Tony Mowrer is assistant professor of at California State University, Fresno, where he teaches courses in and conducts the Men’s and Women’s Choruses. [email protected] Choral directors use tonal memory tests as one ory. While in short-term memory, information must of their ability assessment instruments to gain knowl- be rehearsed, or repeated, to prevent its rapid decay. edge about their singers’ tonal memory. Moreover, Most of us experience this decay phenomenon when memory tests can serve as audition information trying to remember small pieces of information when selecting students for choral ensembles. such as an address, a date, or a phone number. If this Louis Diercks reported the implementation of tonal information is repeated, it becomes associated with memory tests as part of the audition process for other relevant pieces of information already stored 225– 270 singers at Ohio State University.1 Thomas in long-term memory. The new information is then Wine reported that tonal memory tests are part placed in the fi nal stage of the memory process: of all-state audition procedures in many states.2 long-term memory. To retrieve information from Authors of choral methods textbooks, including long-term memory, one must rely on cues that help Brinson,3 Hylton,4 and Phillips,5 suggest the value determine if the information is there. of their function and usefulness in assessing singers’ tonal memory abilities. Frequently, many students who audition for choral ensembles prove to be poor sight-readers. Consequently, conductors re- quire certain musical assessment information to help determine not only whether their students may become better readers, but also whether they are potential candidates for learning the vast and varied repertoire presented throughout a given school year. Because tonal memory tests have been shown to be good predic- tors of a student’s musical contri- bution to a choral ensemble,6 an explication of their characteristics and application is warranted.

Memory System Before exploring the nature of tonal memory, it may be helpful to have some concept of how the memory system works. According to Loftus,7 information must pass through short-term memory to become part of long-term mem-

Choral Journal • May 2010 21 Tonal Memory in the Choral Audition

Almost anything can be a cue: sights, smells, or sounds are com- mon cues. The sight of campfi re fl ames, for example, can be a re- minder of a particular unpleasant fi re experienced as a child. The sound of screeching tires may be a reminder of an automobile accident. Cues may, of course, be different for different people because the cues and the information to which they are linked are rooted in individual experiences. How much can the average person remember? George Miller8 studied the amount of information a person can place in short-term memory. He assumed that nearly all information given a person is recoverable, if initial observations are correct. If, on the other hand, the observer makes errors, the information recovered will be considerably less than the amount of information originally transmit- ted. Moreover, Miller assumed that the more information transmitted to the observer, the more mistakes the the chunks used to recode tonal information (Figure 1) faster than did non-musicians, and observer will make when repeating the will most likely be related to the musical syn- they remembered them better than less- information. The amount of information tax a person is most accustomed to . meaningful melodies (Figure 2). accurately repeated will level off at some Consequently, rather than remembering the Korenman and Peynircioglu also dis- value. When recalling information, people individual pitches C– E– G, one may simply covered that non-musicians learned less will begin to become confused as they reach remember a pattern as a major triad and meaningful melodies more rapidly than did their personal limit. After reviewing several reduce the information remembered from musicians. From this study, one may conclude studies about memory, Miller concluded that three pieces of information to a single piece that, although a musician may be expected the limit of a person’s short-term memory of information. to learn and perform highly dissonant music, constitutes—on average—seven pieces of Davies9 noted that the human mind when dealing with short-term memory, as information. naturally remembers a melody better than is the case of a tonal memory test, the use Miller believed that we compensate a random sequence of tones. He observed of less-meaningful melodies may be more for this limitation in a variety of ways. For that a melody will always be a sequence of likely to identify non-musicians rather than example, one way we compensate is by tones, but a sequence of tones will not al- musicians. reorganizing information so that it becomes ways be a melody. He further notes that the organized into larger and larger chunks of ability to perceive melody depends on the information. An inexperienced reader, for listener’s ability to organize (recode) tones Tonal Memory Tests example, might listen to each individual into a meaningful pattern (chunk). Many choral directors create their own vowel and consonant as a separate chunk. Other researchers (Long,10 Dowling,11 tonal memory tests. These tests usually con- As the reader becomes more experienced, Pembrook,12) observed that subjects re- sist of having a student hear and sing several these sounds become organized as words sponded more accurately to tonal melodies melodies that increase in melodic diffi culty and, later, as phrases. Miller refers to this than to atonal melodies. Attneave and until the student “vocally stumbles.” Some di- reorganization as recoding. His suggestion Olson13 found that people rarely attend rectors may determine the content of each that a person learns to recode information to individual pitches. Rather, a person gives melody by whim of the moment, opinion of is important to musicians. A musician rou- attention to an entire sequence that is rec- the student’s ability, or consideration of the tinely recodes tonal information into chunks ognizable as a melodic phrase. anticipated memory needs of the chorus that make possible the retention of large Korenman and Peynircioglu14 observed members. In the case of all-state auditions, amounts of music. As with the spoken word, that musicians learned meaningful melodies however, some states employ a composer

