George Kennan and the Russian Empire~ How America's Conscience Became an Enemy of Tsarism Helen Hundley

#277 George Kennan and the Russian Empire~ How America's Conscience Became an Enemy of Tsarism Helen Hundley

The author wishes to thank the Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies of the Woodrow V'lilson International Center for Scholars for the research fellows~Lip and the librarians and archivists in the Rare Book and Manuscript Room in the Belyi Dom of Irkutsk State University, the State Archives of Irkutsk O~last', the New York Public Library Slavic Division and Rare Books and Manuscripts Di·;ision, and the Library of Congress Manuscript Division, who made the preparation of this paper possible.

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Kennan Institute Advisory Council Chair, Herbert J. Ellison, University of Washington · Kathleen Parthe, University of Rochester· Oleksandr Pavliuk, Kyiv-Mohyla Academy· Elizabeth Pond, Bonn, Germany · Linda Randall, University of Rhode Island· Jane Sharp, University of Maryland, College Park · Ambassador Thomas W. SilT'.ons, Jr., Stanford University · Mark von Hagen, Columbia University · Grace Kennan Warnecke, Winrock International, Chief of Party, Kyiv · Larissa G. Zakharova, Moscow State University George Kennan and the Russian Empire: How America's Conscience Became an Enemy of Tsarism

In 1885-1886, one of America's the Atlantic Cable had already failed most respected reporters, George twice. Perry McDonough Collins' plan Kennan (1845-1924), changed his mind sought to solve the problem through a about the basic nature of the Imperial joint effort of the Russian 3m?ire and Russian government.1 He would spend the United States. Thus, in 1865 and the subsequent four decades of his 1866,3 the young George Kennan had a active life attempting to challenge U.S. fascinating adventure, an adventure policy and to mold U.S. public opin which left him with a lifetime love ion, a goal he was J.argely successful in Russia. achieving. After his first trip to the Kennan's book about his travels, Russian Empire in the 1860s, he had Tent Life in Szberia gradually gained worked hard to create a benign por:rait him some notoriety as an "expert" on of Russia. Given its location in Europe, the Russian Empire in the United its monarchical system, and its alien States, l:Jut did not provide him with nature, this was no small feat. After his wealth.4 It took some years after experiences with critics of the Russian returnir.g from his first trip to the government in 1885 anC. 1886, he Russian Empire to establish himself. In sought to expose the American public time, he found a career in reporting, and government to the evils of the and became a premier reporter for the Russian government while separating new Associated Press. Over his career, its actions from the Russians as a he wrote on American politics, the people. To a great extent Kennan owed Spanish-American War, President his change of opinion to the influence McKinley's death, the Russo-japanese of the Siberian patriot, Nicholas War, World War I, and the Russian Mikhailovich IaC.rintsev (1842-1894), Revolution.5 He wrote for a wide and his wide circle of friends and variety of journals including the "hot" acquaintances, both inside and outside magazines and newspapers of his of Siberia.2 The rr:eeting of these two times inclading Century Magazine, men, early in Kennan's investigation of Atlantic Monthly, and The Outlook6 In the exile system, played a seminal role fact, a series written by Kennan might in the people he would meet, and the actually significantly improve the type of information he could access. readership numbers of a magazine? Kennan was certainly in a posi In no small amount due to tion to play the roJ.e he was to play. He Kennan's efforts, by the 1880s anum had been preparing for it for over ber of the American public saw the twenty years. An ardent supporter of Russian Empire as benign, if exotic, the Union from Ohio, Kennan worked and filled ·with interesting people.8 A as a telegrapher during the early years number of elements played into that of the Civil War and distinguished perception. At times, the Russian himself in the critical Cincinnati center. Empire was perceived as being He then joined an exciting adventure, America's "only" friend in Europe. an expedition to plan the laying of Secondly, the sale of Russian America telegraph line across Siberia in order to to the United States, in addition to allow swift communication between being a "Seward's Folly" joke, was alsc the United States and the European presePted in some of the American powers. At that hme, the attempt to lay press as a transaction which cheated

1 t}le Russian government when the These words were repeated in a United States failed to see that the series of lectures initiated in the early Russian government received all tha: 1880s by the prominent New York had been prcnnised. minister, the abolitionist, Henry Ward Finally and tellingly, the :\.ussiar. Beecher. In closing his lecture, Empire faced "evil revolutionaries" in Armstrong used equally unequivocal the 1880s. Americans, for their part, language, " ... Russia is among S~ates certainly were increasingly fearful of the monster criminal of the nineteenth "Eastern European bomb-throwing century. There are no evidences in anarchists" as they viewed some of tl-.2 Siberia or elsewhere that can be legiti immigrants to their own country whc mately, or even decently, adduced to had opposed the Tsar or other EuropeaC1 vindicate before Americans either the governments in Europe. The 1881 humanity or the justice of that em assassination of Tsar Aleksandr II only