordage stiU attached have been identified as twisted, unpeeled, spUt-twig wefts spaced at parts of scissors snares. The larger of the two 1.5 cm. intervals. The fragment is apparently is made of greasewood (S. vermiculatus), and a selvage piece as the wefts are looped around is 10 cm. long and 0.8 cm. in diameter (Fig. one of the end warps, and they slant down to 3^). Attached to one end is a piece of the left. Warp-face baskets are commonly cordage, broken and repaired many times by used as cradleboards in the ethnographic tying the broken ends together with groups of Great Basin, but they are also used for a overhand knots. The cordage itself is two-ply variety of other purposes. S-twisted, single-ply Z-twist milkweed (Apo- Digging Stick Tip. One wood artifact is cynum) fiber. tentatively identified as a tip to a digging The second cord-wrapped piece is shorter stick. The piece is 2.8 cm. long, 3.2 cm. wide, and stouter than the first, and it is tapered at and 1.2 cm. thick (Fig. 4b). The pointed tip one end (Fig. 3h). It is a wUlow stick (Salix shows considerable scuffing wear, and linear spp.) 7.5 cm. long and 0.8 cm. in diameter. striations from repeated contact with the The bark is left on the piece, and one end of earth. The distal end has been burned, and the twig was grooved to receive the cordage. then cut. WhUe the use is inferred as a digging The cordage is two-ply S-twist, single-ply stick, it possibly was used as a shinny stick. Z-twist Apocynum fiber fled with what was The hardwood it is made from is unidentified. GREAT BASIN ATLATL AND DART FORESHAFTS 87

r a

i S Fig. 3. Worked wooden artifacts from "NC" Cave; a, notched greasewood stick; ft, rounded stick, use unknown; c, wooden die or gaming counter;d-e, bent willow (Salix sp.) twigs;/, tied twig;g-h, wooden snare parts; /, Promontory peg. A simUar complete specimen was recovered in (Krause 1902, 1905; Krieger in Cressman, Painted Cave (Haury 1945: 50-51, PI. 23a), Williams, and Krieger 1940; Grant 1979) and and it was called a scraper. in the Desert West (MUdner 1974). Modem replication studies and other important sum­ THE ATLATL mary data on Great Basin atlatls have been As mentioned previously, one complete pubhshed by Hester, MUdner, and Spencer atlatl or spearthrower was recovered in the (1974). The latter authors foUow Krause's cave (Fig. 5a-e; Fig. 6a-e). Spearthrowers are typology for classifying atlatls on the basis of widely distributed throughout the world the presence of both features. Thus, a "male" 88 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

a

Fig. 4. MisceUaneous wood and fiber artifacts from "NC" Cave; a, warp-face twined basketry fragment" b, digging stick tip(?); c, three square knots in yucca fibers; d, yucca fiber sandal of two-warp' wickerwork. GREAT BASIN ATLATL AND DART FORESHAFTS 89

a

b

Fig. 5. Several views of the "mixed" type of atlatl from "NC" Cave;a-6, two views of the entire specimen; c, sketch of a reconstruction of the atlatl; d-e, two close-up views of the proximal end of the atlatl the latter with the buckskin finger loops draped over their approximate original location. "W

