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Index

Abbey National 10 Ajzen, I. 13, 134, 143–50, 161, 317–19, ABC News 90 322–4, 326–7, 526 ACAS 363 Alain, M. 240 ACC (New Zealand) 83–4, 85 Alexion, C.M. 394 accountability 2, 101, 276, 357, 382, Alford, C.F. 68, 145, 230–31, 233, 244, 387, 445, 450 298, 500 agencies 293, 294 Alpin, D. 236 FAIR 372–3 Alternative Dispute Resolution 436 GAO 384, 431, 446 altruism 18, 207–15, 219–28, 416 internal mechanism 395–6 AMA Code of Medical Ethics 100 see also GovernmentAccountability Anderson, R.M. 133 Project anecdotal case studies 179 ACFE 177 Annakin, L. 243, 275–6, 288, 293–4, Ackerman, P.504 474 actual behavioral control 145–6, 150 anonymity 57, 64, 68–9, 151–2, 243, actual whistleblowing (research design) 500, 505 13, 133, 526, 527 channels and (bell–ringing) 92–3 correlates 141–3 ICT and 254, 264 future directions 151–3 importance of 269–70 measuring 137–9 leaking 516–17 reasoned action approach 13, 134, ‘Anonymous’84, 90–91 145–51, 152–3 anti-corruption measures 103, 251, 280, studies 134–41 354–5, 392 Adam, P.336 Action Plans 2, 423 Addison, Wendy 18–19 in IGOs 430, 448, 452 Adler, N.J. 43 whistleblower support 460, 472–4, Adler, R. 139–40 477–8, 484 administrative remedies 350–53, 356, Anti-Fraud Office (OLAF) 400 358, 372, 376, 524 anti-retaliation model/approach 166, 321, 459 Administrative Review Board 358 criminal sanctions 418, 422 Administrative Tribunals 433–4, 438, protection 333, 336, 343, 350, 356, 442, 447–8, 450–53 372, 376 ‘adverse action’367 recipients and 273, 280, 290 Aerospace Corporation 331 antitrust legislation 119–20, 386, 390, African Development Bank 435–7, 444 415, 524 agencies, core APA Principles of Medical Ethics 100 Australia 473–5, 484–5, 489 Appelbaum, E. 104 USA 461–3, 484–5, 489 Apple 103 agency-level enabling functions 463–8 arbitration 354, 357, 363, 375 agency-structure theory 241 in IGOs 432, 435, 436, 451–2 agency management 485–8, 490 Arieli, S. 139, 140, 146, 147–8 Aguinis, H. 83 Armour, N. 84, 85, 86

591

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Arvis, J.F. 192 see also Queensland Asian Development Bank 431, 434–7, Australian, The 22 444 Australian Competition Commission Assange, Julian 74, 427 401 Association of Certified Fraud Australian Securities and Investment Examiners (ACFE) 23 Commission 367 Atkinson, P.169 authoritarian states analogy 504, 506 attackers, psychology of 510–11 auto-immune reprisals 518 attitudes 3, 7, 41, 128, 185 Avila, J. 84, 90 behavioral 318–20, 322–5, 327 managerial 306, 308, 313, 318–20, ‘backchannels’263, 264, 270 322–5, 327 Baek, D. 389–90 motivation 211, 213, 217, 223–4, 227 Baird, E.C. 382 reasoned action approach 145–7, 151 Baldwin, J.N. 149, 150, 240 to technology 255, 256, 268 Balogun, M.J. 431 to whistleblowing 57, 62, 65, 68, 70 Bandura,A. 163 Attorney-General Department 367 Banisar, D. 333, 389, 406, 413, 423, 427 Attorney General (Illinois) 385 Bardi,A.38, 64 Attorney General (USA) 393, 462 Barnett, T.R. 193, 290–91 attribution theory 287–8 Bashir, S. 184 Aubert, C. 395, 399 Baucus, M. 20, 235, 237, 242, 251, 277 Auditor General’s Offices 280 Bauer, M. 69 Augoustinos, M. 153 Bayer,A.E. 202 Australia 17 Beck, J.A. 382–3 ACT 279, 387, 408–11, 475, 477–8 behavior APSC 181, 184, 198, 479 planned 161–2, 272, 317–20, 322, AUSFTA 401 526 civil/employment law 350–51, see also bell–ringing behavior; 363–70 organizational behavior core agencies 473–5, 484–5, 489 behavioral approach 137, 140, 201 criminal remedies 407–11, 423–4 behavioral beliefs 147–8 Fair WorkAct 365–7, 368–9 behavioral control Federal Court 368, 369 actual 145, 146, 150 fraud informant incentives 385–7 perceived 145–6, 149–51, 318–20, Hofstede’s model 57–60 322, 324, 325–6, 327 PIDA 363–7, 387, 408, 472–3, 475, beliefs 44 477, 484 behavioral 147–8 private sector 367–70 control 146, 149–51 public sector 364–7, 478 normative 145, 146, 148–9 recipient role 22–3, 278–80 bell-ringing behavior 7–9, 39, 523, 528 reporting/inaction 17, 180, 203 definitions 71–83 societal culture 7, 38, 41–2, 44, 45, incidents 83–93 57–60 motivations 93 whistleblower protection Ben-Yehuda, N. 40 (practicalities) 457–8, 472–82, Benkler,Y.254 483 Bennett,A. 169, 170, 171 WWTW project see ‘Whistling Benson, G. 6 While They Work’project Berenbeim, R.E. 192

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Index 593

Bergen Bullying Research Group 151–2 321, 333–4, 336, 339, 342, 350, Berkman, S. 431 363–5, 367, 370, 373, 386, 407–8, Berry, B. 164, 209 411, 417, 420–25, 457, 472–4, Berthelsen, M. 152 478–80, 484, 501 Beyerle, S. 517 Brown, Gary 10, 28 Bhopal disaster 22 Brown, J. 20, 387 bias 67–9, 198, 200–201, 358, 512–13 Brown and Williams Tobacco 32 bilateral trade agreements 400–403 Bryman,A. 68 Bjørkelo, B. 138, 142, 148, 150, 165–6, Bull, N. 150 185, 201, 233–4, 239, 242, 248, bullying 216–18, 220–25, 227, 372, 500 300 Bundaberg Hospital 11, 365–6 blacklisting 77, 82, 166, 421, 428 Burchell,A.M. 386 Blanton, T.S. 424 burden of evidence 333, 336 Blenkinsopp, J. 139, 140, 144, 146, 148 burden of proof 353, 355, 357, 435, 437 blogs 21, 266, 267, 505 bureaucracies 168–9, 504, 506 ‘blue code of silence’240 bureaucratic hierarchies 238, 247, 298 Boag, Michelle 85 Burke, R.J. 1 Bok, S. 133 Burton, B. 179, 517 Bolkovac, K. 30, 431 BusinessAnti–Corruption Portal 392 Bolman, L.G. 504 business model (of media) 252, 253 Bolsin, Stephen 11, 28 bystanders 511–12 Borrie, G. 230 Botero, I.C. 50 Calderone, M. 88, 89, 92–3 bounty 386, 422 Callahan, E.S. 242, 252, 276–80, 282, models 29, 280–81, 333, 342–3, 350 283, 333, 342–3, 387, 393, 398, statutes (US) 354–5, 375 421 Bowden, P.239, 385 Calland, R. 2, 281–2 Brabeck, M. 140, 179, 185 Campbell, E.G. 179 Bradburn, N.M. 200 Canada Branch, T. 133, 233 civil/employment law 350, 372–3 Braxton, J.M. 202 Criminal Code 406, 407 Breggin, P.R.383 FAIR 372–3 Brewer, G.A. 68, 179, 189 fraud informant incentives 385–7 Brewster, C. 105 capacity–building 9, 475, 480 bribery 23, 101, 103, 110, 120, 241, Carr, I. 9, 412–13, 420 339, 381, 383 Carson, T.L. 342, 343, 344 Brief,A.P.5, 208 Caryl, C. 262 Bristol Royal Infirmary 11 cas de figure 123, 124 British Petroleum 110–11 case manager 288 Brock, J. 275 case studies 179 Brody, R.G. 47, 48–9, 52, 53 Casperz, D. 156, 157, 158, 160, 168 ‘broker’challenge 486–8, 490 Cassematis, P.75 Brown,A.J. 4, 8, 10–11, 16, 18, 23, Catania, J.A. 68 26–7, 29, 41, 58, 75, 101–2, Cattell, D. 383 107–8, 112, 137, 160, 165, 177, causal complexity 167, 171 180, 184, 194, 202–4, 209, 230, causal mechanism 156, 161–5, 169, 172 232–4, 237–9, 242, 247, 251, 286, Cavanagh, G.F. 154 288, 292, 300, 303–5, 307, 319, Cavico, F.J. 336

