The Implications of Content Analysis for the Interpretation of Unguentaria in Museum Collections

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

The Implications of Content Analysis for the Interpretation of Unguentaria in Museum Collections University of Wisconsin Milwaukee UWM Digital Commons Theses and Dissertations August 2014 The mplicI ations of Content Analysis for the Interpretation of Unguentaria in Museum Collections Jenna L. Mortensen University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.uwm.edu/etd Part of the Analytical Chemistry Commons, and the Archaeological Anthropology Commons Recommended Citation Mortensen, Jenna L., "The mpI lications of Content Analysis for the Interpretation of Unguentaria in Museum Collections" (2014). Theses and Dissertations. 506. https://dc.uwm.edu/etd/506 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by UWM Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of UWM Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. THE IMPLICATIONS OF CONTENT ANALYSIS FOR THE INTERPRETATION OF UNGUENTARIA IN MUSEUM COLLECTIONS by Jenna L. Mortensen A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Anthropology at The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee August 2014 ABSTRACT THE IMPLICATIONS OF CONTENT ANALYSIS FOR THE INTERPRETATION OF UNGUENTARIA IN MUSEUM COLLECTIONS by Jenna L. Mortensen The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 2014 Under the Supervision of Dr. Bettina Arnold Scent has traditionally been an ephemeral component of rituals in ancient societies, including burial and other practices associated with the anointing of the body (Classen et al. 1994: 43; Houston and Taube 2000: 271). This thesis investigates the possible signifiers and social impact such scents might have had for individuals participating in such rituals by using the little explored approach of sensory archaeology. A discussion of the correlation between olfaction and the triggering of both the experiential and emotional aspects of memory contributes to a broader view of these rituals in the anthropological literature (Classen et al. 1994), while Houston and Taube’s work on scent in Mayan rituals provides a framework for applying sensory archaeology to Classical contexts (2000). Vessel contents are used as a proxy in this thesis for reconstructing the particular olfactory atmosphere associated with mortuary ritual in late Greek and early Roman cultural contexts. The residue spectra derived from the visible contents of twenty-seven out of a total of thirty-nine small glass and ceramic vials from collections at the Milwaukee Public Museum (MPM) are compared to other unguentaria residue studies as well as Greek and Roman written sources in which scented unguents, oils, perfumes, creams, and cosmetics are described to test the archaeological classification of this vessel category. Stylistic conventions are tested against data derived from content analysis rather than solely on the basis of assumed function implied by form. The chemical characterization of the contents of these vessels relies on the use of inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). FT-IR was chosen for its successful application in a recent residue ii study of unguentaria (Ribechini et al. 2008a-b) while ICP-MS analysis was performed based upon its widespread application to the determination of sample origin. iii ©Copyright Jenna L. Mortensen 2014 All Rights Reserved iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................1 Research Problem .............................................................................................................1 Research Overview ..........................................................................................................2 Research Questions ..........................................................................................................2 Limitations and Assumptions ...........................................................................................3 MPM Vessels ...................................................................................................................4 Literature Review .............................................................................................................5 Terminology .....................................................................................................................6 Chapter 2: History and Background ..................................................................................11 Unguentaria: Forms, Functions, Materials, Contents .....................................................11 Ceramic Vessel Forms ...........................................................................................13 Glass Vessel Forms ...............................................................................................16 Materials: Ceramic .................................................................................................19 Materials: Glass .....................................................................................................21 Archaeological Evidence .......................................................................................26 Funerals in the Early Roman Empire .............................................................................27 Fragrance and Funerals ..................................................................................................36 Popular Perfumes in the Roman World .................................................................40 Cost of Perfumes and Incense ........................................................................................41 Chapter 3: Methods ............................................................................................................44 Sampled Vessels .............................................................................................................44 Comparative Analysis ....................................................................................................45 Residue Analysis ............................................................................................................46 Expected Vessel Contents ......................................................................................48 Conventional Protocol for Analysis .......................................................................55 Chapter 4: Analysis ............................................................................................................64 Comparative