90 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

a

Fig. 6. Several views of the distal and mid-shaft areas of the "NC" spearthrower; a, view of the entire atlatl showing cordage at handle end and place where weight was attached; 6, close-up view of the projecting "spur" at the proximal end; c, close-up view of the spearthrower showing dorsal spur and dorsal groove as weU as pitch adhering to mid-shaft for attachment of weight; d, sandstone weight placed in its original position on dorsal side of mid-shaft area; e, sketch showing a reconstruction of the oridnal atlatl. ^ GREAT BASIN ATLATL AND DART FORESHAFTS 91 atiatl has a projecting hook at the distal end, Table 1 whUe a "female" type lacks a pronounced DIMENSIONS OF THE ATLATL hook, and it is usually flush with the dorsal groove. A third type is the "mixed" type Overall length 53.9 cm. Weight of atlatl 58.0 g. which combines both the dorsal groove and Length of spur 3.5 cm. Weight of weight 30.3 g. Length of groove 4.2 cm. jQ^^ weight 88.3 g. the projecting hook or spur. The "NC" Cave Length of weight 3.9 cm. atlatl is of the latter type. Proximal end (width) 1.5 cm. Fourteen atlatls and atlatl fragments were (thickness) 0.9 cm. Middle (width) 2.1 cm. reported and described in some detail by (thickness) 1.0 cm. MUdner (1974: 7-35) in his survey of Great Distal end (width) 1.8 cm. Basin atlatls. The variety of atlatl styles in the (thickness) 1.2 cm. Great Basin is indicated by the fact that three each of his total number were either "male" normal shape obscured some features such as or "female" types, whUe eight whole or the extent to which the atlatl had been fragmentary specimens were categorized as painted. Barely detectable was some black belonging to the "mixed" type. No two atlatls pigment stUl adhering to an area just above could be regarded as identical in size, weight, the carved proximal end, and to some barely or in placement and nature of the design discernible painted bands on the shaft. The features, such as shape and proportion of the shaft was made of hardwood, as yet unidenti­ body, placement of the weight (if present), fied. As indicated by the measurements in nature of the mechanism for engaging the Table 1, the mid-shaft area is wider than dart, and the nature of the handle. either end. The complete atlatl reported herein is The Proximal End (Fig. 5d, e) most interesting as it is only the fourth spearthrower in the Great Basin to be recov­ The proximal end does not have carved ered with the weight intact, or present in such finger notches per se. Instead, the entire a manner that its position on the body of the proximal end was reduced in width by irregu­ atlatl can be determined accurately. It is also lar sawing and whittling. This carving tech­ the first recorded find of a Great Basin atlatl nique, which appears to have utUized a stone in which the weight was attached to the flake as a cutting tool, resulted in an irregu­ dorsal surface of the body; i.e., the same larly beveled proximal end. StiU attached a surface as contains both the short dorsal few centimeters from the end was a layer of groove, and the integral spur or hook. Before wrapped sinew and a 2-mm. thick, 2-ply proceeding further with this discussion, it is S-twist, one-ply Z-twist piece of cordage that imperative to describe the atlatl in detaU. The were used to secure the two buckskin loops or dimensions of the atlatl are given in Table 1. grips to the handle. Pairs of leather finger A description of the individual design features grips or loops were commonly used on Bas­ foUows. ketmaker II atlatls in the Southwest (Wood­ In general appearance and design features, bury and Zubrow 1979: 54-55). The buckskin the "NC" site atiafl most closely resembles grips from the "NC" site atlatl were detached the Basketmaker II aflatis from Arizona (Nus- from the handle, but they stiU held their baum 1922; Lindsay et al. 1968), and one double loop shape which indicated their from Culberson County, Texas (Fenenga and function (Fig. 5e). The finger grips also were Wheat 1939: 221-223). The fact that it was shghtly twisted and perforated to receive partiaUy carbonized and warped out of its sinew and cordage as reinforcement. 92 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