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Cawthorne, Joy 17 cognitive dissonance 288 CDRAssociates 436, 451 cognitive mechanisms 163–4 channels Cohen, S. 251 bell-ringing 82, 92–3 cohesion (translation process) 66 communication 339–40 Cohn, M. 385 internal 79, 290–92 Cold War 14, 464 chat rooms 266, 267 Coleman, E.G. 84, 90–91 Cherry, J. 162–3 ‘collective assumptions’46 Chiaburu, D.S. 306, 316 Collectivism-Individualism 46–9, 51–3, Child, J. 43 55–7, 60, 62–3, 65, 70 child abuse 84, 85–7 Collins, J. 242 China 40, 56, 244, 392 Collinson, D. 160 Chiu, R.K. 147, 162 Choi, J.H. 389–90 Commers, M.S.R. 116 choice criteria 513–14 Commission on Human Rights (Ghana) Chung, J. 67 391 CIA 425, 426 Commissioner for Public Employment Cialdini, R.B. 148–9, 512 (Australia) 181 CIGIE 465, 467 Commodities Future Trading citizens/citizenship 5, 6, 46, 117–18, Corporation 354 128–30, 343, 351, 395, 517 common good 416 ‘outsiders’75, 78, 84, 87 common law 350, 351, 354, 359, 365, civic duties 117, 122, 129, 386 372, 524 civic rights 335 Commonwealth Fraud Control civil law remedies 28–9, 524, 525 Guidelines (CFGG) 387 Australia 350, 351, 363–70 Commonwealth Ombudsman 477 Canada 350, 372–3 Commonwealth Parliamentary New Zealand 350, 370–71 Committee 408 research implications 373–6 communication 260–61, 339–40 UK 350, 359–63 see also information technology; USA 350, 351, 352–9 media civil liberties 334 comparative law perspective civil rights 424 (protection) 26–8, 190, 525, 527 Civil Service ReformAct (US) 352, 460 approach (needs) 331–4 Clairmont,A. 89 monitoring role 340–45 clarity (translation process) 66 research suggestions 345–6 Clarke, J. 420 right to report 334–40 class ‘comparative management’43 occupational 237–8 compensation 474 social 45, 238 criminal law remedies 405–6, 416 Clavaud ruling 335 employment law remedies 362–3, co-workers see employees 373 Cobb,A.T. 159, 160 financial (for retaliation) 397, 502 codes of conduct 102, 113, 122, 225 see also financial incentives BP 110–11 Competition Commission (Pakistan) Norway 101, 106 390 UK 101 Competition and ConsumerAct US 100, 115, 396, 397 (Australia) 387

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Index 595

Competition and Consumer Corporate IntegrityAgreements 396 Commission (Australia) 401 Corporate Law (China) 392 compliance approach 31, 339, 488 corporate rights 353 complicity issues (disclosure) 487 Corporate Sentencing Guidelines 395 conciliation 363, 373 in IGOs 433, 436 corporate social responsibility 105–6 Confederation of Trade Unions CorporationsAct (Australia) 367 (Norway) 98 corrective action 462–3, 468 confidentiality 25, 264, 294, 296, 486 corruption 9, 17, 242, 337, 420 corporate fraud 388–9, 391 citizen action against 517 duty of 26, 127–8, 337, 422 IGOs and 430, 437, 440–43, 448, 452 configural approach 61–2 public sector (study) 40–41 conflict (roles) 118–19 whistleblower support 460, 472–4, conflict resolution 486 477–8, 484 see also conciliation Cortina, L. 233–4, 238 conflicting values/loyalty 5–6, 25, 41, Council of Europe 4, 332, 406, 413 55 courage 302 ‘Confucian Dynamism’47, 55–6, 65 ‘hearer’314–20, 322, 324, 326 congruence (translation process) 66 organizational 316 ConsolidatedAppropriationsAct (US) ‘protector’321–3, 324, 326, 327 437, 439 courtesy (translation process) 66 constitutional rights 351–2, 356, 524 Crawshaw, L. 511 ConsultingAssociation 428 Creating a Non–Retaliatory Workplace consumer protection 401 project 472 legislation (US) 280, 342, 398–9 Crime and Misconduct Commission contempt of court 413–14 473 content analysis 179 CrimesAct (Australia) 387 contractual remedies 350, 368, 524 Criminal Code (Australia) 387 control Criminal Justice and Public OrderAct beliefs 146, 149–51 (UK) 414 locus of 15, 150, 156, 161–5, 172, criminal liability, corporate 417–18 318, 526 criminal penalties 397,419, 420 see also behavioral control criminal remedies 29–30 Coombs, H. 392 background/history 405–7 Cooper, C.L. 1 immunity (unfounded claims) 424–7 Cooper, Cynthia 10, 28 research needs 427–8 Cooper, J. 240 sanctions 407–24, 524–6 core agencies criminalizing disclosures 425–8 Australia 473–5, 484–5, 489 crisis management 486 US 461–3, 484–5, 489 cross-cultural research 7, 37–70 corporate criminal liability 417–18 crowdsourcing 265–6 Corporate EthicalValuesmodel 313 Crowell,A. 40, 45 corporate fraud 22–3 Cullen, J.B. 149 financial incentives and 29, 381–404, Cullen Inquiry 15 524 Culp, D. 230 corporate governance 23, 226, 417, 461, cultural norms 47, 50, 55, 526 476 Cultural Revolution 40 encouraging better 25, 395–6, 524 cultural values 62–3, 64–5 theory 104–5, 111 culture

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concepts of 43–6 Department of Defense (US) 241, definitions 39–42 465–8 equivalence and 66–9 Department of Health and Human extended/alternative model 61–5 Services (US) 396 grid-group theory 171 Department of Justice (US) 191, 280, Hofstede model 46–60, 70 354–5, 357–8, 382, 384, 394–8, political 46, 60, 63 425 societal (dilemmas) 7, 37–70 Department of Labor (US) 294, 353–4, see also national culture; 357–8 organizational culture Department of Treasury (US) 437–40, Culture’s Consequences (Hofstede) 43, 452 55–6 Depoorter, B. 393, 399 Curtis, M.B. 162 deputization 458–9 cynicism 415, 418 monitoring role 340–46 rewards 342–3 Dale, M.C. 84 structural approach and 343–4 Daniels, R.J. 393, 398 Der Spiegel 88 Darley, J.M. 76 Dervis, Kemal 444 data protection 152, 340 descriptive norms 148–9 Daugareilh, I. 110–11 deterrent effect 396–7 Davies, G. 365 Detert, J.R. 163 Davis, M. 166 Devillé,A. 171 Dawson, S. 251 Devine, T. 4, 32, 166, 236, 352–4, 356, de Graaf, G. 165 358, 515 De Maria, W. 230, 232–3, 246, 298, Di Lorenzo,V.106 474, 499 ‘diffusion of responsibility’164–5 De Mot, J. 393, 399 digital information 253, 264, 267 Deal, T.E. 504 direct effect (research) 508–9 decision-making direct intimidation 235 dichotomy 15, 16, 65, 156–61, 165, ‘directing mind’test 420 168–9, 172, 178 Directorate of Labor Inspection explanatory complexity 156, 165–7, (Norway) 100 170–71, 172 disclosure 4–5, 471 reporting/inaction 16, 17, 177–206, agency management 485–8 527, 528 channels see channels defamation 192, 235, 446, 501, 513 criminalizing 425–8 Defense IntelligenceAgency (US) 465 leaking 81, 333, 425–8, 516–17 defining issues test (DIT) 140 monitoring (role) 340–45 degradation ritual/ceremony 514–15 parties/entities to whom made 80–81 Dehn, G. 2, 281–2 discourse (definition) 158 Della Porta, D. 242 discrimination 421, 461 Deloitte Consulting LLP 433 legal remedies 353, 362, 368–70, Dempster, Q. 233 372, 374 Denmark 104, 427 disincentives (to speaking out) 513 Denzin, N.K. 168 dispute resolution 373–4, 376 Department for Business, Innovation see also conciliation and Skills (UK) 363 Dispute Tribunal 444, 445–6, 447

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Index 597

distributed denial of service attacks Edwards, B. 432, 441, 443 (DDoS) 74, 90 Edwards, M. 163, 169–70, 432, 441 distributed integrity 293 effectiveness distributive justice 284–5 monitoring systems 344–5 division of powers principle 343 whistleblowing 302–4 documentary evidence 262–5 efficiency, promoting 277–8 Dodd-FrankAct 296, 337, 354, 376, egotistical motive see self–interest 416 Ellis, S. 139, 140, 146, 147–8 Wall Street Reform 280, 342, 398–9 Elliston, F.A. 154, 157 ‘dominant coalition’285, 301, 304 Ellsberg, Daniel 14, 262 Donkin, M. 10, 20, 101–2, 107–8, 179, emic approach 138 185, 194, 204, 209, 251–2, 275–7, emotional survival 514 286, 288, 291–2, 299, 307, 478 employees 4–5 donor country mandates 436–40 co-workers 159, 160, 511–12 Doran, K.B. 45, 68 duty to whistleblow 121–8 Doyle, C. 382 external 124–6 Doyle, Michael 10 government 188–9 Dozier, J.B. 5, 81, 140, 162, 179 of IGOs 432–4 Drake case 426 key actors 187 Dreyfus, S. 41, 58, 99, 255, 307 private sector 353–4, 376 droit d’alerte 39 reporting/inaction decision 16, dropboxes 264–5 177–206 Drucker, Peter 6 role (situational factors) 188 due process 357, 438, 444, 448, 461 special cases 123–4 Dunlop Company 335 employers, duties towards 337–9 Dussuyer, I. 39 ‘employment-at-will’doctrine 192 duty/duties EmploymentAppeals Tribunal 362–3 civic 117, 122, 129, 386 employment law remedies 524–5, 527 of confidentiality 126, 127–8, 337, Australia 350, 351, 363–70 422 Canada 350, 372–3 fiduciary 117, 118, 120, 121–2, 125, New Zealand 350, 370–71 129–30 research implications 373–6 of loyalty 122, 337–9 UK 350, 359–63, 385–6 to report 108–9, 341–2 USA 350, 351, 352–9 see also whistleblowing duties Employment RelationsAct (NZ) 371 DuVall,J. 504 Employment RelationsAuthority (NZ) Dworkin, T.M. 20, 26–7, 29, 191, 235, 371 237, 242, 251–2, 276–8, 280–83, Employment RightsAct (UK) 99, 335, 333–4, 336, 339, 342, 344, 350, 337–8, 359–63, 385–6 363, 393, 395, 398, 411, 457, 473 enabling functions 463–8, 476–7 Dyck,A. 344 encryption 93, 253, 254 DynCorp 30 Energy PolicyAct (US) 353 enforcement 513 e-mail 499, 500, 505 rights (IGOs) 440–48 impact of ICT 260–61, 263, 266, 268 Enron 22, 411–12, 512 EARC 473 Enterprise and Regulatory ReformAct Earley, P.C.44, 67 (UK) 360 Edmonds, S. 84 Equal OpportunityAct (Australia) 387