pire."10 Even though serfdom had served to justify the Russian exile struc ended, to Armstrong and others, the ture. Therefore, even to some Americans, ].ussian Empire continued to deserve despite its monarchist gove::.nment, all the approbation of civilized people those who criticized the Russian govern because of its policy of imprisoning ment must be wrong. and abusing large numbers of its Kennan was not the person who people in Siberia, for actions which initially challenged the very views on would not be illegal in democratic Russia that he had helped to create, societies. but he certainly provided the most Armstrong sought to spark a influential opposition to the Tsarist battle specifically with Kennan, as the government after he changed his dean :)f knowledgeable American mind. Another man initiated that specialists on Russia, and one whc public battle. William Jackson 11eretofore had preser.ted a positive Armstrong served as an inspector of view of Russia. If Kennan could "see U.S. Consulates in Presiden~ Grant's the light" his change of heart would be second term. After his experience in taken seriously by important peop:ie. Russia he came to believe that: The succeeding battle of words with You have been used to hear~r. g Kennan in print and on the lecture that this Tsar [Aleksandr II] is a circuit stirred up public interest in the liberal-despot and a kind-hea:rt'=ci exact "nature" of the Russian Empire, man. You have associated his as coulC. be clearly displayed in the figure in a sublime act with rhar Siberian exile system. towering executive Chief of thiE: At first, Armstrong's attacks republic-Abraham Lincoln. I seemed anti-Russian tc Kennan, which mear, the emancipation of the caused him to strike back in defense serfs. But in chinking of their against those who criticized ~ussians. deaths, keep always this clear At this time, Kennan generally de distinction in mind. Abraham fended all things Russian . .5or ex Lincoln was assassinated for a ample, in 1882 Kennan ~ambasted cause which liberated 3 million those who sought to attack the Sibe slaves. Aleksandr II was killed £c:: rian exile system in a scholarly article the enslavement of ninety mil in the Bulletin o/ the American Geo lions of people-the one the graphical Society in whicl:-, he presented martyr of Liberty, the other the an outline of the criticism directed at martyr of Despotism.9 the Russian system. 11 Kennar, saw tvv'J 2 special prongs of the attack, one from support his wife, Emeline Kennan, partisan English papers, and the other while he was overseas. The Century f:!."om misguided Siberians. Kennan Company also held out the possibility criticized the inflammatory agenda of that it might publish any book arising the English ":'ory papers" in their from this expedition.15 To the company, attempt to isolate the Russian Empire it did not matter what he discovered, for international political reasons. at the very least, Kennan could be Secondly, to Kennan, if the English had expected to write another very popular a political agenda, Siberians practiced travel account. the economic NIMBY [Not in My Back Kennan attacked every issue he Yard] of the nineteenth century. In wrote on from a scholarly approach. Kennan's analysis, after they became :-:is work on Siberian exile was no prosperous, Siberians sought to rid different. Planned articles and a book themselves of this institution which in on the Siberian exile system would be no way added to property values. Two researched from every point of view. Russians were specifically unmerci Kennan began his work witb a:1 fully pilloried by Kennan, S. Maximov, advantage few outsiders bothered to for his Siberia and the Hard Labour Exile, seek, he learned Russian. He was thus and N.M. Iadrintsev. To Kennan, able to hold conversations with every Maximov and Iadrintsev's works were, one he met, whether or not the inter " ... prejudiced and one-sided, but in preter was available or willing for him many cases untrue .. .. " 12 Kennan was to speak to certain people. Kennan genuinely incensed and disgusted by then sought to see as much of the exile their criticism of Russian governmen system that he could, and meet as tal policy. Unknowingly, he attacked many people, both administrators and the very person who would soon help exiles, as possible. to change his mind forever concerning To this end, for his trip to Siberia, not only Siberian exile, but the nature both before and after his arrival in St. of the Russian government as well. Petersburg, Kennan sought to obtain 1885 Trip to Siberia. all of the official documents which Despite Kennan's spirited and would open the Siberian prisons to a imrr.ediate defense of Russia, as foreigner. As he still had a very good Armstrong had planned, he had reputation with the Russian govern piquec! Kennan's interest.13 The next ment, Kennan easily obtained letters to logical step would be a trip to examine the Governor-General of Eastern conditions in Siberia personally. How Siberia, General Ignatiev, and from the could an under-pa:d writer afford such First Assistant Minister of Foreign a trip? Kenr.an convinced one of Affairs, while the Russian Minister to America's most popular late nine the United States, Baron Struve, and teenth century journals, The Century, to Aleksandr III himself, also helped to send him to Siberia. The entire expedi smooth Kennan's travels. 