The Mid-shaft Atlatl Weight Area cm. thick. The dorsal groove is U-shaped in (Fig. 6b, c, d) cross-section. Thus, the atlatl cleariy is of the "mixed" type since it has both a slightly Located on the dorsal side of the mid­ raised spur, and a short, dorsally placed shaft area, closer to the distal end than the groove located beneath the spur. handle was evidence of a thick coating of FIBER ARTIFACTS AND pine pitch marking the spot where the sand­ OTHER PLANT MATERIALS stone atlatl weight (Fig. 6d) had been attach­ ed to the atlatl. The weight itself was a There are 18 items in this class of artifacts partially carbonized piece of sandstone having made from plants and plant parts, and plant the shape of a miniature loaf of bread. It was materials that were modified in some way. clearly a Type HI weight in the Butler and Yucca Fiber Sandal (Fig. 4/) Osborne (1959: 215-244) typology for west­ em atlatl weights. The piece did have a flat One crudely made yucca-fiber sandal with base and lacked a medial groove, and had a straight toe was the only item of clothing some sinew and pitch not been attached to recovered from "NC" Cave. The sandal both the weight and the shaft, one might not appears to be a two-warp wickerwork sandal, have recognized the purpose of the piece as a or what Wheeler (1973:18) called a type of weight or charm. As has been indicated, "Figure-eight" sandal. This type of shredded broken pieces of sinew still adhering to the yucca-fiber sandal is made on a loosely ventral side of the shaft and to the sandstone twisted yucca string, looped and tied with weight itself clearly indicate that the weight square knots. The three square knots shown was attached to the dorsal side of the spear in Fig. 4c-c may be parts of either the warp thrower. This placement of the weight meant loop or the remains of tie strings. The woof, that when the atlatl dart was thrown, the dart also of yucca fibers, was woven over and itself had to clear the weight in order to gain under the opposite sides of the loop to form free flight from the momentum imparted by the sandal. The ends of the woof were then the spur. The logical solution to this problem wound around the heel. The illustrated sandal is to increase the curvature of the atlatl (Fig. 4/) is 19.5 cm. long, 11.0 cm. wide, and between the distal and proximal ends. Unfor­ 2.0 cm. thick. tunately, post-depositional warping of the Bluhm (1952:235) reports a variety of spearthrower precluded accurate knowledge two-warp wickerwork sandals from Tularosa of the actual amount of curvature present and Cordova Caves in New Mexico, and when the atlatl was functional. The author's suggests the wickerwork sandal technique is reconstruction of this curvature is shown in earlier in the MogoUon and Hohokam areas Fig. 5 c and Fig. 6e. than elsewhere in the Southwest and its peripheries. The Distal End (Fig. 6a, b. c) Exammarion of the distal end clearly Carbonized Yucca Leaf Tips and a Needle (not Ulustrated) shows that the spur or "hook" was raised some 0.6 cm. above a short V-shaped dorsal Three pieces of cut Yucca brevifolia leaves groove, about 4.2 cm. m length. The integral comprise this group. One is a complete needle spur was gouged and was carved from the 6.5 cm. long, and 0.7 cm. in diameter. Yucca same wood used as the shaft, and at the distal leaf spine needles are said to be used to repair end, the hook and shaft together are only 1.2 sandals after which the spine tip is cut off and GREAT BASIN ATLATL AND DART FORESHAFTS 93

discarded (Grange 1952:408). The other two Table 2 pieces are yucca leaf tips from which the spines have been removed. These two speci­ ANALYSIS OF FAUNAL MATERIALS mens are heavUy carbonized and are both less Illustration Identification Description than 5.0 cm. in length and 1.0 cm. in Fig. 7 a Ovis canadensis Left proximal femur, diameter. spirally fractured Fig. 76 Odocoileus 4th cervical vertebrae, carnivore gnawed Yucca Quids (not Ulustrated) Fig. 7 c Lepus californicus Left tibia shaft, Four yucca quids were also retrieved from charred Fig. Id Lepus californicus Left tibia shaft, the cave, but they were merely loose bundles charred of fibers lacking toothmarks or other features Fig.7e Ovis canadensis Front first phalanx of intrinsic interest. Fig. 7/ Ovis canadensis Left scapula, glenoid fragment Yucca Pod (not Ulustrated) Fig. Ig Ovis canadensis Anterior mandible, with incisors, right, adult One carbonized piece of a Joshua-tree, Fig. Ih cf. Odocoileus Left femur shaft fragment Yucca brevifolia, fruit pod was in the coUec­ spirally fractured Fig. 7; Ovis/Odocoileus Rib shaft fragment tion. The fmit of the Joshua tree is contained Fig. 7; Bison/Bos size Rib shaft fragment in a three-sided capsule 4 to 10 cm. long, with Fig. Ik Ovis canadensis Horn core tip flatfish seeds in six rows (BUlings 1945:85). Fig. 7/ Ovis canadensis Horn fragment Fig. 7 m Bison/Bos size Pelvis fragment Grass Bundle (not Ulustrated) One loose group of unidentified grass CULTURAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL fibers was also part of the group of items that IMPLICATIONS were collected. The bundle did not appear to Not expressed so far is an indication of be man-made. the identity of the people whose handiworks and ecofacts were left behind in "NC" Cave. Other Plant Materials (not Ulustrated) What the people were doing to exploit the Two large pieces of charcoal from hard­ adjacent environment is implied by the recov­ wood, and four small pieces of heavily car­ ered ecofacts, and these presumed activities bonized organic material, seed pods resem­ wiU be made exphcit later. Some indication as bling com cobs, but unidentified as yet, to the antiquity of the cultures involved is comprise the balance of plant materials. suggested by the artifact types found in the FAUNAL REMAINS deposits. Experience suggests retrieved surface artifacts from disturbed Great Basin caves are Thirteen identifiable bone fragments were more apt to represent a diachronic sample of in the coUection from "NC" Cave. These were a cave's contents than a synchronic one. Also, identified by Amy Dansie, faunal analyst at no direct dating techniques were apphed to the Nevada State Museum. Four species of specimens taken from the cave. The artifacts, mammals are represented in the collection; therefore, may only be cross-dated, or demon­ Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis), deer (Odo- strated to be contemporary with artifact coileus), jackrabbit (Lepus californicus), and types known from other dated Great Basin Bison/Bos, more likely domestic cattle rather sites, largely on the basis of morphological than Bison. The faunal remains are Ulustrated types. in Fig. la-m, and a brief description of each is As already noted, the Elko Corner- given in Table 2. notched, chipped-stone dart points, the 94 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