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equifinality 167, 171 external reporting 242–3 equivalence, culture and 66–9 external validity 198 Erin Brockevich (film) 512 external whistleblowing 20, 139 Ernst andYoung 22 background 251–5 EspionageAct (US) 426 definition 251–2 Estlund, C. 411 impact of technology 256–67 ethics 240, 318–19, 339 in new media age 21–3, 250–72, 523 AMA Code 100 research design 255–6 APA Principles 100 societal culture 42, 49–51, 64 breaches of 212–14 extrovert character 150–51 decision–making 160, 168 factors/perspective 119, 126–7, 209 face-to-face contact 200, 258–62, 268, resisters 238, 247, 298 271, 358, 499 standards 215, 476–7 Facebook 261, 265 Ethics Offices 437, 438–9, 444–6 Fagan, C. 5, 333, 387, 389 Ethics Resource Centre 20, 276, 471 Fair WorkAct (Australia) 365, 366–9 reporting/inaction dichotomy 16, Fair Work Commission (Australia) 367 183–4, 186–9, 193, 198, 201–2 Fair Work Ombudsman (Australia) 369 whistleblowing suffering and 233, fairness, procedural 291, 471 235, 237, 239–40, 243, 245–6, Falklands War 14 248 False ClaimsAct (US) 191, 342, 515 ethnographic research 157, 160–61, aspects/advantages 392–9 163–4, 168–70, 172, 527 civil/employment law 354–5, 356–8 etic approach 138, 147, 149 comparative law 331, 344 Europe 11, 101 corporate fraud 29, 381–8, 390, corruption (post–Communist) 40–41 392–403 EC Treaty 388, 400 definitions 394 European Bank for Reconstruction and federal/state (synergy) 397 Development (EBRD) 431 overview 382–5, 524 European Convention on Human Rights proven effectiveness 398–9 351 families/friends (role) 514 European Court of Human Rights 332, Fang, T. 56 339, 414, 451 Farrell, D. 80, 154, 162 European Public Prosecutors 388 Fasterling, B. 333 evidence Father–Son (ethics trait) 56 -based policy process 488–9 Faunce, T.A. 331, 381, 399–400 burden of 333, 336 FBI 383 gathering 503 fear issues (disclosure) 487 quality of 186–7 Fecitt v NHS Manchester 361–2 Executive Order 425, 460 FederalAccountability and Reform exemplary stories 512–13 Initiative (Canada) 372–3 exit option 17, 80 Federal Circuit Court ofAppeals (US) experience (of managers) 308, 312 352, 353, 355–6 experimental studies 178–9 Federal Civil Service (Mexico) 407 explanatory complexity 156, 165–7, Federal Civil Service System (US) 170–71, 172 352–3 external employees 124–6 Federal Criminal Code (US) 406 external recipients 274–82, 292–5 ‘federal offense’412

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Index 599

Federal Trade Commission (US) 401 ‘four-model’approach 333–4 Feldman,Y.191, 194–9, 387 fraud 10–11, 22–3, 242, 420 Fernandes, F.M. 68 civil/employment law 354, 356–8, Ferro, Robert 331, 332, 342 375 fiduciary duties 117, 118, 120–22, 125, comparative law 331–2, 342 129–30 corporate see corporate fraud financial compensation see Hofstede model and 48–9, 50, 52 compensation informant incentives 29, 381–404, financial incentives 23, 25–6, 191, 350 524 FCA (aspects/advantages) 392–9 OLAF 400 FCA (overview) 372, 382–5 Ponzi scheme 7, 9, 73, 78 global fraud informant incentives Fraud Enforcement and RecoveryAct 385–92 (US) 382, 397 globalizing (corporate fraud) 29, Fredin,A.J. 147 381–404, 524 free-riding 399 to report 342–3 ‘Free Press Release Distribution using trade/investment law 399–402 Service’103 see also bounty; compensation; freedom of expression 331–5, 338–40, rewards 345, 346, 351 Financial Management and Freedom of InformationAct (US) 89 AccountabilityAct (Australia) 387 freedom of speech 333, 351, 353–4, Financial ServicesAuthority (UK) 280 356, 357 Financial Services Exceptions 401 Freestone, L. 516 fines 370, 375, 413, 419 French, J.R.P.155 Firkola, P.44 French Labor Code 334, 338 first contact (with journalist) 261 friends/family (role) 514 Fishbein, M. 13, 134, 143–7, 148–9, frivolous claims (US FCA) 393–4 150 functional units (enabling) 476–7 Fitzgerald Commission of Inquiry 472 functionalist model/research 63 Flaherty, E. 450 futility issues (disclosure) 487 Fleischer, H. 343 Fleming, P.159 Gabriel,Y.159, 169 Flynn, K. 517 gagging orders 351, 357, 361, 372, 375 focal organization 77–9, 91, 93 Gallagher, R. 261 Food, Drug and CosmeticAct (US) 384 Gallie, D. 104 Food and DrugAdministration (US) Garcetti v Ceballos 356, 418 383–4 Garfinkel, H. 514 ‘force multiplier’464 Geertz, C. 169 Foreign Operations, Export Financing Gelfland, M.J. 56 and Related Programs gender 237, 257 AppropriationAct (US) 430–31, GeneralAgreement on Trade in 435 Services 399, 400–401 Foreign OperationsAct (US) 435 General Capital Increases (GCIs) 437 Forell, S. 230, 245 General Motors 6 formal reprisals 165–6 General Revenue Fund (Illinois) 385 formal whistleblowing 57, 64 generalizability, sampling and 199–200 Fortune 500 companies 239–40, 397 George,A.L. 169, 170 Foucault, M. 158, 159, 315 Germany 40

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Civil Code 335, 421 grid-group cultural theory 171 civil servants (status) 337 grievance mechanisms (in IGOs) 446–8 Getnick, N.V.393, 395 Griffith University 41–2, 57–8 Ghana (fraud informant incentives) Grimstad, E. 442 390–92 Guantanamo Bay 426 Gillam, C. 84, 89–90 guanxi 56 Girodo, M. 444 Guardian 74, 88 ‘glass cage’metaphor 159–60, 169 Guidelines on the Reward Payment to GlaxoSmithKlein 396 Informants Scheme (Pakistan) 390 Glazer, M.P.179, 231, 233, 238, 245–6, Gun, Katharine 14 298, 398, 499 Gundlach, M.J. 186 Glazer, P.M.179, 231, 233, 238, 245–6, Guyer, Thad 448 298, 398, 499 Gyebi, E. 392 Global Compliance 433 Global Integrity Report (Ghana) 392 hacking/hackers 84, 90–91 global property 61 Hagen, I.M. 106 globalizing financial incentives (for Hager, N. 517 corporate fraud) 29, 524 Hall, P.85, 86–7, 106 global fraud programs 385–92 Hammersley, M. 169 need for 381 Hanford Joint Council for Resolving research gap 402–3 Employee Concerns 275 trade/investment law 399–402 Hansberry, H. 416 US FCA (aspects/advantages) 392–9 harassment 10, 18, 96, 105–7, 353, 355, US FCA (overview) 382–5 412, 445, 460 GlobalLeaks 21 bullying and 216–17, 224–5 Goldschmitt, J. 240 moral 119, 120, 121 Gong, T. 244 sexual see sexual harassment good faith 100, 335, 362, 443 victimization and 369, 371 Google Scholar 510 harm 99, 100, 102, 234–5, 414 Gorta,A. 230, 245 Haron, D.L. 382 gossip (role) 158–9 Harpur, P 367, 369 Gottschalk, P.240 Harris, G. 383 Gouveia,V.V.63 Harrison, G.L. 44 GovernmentAccountability Office Hartmann, M. 15, 88 (US) 357, 384, 431, 446 Hassan,A. 517 GovernmentAccountability Project 4 Hassink, H. 115, 230 IGOs 431–2, 435–6, 438, 440–43, Health, Safety and Environment (HSE) 449, 452 representatives 150 Government Communications HQ health and safety 9–10, 15, 17, 22, 109 (GCHQ) 14 civil/employment law 357–8, 365, government employees 188–9 369 Gowen, S. 86 criminal remedies 421, 428 Grace, D. 251 Health and Safety Executive 280 Grant, C. 231 health sector/issues 109 Grassley, C.E. 394 drug safety 383, 384 Gray, T. 513 food safety 84, 89–90 Grégoire, M. 240 hospital scandal (Bundaberg) 365–6 Grevil, Major Frank Soehelm 427 medical negligence 11, 16–17