16 While those tion, contracted articles, and possible documents would be absolutely de book, were painstakingly planned in rigeuer, Kennan realized that more conjunction with the president of the heartfelt and personal letters from a Century Company, Roswell Smith, and variety of non-government peopl.e even with the United States Govern would open up non-official sources. ment.14 Kennan was to receive $6,000 Nicholas Mikhailovich Iadrintsev. for twelve articles with $100 per month Before Kennan arrived in St. advance for up to fifteen months, to Petersburg in 1885, he had determiced 3 to meet the very Siberiar_ he attacked to create a "United States of Siberia" virulently during the early 1880s battle led to arrest, exiie, and the beginning with Armstrong, the Siberian author of of a journalistic career by the late Sibir' kak koloniia, Nicholas 1860s. During his exile, Iadrintsev Mikhailovich Iadrintsev. Kennan wrote began to work for the Western Siberian Smith in May 1885 that, government which led to a lifetime of I think I wrote you from Washing access to government data on Siberia. ton that among the Siberian After his release from exile he contin experts whom I particularly ued to study government data, to desired to meet and consult in St. gather his own information from Petersburg was Mr. Yadrintsef...I unofficial sources, and even to explore knew, from Mr. Yadrintsefs [sk] Siberia himself. In order to publicize writings, that if: could make his this factual material as well as his and acquaintance in a proper manner, others' suggestions for new policies and gain his confidence, I could towards Siberia, Iadrintsev began to not only get at the anti-govern write the history of Siber~a; in articles, rr..ent side of the exile question, he published in some of the most but obtain a great amount of influential journals :n Russia, in books valuable advice and information such as his ground breaking, Russkaia with regard to Siberia, where he obshchina v tiur'mie i ssylkie in 1872, had spent nearly all his life ... a Sibir' kak koloniia in 1882, or finally by man of high scientific literary establishing his owr, paper, Vostochnoe attainments.17 Obozrenie or The Eastern Review, From the beginning, Kennan was founded in 1882 in St. Petersburg. To willing to look at the issue of exile accomplish this prodigious work and from all sides, and as was his usual reach those in power, he moved to St. approach in all matters, he sought out Petersburg. the very best information to discover While many issues occupied his the "Siberian" side. While Iadrintsev interest, Iadrintsev was pa:-ticularly was not known in the United States, by critical of the system :>f prisons and the 1880s he was a well-known figure exile in Siberia. Siberians had reason to in the Siberian ob!astnichestvo or Re be concerned. Although Siberia had gionalist/Nationalist movement in the been used as a place cf exile by the Russian Empire, and served as a Russian government since the end of spokesman for Siberian issues.18 Born the sixteenth century, during the and raised in Siberia, he was a leader Napoleonic Wars and after the number of a generation of politically aware of prisoners had increased exponen Siberians who sought greater au tially. Prisoners of war, political prison tonomy, and an improved ec:momy ers, and religious schismatics and their and cultural life for their region. :'~E families, were joined by thieves and descendant of serfs who bought them murderers. After time spent in prison, selves out of serfdom, Iadrintsev's most of these people, often accompa odyssey began as a lonely Siberian :l~ed by their families, were then left to student in college in distant St. Peters their own devices to feed themselves, burg in the 1860s. There, he and fellow in a economy where they could rarely Siberians began to designate them find full occupation. The resulting theft selves and their "country" officially as and murders made small villages, different and separate from R-.1ssia. His towns, and the countryside alike identification as a member of a project dangerous. Iadrintsev criticized the 4 waste of lives to exile, as well as o:he Siberian life, Sibir' kak kolomia, was the resulting economic and social damage best single source on Siberia at that to all those involved. The relative time. Iadrintsev's use of data, access to cheapness of ~he Siberian system made government information, clear argu it possible to imprison an increasing ments, all combined with the corrobo number of Russia's population, with rating information from other sources, out giving thou.ght to the actual "guilt" convinced Kennan of Iadrintsev's of those sent to Siberia. The callous value. According to George Kennan in manner in which the prisoners and ~:s reply to William Jackson their families were treated exacerbatec. Armstrong in the Chronicle, Kennan a bad system. To Iadrintsev, not only made reference to his sources of i:>for were the policies ill-advised and mation j:..tst prior to his trip to Russia to poorly administered, but the manner observe the prison systems, he was in which the gavernment defended using N.M. Iadrintsev's, Szbir' kak them was proof of a seriously malfunc kolomia. 