A m Fig. 7. Faunal materials from "NC" Cave; a, left proximal femer, Ovis canadensis, spirally fractured; h fourth cervical vertebrae, gnawed by carnivore, Odocoileus; c d, both Lepus californicus left tibia shafts charred; e-g, front first phalanx, glenoid fragment of left scapula, and anterior mandible with incisors of Ovis canadensis; h-i, left femur shaft fragment and rib shaft fragment, Odocoileus; j, Bison/Bos-size rib fragment; k-l, horn core tip and horn fragments of Ovis canadensis; m, Bison/Bos-size pelvis fragment GREAT BASIN ATLATL AND DART FORESHAFTS 95

"mixed" type of atlatl, scissors snares, the Juan or Kayenta area of Arizona. In the San Promontory peg, and the yucca fiber, two- Juan drainage, Basketmaker II sites date from warp wickerwork sandal are "index" artifact about 100 B.C. to A.D. 400 (Woodbury and types useful for cross-dating purposes. Zubrow 1979:57), a temporal range that is Elko Comer-notched points generally somewhat more restrictive than the time range in age from about 1500 B.C. to A.D. range for Elko Comer-notched points. Basket- 500-700 (O'ConneU 1967; Heizer and Hester maker II atlatls do differ from all other 1978:5-7). Elko series points apparently are known Great Basin atlatls, especially in their somewhat older in the eastem Great Basin various attributes, such as paired finger loops than in the western Great Basin, but in both made of dressed skin secured with sinew, sub-areas they are coeval with Pinto points spurs and grooves to position the dart, and (Aikens 1970: 52-53, Figs. 24-25; Layton the placement of the weight. Since typologic- 1970:238; Layton and Thomas 1979:266). ally the "NC" Cave dart thrower exhibits aU Some Elko morphological types identical with of these attributes there is no question that some Pinto series points may date as old as the cross-date of 100 B.C. to A.D. 400 for 6000 B.C. in the eastern Great Basin (Aikens Basketmaker II atlatls appears to be valid for 1970, 1972), but Elko Comer-notched points the "NC" Cave specimen. are more common in later stratigraphic levels Additional cross-dating support for the there than on the Colorado Plateau (Holmer age estimate on the "NC" Cave atlatl comes 1980a, 19806). from Janetski's (1979:309) study of Great O'Malley Shelter in Nevada, a site close to Basin snare types. He states that snare use in "NC" Cave, has yielded two of the three the Great Basin probably was not widespread youngest Great Basin radiocarbon dates for until shortly after the time of Christ. There Elko Corner-notched points. The dates, 870 ± apparently are three radiocarbon dates on 100 B.P. (RL-43) and 890 ± 100 B.P. snares; two on scissors and noose snares from (RL-42), or A.D. 1080 and 1060, respec­ Cowboy Cave (Janetski in Jennings 1980: tively, are considered to be aberrant by Heizer 75-96), and one on a scissors snare from Ord and Hester (1978:7). Another nearby site Shelter in California (Janetski 1979:311, yielded the third youngest date 864 ± 80 Table 1; Echhn, Wilke, and Dawson 1981). (1-9795), or A.D. 1085 (Busby 1979:51). This Since the "NC" Cave snares are believed to radiocarbon date from Civa Shelter II in represent parts of scissors snares, the radiocar­ Garden Valley was on charcoal from a fire bon dates listed by Janetski (1979) for that hearth which had several Elko series points type seems appropos. The dates are: A.D. 370 and younger point types associated with it ± 60 (Sl-2426) for the Cowboy Cave scissors (Busby 1979:61). UntU such time as the type, and A.D. 110 (SI-2423) for the noose "NC" Cave Elko Comer-notched points are type in the same cave, and A.D. 180 ± 100 directly dated, the three late dates from for the scissors type in Ord Shelter. None of southeastem Nevada clustering around A.D. these cross-dates is incompatible with previ­ 1000 would appear to be reasonable. ously discussed cross-dates for the Elko Less support for such a late cross-date Corner-notched point and the Basketmaker II comes from the type of atlatl found in atlatl; so again, the comparative data on age association with the darts, one of which has estimates for Great Basin scissors snares sup­ the hafted Elko Comer-notched point. The port the suggested cross-dates for other "NC" atlatl is clearly a "mixed" type closely resem­ Cave artifact types. bling Basketmaker II atlatls from the San The final artifact type to be considered 96 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