Studies ......................................................................................................64 Residue Analysis ............................................................................................................65 FT-IR......................................................................................................................66 ICP-MS ..................................................................................................................73 Outcomes for Original Research Questions ...................................................................77 Comparing Other Unguentaria Content Studies .............................................................78 Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion ..............................................................................80 Form Versus Function ....................................................................................................80 Scents of the Past ............................................................................................................81 v Future Research ..............................................................................................................83 References ..........................................................................................................................86 Appendix A: Unguentarium Reports and Museum Documentation ..................................93 MPM Wings Publication ................................................................................................93 MPM Destructive Sampling Agreement ........................................................................94 Unguentaria Reports .......................................................................................................95 Appendix B: Unguentaria Photos ....................................................................................135 Appendix C: FT-IR Spectra .............................................................................................150 Appendix D: ICP-MS Spectra .........................................................................................167 d. vi LIST OF FIGURES Chapter 1 1.1 Examples of glass and ceramic unguentaria ..................................................................6 Chapter 2 2.1 Roman iconographic representations of unguentaria ...................................................11 2.2 Ceramic unguentaria forms ..........................................................................................12 2.3 Earliest unguentaria form .............................................................................................13 2.4 Slender fusiform unguentaria .......................................................................................14 2.5 Approximate chronology of ceramic unguentaria present in MPM collection ............15 2.6 Similar vessel forms represented in ceramic and glass ................................................16 2.7 Glass vessel chronology
Recommended publications
  • An Osteobiography of Roman Burial from Oğlanqala, Azerbaijan
    Death on the Imperial Frontier: an Osteobiography of Roman Burial from Oğlanqala, Azerbaijan THESIS Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Selin Elizabeth Nugent, B.S. Graduate Program in Anthropology The Ohio State University 2013 Master’s Examination Committee: Clark S. Larsen, Advisor Mark Hubbe Samuel Stout Barbara Piperata Copyrighted by Selin Elizabeth Nugent 2013 Abstract In 2011, excavations at the Iron Age archaeological site of Oğlanqala in Naxçivan, Azerbaijan uncovered unexpected human remains dating to the early Roman period (2 B.C. - c. 14 A.D.). At Oğlanqala, numerous post-Iron Age interments from the early 20th century have been recovered. However, the early Roman burial represents the only Roman interment discovered at the site as well as in the South Caucasus. Burial WWE.1 was situated at the base of the Oğlanqala Iron Age citadel and consisted of a single individual (Individual 21) placed in a seated position inside a large pithos, or urn. While urn burial is a common practice in the Caucasus, the individual was accompanied by a large quantity of fine Roman material objects rarely found in this region, including Augustan denarii, glass unguentaria, gold inlayed intaglio rings on the fingers, a ceramic round bottom vessel, and a large glass bead. This paper presents a detailed analysis of the bioarchaeological identity of Individual 21, focusing on age, stress, status, and mobility and how these factors relate to the unusual burial style. Osteological and oxygen (18O /16O) stable isotope analysis, archaeological context of the burial, and the historical record provide the basis to identify the individual.
    [Show full text]
  • Fear and Freedom. a New Interpretation of Pliny's
    FEAR AND FREEDOM. A NEW INTERPRETATION OF PLIny’s PANEGYRICUS JOY CONNOLLY I. What meaning does the word “subversion” carry under the principate, a regime that itself may be seen as constituted in and through subversion, that arose from what Theodor Mommsen called an “empire in permanent revo- lution” and what Carl Schmitt described as a “state of emergency,” that rests its claim to legitimacy on the radical deformation of republican institutions like the tribunate and the consulship?1 I will approach this question from the perspective provided by the younger Pliny in his Panegyricus, a speech in praise of the emperor Trajan originally delivered in the autumn of 100 CE on the occasion of Pliny’s taking up the suffect consulship, and later circulated by Pliny in written form (epist. III 13; 18). The Panegyricus belongs in a tradition of poetic and prosaic praise stretch- ing back to pre-classical Greece, with Pindar’s victory odes and ejpitavfioi lovgoi, of which the most famous are Pericles’ oration over the Athenian dead in Thucydides and the alternative version of that speech provided by Plato’s Menexenos. Isocrates’ Evagoras of 365 BCE, honoring the king of Sa- lamis in Cyprus, may have been the first panegyric preserved for circulation, for political and pedagogical reasons; dating slightly later is Xenophon’s Age- silaus, the first prose text to describe itself not as a qrh'no", a death song, but an ejgkwvmion (10,3). That the objects of praise in these speeches are dead men is an important point of commonality that endures in the Roman context through the republic where, according to Cicero, the most common form of epideictic or demonstrative speech is the laudatio funebris.