21 Iadrintsev's book was new in tioning government. the early 1880s and Kennan owned an Despite the excellent quality and 1882 edition. Kennan mentioned that explosive nature of his information, in his rebuttal lectures prior to leaving Iadrintsev was reaching a limited for Russia, he was beginning to use number of peopie outside of the Iadrintsev and noted how impeccable Russian Empire in the mid-1880s.19 His his credentials as a critic of tsarist meeting with Kennan gave policy wereY Iadrintsev's views an American outlet, The next year, after his arrival in and a wider European outlet. St. Petersburg for the Siberian tour, Although Kennan knew a great Kennan spent a great deal of effort and deal about the Russian Empire prior to time to meet Iadrintsev, and expressed the debate over ~xile, he felt the need awe upon finally meeting the Siberian to learn even more before leaving fo:: explorer and his colleagues. Kennan Siberia. In the summer of 1884, a year noted in his journals that he was also before his planr.ed expedition to touched by Iadrintsev's knowledge of Siberia, Kennan visited St. Petersburg Kennan's own work on Siberia, and and Moscow in pursuit of books on the attention and grace with which he Siberia. He discovered that few stores was greeted.23 had much of anything of any value on Iadrintsev turned out to be the Siberia. As a result of the difficulty of single most important contact Kennan his task, he spent more time in Russia would make as he started for Siberia.24 than he planned.20 At this point, As a direct result of Iadrintsev's guid Kennan discovered that Iadrintsev was ance, Kennan :earned the truth about not only the author of numerous works the Siberian exile system specifically, on current Siberian conditions and and about the deeply troubled Russian history, but he was also the editor of a Empire, generally. Before Kennan left very influential paper on Siberia, St. Petersburg, he received yet another Vostochnoe Obozrenie, and a leader of a set of documents, albeit very unofficial Siberian movement, the Siberian documents. Iadrintsev provided him Oblastnichestvo. Of a more immediate with a list of people and places, and use, Kennan learned of Iadrintsev' s letters of introduction to those in new book on the exile system. Siberia that :he Russian government Nicholas Mikhailovich would certainly not have recom Iadrintsev's exhaustive study of mended +hat Kennan see, and he 5

------wou:d not have found, withot:t spe notorious Kara Mines in the cific directions and more importantly, Transbaikal. Following Iadrintsev's introductions. In a seven page hand suggestions, he returned to Earopean written guide to Siberia, Iadrintsev Russia after visiting large and small provided Kennan with such widely convict mines, city prisons, and after varied information as the population talking with an enormous variety of of towns Kennan would, or should people including government officials, visit, as well as lists of people to see prominent citizens, thos2 involved and institutions to learn about. He with the papers Iadrintsev suggested suggested vigorously that Kennan he meet, exiles, former exiles, and meet the editors of Szbirskaia c;azeta in families of exiles. Tomsk, and Sibzr: in Irkutsk.25 Not In the process of his travels only did Kennan learn a great deal Kennan had indeed changed his mind through these suggestions, he met about the nature of the Russian gov Felix Volkhovsky,26 a future clcse friend err.ment, and discovered the basic evil and colleague, at Szbirskaia Gazeta. of the exile system. He was frankly Armed with his letters fre>m overwhelmed by the "noble heroic Imperial Russian officials, as well as characters" of the exiles that he met. In Iadrintsev's and his colleagues' sug a letter to Emeline, her husband admit gestions and letters of introduction, ted that "From every meeting with Kennan and his photographer, George them I come away all inspired and Frost, left for Siberia in the late spring stirred up."29 of 1885. Despite the support frcm Kennan's return tc St. Petersburg people in power, the trip he proposed occasioned some concern -.:m his part remained a dangerous one. In crde~~ tc for his own safety, not only because of allay his family's' fears for his physical. the explosive nature of the notes he safety, as well as mitigate his sense ~f !-tad taken, but also because of his own being cut off, he punctiliously sent physical ill health, and the deteriorat post cards home to his wife, Err,ei.in2 ing nature of George Frost's mind.30 Weld Kennan, and other family :::nem For these reasons, he moved quickly bers, especially his brother John. 27 through St. Petersburg, traveled on to These letters could only provide =-.onc.on, recuperated., and returned to psychological help, however, Kenno.n St. Petersburg in the Spring of 1886. needed more concrete proximate After Emeline had joined her husband support. In this, Iadrintsev even served in London, the Kennans socialized as a source of security for Kennan's with prominent Russian political trip. From the first, Kennan evidenced exiles, especially Stepniak [S.M. faith in Iadrintsev's honesty and ICaucasus. The return served in exile in Siberia or had family who three purposes, not only had Ken!lan had been. developed an intense interest in the UrJike during his visit the year Caucasus in proceeding years, he had before, Kennan evidenced absolv.tely also expressed a desire for his wife to no skepticism toward Iadrintsev' s or meet his new friends. He not only other's views. His open-rnindedness to wanted to share this r.ew part of his Iadrintsev's ideas is perhaps reflected life with her, but frankly, he wanted in the broad range of facts and opin her opinion of these people and to find ions of his that Kennan recorded. They more time to talk to them about what certainly discussed the serious defects he had learned. To these ends, they of the Siberian administraticn, the spent a very useful month in St. Peters need for a Siberian University, as well burg obtaining more information from as the silly, vicious, and arbitrary Iadrintsev and his frierds. After the government treatment of its popula Kennans returned to St. Petersburg tion. Meanwhile, Kennan learned from London, in April of 1886, Kennan firsthand of the severe repression of repeatedly sought out N.M. Iadrintsev the entire population in St. ?etersburg and ~is contacts for further conversa following the assassination of tions, not only concerning the