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Index 601

patient advocacy groups 83, 84 Hunt, G. 21, 499 Healy, D. 383 Hunton, J.E. 303 Heard, E. 472 Husband-Wife (ethics trait) 56 hearer action 24, 300, 306–7, 314, Hwang, D. 56 316–21, 322–3 hypothetical scenarios 146–7, 179 ‘hearer courage’314–20, 322, 324, 326 Hedin, U-C. 232, 235, 245 IBM 54 Hedström, P.163 ICT see information age; information Heinisch, Brigitte 331–2, 336, 338–9 technology helplines 20, 233, 239, 240, 307, 363 ‘ideal control’159, 160 Henderson, M.U. 169, 170 ideographic research methods 63 Herald of Free Enterprise ferry 22 illegal practices 99, 178, 225, 334 Herzig, C. 55 illegitimate practices 97, 99, 225, 334 Hess, D. 339 immoral practices 96–7, 99, 178, 225, Hippocratic Oath 117 334 Hoffman, Toni 11, 28, 365–6 immunity (unfounded claims) 424–7 Hofstede/Hofstede model 38, 43, 64, ‘impimpis’40 526 imprisonment see prison/imprisonment applying (results to date) 46–53 inaction challenges 54–5, 70 rates 160–61, 202–4 culture dimensions 46–53, 58–63, 70, reporting and 16, 17, 177–206, 527–8 163, 244 incentives 191 model limits 53–60, 70 global fraud informants 385–92 Holgersson, S. 240 see also financial incentives Hollings, J. 258 India 22, 392 Home OfficeAsset RecoveryAction fraud informant incentives 390 Plan 386 Public Interest Disclosure Bill 413 Hood, Brian 23 ‘indicator’challenge 482–3 Hood, John 405 indirect effects (research) 507–8 Hopman, P.155 indirect intimidation 235 ‘Horizontal Collectivism’56–7 indirect third party effect 335 ‘Horizontal Individualism’56–7 individual propensity 48–9, 52, 60 hotlines 180, 317, 340, 440 individual rights 26, 27 House of Representatives Standing Individualism–Collectivism 46–9, Committee (Australia) 475 51–3, 55–7, 60, 62–3, 65, 70 Howard v State of Queensland 366 Indulgence versus Restraint 47 Howse, R. 393, 398 industrial relations 212, 428 human rights 30, 202, 447 employment law 363, 367–71, 374, civil/employment law 351, 369, 371 376 comparative law 333, 334–5, 340, labour market relations 103–7, 113 345 power and 154–5 perspectives 26, 27 wrongdoing standards 109–11 Human RightsAct (New Zealand) 371 see also trade unions Human Rights Commission (New industrial tribunals 414, 525 Zealand) 369, 371 industry (organizational factors) 188–9 Human Rights and Equal Opportunity informal power 154, 155, 161 Commission 202 informal reprisals 165–6 Hungary 388, 406, 407 informal whistleblowing 57, 64

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602 International handbook on whistleblowing research

informants 81, 394–5 Intelligence Community Whistleblower incentives programs 385–92 ProtectionAct (US) 425 information Intelligence Identities ProtectionAct acquisition 91–2 (US) 426–7 asymmetry 424–5 intelligence oversight (I/O) 467–8 collecting 503 intended whistleblowing (research digital 253, 264, 267 design) 13, 526, 527 needs (whistleblower support) background 133–4 489–91 correlates 141–3 routes/types 509 future directions 151–3 information age measuring 139–41 external whistleblowing and 251–5 predictive validity (factors) 143–5 impact 250, 253, 256–67, 270–71 reasoned action approach 13, 134, see also information technology 145–51 Information Commissioner (UK) 428 studies 134–41 information technology 21–3, 523 intentions 56, 145, 146, 186 communication role 260 planned behavior 161–2, 272, external whistleblowing and 251–5 317–20, 322–3, 526 impact of 250, 253, 256, 258–67, 270 propensity to blow the whistle 13, research (future directions) 272 48–50, 52, 60, 139–40 research design 255–6, 257 Inter–American Development Bank risk awareness 268–70, 271 431, 433, 435–8, 440, 444, 449 security of 254, 264, 268–70, 271 interim relief 374–5 injunctive norms 148–9 internal disclosure channels 79, 290–92 Insider,The (film) 31–2, 512 internal recipients 274–82, 285–92 insiders (definitions) 4–5 internal reporting 42, 49–51, 242–3 Inspector GeneralAct (US) 464 managerial responsiveness 24, Inspectors–General (US) 280, 284, 425 298–327 civil law remedies 356–7, 358 see also ‘Whistling While They whistleblower support 461, 463–8, Work’project 476, 484, 486 Internal Revenue Service 84, 87, 354 institutional lesson, systemic 482–9 internal validity 198 institutional model/approaches 280–81, internal whistleblowing 139, 251 333, 458–9, 473 managerial responsiveness 24, institutional reform 26, 27 298–327 institutionalizing protection (core societal culture and 42, 56, 57, 64 agencies) Internal Witness Survey 219–21, 240 Australia 473–5 InternationalAssociation of USA 461–3 Whistleblowers 83, 84 integrated research model 32, International Business Ethics Institute 457–94, 525 472 integrity 2, 23, 89, 119, 122, 195, 231, International DevelopmentAssociation 392, 396 (IDA) 449 agencies 473, 474, 477, 479, 484 International Federation ofAccountants Department of Institutional Integrity 128 441–2, 448, 449 international governmental distributed 293 organizations (IGOs) 30–32, public 9–10, 298, 370, 372, 425 524–5

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Index 603

background 430–32 distributive 284–5 best practice 434–6 internal 431, 432–6, 446–7 donor country mandates 436–40 organizational 333 enforcement of IGO rights 440–48 procedural 284–5, 471 issues (further research) 449–52 International Labour Organization 4, Kahan, D.M. 419 434, 445, 450 Kaplan, E. 82 International Monetary Fund 400 Kaplan, S.E. 82 Internet 253, 261, 264, 267, 271, 505–6 Kapstein, M. 102, 149, 251, 313 interpretivist research 63–4 Karen Silkwood (film) 512 intervention challenge (core agency Kavanagh, M.J. 162 roles) 484–5 Keenan, J.P.42, 47–50, 52, 60, 139–40, intimidation 235, 407, 413 185, 189–90, 193, 209, 238, 244, investigative bodies (in IGOs) 441–4 investigative journalists 250–52, 248, 286, 319 254–72 Keil, M. 166 investment law 399–402 Kelley, L. 43 ‘invisible hand’416 Kerr, Ian 428 Irish-Qhobosheane, J. 45 Kesselheim,A.S. 393 ‘iron cage’metaphor 159–60 Kessing,Alan 22 ISI Web of Science 134 Khanna,V.417–18 Israel 39–40, 146–7 Khoshaba, D.M. 514 Kilmann, R.H. 302, 316 ‘Jabber’268 King, E. 260 Jackall, R. 511 King, G. 71, 187, 190, 209, 295 Jackson, D. 170 Kiriakou, John 426–7 James, G.G. 376 Kissinger, Henry 14 jargon 262 Kleiner, B.H. 165 Jermier, J.M. 159 ‘klokkenluider’39, 73 Jo, M. 69 Knapp, D.E. 301 job satisfaction 143 Kohn, S.M. 354 Jobs, Steve 103 Kölbel, R. 343 Johnson, M. 433–4 Korean Fair Trade Commission 389–90 Johnson, R.A. 194 Kötz, H. 346 Johnson administration 14 Koury, M. 390 Jones, G.E. 162 Kovacic, W.E. 382 Jos, P.H.190, 231, 232 KPMG 177 journalists Kunda, G. 160 bell-ringing and 74–6 documentary evidence 262–5 labor market models 96, 102–7, 113 investigative 250–52, 254–72 LaCroix, K.M. 383 media and 250–52, 254–72, 505, 516 Laemmle-Weidenfeld, L. 398 risk awareness 268–70, 271 Lamb, T.M. 166, 170 Skype use 260–61, 268 Langenberg, S. 315, 317 trust-building 256, 258–60, 263, 270 language 73, 262 Jubb, P.B.20, 137 culture and 39–40, 45, 66 jury trials 353, 354, 357 Larkin, P.J.66 justice Latané, B. 76