    [Show full text]
  • Eclectic Antiquity Catalog
    Eclectic Antiquity the Classical Collection of the Snite Museum of Art Compiled and edited by Robin F. Rhodes Eclectic Antiquity the Classical Collection of the Snite Museum of Art Compiled and edited by Robin F. Rhodes © University of Notre Dame, 2010. All Rights Reserved ISBN 978-0-9753984-2-5 Table of Contents Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 1 Geometric Horse Figurine ............................................................................................................. 5 Horse Bit with Sphinx Cheek Plates.............................................................................................. 11 Cup-skyphos with Women Harvesting Fruit.................................................................................. 17 Terracotta Lekythos....................................................................................................................... 23 Marble Lekythos Gravemarker Depicting “Leave Taking” ......................................................... 29 South Daunian Funnel Krater....................................................................................................... 35 Female Figurines.......................................................................................................................... 41 Hooded Male Portrait................................................................................................................... 47 Small Female Head......................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter One Pottery Other Than Transport Amphorae Philip M. Kenrick
    . chapter one . Pottery Other Than Transport Amphorae Philip M. Kenrick INTRODUCTION THE potterY fabrics The rescue excavations of 2000 took place alongside par- The pottery is arranged primarily by fabric, in order to dis- allel investigations at Zeugma by French and Turkish tinguish where possible the various sources from which teams. When I was first invited to participate there was Zeugma was supplied. Since there is also a high degree of also understood to be a possibility of a further long-term correlation between fabrics and the functions for which the research excavation on the site to study the pottery.1 At the vessels were intended, the following conceptual structure time, it seemed premature to embark upon a compre­­hen- was found useful. sive description of the pottery of Zeugma: It was there fore . Table wares. Vessels for serving and consuming food: agreed that I should concentrate on a few contexts that plates, dishes, small bowls, drinking cups, together with could be reasonably well dated and that might be used to lids intended for use with such forms; also some small characterize the major chronological phases identified in flagons and jugs intended for use at the table. These are the trenches for which Oxford Archaeology was respon- generally made in fine fabrics with smooth surfaces, sible: these were Trenches 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 18, mostly with a distinctive surface finish such as a slip or and 19. glaze. The briefest of notes were made upon the entire pottery collection, and these were then used in conjunction with .
    [Show full text]
  • Joseph Grzywaczewski Sidonius Apollinaris' Pagan
    Studia Theologica Varsaviensia UKSW 1/2014 JOSEPH GRZYWACZEWSKI SIDONIUS APOLLINARIS’ PAGAN VISION OF ANCIENt ROMA BELLATRIX IN CHRISTIAN ROME Sidonius Apollinaris was born in Lyons c. 430. His father was prefec- tus pretorii in Gaul. He received a good classical education, especially in grammar, literature and rhetoric, in Lyons and in Arles1. He published several poems and wanted to be considered as a poet2. He married Papia- nilla a daughter of Senator Eparchius Avitus. His father-in-law had good relationships with two kings of Visigoths, Theodoric I (418-451) and his successor Theodoric II (453-466). The Visigoths kept peace with Rome as allies (federati) of the Empire. On July 9th 455, Avitus was proclaimed Emperor of the West in Arles. In such circumstances, young Sidonius started his career in public activity. 1. ROMA BELLATRIX IN THE panegyric IN HONOUR OF AVITUS Sidonius received a proposal to pronounce a panegyric in honour of the new Emperor at the ceremony of his enthronisation in Rome on Ja- nuary 1st 456. He accepted such an honourable proposal and according 1 Sidonius Apollinaris in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, Ox- ford 1997, p. 1498. 2 See Sidoine Apollinaire, Poèmes, ed. André Loyen, Paris 2003, vol. I. There is the Latin text and a French translation with commentary. For the bibliography con- cerning Sidonius, see W.J. H a r r i e s, Sidonius Apollinaris and Fall of Rome AD 407- -485, Oxford 1994. 180 JOSEPH GRZYWACZEWSKI [2] to the tradition of that time pronounced his panegyric (Carmen VII)3.