Siberian Aleksandr II. 35 exile system, but also on a variety of Thursday morning 15/27 !v1ay topics of the day. While Kennan obv: 1886, the Kennans left for Tver and ously was interested in talking to a points south. They visited Moscow, variety of Russians, he did focus on Nizhni Novgorod, Kazan, and the Iadrintsev's view on everything from Volga. As he had done for the earlier the possibility of a revolution to Leo trip, Iadrintsev once again supplied To!stoy's idea of a "Peasant Idyll." The Kennan with the names of people to interest was reciprocated. It must be see. 36 noted that Iadrintsev also thought Back to the United States. contact with Kennan was important. Upon his safe return to the United While informing Kennan of Siberian States in 1886, Kennan felt he had a conditions, Iadrintsev sought out mission to inform Americans of the Kennan to learn about the United true nature of the Russian Empire. States. While doing so, he certainly wished to In the long evenings and after remind the American public of his noon visits from the time of Emeline ever-growiEg admiration for the and George Kennan's arrival14/26 Russian people as distinct from the April1886 to 14/26 May 1886, Russian government. Kennan's initial Iadrintsev and his colleagues hosted and formidable hurdle was semantic. parties and teas and visits for the As he was well aware, as he himself Kennans practically daily. In May, had felt before his trip, to many Ameri Iadrintsev gave a large party, after cans, a// Russians who opposed any which Kennan thought enough of the aspect of Russian policy were "Nihil experience to put down as many ists" and bomb throwers. While this names as he could remember.34 This homogeneity of opponents of the p arty was only one of many times Russian government did not exist, the Iadrintsev provided access to people author knew it would be difficult to Kennan would not ::>therwise have overcome stereotypes. In fact, he had met. Most of these individuals either found that "These people are not 7 'Nihilists,' they are not even revolu his heavy speaking schedule. His tionists, they are peaceable, law earlier talks on Siberian "Camp Life" abiding citizens, who are striving by continued in their popularity, but were reasonable rr.ethods to secure a better joined by discussio~1s on the convict form of government.. .. "37 mines in Siberia. Throug!:l his talks, he Kennan sought to reach the continued to keep the "Russian Ques widest range of people through his tion" alive for Americans. His popular writings and continuation of his public ity or notoriety, throughout the country talks. His reports on conditions in is reflected in his speaking schedule. Siberia were published serially by The By 1889, Kennan had already given six Century Magazine. 38 After he returned sold out lectures in Bosto!l with three to the United States, Kennan wrote his to four hundred standing inside and ::andid articles concerning his change more outside of the hall. He wrote to of opinionY The two volume Siberia his friend Volkhovsky that he planned and the Extle System appeared in 1891,40 to expand his speaking schedule in the filled with damning data, first-hand f-Jture. 42 From his rather predictable stories, and drawings provided by appearance on the dais again in Bos Kennan's traveling companion, the ton, Massachusetts for their "Slavic artist, George Frost. This book would Course" on 14 November 1892, to his alter forever American public opinion discussion on convict mines in San concerning the Russian Empire. Diego, California on 30 January 1895, American journals and papers his tales reached both coasts. He was therr.selves were certainly appreciative repeatedly asked to speak at Charles of Kennans' efforts. The Century ton, South Carolina; Champaign, Com_?any's president, Roswell Smith, Illinois; and Berea, Kentucky. His knew of Kennan's enormous impact speaking schedule even took him to persona:ly as he wrote Kennan in June the new cow towns of Wichita, Empo of 1888, he was even receiving letters ria, and Wellingtor:, Kansas in the from fellow journalists, such as the 1890s.43 note from the editor and manager of Had Kennan Already Made up his the Greer. Bay [Wisconsin] Advocate, Mind? which attested to Kennan's reach Kennan's highly visible change of outside of the Atlantic coast. Smith heart was certain to draw some very effused that Kennan was "becoming a negative reactions. Those uncomfort recognized authority on these subjects, able with and incapable of changing and we are asked almost daily 'Wha~ tl>.eir own minds struck out, as did does Mr. Kennan think of sucb ar.d those who hinted that this change cf such statements?"'41 heart was designed to sell magazines. Back in the United States and. After Kennan returned from the England, Kennan personally persisted Russian Empire he was repeatedly in his efforts to raise the consciousness accused of having already made up his of .A.mericans to the nature of the mind about Siberia prior to his return. conditions in Siberia, and the war the Kennan ::onsistently and vehement~y Imperial Russian government was denied any such suggestions both waging against anyone who dared to publicly and very privately. Despite his criticize the government. Despite his genuine protestations, it does appear heavy writing and reporting schedule that after his battles witr. Armstrong, that had to be maintained after his or certainly after he read Iadrintsev' s return from Russia, Kennan continued Sibir kak ko!oniia, his mind was open to 8 criticism of the Russian system. No Iadrintsev for background material on publishing "stunt" was ever intended, Siberian history, Russian government, however. The accusations