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Latimer, P.180, 210, 230, 365, 386–7, Long-Term Orientation (LTO) 47–8, 424, 472, 474, 479 51–3, 56, 60 law longitudinal research 198–9 enforcement 277, 340–46 loyalty 6, 45, 487 internal/external 278–81 conflicting 5–6, 25, 41, 55 see also civil law remedies; duty of 122, 337–9 employment law remedies; peer 202 legislation Loyens, K. 157, 160, 161, 164–5, 166, leadership style 162 168, 171 leaking 81, 333, 425–7, 516–17 Lugar, Senator Richard 434–5 Lechner, J.P.412 Lynn, C. 431 Lee, Matthew 22 legal aid 351, 375, 421 Ma, S. 244 legal obligation to report 214–15 Maas, P.133 legalistic organizational mechanisms Maassarini, T. 4, 32, 352, 353–4, 356, 280–81 358, 515 legislation McCauliffe, C.M.A. 355 antitrust 119–20, 386, 390, 415, 524 McClellan, K. 426 Australian approach 472–5, 479–80, McDonald, G. 38, 44, 46, 67 483, 484, 489–90 McGlynn, J. 179 Canada 350, 372–3 McKinnon, J.L. 44 civil/employment law remedies 28–9, McLain, D.A. 189, 244 350–80, 524, 525 McMillan, J. 180, 210, 230, 365, 386–7, comparative perspective 26–8, 190, 472, 474, 479 331–49, 525, 527 MacNab, B. 42, 48–9, 50–52, 144 competition 387, 390, 401 McQueary, Mike 85, 86–7 as situational variable 190–92 McSweeney, B. 54–5, 62, 63 US approach 352, 460, 464, 483, 489 Maddi, S.R. 514 wrongdoing definitions in 99–102 Madoff, Bernard 7, 9, 73, 78 legislators, motivation and 224–5, 226 Magley,V.233–4, 238 Lehman Brothers 22 Mahoney, J. 104 Leibowitz case 426 management, agency 485–8, 490 LeisureNet Ltd 18–19 managerial responsiveness 24, 526 Lennane, K.J. 232, 234, 246, 514 exploratory findings 306–14 Levine,A. 39–40 focusing on whistleblower 298, Lewis, D.B. 2, 6, 9, 100, 105, 108–10, 301–6 115, 230, 279, 296, 333, 337, 340, ‘hearer courage’314–20, 326 342, 359, 361, 363, 373–4, 422 implications for research 323–6 likelihood of blowing the whistle ‘protector courage’321–3, 326, 327 (LBW) 42, 48–9, 50–51, 52 research background 298–300 Lim, L. 44 managers 286–9 line managers 286–7, 289 experience of 308, 312 Lithuania 389 whistleblowing motivation and Liyanarachchi, G.A. 139–40 224–6 Lloyd LafolletteAct 353 Manning, Bradley (now Chelsea) Lobel, O. 19, 194–5, 385, 387 14–15, 84, 88–9, 427 locus of control 15, 150, 156, 161–5, Manning, R. 76 172, 318, 526 Mansbach,A. 157, 230, 247, 315

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Index 605

Månsson, S-A. 232, 235, 245 162, 177, 179, 181–93, 195–6, Marginson, S. 416 198, 200, 202, 207–10, 212, 217, Markopolos, Harry 7, 9, 73, 78, 83 225, 230–39, 241, 248, 251–2, Marshall, S. 84, 88 272–8, 282–92, 295–6, 299, Martens, L.T. 40, 45 301–6, 309, 316, 323, 334, 343, Martin, B. 166, 230, 386, 415, 417, 422, 472, 501 498, 500, 513, 515 Microsoft 261 Masculinity-Femininity (MAS) 47, 52, Miethe, T.D. 177, 185, 186, 189, 199, 60 237, 247, 276 Maslin, J. 84, 89, 90 Military Whistleblower ProtectionAct ‘material breach’396 (USA) 465 Matthiesen, S. 234, 242 Miller, W. 41, 472 Mayntz, R. 163 Ministry of Defence (UK) 425 Mazerolle, P.75, 286, 319 Ministry of Finance (China) 392 Mazurski, E. 11, 16, 18, 23, 160–61, Ministry of Justice (Taiwan) 392 177, 184, 202–4, 209, 303 Ministry of Labour and Inclusion measurement validity 198 (Norway) 96, 97 media 333 minority influence theory 155, 302 business model 252, 253 misconduct content analysis 179 recipients and 281, 282–3, 290, 295 dealing with 516 reporting (IGO channels) 440–41 external whistleblowing in Moberly, R.E. 17, 115, 191–2, 230, 275, information age 21–3, 250–72, 279–82, 290, 294, 339, 344, 373, 523 407, 415, 418–19, 422, 425–7 journalists and 250–52, 254–72, 505, Moen, B.E. 150 516 monitoring see also social media oversight and 469–70, 475–8, 488–9 medical negligence 11, 16–17 role 340–45 ‘medium priority’cases 442 Monopoly Regulation and Fair Trade Meinert, D. 76 Act (South Korea) 389 Melnitzer, J. 373 Monroe, G.S. 67 Merit Systems Protection Board (US) Monsen, P–Y.150 16, 39, 137, 139, 235 Moore, C. 164 civil/employment law 352–3, 355–6 Moore, C.W. 451 recipients and 276, 284, 290, 292 moral disengagement 163–5, 171, 172 reporting/inactivity decision182, moral harassment 119, 120, 121 184, 189–91, 196, 198–9 Moral Mazes (Jackall) 511 support by 461–4, 470, 479, 482 morality, personal (motivation) 215 Mesmer-Magnus, J. 1, 13, 116, 134–6, Morvan, P.333 141–4, 148–9, 151–2, 179, 186, Moscovici, S. 155 188, 190, 209, 237, 241, 245–6, motivation 317–18, 320 273, 277, 302, 304, 306, 323 altruistic 18, 207–15, 219–28, 416 Mexican Criminal Code 407 of bell-ringer 80–81, 93 Meyer, J.A. 398 interview/survey data 218–23 Miceli, M.P.1, 4, 5, 10, 12, 16, 18, 20, self-interest 18, 207–12, 214, 23, 71–2, 75, 81, 96–7, 101–2, 216–28, 524 105, 112, 121, 133, 137–8, whistleblowing17–18, 25–6, 207–29, 140–42, 146–8, 150–52, 154–8, 523–4

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606 International handbook on whistleblowing research

whistleblowing research and 208–11 civil/employment law 364–5 Motowidlo, S.J. 5, 208 District Court 365 multiculturalism 452 Ombudsman 180, 193, 476–8, 480, Multilateral Development Banks 486 430–31, 434–40, 447, 449, 451–2 whistleblower support 473–8, 480, multilateral trade agreements 29, 401–3 486 multinational corporations 399–402 NewYork Times 74, 81, 88, 89 ‘multiple conjectural causation’167 New Zealand multiple reporting pathways 191, 205 civil/employment law 350, 370–71 Municipal Development Project Employment RelationsAct 371 (Yerevan,Armenia) 441–2 Human RightsAct 371 MurdochLeaks 92 Protected DisclosuresAct 370–71, Myers,A. 282 373 Nader, R. 39, 133 Protected DisclosuresAmendment narrative approach 169–70, 213, 527 Act 370 NationalAudit Office (China) 392 NewsMail 366 National Business Ethics Survey 471 Nielsen, M.B. 152 national culture 163, 527 ‘no-win no-fee’383, 384, 387, 394, 402 equivalence in 66–9 non-action 65 Hofstede model 43, 44, 54–5, 60–63 non-disclosure rule 513 suffering and 243–4, 248 non-journalists 74–6 National DefenseAuthorizationAct non-member status 77–80, 94 (US) 356, 357 non-motivating factors (intention) National Geospatial-Intelligence 317–18, 320 Agency (US) 465 non-profit sector 188–9, 239, 248 National Reconnaissance Office (US) non-reporting 65, 160–61, 190, 191 465 non-response 67, 69, 77, 201 national security 14–15, 84, 88–9, 282, normative approach 281–2 362 normative beliefs 145, 146, 148–9 criminal remedies 406–7, 425–8, 525 norms 117, 120, 128 whistleblower support 464, 465 cultural 47, 50, 55, 526 National SecurityAct (US) 464 descriptive 148–9 National SecurityAgency (US) 15, 465 perceived 145, 146, 148–9 Nayir, D. 55 social 419–20 Near, J.P.1, 4, 10, 12, 16, 18, 20, 23, 50, Northern Territory Public Interest 71, 75, 96, 101–3, 109, 121, 133, DisclosureAct 408, 410 137–8, 140, 142, 147–8, 152, Northrop Grumman Corporation 331 154–5, 157, 162, 177, 179–93, Norway 151–2 196, 198, 200, 202, 207, 209–10, Working EnvironmentAct 96–7, 105, 212, 217, 225, 230, 233, 235–9, 108–9 241–3, 246, 248, 251, 272–8, wrongdoing in 96–8, 100, 105–10 280–91, 295, 299, 301–6, 309, Note Printing 23 316, 323, 334 Notification and Federal Employee Negandhi,A.R. 43 Anti-discrimination and Nepal 392 RetaliationAct (USA) 461, 467 Network, The 180 Nuclear Regulatory Commission (US) New South Wales 387, 408–9, 499 353

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Index 607

Oakes, L. 41 Organization for Security and Obama administration 357, 358, 382, Cooperation in Europe 406 426, 427, 437 organizational behavior 43 O’Brien,A. 15, 88 see also pro-social behavior model occupational class 237–8 organizational characteristics, suffering occupational culture 54–5 and 238–41 Occupational Health and SafetyAct organizational climate 189–90 (Australia) 370 organizational control, promoting Occupational Safety and HealthAct 277–8 (USA) 357 organizational culture 3, 45, 54–5, 149, O’Day, R. 231, 235, 236, 298 159, 166, 522 OECD 421, 423 managerial responsiveness 24, Office of Fair Trading (UK) 386 Office of Inspector General (US) 284, 298–327, 526 356–7 motivation in 17–18, 25–6, 207–29, Office of Personnel Management (US) 523–4 466, 470 new media age 21–3, 250–72, 523 Office of Special Counsel (US) 280, reporting/inaction decision 16, 17, 352–3, 425, 461–4, 469–71, 473, 177–206, 527, 528 474 research needs/wants 511, 516, 518 Office of Whistleblower Protection whistleblower suffering 18–19, (US) 358 230–49, 524, 526, 527 Official SecretsAct (UK) 14, 425 whistleblowing recipients 23–4, Oh, L.B. 146, 162 273–97, 525 Ohnishi, K. 170 organizational dynamics 504 OLAF 400 organizational factors (reporting) Old-Young (ethics trait) 56 185–6, 188–9 Olsen, J. 11, 16–18, 23, 160–61, 166, organizational justice 333 177, 184, 202–4, 209–10, 230, ‘organizational member’77 237–9, 242–3, 286, 289, 303–5, organizational power theory 277, 321, 480, 484 283–4, 295 Olympus 28 organizational propensity to blow the Ombudsman 295, 296, 339 whistle 48–9, 50, 52 Australia 180, 193, 369, 473, 476–8, organizational wrongdoing 76–7, 82, 480, 486 94, 95–114 New South Wales 180, 193, 476–8, Orisini Broderick, C. 393–4, 396 480, 486 Orr,L.41 Norway 152 Osterhaus,A. 5, 333, 387, 389 USA 280, 467 ostracism 234, 421, 511 online avenues (role) 259–60 ‘OTR’268 Online Consumer Protection 401 outsider whistleblowers (bell–ringing Ontario Securities Commission 387 behavior) 7–9, 528 OPEC 400 ambiguous incidents 83–91, 94 open government 26, 27 defining bell-ringing 71–83 operational definition approach 138, dimensions 91–3 140 oversight 432 OpTunisia 91 monitoring and 469–70, 475–8, ‘organization members’4 488–9