here as possibly time sensitive and suitable for time at Etna Cave, it does appear to be part of cross-dating is the two-warp wickerwork, the "Basic Southwestem" stage in existence yucca-fiber sandal from "NC" Cave. Such m the Virgin and Muddy River area from sandals appear to have a limited distribution some time prior to A.D. 200 to approxi­ in the eastern Great Basin as they are not mately A.D. 700 (Aikens 1966:19). This present at Cowboy Cave (Hewett 1980: suggested temporal range for the two-warp 58-60), Sudden Shelter (Jennings, Schroedl, wickerwork, yucca-fiber sandal is another of and Holmer 1980), Hogup Cave (Aikens the several temporal concordances useful for 1970: 119-121), or Danger Cave (Jennings cross-dating "NC" Cave artifact types. When 1957). According to Aikens (1966:33), san­ the presumed cross-dates for five potential dals of the "Basic Southwestem" stage are "index" artifact types are compared, a con­ known in the Kayenta area from a number of sensus estimate of ca. A.D. 400 ± 500 seems White Dog focus sites, and in the Virgin River tenable at least for part of the site's cultural area of Utah at Antelope Cave near Hurricane, content. The relatively late carbon dates Utah, at Cave Du Pont in Utah (Nusbaum supporting the A.D. 1000 temporal placement 1922: 73-80, Pis. 36-9), as weU as at Etna for Elko Comer-notched points found in Cave (Wheeler 1973:18) in Nevada. The nearby caves, as yet represents an unresolved Nevada distribution of the two-warp wicker- temporal anomaly. work or figure-eight woven-yucca sandal The artifact types recovered from the site, seems to be restricted to three sites, Etna together with the ecofacts, give some indica­ Cave (Wheeler 1973: 18-20), Footprint Rock- tion of what the people were doing in the shelter (Shutler 1962:53), and Mule Sprmgs vicinity of the cave. The hunting and taking Cave (Tumer 1978:64). Bluhm (1952:235), of large and smaU game is impUed by the as previously mentioned, does note the atlatl and darts, the snare parts, and as weU by appearance of two-warp wickerwork sandals the Promontory peg. Mountain sheep, deer, earlier in the MogoUon and Hohokam areas and jackrabbit were taken and some bones than elsewhere in the Southwest. Clearly the were carbonized. The presence of warp-face figure-eight sandal type is of Southwestem twined basketry, a digging stick part, and a origin as none like it occurs in the westem smaU-size yucca-fiber sandal, on the other Great Basin (Loud and Harrington (1929:54, hand, imply the presence of women and 150). probably children in the cave. These are Wheeler's (1973: 18-20) detaUed techno­ somewhat simplistic deductions, but they do logical description of the figure-eight woven suggest something more than cave use by sandal, or two-warp wickerwork type, is quite sporadic male hunting parties using spear­ complete. He does note that this type was throwers and darts. distributed throughout the deposits within RAMIFICATIONS: DISCUSSION OF Etna Cave, and that it was used from Basket- DART FORESHAFT DIAMETERS maker II times through the historic period, during the latter period by local Paiutes Not wishing to stretch inferences from (Wheeler 1973:21). Fowler also notes the hmited data too far, particularly those made considerable persistence from Desert Archaic from data on a nonprofessionally excavated to Puebloan times for the figure-eight sandal site, the focus of the foUowing comments wUl in Etna Cave (Fowler, Madsen, and Hattori be upon suggestions made by previous 1973:4). researchers as to the importance of neck Despite the sandal's persistence through widths (Corliss 1972) and other quantitative GREAT BASIN ATLATL AND DART FORESHAFTS 97 measures purportedly aUowing one to separ­ larly to