continued and personal information on Siberian for years after Kennan's return from writers is crystal clear in Ken...peasants, St. Petersburg to Irkt:tsk in 1888, and the comparative cheap cost of the providing invaluable connections to Siberian penal system.52 those still in Siberia and the unfolding Iadrintsev's paper, Vostochnoe political situation there. Obozrenie [St. Petersburg and Irkutsk], The relationship between Kennan along with Stbir' (Irkutsk], Stbirskaia and Iadrintsev was not one-sideci. The Gazeta (Tomsk ], all recommended to usefulness of the other was well Kennan by Iadrintsev, also provided understood early on in the relation extremely important fodder for Stberia ship. Not only was Kennan picking and the Exile System. Although much of Iadrintsev's brain for his views on all Kennan's information was not, and things Russian, Iadrintsev could tun coulC. not be footnoted, he did provide to Kennan for information on Ameri references when possible. Once again, can a:1swers to society's problems and Iadrintsev's organ provided the plural challenges. Kennan opened up Ameri ity of sources fro::n the issue of censor·· can information to Iadrintsev. As early 10 as their first meeting, Kennan was the abuses of the exile system, and of making notes to himself to send its negative impact on Siberia, he Iadrintsev information and publica would have to reform that system. It is tions including the New York Herald, interesting to note that at least in the The Century, a Canadian paper, and 1880s, Kennan had absorbed the U.S. government publications.55 Later Russian myth/belief in the l.Jasic Kenna.rc reminded himself that innocence of the Tsar, and his willing Iadrintsev wanted information on ness to correct wrongs, only if he knew American Indian schools, and on about them. "benevolent associations for improv Charles Marvin, a noted english ing the condition of minors in Wes~ern expert on Russia, provided an insiders' America."56 view of Kennan's possible impact. In Once back in the United States, an article, "Two Writers on Siberia, the conduit of information continued George Kennan and Henry :..,ansdell," as Kennan began to receive his weekly Marvin sought to explain how good copy of Vostochnoe Obozrenie. In turn, and reliable Kennan's work and Kennan was sending Iadrintsev the opinions were, and how use~ess were Weekly New York Tribune to replace those of Lansdell's, who sought tc the uaily New York Hera!dhe had been support Tsarist exile policy.60 This sending Iadrintsev. Kennan sent a list stranger to both men, had Russian of papers he w~shed to receive and the court connections. Marvin made it money to pay ~or them. The connec clear that Aleksandr II had at least read tions were not all business, as Kennan Kennan's works as they were serial spoke of the memories he and his wife ized in The Century. 61 Not only Kennan had of their many good times at the believed that his works could influ Iadrintsev' s. 57 ence Russian policy. This much better Often, when defending his degree placed Englishman pointed to the new of knowledge of Siberia to the Ameri Tsar's anti-corruption moven:ents can reading public, Kennan mentioned since his coronation. Initially, Marvir. that he took and "constantly" read four fully expected at least moderate re or five Russian periodicals, including forms.62 Vestnik Evropa, Russia's national paper, Aleksandr III did read Kennar.' s and Iadrintsev's Vostochnoe Obozrenie. 58 articles, while a discussion of Iadrintsev's role as a source of infor Aleksandr's attempts at reform witnin mation ended only with his death in the system cannot be covered here, 1894. Only months before Iadrintsev's Kennan had already been warned death, Kennan was still counting on about the issue of the relative cheap Iadrintsev to he~p him with his re ness of this system, reason enough not search. Kennan :~.eeded some photo to change. Thus, not unexpectedly, graphs of the Caucasus and was notwithstanding the great expectations certain that Iadrintsev would get them for change, telling the truth had its for him.59 cost, Kennan was banned from Russia Influence of Kennan's Works. "as long as Dmitrii Tolstoi was Minis While American attitudes towards ter of the Interior."63 Siberia and Russian policy there were Despite official tsarist approba important, Kennan initially hoped to tion, the book and articles did indeed influence the policymaker in Russia, reach a wide audience outside of the the Tsar himself, Aleksandr III. Kennan United States. Szberia and the Exzle thought that if Aleksandr III learned of System was aloost immediately trans- 11 lated into German in 1890-1891, under her husband was arrested and impris the tde, Sibirien. 64 By 1892, the entire oned for merely possessing two of two volume work had also been Kennan's articles from Century Maga translated into Dutch, Leven en li;den zine. Two young female school teachers der Ba/!ingen in Szberia. 65 :'he real goal, lost their jobs just because they knew however, was to get the work into this couple.71 Russian, and available in the Russian Conclusions. Empire. Extractions were made of his While Kennan's Szberia and the works and published by the Russian Exzle System and his other articles did expatriate community in Geneva 66 not achieve his goal of reform from One hundred and sixty pages of Szberia above, the publication of this material and the Exzle System were translated for vindicated critics of the system. Szbir' i ssy!ka, which was published in Kennan never ceased in ~1.is criticism of Paris in 1890 by the Paris Social the Russian government. In fact, his Revolutionary Literary Foundatic:1. disil!usionment with the system The b::>ok was published in the :1.J.SSlar. deepened over the years. Morecver, Empire only after the 1905 Revolu Kennan maintained friendships with tion. 57 Russians made during his 1885 t:ip After the articles first appear=d ir. until his death, including N .M. the United States, merely possess ·.:1g Iadrintsev, Baron Korf, and Prince copies of KeiL'lan' s work could bE Kropotkin. dangerous in Russia. Despite ~his , Iadrintsev's death in 1894 cost exiles and others in Siberia so·...tghc ~