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608 International handbook on whistleblowing research

Padraic, S. 245 personality issues (disclosure) 487 Pagnattaro, M.A. 340 personality profiles 141–2, 150–51 Pakistan 390 Peters, C. 133, 233 Panopticon 159 Peters, K. 169, 170 ‘parasitic claims’384, 393–4 Petersen, J.C. 154, 162 Parish, Matthew 434, 447 Peterson, Nikolas 448 Park, H. 56–7, 63–5, 133, 139–40, 144, Pfeffer, J. 77, 154 146, 148 phone Parker, D. 84, 85 contact 258, 260, 263, 266, 269, 428, Parmerlee, M.A. 39, 133, 154, 209 499, 518 ‘parrhesia’315, 317, 318, 321 surveys 67, 200 Patapan, H. 60 ‘Pink Slime Reluctant Whistleblower’ Patel, C. 48–9, 50–51 84, 89–90 Patel, Dr Jayant 11, 365–6 PiperAlpha disaster 15, 16 Paterno, Joe 85–6 Pitzer, D.D. 343, 382 patient advocacy groups 83, 84 planned behavior 161–2, 272, 317–20, Patrick Stevedoring Pty Ltd v Chasser 322–3, 526 370 police cultures 240 Pawson, R. 165 policy PayPal 90, 91 disagreements 211–12 peacekeeping missions (UN) 440–41, public 190–97 443 political coercion 460 Peach Grey v Summers 414 political culture 46, 60, 63 Peek, L. 49–50, 52 political wrongdoing 14 peer loyalty 202 politicizing effects 247 peer reporting 49, 51, 52, 56 Ponting, Clive 14 peer review 433, 447 Ponzi scheme 7, 9, 73, 78 Peirce, E.R. 340 Posner, E. 419 Pemberton, S. 10 power 13–14, 46 Peña, F. 500 causal mechanism approach 156, penalties 191 161–5, 169–70, 172 criminal 397, 419, 420 decision–making dichotomy 156–61, see also fines; prison/imprisonment; 168–9, 172 sanctions division of 343 Pennebaker, J.W. 503 explanatory complexity 156, 165–7, Penner, L.A. 6 170–71, 172 Pennsylvania State University 84–7, 92 informal 154, 155, 161 ‘Pentagon papers’14 research approaches 167–71 perceived behavioral control 145–6, theory 277, 283–4, 295 149–51, 319–20, 322, 324–6, 327 whistleblowing and 154–73, 304, perceived norms 145, 146, 148–9 526–7 perception issues (disclosure) 487 Power Distance (PD) 43, 46–52, 58–63, performance 470–72, 478–83, 488–9 70, 244 Pershing, J.L. 202 preferential trade agreements 29, personal interests 18, 207–29 400–403 personal morality 215 Prevention of CorruptionAct (Nepal) personal propensity for whistleblowing 392 48–50, 52 Price Waterhouse Coopers 23

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Index 609

principal-agent theory 104, 130, 523 psychology of attackers 510–11 prison/imprisonment 14, 17, 88 Public Concern at Work helpline 20, civil/employment law 365, 369, 371 233, 239, 240, 307, 363 corporate fraud 389, 391 public good 277, 415–16, 417 criminal remedies 405, 407–8, 411, public interest 4–5, 10, 11, 14, 25–6, 98, 413, 419, 427 365–6, 407–8, 485 privacy 25, 68, 152, 160, 260–61, 340, disclosure agencies 296, 376 513 disclosures 180, 217, 413, 423, 476, breaches of 84, 85 478, 486 privacy box 264 motivation and 18, 207–29, 524 Privacy International 260 Public Interest DisclosureAct private interests 18, 207–29 Australia 363–7, 387, 408, 472–3, private sector 475, 477, 484 Australia 367–70 UK 99, 278–80, 282, 296, 335, employees 353–4, 376 359–60, 362, 385 pro-social behavior 5–6, 39, 80–81, Public Interest Disclosure Bill (India) 146, 303, 485 413 motivation and 208, 209 Public Interest Disclosure Manual reporting/inaction decision 185–7, (Australia) 476 192, 195–7, 202 public policy 190–97 proactive personality 150–51 public sector 26–7, 188–9, 248, 376 procedural fairness 291, 471 Australia 364–7, 478 procedural justice 284–5, 471 Public Servants Disclosure Protection procedural law 333 Act (Canada) 372 process-tracing 167, 169–70, 172–3, Public ServiceAct (Australia) 387 527 Public Service Commission (Australia) professional associations 505 478 professional standards 476–7 Public Service Integrity Commission professionals (specific duty) 126–8 (Canada) 372, 425 profile (whistleblower) 141–2, 150–51 publicity 505–6, 516 prohibited personnel practices 469 Pullar, Bronwyn 83–4, 85 proof, burden of 353, 355, 357, 435, 437 punitive damages 354 propensity to blow the whistle (PBW) Pyper, D. 386 13, 48–50, 52, 60, 139–40 proportionality analysis 338 ‘qualifying disclosure’360 protected disclosure qualitative case studies 179 Australia 364, 387 Qualitative ComparativeAnalysis 167, New Zealand 370–71, 373 171, 172–3 SouthAfrica 359 qualitative studies 168–9, 171–2, 528 Tasmania 387 quantitative studies 169, 171, 528 UK 338, 360–62, 386 Quaye, R. 392 Victoria 387 Queensland 17, 387 protection see whistleblower protection civil/employment law 364, 365–6 Protection of Whistleblowers, The criminal remedies 408–9, 423 (Council of Europe) 406, 413 whistleblower support 472–5, protector action 24, 300, 306–7, 310, 476–8 321–3, 326–7 qui tam system 30,422 ‘protector courage’321–3, 324, 326–7 civil/employment law 354, 375–6

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610 International handbook on whistleblowing research

comparative law 331, 342–5 reporting corporate fraud 382–8, 393–9, 524 acceptability of 57–60 external see external reporting R v Shayler 425 inaction and (decision) 16, 17, Radack, J. 426 177–206, 527, 528 Ragin, C.C. 167, 171 incidence of 177–85, 198–204 RAND Corporation 14 internal see internal reporting Randall, D.M. 68 likelihood of 49–50, 52 random recruitment strategy 200 misconduct (IGO channels) 440–41 Rapp, G.C. 406, 417, 419, 421, 422 obligations 341–2 rationalisation issues (disclosure) 487 paths, suffering and 242–3, 248 Raven, B.H. 155 rates 160–61, 181–5, 188–9, 199–204 realist approach 44 retaliation (IGO channels) 444–6 reality -silence dichotomy 15, 16, 65, behind rights on paper (US) 355–9 156–61, 165, 168–9, 172, 178 research and 24–32 situational/organizational factors reasoned action approach 13, 134, 185–90 145–51, 152–3 reprisals 190, 196, 232, 512, 514 recipients, whistleblowing 130, 301–3 criminal sanctions 407–22, 524–5 channels 82, 92–3 IGOs 432–3, 449 external 274–7, 278–82, 292–5 informal/formal 165–6 future research 295–7 psychology of attackers 510–11 ‘hearer courage’314–20 whistleblower support 461–3, 465, internal 274–82, 285–92 474 researching 282–97 reputation issues (disclosure) 487 responses and 19–24 research role 23–4, 273–97, 525 context 15–19 taxonomy of 274–82 cross–cultural contexts 66–9 referents 145 framing 12–15 Regional Ethics Committee (Norway) Hofstede model 46–33, 53–60 152 implications 198–204, 323–6, regional trade agreements 400, 402, 489–91 403 incidence of whistleblowing 177–85 regulation 343, 392, 394–5 integrated model 32, 457–94, 525 practicalities 460–82 inter-disciplinary 529–30 self- 9–10, 281, 298, 317 issues requiring (in IGOs) 449–52 structural/institutional model possible risks 509–10 280–81, 333, 458–9, 473 recommendations 167–71 Rehg, M.T. 79, 165, 235, 237 regulation and reality 24–32 Reinisch,August 450–51 on recipients 282–97 remedies 336 state of (overview) 1–34 civil/employment law 28–9, 350–80, strategic issues 33–4, 522–30 524, 525 topics 510–17 criminal 405–29, 474 whistleblower suffering 18–19, report 230–49, 524, 526, 527 duties to 108–9, 341–2 whistleblower wants/needs 33, financial incentives 342–3 497–521, 528 right to 334–40 whistleblowing motivation 208–11