    [Show full text]
  • The Iconography, Magic, and Ritual of Egyptian Incense
    Studia Antiqua Volume 7 Number 1 Article 8 April 2009 An "Odor of Sanctity": The Iconography, Magic, and Ritual of Egyptian Incense Elliott Wise Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/studiaantiqua Part of the History Commons BYU ScholarsArchive Citation Wise, Elliott. "An "Odor of Sanctity": The Iconography, Magic, and Ritual of Egyptian Incense." Studia Antiqua 7, no. 1 (2009). https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/studiaantiqua/vol7/iss1/8 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at BYU ScholarsArchive. It has been accepted for inclusion in Studia Antiqua by an authorized editor of BYU ScholarsArchive. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. AN “ODOR OF SANCTITY”: THE ICONOGRAPHY, MAGIC, AND RITUAL OF EGYPTIAN INCENSE Elliott Wise ragrance has permeated the land and culture of Egypt for millennia. Early Fgraves dug into the hot sand still contain traces of resin, sweet-smelling lotus flowers blossom along the Nile, Coptic priests swing censers to purify their altars, and modern perfumeries export all over the world.1 The numerous reliefs and papyri depicting fumigation ceremonies attest to the central role incense played in ancient Egypt. Art and ceremonies reverenced it as the embodi- ment of life and an aromatic manifestation of the gods. The pharaohs cultivated incense trees and imported expensive resins from the land of Punt to satisfy the needs of Egypt’s prolific temples and tombs. The rise of Christianity in the first century ce temporarily censored incense, but before long Orthodox clerics began celebrating the liturgy in clouds of fragrant smoke.
    [Show full text]
  • TRADITIONAL POETRY and the ANNALES of QUINTUS ENNIUS John Francis Fisher A
    REINVENTING EPIC: TRADITIONAL POETRY AND THE ANNALES OF QUINTUS ENNIUS John Francis Fisher A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY RECOMMENDED FOR ACCEPTANCE BY THE DEPARTMENT OF CLASSICS SEPTEMBER 2006 UMI Number: 3223832 UMI Microform 3223832 Copyright 2006 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346 © Copyright by John Francis Fisher, 2006. All rights reserved. ii Reinventing Epic: Traditional Poetry and the Annales of Quintus Ennius John Francis Fisher Abstract The present scholarship views the Annales of Quintus Ennius as a hybrid of the Latin Saturnian and Greek hexameter traditions. This configuration overlooks the influence of a larger and older tradition of Italic verbal art which manifests itself in documents such as the prayers preserved in Cato’s De agricultura in Latin, the Iguvine Tables in Umbrian, and documents in other Italic languages including Oscan and South Picene. These documents are marked by three salient features: alliterative doubling figures, figurae etymologicae, and a pool of traditional phraseology which may be traced back to Proto-Italic, the reconstructed ancestor of the Italic languages. A close examination of the fragments of the Annales reveals that all three of these markers of Italic verbal art are integral parts of the diction the poem. Ennius famously remarked that he possessed three hearts, one Latin, one Greek and one Oscan, which the second century writer Aulus Gellius understands as ability to speak three languages.