22 Choral Journal • May 2010 to create the tonal memory tests. only refl ected the student’s present status longer may prove to be counter-pro- While their use seems fairly universal, as a sight-reader rather than that student’s ductive. Doumont16 suggests limiting what do we know of how a tonal memory potential strength as a musician. One might otherwise unstructured material to test works? Further, what research can presume we all want students who have fewer than seven notes with fi ve as guide us in the creation of appropriate tonal potential as musicians. Consequently, some the limit—three notes being optimal. If memory tests? thoughts about tonal memory testing might an ensemble routinely performs atonal With the exception of the study by Ko- be useful. music, a director should consider renman and Peynircioglu, procedures used in Based on the information gathered from inserting some atonal examples into studies of tonal memory did not require that studies of tonal memory, the following rec- the tonal memory test in the audition. subjects sing entire melodies. Researchers ommendations are made: If this procedure is done, it would be asked subjects to indicate whether pitches or best to limit that sample’s length to patterns presented in pairs were the same • An item in a test of tonal memory must be between three and fi ve notes. or different. In some studies, subjects were relatively short, approximately seven asked to sing the apparent tonic of a par- notes. Miller suggested that a person’s • An item in a test of tonal memory must ticular pattern or another pitch integral to short-term memory would be about be melodic rather than merely a se- the pattern played. The procedures of these seven notes. To fi nd how far a person quence of tones. A melody will always studies were different from the standard might stretch, a sample melody might be a sequence of tones but a sequence practices of most music teachers, especially be as long as 9 notes, but anything of tones will not always be a melody. those who direct choral ensembles. Typically, choir directors ask students to remember and sing complete melodies. During this author’s 30 years of choral directing, personal observations of many students indicate that they remember short melodic patterns easily while other students are more limited in their ability to remember them. This discrepancy does not seem to be Conductors Workshop related to a student’s ability to read prior to the audition. In fact, many students who can- with Rod Eichenberger not read, display a superior tonal memory. Choral A five-day professional The ability to remember and rehearse short melodic phrases and place them in long- development workshop term memory are critical for a singer to for choral conductors function successfully in a choral ensemble. at all levels The ability to sing a short melodic pattern involves skill in singing along with memory for musical information. Singing skill requires the ability to coordinate the muscles of the throat, breathing mechanism, and the tongue and mouth with the mind’s ear. Having heard a melody or sequence of pitches, a person must audiate (engage in inner hearing) the pitch sequence to give it meaning. The brain must then tell the throat and related singing muscles what to do so that person can sing the pitches. In essence, Workshop Locations two highly involved skill processes are at Alexandria, Virginia Cannon Beach, Oregon work; audiation followed by singing. July 19 – 23, 2010 August 2 – 6, 2010 Louis Diercks15 questioned whether he found the best candidates for his chorus For more information, contact: through the standard audition. He presumed George Fox University he found the best voices, but wondered Performing Arts Department whether he was choosing the musicians with 503-554-2620 s [email protected] the greatest potential. He observed that a or visit choralconductorsworkshop.com student’s performance on sight-singing tests

Choral Journal • May 2010 23 Tonal Memory in the Choral Audition

Though each fi gure melody than was the musician. If the is short, Figure 3 has aim is to identify potential musicians, it a clear tonic and the seems valuable for the melody to be melodic line begins meaningful. For some students, even a and ends on the simple triad outlining a major or minor tonic. The melody may prove challenging (see in Figure 4, however, Figures 5 and 6). may be perceived by some to be nothing more than • To discriminate between students with a a sequence of tones. poor tonal memory (weaker audia- tion skills) and students with a good • Most, if not all, items in a test of tonal memory (stronger audiation tonal memory should be tonal. skills), it is necessary to include items Some atonal music sounds much that are more musically demanding. like a sequence of tones rather These items may include melodies that than a melody, particularly to the include portions of different chords, A person’s ear listens for melodic musically inexperienced student. played as broken chords (Figure 7). information it can use as a cue for the Further, as Korenman and Peynircioglu Melodies of this nature give insight memory (Figure 3). Observe the dif- learned, non-musicians seemed better into how well a student hears Western ference between Figure 3 and Figure 4. able to repeat the less-meaningful .

November 17– 21, 2010

Come and meet the international choral world in the United States! All choirs from all continents are welcome! Competitions, gala concerts, encounter concerts, seminars and workshops. Also upcoming: The American International Choral Festival, Reno, May 4-8, 2011 www.interkultur.com INFORMATION & CONTACT: Christina Prucha, [email protected] Phone: (405) 232-8161 INTERKULTUR event in partnership with the American Choral Directors Association, Hugh Ballou, [email protected] in collaboration with St. Louis represented by St. Louis Convention and Visitors Phone: (888) 398-8471 Commission and the Regional Arts Commission