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Index 611

wrongdoing definitions in 99–102 recipients and 273, 278, 280–81, research in action 3, 522 283–6, 288–9, 293–6 criminal remedies 29–30, 405–29, risks 75, 165, 166, 172, 321–3 524 suffering and 18, 231–40, 244–7 globalizing financial incentives 29, threat of 142–3, 304–6, 512 381–404 victimization 368–71, 374–6, 416, protection (civil/employment law 417, 421 remedies) 28–9, 350–80, 524, see also anti-retaliation model/ 525 approach; reprisals protection (comparative law) 26–8, rewards 29, 30, 191, 333, 342–4, 375–6 331–49, 525 see also bounty; financial incentives; protection (in IGOs) 30–32, 430–56, qui tam system 524, 525 Richardson, B.K. 179 whistleblower support Rieble,V.338 (integratedresearch model) 32, Rifkin, W. 166, 230 457–94, 525 rights 26, 27 research design 255–7 human see human rights appropriateness 13, 133–53, 526, 527 IGO (enforcement) 440–48 future directions 151–3 reality behind (US) 355–9 intended/actual whistleblowing to report 334–40 134–43 Rihoux, B. 167 predictive validity of intentions Riise, T. 150 143–5 Riley,A. 388 reasoned action approach 134, Riordan, C.M. 44, 66–7 145–51 Rising, K. 383 research fundamentals 3, 522 risk 196, 486, 509–10 bell-ringing behavior 7–9, 71–94, awareness (in ICT) 268–70, 271 528 management 299, 308, 313–14, 326, power and whistleblowing 13–14, 327, 341, 483 154–73, 526, 527 retaliation 75, 165, 166, 172, 321–3 research design appropriateness 13, Roach, K. 418 133–53, 526, 527 Roberts, P.185, 191–3, 204, 209–10, societal culture 7, 37–70, 526, 527 217, 225, 274, 286–7, 289, 291–2, whistleblowing duties 12, 115–32, 296, 307, 320, 370, 408, 417, 425, 523 479–81 wrongdoing 12, 95–114, 524 Roche, James 6 resistance 158–60 Rohde–Liebenau, B. 101 resource dependence theory 154, 302 role-prescribed whistleblowers 155 responsibility, diffusion of 164–5 ‘role reporting’75 retaliation Romano, R. 417 criminal remedies 29–30, 407–22 Ros, M. 63 effects of 244–7 Rose, J.M. 303 financial compensation 397–8 Rossouw, D. 68 IGOs 430–31, 432–3, 437–49 Rothschild, J. 185–6, 189, 199, 237, motivation and 209, 223, 226, 228 247, 276 power and 156, 158, 162, 165–6, 171 Rothwell, G.R. 149, 150, 240 protection 460–63, 471, 482–3 Rotter, J.B. 161 rates of 231–4, 237, 239–40 Rowley, C. 84

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Ruhnka, J.C. 387, 397 self-protection 217–18, 227 rule of law 340, 343 self-regulation 9–10, 281, 298, 317 Rushkoff, D. 512 self-reporting 68–9 Ryan,A.M. 138 self-understanding 506–7 Serpico (film) 512 Salancik, G.R. 77, 154 sexual assault 84, 85–7, 222–3 samizdat 506 sexual harassment 50, 53, 101, 109, samples/sampling 48, 67, 199–200 139, 151, 186, 202, 207, 21, 216, Samsung 103, 113 222–5, 241 sanctions 423–4 Shaman, D.I. 431 criminal (for reprisals) 29–30, Shapiro, J. 86 407–22, 524–5 shared property 61 see also fines; penalties; prison/ Sharp, G. 504 imprisonment Sheen, B. 22 Sandusky, Jerry 85–6, 92 Shelton, James 23 Sarbanes-OxleyAct 17, 110, 279, 282, Shipman, Harold 16–17, 21 294, 335, 339, 344, 358, 367, 406, Shkurtaj,Artjon 443–4 411–12, 415, 417–18, 419, 421 silence (decision–making dichotomy) Satter, R. 89 15, 16, 65, 156–61, 165, 168, 172, Sawyer, K. 41 178 Scammell, H. 394, 395 Sims, R.L. 42, 47, 49, 52, 60, 185, 193, Schaffer, B.S. 44, 66–7 209 Schmitt, J. 104 sincerity 415–17 Schmolke, K.U. 343 Singer, M. 186 Schrijvers, J.P.M.504 Sinzdak, G. 277, 281 Schroder, Kate 28 Sisco, P.M.412 Schultz, J.J. 43, 49–50, 52 situational factors (reporting) 185–8 Schwartz, S.H. 38, 64–5 situational variable (policy) 190–92 scientific method 424 Skillen, L.A. 393, 395 Scott, G. 446 Skivenes, M. 96, 107–8, 150, 154, 155, Scott, W.R. 104 192, 276, 300 secrecy 333, 357, 424, 426–7 Skype 260–61, 268 Securities and ExchangeAct (US) 399 Slavin, R.E. 184 Securities and Exchange Commission Sledge, M. 88 (US) 7, 73, 280, 337, 339, 353–4, Smith,A. 416 399 Smith, M. 260–61 Securities Law (China) 392 Smith, R. 11, 46, 231–4, 238, 247, 288, security 291–2, 300, 303, 305, 474 of information 254, 264, 268–71 Smythe,V.239 national see national security Snell, R. 425 Securrency 23 snowballing (social media role) 266–7 Seifert, D.L. 291 Snowden, Edward 15 Selden, S.C. 68 social class 45, 238 self-administered surveys 200–201 social constructivist approach 44 self-interest 31, 149, 325 social democracy 416 motivation 18, 207–12, 214, 216–28, social desirability 67–9, 200–201 524 social media 21, 250, 251, 253, 256, self-presentation bias 68 263, 265–7, 505

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Index 613

social norms 419–20 Sweeney, J.T. 55 social power theory 302 Sydney Morning Herald 84, 89, 90, 92 societal culture 7, 37–70, 526, 527 symbolism 415, 417–18 Solano, F. 165 Soskice, D. 106 Taiwan 392 SouthAfrica 18–19, 40, 45, 422, 425–6 Tasmania 387, 408, 410, 478 South Korea 389–90 Tavakoli,A. 47, 48, 50, 52, 251 Sovereign-Subject (ethics trait) 56 Tavare,A. 383 Spagnolo, G. 415 taxation 84, 87, 92, 398 special cases (employees) 123–4 Taylor, E.Z. 162 Special Measures Directions 414 Taylor, S. 272 ‘special purpose’laws 28–9 TCPIP Onion routing (TOR) 254 Spencer, J. 425 technology see information technology Spencer, M. 425 temporary employees 123 spurious claims (US FCA) 393–4 Teo, H.H. 146, 156–8, 160, 162, 168 Stableford, D. 84, 90, 92 Thelen, K. 104 StaffAssociations, IGO 449–50, 452 Thérèse, S. 515 standards (ethical/professional) 476–7 ‘thick description’169 Stansbury, J.M. 147, 148, 150 threats (retaliation) 142–3, 304–6, 512 Starkey, P.162 three-tiered regimes 299, 364 Statoil 106–7 Thurmond,V.A.168 statutory remedies 350–52, 354, 356, Tilley, N. 165 359, 365–7, 374–6, 524 Time Magazine 10 Steel, D. 170 ‘Tipping the Scales’study 441 Stephenson, L.J. 413 Todd, P.A.272 Sterling, T. 22 TOR approach 254 ‘sticky norms problem’419 Tourangeau, R. 200 Stiglitz, J. 416, 424–5 trade law, corporate fraud and 399–402 Stillwell v Hughes Helicopters 382 Trade PracticesAct (US) 420 Stonefrost, M. 26 trade unions 98, 109–11, 154–5, 192, Strack, G. 40 212, 428, 505 strategic issues 33–4, 522–30 employment law remedies 367, 376 Stratfor 89 training 469–70, 471, 310, 312 street-level bureaucrats 168–9 transparency 93, 372, 406, 425 Stringer, W.L. 396, 397 in IGOs 430, 432, 434 structural approach 333, 339–40, 343–4 Transparency International 4, 332–3, structural model (regulation) 280–81, 389 333, 458–9, 473 ‘triage’challenge 485–8, 490 Sturdy,A. 159 Triandis, H.C. 56 Su, S.H. 48–9, 50 tribunals 351, 372, 374 subject matter experts 468 administrative 433–4, 438, 442, subjective norms 147, 318–20, 319, 447–8, 450–53 324, 325, 327 Dispute (UN) 444, 445–6, 447 subpoenas 76, 263, 465 EmploymentAppeals (EAT)362–3 supervisors 286–9, 296 triple damages (in FCA) 397 support see whistleblower support Trongmateerut, P.55 survey administration (bias) 200–201 Truelson, J.A. 20, 251 Swedberg, R. 163 trust 126, 228, 292, 370