help determine how they differ from ate and to classify unknown projectile points dimensions of arrow foreshafts. Also, extreme as either arrowheads or dart tips (Thomas care must be exercised as to where on the 1978: 461-472). The latter article by Thomas foreshaft shaft diameters are measured (Fig. (1978), in particular, needs rebuttal as his 8a-«). A list of eight excavated Great Basin conclusions, in my opinion, are not supported sites where data on dart foreshaft dimensions by the data from which they derive. This is are available has been compiled by Aikens not often the case with Thomas's many (1970:159). In addition to Aikens' study important contributions to Great Basin pre­ Usting eight Great Basin sites, site 42Em70 history, but extremely productive scholars are (Gunnerson 1962:73), Swallow Shelter (Dal­ bound to have at least as many critics as ley 1976:58), Cowboy Cave (Janetski converts in order for the science of archae­ 1980:77), Newberry Cave (Smith 1963: ology to proceed in normal human fashion 161-162, 179), Winnemucca Caves (Hattori (Madsen 1981: 637-640; Thomas 1981a: 1981:156-172), and now "NC" Cave also may 644-648; Corliss 1980: 351-352). be considered as sources of metrical data for In fau-ness to Thomas (1978: 468-469), such studies of atlatls and dart foreshafts. At he does indicate that his sample of ten hafted the same time, caveat emptor should be atlatl points was too smaU to yield meaningful foremost in the minds of shoppers at the conclusions about procedures to quantatively archaeological marketplace contemplating the distinguish arrowheads from dart points, yet "buying" of computerized studies manipulat­ he proceeds with the exercise anyway, and ing inadequate metrical data to infer cultural compares correlation coefficients for ten haf­ usages. In short, I am not convinced that ted atlatl dart attributes with those for 132 enough data have been marshalled to segre­ hafted arrow attributes. gate arrow foreshafts from dart foreshafts on If, for example, the attribute data from the basis of size or variability in dimensions the five dart foreshafts and the one hafted such as length, width, weight, or shaft dia­ point from "NC" Cave were combined with meters, and the new data from "NC" Cave attribute data on an additional 14 dart fore- and the Winnemucca Lake foreshafts from a shafts from a Winnemucca Lake cave (Fig. cache support this contention (as shown in 8a-n) presently in Nevada State Museum Table 3). collections, the inescapable conclusion would be reached that the majority of dart fore- COMMENTS ON ATLATL DISTRIBUTIONS shafts known from the combined sample, or Cumulative data on the distribution of 95 percent of them, lack chipped stone points New World atlatls have strengthened the altogether! The sample size of the above, conclusion made years ago by Cressman, n = 20, is double the size of Thomas' dart WiUiams, and Kreiger (1940:38) that a com­ sample (n = 10) used in his 1978 study. If mon prototype for the "male" atlatl has not Hattori's (1981: 156-172) new data on 42 been found, and that the "male" atlatl type atlatl darts from Kramer Cave, Winnemucca has an early and disjunctive world-wide distri­ Lake, were included, the sample size (n = 62) bution. It is the only type present in South would have reached truly credible propor­ America (Fig. 9, inset) and Austraha, two tions. continents which occupy peripheral positions What is being suggested here is that aU of v^dth respect to human cultural development the available data on dart foreshaft dimen­ per se. It is also the dominant type of atlatl sions, hafted or not, are important, particu­ present in the Upper Paleolithic of Western 98 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