24 Choral Journal • May 2010 • Moreover, it is often valuable, as an audi- tory stretch for the listener, to go tends to create stress and pessimism a bit beyond the seven-note limit on the part of the test-taker, reducing established in Miller’s studies (Figure the performance accuracy of the test- 8). Additionally, this melody includes a taker and reducing the validity of the brief modulation. test. Consequently, it would be best for the tonal memory test to have the • A common practice when administering simple and diffi cult items interspersed tonal memory tests is to play examples throughout. Because this juxtaposition in increasing diffi culty. In this way, the of test items serves somewhat to relax longer a student is able to accurately the test-taker, the results will be more sing the examples, the examples be- likely to be valid. For example, it might come more diffi cult. When the student be wise to administer several of the can no longer accurately repeat the previous examples in the order shown example, the test is concluded. One in Figure 9. rationale given for this approach: students gain confi dence as they ac- curately sing and progress through the Conclusion easier examples. As students achieve That we are capable of remembering all confi dence, their ability to sing the that we do is amazing. For the memory more diffi cult examples increases, al- system to work, people must take advantage lowing them to perform better on the of both short-term memory and long-term tonal memory test. Although this ra- memory. New memories fi rst pass through tionale seems logical, researchers have short-term memory where they are repeat- learned that this approach actually ed and connected with old memories, or cues, after which they may become a part of long-term memory. Miller suggested that a person’s short- term memory is limited to about

Choral Journal • May 2010 25 Tonal Memory in the Choral Audition

seven pieces of information. One way pointments, conductors often include a 3 Barbara A. Brinson, Choral Music Methods and people compensate for this limitation is by tonal memory test in the audition. If prop- Materials (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group, reorganizing information into chunks. When erly constructed and administered, the tonal 1996), 34–36. working with language, individual letters will memory test will help a conductor predict 4 John B Hylton, Comprehensive Choral Music be reorganized (chunked) into words, words which prospective choir member will best Education (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice- will be reorganized into sentences, and so on. serve the ensemble’s needs. If not con- Hall Inc., 1995), 38–39. 5 This is important to musicians who reorga- structed and administered properly, however, Kenneth H. Phillips, Directing the Choral Music nize tonal information into chunks (individual the tonal memory test can potentially, and Program (New York, NY: Oxford University notes become part of longer musical words inadvertently, cause the director to choose Press, 2004), 62– 63. 6 and sentences) so they can remember large poorer musicians. Tonal memory tests that Tony A. Mowrer, “Tonal Memory As An Audition amounts of music. This reorganization will be are tonal and consist of about seven notes Factor for Choral Ensembles.” (Doctoral Dissertation, Temple University, 1996). based on the musical syntax that musician is seem to work the best. 7 accustomed to hearing. This writer hopes that the ideas in this Elizabeth Loftus, Memory (Reading, MA: Addison- Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1980). Researchers have found that people re- article will assist the choir director in con- 8 George Miller, “The Magical Number Seven, Plus spond better to tonal melodies than atonal structing and administering tonal memory or Minus Two: Some Limits on our Capacity melodies. This should not be surprising tests that help identify students who possess for Processing Information,” Psychological because of the way the memory system well-developed tonal-memory skills. Review (1956, 63), 81–97. works. People naturally reorganize musical 9 John Booth Davies, “Memory for Melodies and material into chunks that fi t the musical syn- Tonal Sequences: A Brief Note,” Bulletin for tax they are accustomed to hearing. What NOTES the Council of Research in Music Education may be more surprising is the fi nding that (1981), 66–67. 1 non-musicians actually learn atonal melodies Louis H Diercks, “A Prognostic Approach to the 10 Peggy Long, “Relationships Between Pitch more quickly and remember them better Choral Auditions,” Choral Journal (November, Memory in Short Melodies and Selected than musicians. 1962), 9–11. Factors,” Journal of Research in Music 2 In a large choral program, the audition Thomas Wine, “All-state Choruses: a Survey of Education (1977, 25), 272– 82. task may be arduous and time-consuming. Practices, Procedures, and Perceptions,” Choral 11 Jay W. Dowling, “Scale and Contour: Two To help them make wise membership ap- Journal (1996, 36), 21–27. Components of a Theory of Memory for Melodies,” Psychological Review (1978, 85), 341–54. 12 Randall G. Pembrook, “Interference of the Transcription Process and Other Selected Variables on Perception and Memory During Melodic Dictation,” Journal of Research in Music Education (1986, 34), 238–61. 13 Fred Attneave and Richard Olson, “Pitch As A Medium: A New Approach To Psychophysical Scaling,” The American Journal of Psychology (1971, 84), 147– 66. 14 Lisa M. Korenman and Zehra F. Peynircioglu, “Individual Differences in Learning and Remembering Music: Auditory versus Visual Presentation,” Journal of Research in Music Education (2007, 55), 48–64. 15 Diercks, 9–11. 16 Jean-Luc Dumont, “Magical Numbers: The Seven- Plus-or-Minus-Two Myth,” IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication (2002, 45), 123– 27.

26 Choral Journal • May 2010