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journalists 256, 258–60, 263, 270–71 peacekeeping missions 440–41, 443 Trust-Friends (ethics trait) 56 Police Task Force 30 TRW Inc. 331 Redesign Panel 446–8, 449, 451 Trygstad, S.C. 96, 100, 105–10, Universal Declaration of Human 149–50, 154, 155, 192, 276, 300, Rights 351, 446 333 University of Greenwich 41–2, 57–8 Tsahuridu, E.E. 115, 121, 252, 272, Urbas, G. 383 299, 345 USA 22, 105, 278–80, 375–6 Tsui,A.S. 53, 61, 62 agencies 461–8, 484–5, 489 Tucker, D. 74, 165 civil/employment law 350, 351, Turner, E.H. 383 352–9 Twitter 21, 263, 265–6 comparative law 335, 339 Ubuntu 422 corporate fraud 29, 381–8, 390, Uganda (incentives program) 390–92 392–403 UK 7, 16–17, 21, 105, 425, 428 criminal remedies 418, 425, 426–7 civil/employment law 359–63, 385–6 FCA see False ClaimsAct (US) EmploymentAppeals Tribunal 362–3 FirstAmendment 335, 356 ERA 99, 335, 337–8, 359–63, 385–6 GAO 357, 384, 431, 446 fraud informant incentives 385–7 GAP see GovernmentAccountability Hofstede’s model 57–60 Project (US) PIDA see Public Interest Disclosure IGOs (role) 431–2, 434–43, 449, 452 Act Office of Inspector General (OIG) societal culture 38, 41–2, 44, 45, 284, 356–7 57–60 OSC see Office of Special Counsel UncertaintyAvoidance (UA) 46, 47, protection (practicalities) 457–8, 51–3, 59–60 460–72, 483 UNESCO 445 societal culture 45, 47 unfair dismissal 222, 359, 362, 365, Supreme Court 356, 418 367–8, 371, 374 Uys, T. 40, 68, 166, 232, 238, 298, unfounded claims 424–7 421–2 Union Carbide plant 22 United Nations 14, 431, 434, 435–6, validity, internal/external 198 442 values 44 Charter 446 conflicting 5–6, 25, 41, 55 ConventionAgainst Corruption 2 cultural 62–3, 64–5 Department of Safety and Security ethical 240, 313 444 van Buitenen, Paul 11, 28 Development Program (UNDP) Van Den Hende, R. 244 443–4 van der Wal, Z. 239 Dispute Tribunal 444, 445–6, 447 Van Dyne, L. 50 Ethics Office 439, 444, 445–6 Vandekerckhove, W. 20, 39, 41, 58, 99, High Commissioner for Refugees 101, 105, 108, 115–16, 121, 130, (UNHCR) 433, 449 157, 208, 230, 251, 272, 274, 279, Joint Inspection Unit 445 282, 298–9, 315, 317, 345, 359, Mission in Kosovo 443, 444 364, 376 Office of Internal Oversight Services Vannucci,A. 242 (OIOS) 440, 444, 445 Vanunu,Mordechai 14

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Index 615

Vaughn,R.G. 26, 27, 189, 332, 350, Weber, M. 159 436, 513 Weber, P.J.89 Ventov. Chief Constable of West Webley, S. 201 Yorkshire 362 websites, hacking 84, 90–91 ‘verklikker’40 Weinstein, D. 154, 305, 504 ‘VerticalCollectivism’56–7 Wenger, N.S. 202 ‘VerticalIndividualism’56–7 Werner,A. 201 vicarious liability 366, 375 WesternAustralia 408, 410, 475, 478 victimization 368–71, 374–6, 416, 417, Westman, D.P.418 421–2 Westmarland, L. 240 Victor, B. 144, 147–50, 186, 188 Wheadon v. State of NSW 365 Victoria 387, 408, 410, 475, 477–8 Wheeler, C. 180, 210, 230, 365, 373, Vietnam War 14 386–7, 472, 474, 479 vindication 195, 486, 502 Whistleblower,The (film) 30, 512 vindictive claims (US FCA) 393–4 WhistleblowerAct (Ghana) 390–92 Vinten, G. 9, 133 Whistleblower Investigation Manual Virgo Fidelis School v. Boyle 362–3 358 Viswesvaran, C. 1, 13, 116, 134–6, 141, whistleblower protection 142–4, 148–9, 151–2, 179, 186, civil/employment law 28–9, 350–80, 188, 190, 209, 237, 241, 245–6, 524, 525 273, 277, 302, 304, 306, 323 comparative law 26–8, 190, 331–49, Vivantes Netzwerk für Gesundheit 525, 527 GmbH 331 core agencies 461–3, 473–5 voice 42, 50, 306, 316 IGOs 30–32, 430–56, 524, 525 Voiceover Internet Protocol 261 practicalities 457–8, 460–82 Volcker, Paul 431, 442 structural approach 333, 339–40, 343 voluntarism 63 see also whistleblower support volunteers 78, 79–80, 123 Whistleblower ProtectionAct Voreacos,D. 383 Queensland 366, 472 vulnerable persons/groups 97–8 Uganda 392 USA 352–3, 355–7, 460, 462, 469 Wahl–Jorgensen, K. 21 Victoria 387 Wak-Woya, B. 433 Whistleblower Protection Enhancement Walden, S. 431, 432, 441, 443, 447 Act (US) 352, 356, 461, 467, 469 Walker, I. 153 Whistleblower Protection Ombudsman Walters, K. 6 467 Wang,Y.393 Whistleblower Reward Fund (Ghana) War Resisters International 504 391 war on terror 426 whistleblower suffering 18–19, 501, Warren, D.E. 98, 104 524, 526, 527 Washington Headquarters Service 467 conceptualising types 234–6 Washington Post 14 definitions 232 Wasserstrom, James 443, 444, 445, 446 differential risks 236–44 Watergate scandal 460, 464, 472 effect of retaliation 244–7 Watkins, Sherron 22, 512 rates of retaliation 232–4 Waytz,A. 195 state of research 247–8 weapons of mass destruction 427 stereotypes 230–31 Weber,Andreas 450–51 whistleblower support 32

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background/development 457–9 whistleblowing duties 12, 523 building 504–5 civic 117, 122, 129, 386 information needs 489–91 definitions/types 115–19 practicalities 460–82 employees/co-employees 121–8 systemic research lessons 482–9 further research 129–30 Whistleblower’s Handbook, The 498 specific (professionals) 126–8 Whistleblower’s Survival Guide, The wrongdoings 119–21 (Devine) 515 Whistleblowing Propensity Inventory whistleblowers 139 bell-ringing behavior 7–9, 71–94, ‘Whistling While They Work’project 528 11, 16–18, 24, 180, 203, 479–81 emotional survival 514 managerial responsiveness 307, exemplary stories 512–13 309–13 focusing on 301–6 motivation 207–8, 210–22 immunity 424–7 power in 160–61, 166 incentives see incentives recipients in 286, 288–9, 291–4, 296 insights from advising 498–502 surveys 219–21, 240, 309–13 -journalist trust 256–60, 263, 270–71 whistleblower suffering 234, 237, monitoring role 340–45 240 reprisals against see reprisals white collar offences 415, 420 research wants/needs 33, 497–521, Whitred, King of Kent 382 528 Whitton, H. 233 rights see rights Wiebauer, B. 338 WhistleblowersAustralia 498, 499–500 Wigand, Dr Jeffrey 31–2 whistleblowing WikiLeaks 14–15, 21, 74, 81, 84, ambiguous incidents 83–91 88–90, 92, 250, 254–5, 261, 263, attitudes to 147–8 266, 269–72, 427, 505 criminalizing 425–8 Wildau, S.T. 451 definitions 4–9, 11–12, 39–42, 71–2, Williams, K.D. 511 81–3, 133, 207, 301 Williamson, D. 55, 61, 63 effectiveness 302–4 Wilson, D. 383 external see external whistleblowing Wise, T.D. 162 formal/informal 57, 64 witness protection 25, 405, 415, 418 importance (state of research) 1–34 Wolfensohn, James 430 incidence of 177–85, 204 Woodford, Michael 28 intended/actual 13, 133–53, 526, 527 Work Health/SafetyAct (Australia) 370 internal see internal whistleblowing Working EnvironmentAct (Norway) managerial responsiveness 24, 96, 97, 105, 108–9 298–327, 526 World Bank 9, 400, 430–32, 434, motivation for see motivation 435–6, 437, 444, 446 power and see power Administrative Tribunal 435–6, 438, rationale 1–4 442, 450 recipients see recipients, Conflict Resolution System 446 whistleblowing Department of Institutional Integrity Whistleblowing: the Inside Story 363 (INT) 441–2, 448, 449 Whistleblowing and Complaints IGOs and 430–32, 434–8, 441–2, Handling 444, 446, 448–50 Policy (ofAFDB) 435 IndependentAdvisory Board 448

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Index 617

Independent Evaluation Group 449 types 186, 241 World Online Whistleblowing Survey Wulczyn, F. 112 140 Wylie, L.E. 115, 230, 279 World Trade Organization 399, Wynes, D. 442, 445 400–401 WorldCom 10 Yeganeh, H. 44, 67, 69 Worth, M. 5, 333 Yerevan Water/Sewerage Company Wortley, R. 43, 185–90, 209–10, 237, 441–2 291, 305, 479 Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Wright, E. 238 Act (England and Wales) 414 wrongdoing 7–8, 37, 124, 524 in action 107–11 Zack,Arnold M. 434, 436, 450, 451 assessment of (dimensions) 97–9 Zahran, M. 442, 445 definitions 12, 95–102, 106, 112, 187 Zeller, R.A. 67 duties 119–21 evidence 186–7 Zhang, J. 144, 149, 244 frequency 186, 241–2 Zhuang, J. 47, 48–9, 50–51, 52, 56 incidents (lists) 101–2 Ziadé, Nassib 450 industrial relations 103–7 Ziem, J. 392 organizational 76–7, 82, 94–114 Zipparo, L. 191, 230, 240, 478 seriousness 186, 201, 209–10, 241–2 Zirnstein, Gerald 89–90 standards 109–11 Zuma, President 426 subjects of 9–12 Zweigert, K. 346

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