abed ^—-^^t^^r—^ j k 1 m n Fig. 8. Atlatl dart foreshafts from a cave on the northeastern shore of Winnemucca Lake;a-w, various types of hardwood foreshafts without stone points; o, hardwood tool of unknown use found in association with the darts. GREAT BASIN ATLATL AND DART FORESHAFTS 99

UK) M HOmM Fig. 9. Distriburion of the "male" type of atlatl m North and South America. The "male" type is the only type present in South America (after Metraux 1949:229-263). The "M" symbol indicates an area rather than a single occurrence in most cases. 100 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Table 3 from the shaft, and standmg up from it. In DIMENSIONS OF ATLATL FORESHAFTS, this regard, the Hidden Cave specimen more "NC" CAVE, AND A CACHE FROM closely resembles the Roaring Springs Cave A LAKE WINNEMUCCA CAVE specimens than other Nevada "male" types. Length Diameter Weight The Great Basm distribution of atlatl types is "NC" Cave (cm.) (cm.) (g.) Illustration shown in Fig. 10. 19.7 0.6 Hafted foreshaft 6.2 Fig. 2 d-e Two locahties in Mexico (Figs. 9-10) 16.5 0.5 Fig. If 21.0 0.5 Fig. 2g where "male" atlatls predominate are Cerro 18.2 0.6 Fig. 2h Cuevoso on the southeastern tip of Baja 21.0 0.5 Fig. 2/ Califomia, Mexico, (W. Massey 1961: 81-93) 13.5 0.4 Fig. 2/ and the Cuatro Cienegas region of CoahuUa, Winnemucca Length Diameter Weight Mexico, (W. Taylor 1966: 59-94). Elsewhere Cave Cache (cm.) (cm.) (g.) Illustration in that country the "mixed" type was the Perforated tip 44.6 0.9 Fig. 8fl only form found from the Tarascans on the Perforated tip 44.7 1.1 Fig. 8 b Perforated tip 44.5 1.1 Fig. 8 c west coast to the Huaxtec on the northeastem Pointed tip 42.3 1.0 Fig. 8 d gulf coast and south to the Chorti, just south Squared-off tip 41.5 0.9 Fig. 8 e and east of the Yucatan peninsula (Fig. 9). Pointed tip 43.0 0.8 Fig. 8/ Driver and Massey (1957:354) show the Pointed tip 36.0 0.6 Fig. 8^ Broken tip 34.8 0.8 Fig. 8 h ethnological use of spearthrowers for the Bunt tip 38.2 0.9 Fig. 8 J Tarahumara and the Acaxee, and use of the Pointed bunt 37.8 0.9 Fig. 8/ "mixed" type for aU groups roughly south of Pointed bunt 43.2 0.9 Fig. 8 k Bunt tip 38.8 0.7 Fig. 8 / the 20th parallel. Pointed tip 35.8 1.0 Fig. 8 m The "mixed" type of which the "NC" 42.7 Pointed tip 1.1 Fig. 8 n Cave atlatl is one, as indicated previously, was the principal weapon of warfare among Aztec Europe (W. Massey 1961:87). In the western warriors, as weU as the armies of the Incas of portion of North America north of Mexico Peru and the Chibchas of Colombia (Driver only five "male" atlatls have been recovered, and Massey 1957:356). The "mixed" type, of although a sixth specimen, a "two purpose" course, is the dominant type found in the atlatl from Winnemucca Lake (Harrington Southwest extending from the Trans-Pecos 1959:60; Mildner 1974:10) clearly is a region of Texas to the Kayenta region of "male" type, and has been misclassified as a Arizona, as well as all subareas of the Great "mixed" type. The latter has a dorsal groove, Basin (Fig. 10). The "female" type as indi­ but the groove obviously was intended for cated on the distribution map (Fig. 10) seems weight attachment, rather than dart place­ to have a somewhat more restricted distribu­ ment. The five other known "male" types tion, having been found so far only in Nevada come from the mouth of the Skagit River in and Utah caves. In the Great Basin, the five the state of Washington (H. Taylor and Cald- female atlatl types may weU be derived from weU 1954: 279-280), two from Roaring or related to the more common mixed type, Springs Cave m Oregon (Cressman, WUliams, but this, of course, is speculation. and Kreiger 1940:8), one from another Lake CONCLUSION Wmnemucca Cave, Nv-Wa-197 (Hester 19746: 1-36), and one from Hidden Cave, Nevada. Although the artifact and ecofact inven­ The latter is represented by the distal end of a tory from "NC" Cave is quite smaU, totaling one-piece type with the hook, or spur, carved 69 specimens, the items in it are of sufficient GREAT BASIN ATLATL AND DART FORESHAFTS 101