    [Show full text]
  • COLLECTING ANCIENT GLASS by RICHARD BROCKWAY with LYNETTE MACLEOD
    COLLECTING ANCIENT GLASS by RICHARD BROCKWAY With LYNETTE MACLEOD People think the place to see and admire ancient Roman, Greek, Egyptian or Phoenician glass is in one of the great museums. In fact, Ancient Glass is available and undervalued. A caveat: to delve into its ancient history, let alone the plunder and international intrigue, prepare to become addicted. Study in out of way places and prepare for questions: what intrigued you first, where did you find it, do you know it’s real, is it expensive, why so cheap? A 2000 year old intact unique work of art is always a wonder to people who have seen absurd prices for mass produced pottery. I founded Ancient Art International (AAI) in 1988 after more than 20 years of studying and collecting in the ancient world. Fortunately, my corporate career allowed for much travel in Italy, France, England, Persia and Japan granting me time to visit all the museums and archaeological sites within striking distance. AAI is ending its second decade offering high quality ancient Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Middle Eastern, Gandharan, Islamic, and Chinese antiquities. When I started to do antique shows, I was unique in specializing in antiquities. People would actually ask if the items on display were for sale. Then the questions would begin. My time at these shows became almost non-stop lectures on the history and origins of the piece rather than trying to sell something. With reference books, catalogues, and museum brochures, the shows became more enjoyable, not work at all. In the process of establishing ancient art in antique shows, I used publicity to attract the antiquity aficionado who normally wouldn’t attend a conventional show.
    [Show full text]
  • The Hellenistic Pottery and Small Finds of Kordon Tumulus at Kordon Köyü/Salihli (Manisa) 2001*
    Baran Aydın The Hellenistic Pottery and Small Finds of Kordon Tumulus at Kordon Köyü/Salihli (Manisa) 2001* Introduction This paper aims to publish hellenistic finds from a tumulus grave in the territory of Sardis aided by publica- tions after 20011. Since little datable contexts are known for hellenistic pottery from Sardis2 it is helpful to present some useful contexts. Furthermore it is also intended to present new finds of known and unknown workshops as well as a unique wooden pyxis. Kordon Tumulus3 (fig. 1) is located 18 km east of Sardis and 1 km south of Kordon Köyü4. Its GPS coordinates are N 38° 26’ 50.5’’, E 28° 15’ 52.2’’ and in UTM System E610345 N4256211 (UTM zone 35) elv. 268 m. Since C. Foss5 draws the borders of Roman Sardis 15 km west till to Aureliopolis, 20 km north- east as far as Adala, 30 km east as far as Philadephia, it seems plausible to consider these Kordon finds as ›Sardian‹. It is worth mentioning that the Hellenistic pottery of Sardis has a close relationship to the pottery of Pergamum6. At the end of the field research it became clear that the tomb was built in the beginning of the 5th century BC by the Lydians and was re-used in the 2nd century BC as a family grave. The tomb’s form can be placed between ›Group P‹ and ›Group R‹ according to R. Dinç’s classification for Lydian tumuli7. * For abbreviations additional to those published in <http://www.oeai.at/publik/autoren.html> see the end of this contribution.
    [Show full text]
  • The Poet and His Patrons: Two Ghaznavid Panegyrists
    PERSICA XVII, 2001 THE POET AND HIS PATRONS: TWO GHAZNAVID PANEGYRISTS Julie Scott Meisami University of Oxford Among Professor Hans de Bruijn's many contributions to the study of Persian poetry, his discussion of the influence of patronage on the poetic production of Sanaˆi of Ghazna (d. 525/1131) stands out as the first major effort at addressing this important issue.1 De Bruijn disputed the traditional image of Sanaˆi as a court poet who, after a mystical “con- version”, dedicated himself to composing religious poetry, and showed us instead a poet who, failing to secure satisfactory patronage at the court of the Ghaznavid Mas¨ud III (492-508/1099-1115), turned to religious patrons, for whom he composed panegyrics, homiletic poetry, and poems to be used in preaching. Sanaˆi also produced song-texts (gazals) for professional minstrels; and when he returned to the Ghaznavid court in the reign of Bahramsah (511-52?/1117-57?), he dedicated to that ruler both his homiletic ma†nawi the Îadiqat al-Ìaqiqa and numerous panegyrics in the qaÒida and gazal forms. The diversity of Sanaˆi's patrons, and of his poetic output, raises broader questions about the nature of literary patronage; and Professor de Bruijn's study illustrates the need for a more extensive exploration of this issue. In his doctoral thesis on Sanaˆi Franklin Lewis addressed this issue further;2 but it remains to be seen whether Sanaˆi's case is excep- tional, or whether it reflects changing patterns of patronage at the courts of the later Ghaznavids.3 That from its very beginnings Persian poetry was intimately connected with courts is well known.