12 and continue to pursue a relationship Iadrintsev's timely return to Siberia, with him? A number of elements were and finally Iadrintsev's wife, Adelaide, involved, including the fact that who helped to ease communication in Iadrintsev's early writings identified the early years after Kennan returned him to Kennan as a thoughtful and to the United States. In the fir.al analy informed person, Iadrintsev' s avail sis, Iadrintsev and Kenna..'1 shared a ability in St. Petersburg in 1885, his love of Siberia and its peoples, a personal willingness ~o work witt: scholarly approach to issues, anc an Kennan at that time and later, intolerance for a waste of peoples' Iacirintsev's broad range of Siberian lives or quality of their lives. connections, Vostochnoe Obozrenie,

------Endr_otes 1. I wish to thank the Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars for the research fellowship and :he librarians and archivists in the Rare Book and Manuscript ~oom in the Belyi Dom of Irkutsk State University, the State Archives of Irkutsk Oblast, the New York Public Library Slavic Division and Rare Books and Manuscripts Divi sion, and the Library of Congress Manuscript Division, who made the preparation of this paper possible. Wher. necessary, both old style and new style dates are presented. 2. Frederich "5. Travis' George Kennan and the American-Russian Relationships 1865- 1924 (Athens, Ohio, 1990) filled a gap by providing a study of Kennan's all important impact. Of necessity, given its scope, limited space was expended on the Siberians, and Iadrintsev, who was only mentioned twice. Only recently did the Rassians begin to study Kennan's role in their history. Efim Iosifovich Melamed's, Dzhordzh Kennan protiv tsarizma (Moscow, 1981), and his Russkie universitety Dzhordzha Kennana (Irkutsk, 1988), opened a new world of scho~arship. See Melamed, "Sybir i zsylka Geogre'a Kennana-Drodlowe podstawy dziela," Przeglad Wschodni2 (1991): 423-8, and M.D. Karpachev and T.V. Logunova, "Amerikanskii publitsist Dzhordzh Kennan o revoliutsionnom dvizhenii v Rossii," Istorti'a SSSR 5 (1988): 189-199, for a recent discussion of the good quality of Kennan's work and its importance both then and now. 3. His notebooks from that trip showcase the young Kennan's acuity and talent. Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, George Kennan Papers 19. (Hereafter LCMD, GKP). 4. (New York and London, 1871). Due in no small part to his high profile follow ing of -~he Russo-Japanese War, Kennan's first book on Siberia was reprinted in a revised versior_ in 1910. A new printing with an introduction by Larry McM'.lrtry (Salt Lake City, Utah, 1986) proved very popular to a new reading pt:.blic a cen tury later. Translations of the entire book and excerpts were made throughout the nineteenth century and into the twentieth century. See Efim Iosifovich Melamed, "George Kennan (The Elder) in the Russian Press, 1871-1991. Annotated bib~io graphical index in the Russian :..anguage" (Washington, D.C., Kennan Institute Occasional Papers, 1993), for periodical and book translations. 5. Other books include his Campaigning in Cuba (New York, 1899) and E.H Harriman: A Biography, 2 vcls. (:reeport, New York, 1922). 6. Publishers certainly understood his value. For example, he was much sought after by William R. Hearst to follow the Chinese political situation in the 1890s. LCMD, GKP 2, Folder 1891, Telegram from Hearst to Kennan. 7. Acco~ding to the Advertising Departmer..t of The Outlook the annoL:ncement that Kennan would cover tJ:,~ Spanish Americar. War in Cuba aC.ded 3,852 new subscribers-in one week. New York Public ~ibrary, Rare Book and Manuscript Room, George Kennan Papers 1, Folder 1881-1896, Letter 18 May 1898, p. 1. (Hereafter NYPL, RB&M, GK?). 8. See Norman E. Saul, Concord and Conflict. The United States and Russia, 1867- 1914 (Lawrence, Kansas, 1996), for the most t.."'torough analysis of this complicated relationship. Also see, Norrr:an E. Saul, Distant Friends. The United States and Russia, 1763-1867(Lawrence, Kansas, 1991).

14 9. William Jackson Armstrong, Szberia and the Nzhz!ists. Why Kennan Went to Szberia (Oakland, California, 1890), 16, 39-40. 10. ibid., p. 95. 11. "Siberia-the Exiles' Abode," No.1 (New York, 1882): 13-68. 12. ibid., pp. 34-5, 59. It is still uncertain what Kennan had actually read of Iadrintsev's at this point. Kennan clearly had not yet read Iadrintsev's book on 2xile. 13. Others had already written on the Siberian exEe system by 1885. James W. ouel of St. Louis published Russian Nzhz!ism and Exz!e Life in Szberia in 1884. While it was the first book published outside of Russia to expose the treatment of Rus sian prisoners, it would not have the impact that Kennan's work would have, as ~he author did not co!11ID.and the respect that Kennan did. :4. LCMD, GKP 6, Folder 1885-86, Letters and documents. Kennan was offered the chance to travel with the American officer being sent to thank the Russians for their kind ~eatment of the surviv~rs of the "Jeanette" expedition. He respectfully declined to avoid any designation as an American Jfficial. 15. LCMD, GKP 6, Folder 1885, Gocument, "The Century Company af'.d George Ke:!l.nar: Agreement. 1 May 1885." Signed by Roswell Smith, President, anc! George Kennan. 16. LCMD, G=