120 no 100

no 100

Fig. 10. Distribution of three types of atlatls in western North America. Southwestern culture area distribution is not shown, but the area is demarcated as is the ethnographic use area in Mesoamerica. 102 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY importance to warrant this preliminary study. A paper such as this, based on a collection Another Nevada occurrence of a "mixed" of prehistoric artifacts removed from their type of atlati together with hafted and unhaf­ matrix without proper contextual controls ted foreshafts with unusuaUy small diameters presents an object lesson of sorts. Even the has been recorded. The atlati itself is clearly worst kind of new field data may be salvaged related to Basketmaker II style spearthrowers and be made to yield fresh insights into such although the weight is located in an unusual questions as morphological variations of position on the dorsal surface of the body. weapon types in the Great Basin, presumed On the basis of limited cross-dating of cultural successions or variations within a several "index" artifact types, Elko Corner- geographic region, and estimates of temporal notched projectile points, the "mixed" type duration of those cultures. WhUe the extreme­ of atlatl, the scissors snare parts, the Promon­ ly tentative nature of such interpretations tory peg, and the yucca-fiber, two-warp wick­ should be underscored, the recovery of fresh erwork sandal, an age estimate of ca. A.D. field data may be at least as important an 400 ± 500 is suggested for the retrieved activity as laboratory manipulation of existing portion of the cave's contents. data sets. The artifacts and ecofacts from "NC" REFERENCES Cave may weU be related to the Pahranagat style of rock art first recorded and character­ Aikens, C. Melvin ized by Heizer and Hester (1974:9) as ". . . 1966 Virgin-Kayenta Cultural Relationships. Uni­ disguised hunters with atlatls." These hunter versity of Utah Anthropological Papers No. 79. figures quite commonly are associated with bighom sheep in Lincoln County, and tan­ 1970 Hogup Cave. University of Utah Anthropo­ gible evidence for such hunting activity has logical Papers No. 93. been described in this report. Since the "NC" 1972 Surface Archaeology of Southwestern Wash­ Cave site is located in Lincoln County where oe County, Nevada: The G. W. Smith Collec­ the Pahranagat style of rock art is abundant, a tion. Reno: University of Nevada Desert Research Institute Publications in the Social direct correlation between the hunter figures Sciences No. 9. and the cave's contents is possible, particu­ larly as the suggested dates for the rock-art Aveleyra, A. L., M. Maldonado-Koerdell, and P. Martinez del Rio style (300 B.C. to A.D. 500) are coeval with 1956 Cueva de la Candelaria, Volumen I. Mexico: the age estimate given for "NC" Cave. Of Memorias del Instituto Nacional de Antropo- course, such a conclusion is tenuous, at best. logia e Historia Col. 5. Mexico, D.F. "NC" Cave atiafl foreshaft diameters aver­ Bettinger, Robert L. age less than half the size of previously 1976 Flat Iron Ridge Site. In: Prehistoric Pifion studied atlati foreshaft diameters reported in Ecotone Settlements of the Upper Reese a study by Thomas (1978). When these new River Valley, Central Nevada, by David Hurst Thomas and Robert L. Bettinger. New data were combined with data on 14 addition­ York: American Museum of Natural History al dart foreshafts from a Winnemucca Lake Anthropological Papers 53(3):313-327. cache, the conclusion was reached that avaU­ Billings, W. D. able data are stiU inadequate to make mean­ 1945 Nevada Trees. Reno: Agricultural Extension ingful statements about unhafted points and Service Bulletin No. 94. their functions based on neck widths or other Bluhm, Elaine spurious quantitative measures manipulated 1952 Clothing and Textiles. In: MogoUon Cultural through discrimmant analysis. Continuity and Change: The Stratigraphic GREAT BASIN ATLATL AND DART FORESHAFTS 103

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