    [Show full text]
  • 2013.03.09 ROGER REES, Latin Panegyric
    CJ -Online, 2013.03.09 BOOK REVIEW Latin Panegyric . Edited by ROGER REES . Oxford Readings in Classical Studies. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Pp. xvi + 430. Hardcover, £76.00/$150.00. ISBN 978-0-19-957671-5. Paper, £29.50/$55.00. ISBN 978-0- 19-957672-2. dited by Roger Rees, this volume contains sixteen previously published essays spanning a century of international scholarship on the “Twelve E Panegyrics”: Pliny’s gratiarum actio to Trajan and eleven Panegyrici for emperors from Maximinian to Theodosius. Rees provides a valuable resource for newcomers and veterans alike by threading together essential readings on imperial praise. The volume consists of “Introductions” (three chapters, 3–74), “Pliny’s Panegyricus ” (six chapters, 77–220), and “Gallic Panegyrici ” (eight chapters, 223– 386). These are followed by a bibliography (387–423) and a brief index (427– 30). Words and phrases in the ancient and modern languages are translated, while numbers in brackets throughout indicate the original pagination of the essays. The rich editorial introduction traces panegyric from Pindar and Thu- cydides to Mamertinus and Venatius Fortunatus, and surveys ancient and modern responses to praise-giving in various contexts (epinician, funerary, forensic, philosophical, etc). From the discovery of the XII Panegyrici Latini manuscript in 1433 to the present, recurrent research themes include the Classical, Hellenistic, and Republican models of the speeches, their intended audiences, the divergences between their original delivery and their written version, the relationship between panegyrist and emperor, and the panegyrist’s professed “sincerity.” Rees discerns a dominant, moralizing approach to panegyric and maps it onto shifting political landscapes and social sensibilities.
    [Show full text]
  • Abstracts MAIA 2 2019
    MAIA (ISSN 0025-0538) ANNO LXXI - N. 2 - MAGGIO-AGOSTO 2019 Il Panegirico a Traiano di Plinio. “Costrizione alla libertà” e retorica dell’encomio 1. In lode dell’Imperatore Bruce Gibson (University of Liverpool) Trajan the Panegyrist Pliny, paneg. 69-75 (pagine 249-265) Abstract: This contribution looks at Pliny’s treatment of Trajan’s role in the senatorial processes for choosing candidates for office in chapters 69-75 of the Panegyricus. Although Pliny does not emphasise Trajan as an orator in his evocation of Trajan’s excellent qualities at the beginning of the speech, the account of senatorial business does give a sense of Trajan’s role in promoting and furthering the careers of those seeking office in Rome. Though he is in broad terms the object of Pliny’s praise across the whole speech, Pliny in this section of the speech presents Trajan himself as a giver of praise. Trajan’s good judgement in terms of whom he praises is matched by his affirmation of Pliny as consul at the end of the speech, and indeed by Pliny’s own role as a giver of judicious and appropriate praise to Trajan. Keywords: Pliny, Trajan, Panegyricus , Panegyric, Praise, Self-praise, Elections, Candidates, Senate, Emperor. Francesco Busti (Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa) «AB IOVE PRINCEPS» Traiano figlio di Giove (pagine 266-279) Abstract: When Pliny wrote his Panegyric , Trajan had already become son of a god following Nerva’s deification right after his death. This paper examines Pliny’s subtle strategy to have his reader think of another divine father of Trajan, ultimate origin of his power as an emperor and primary guarantor of his virtuous behaviour, Jupiter himself.
    [Show full text]