------before settling in Englar.d. 27. LCMD, GKP 1, Postcards, 9 June-13 November 1885. 28. LCMD, GKP 19, Notebook No.1, America to Volga River 1885-86, p. 14. 29. LCMD, GKP 15, Letter from GK to Emeline Kennan, Tomsk, 3/ 15 February 1886. 30. Kennan was very circumspect in his notebooks about Frost's state of mind. He noted "Frost's hallucination" and his "nervous tension" while traveling in the Transbaikal in the fall of 1885. LCMD, GKP 6, Notebook No. :4, Stretinsk to Nertchinsk Mines and Cbta, p. 121, Box 20, No. 16/No. 17. On the back cover Kennan noted that Frost thought everyone was a spy. 31. LCMD, GKP 20, Notebook No. 21, p. 19. 32. Peter Kropotkin, Memoirs ofa Revolutionist, ed. James Allen Rogers, (New York, 1962): 143-4. 33. LCMD, GKP 1, Folder 1885-86. Letters from family and Henry Smith of the Associated Press. Kenna:1 had been quite ]1 upon his return from the exhausting Siberian trip. 34. LCMD, GKP 20, Noteboo~ No. 23, p. 24-5. It must be noted here that Kennan carefully separated the list from any reference to Iadrintsev's ?arty. 35. LCMD, GKP 20, Notebooi< No. 21, pp. 19,27-9. 36. LCMD, GKP 1, Letter, 10 May 1886. 37. "The -=-.ast Appeal of the Russian Liberals," Century Magazine, xxxv, 7 (Novem ber 1887), pp. 50-51. 38. See volumes 35 (1887) through 40 (1890) for articles on priso:1.life, exile life, the head of the Buddhist church in Siberia, and Russian censorsh:p. 39. Kennan self-censored his works in order to protect the identi~ies of those who remained, or even those who had already left the Russian Empire and who might be in danger if their name or the full story of the circumstances of their escapes were ?Ublic knowledge. P-2ter Kropotkin's story of escape was only published some years later by Kennan, with Kropotkin's full knowledge and support. 40. (New York). An abridged one volume version with an introduction by George Frost Kennan was published by the University of Chicago in i958. 41. LCMD, GKP 1, Letter from Smith to GK, 30 June 1888. 42. LCMD, GKP 1, Letter from GK to F.V. ~./olkhovsky, 17 Ma::ch 1889, p. 3--7. 43. NYPL, RB&M, GKP 5, "List of Talks," D. 44. LCMD, GXP 6, Folder 1890-99, Letter 18 February 1892, p. S. ?or example, George Kennan wrote a th:.rteen page defense of his actions to i:he editor of The Nation. The fact that he never sent the rebuttal was consistent with his anger and disgust at having to defer.d himself, and the desire not to get caught up in time consuming replies to every accusation. 45. LCMD, GKP 20, Notebook No. 21, p. 8 ~n the back of the journal. For fear of the Tsarist authorities, Kennan scattered information and notes to himself throughout oddly paginated journals, to seek information from Iadrin:sev. 46. LCMD, GKP 20, Notebook No. 14, p. 131; Notebook No.2:, pp. 8 and 6; and Notebook No. 23, pp. 4-3. These are only examples. The odd numbering is correct.

16 Kennan wrote from the front and back of his notebooks in order to pr::>tect his sources if his books were viewed by Tsarist agents. 47. LCMD, GKP 20, pp. 95-192. 48. ibid.,?· 131. 49. LCMD, GKP 6, Folder 1885, Letter from GK tc Mr. Drake (Century Co.), Moscow, 2 June 1885, pp. 2-3. 50. New York Public Library, Slavic Division. This rare book had beer. "iost" for some decades. According to his notes to himself in the Spring of 1886 when he returned to Russia, he was having a copy of this book and Iadrintsev's Literafurnyi Sbornzkbound. LCMD, GKP 20, Notebook o. 23, pp. 17-16. 51. ibid., pp. Ch. I, II, III, V, VI, and VII passim, 326. 52. v. ii, pp. 465-7. 53. ibid. v. I, pp. 266 and 333, and v. ii, pp. 260, 461, 466--7. 54. LCMD, GKP. Letters to and from Volkhovsky scattered throughoc.t the papers reflect the close friendship that lasted until Volkhovsky's death. Not only d:d they discuss politics, but they also kept up with :amily matters. Kennan even provided money to help Volkhovsky's daughter leave Siberia. See especially Box 1 and Box 2. 55. LCMD, GKP 19, Notebook No. 1, p. 100. 56. LCMD, GKP 20, Notebook No. 21, p. 354. 57. LCMD, GKP 10, Letter from GK to Mrs. Yadrintsev, 12 March 1887. 58. "The Latest Siberian Tragedy," Century Magazine, (April1890): 889. 59. LCMD, GKP 6, Folder 1890-99, Typed copy of Kennan letter, 26 August 1893 to Mr. Hourwich. 60. Henry La:1sdell, Through Szberia, 2 vols. seconded. (London, 1882). The :C:n glishman, Lansdell, whom Iadrintsev described as a tourist, did not have m·c1.ch knowledge of Russia, nor did he take a scholar's approach to the study of Russian culture and politics. 61. NYPL, RB&M, GKP 5, Marvin Folder, p. 2. 62. ibic., pp. 25-26. 63. LCMD, GKP 1, Letter GK to Volkhovsky, 17 March 1889, p. 2. 64. 2 vols. (Otto Hendel). See also, Szberien (Berlin, 1890), 218 pages. 65. (Haarlem). 66. See "Les Prisoners d'etat. Russkie Gosudarstvennye prestupniki" (Geneva: M.K. Elpidin, 1891), 40 pages; or "Golos za russkii narod: otviet na Golos za Rosiiu" (Geneva: M.K. Elpidin, 1896), 35 pgs. 67. Stbir' i ssylka, (St. Petersburg, : 906). 68. For example, Nikolai Baronoff in Vladivostok wrote Kennan on 6 October 1889, to say that a number of exiles in town wished to translate his work in crder to dissemir.ate it throughout Siberia. NYPL, RB&M, GKP 1, Folder 3, p. 1. 69. NYPL, RB&M, GKP 1, Letter from Irkutsk. L. Choondovsky [sze] to GK in England, 3/15 March 1889, p. 1 ob. 70. "LCMD, GKP t Letter from Roswell Smith to GK 28 May 1888.

17 71. NYPL, RB&M, GKP 1, Folder 3, 3 Decerr_ber [1889]. Letter tc GK in English, pp. 5 and 9. 72. LCMD, GKP 11, "Obituary. Nikolia M. Yadrintsef." p. 1. 73. ibid., p. 2 74. LCMD, GKP 95, 112, "Books to get-Siberia" 15 December 1900, "Notes" 6 December 1912.