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N'[.OU3 SIH JO Hf,UVgS NI DNI) V'9 slueluoJ Contents 5. A KING IN SEARCH OF HIS CRO\rN 72

5.1. A Raging Propaganda Campaign 73 5.2. The Anonymous Pamphlet /4

5.3. The Portrait 76

l4 6. THE LIBERATION AND RE-ENTHRONEMENT OF VLAD 80 rersatile legend of early Renaissance 7. RUMORS, REGRETS, AND A BLACK LEGEND 81

8. POSTFACTUM 82

15 8. 1. Close matrimonial alliances with a King 82

15 8.2. A name used for propaganda benefits 82

:::= l':--::iitrcal and economical context 18 8.3. A review ofVlad's cruel actions 83 :::: ' l:sarab dvnasq" 24 L. : ---::r oi crusades of $Tallachian PART II 88 ::---:a- :-:r 30 After 400 years...

30

:: l::=: c::he Dragon 36 1. A FULL-FLEDGED HISTORICAL FIGURE IN :-r :.GE OF HIS FOREBEARS 38 THENINETEENTHCENTURY 89 - :i:::-::.:e ofthree different worlds 38 1. 1. The : 'the sick man of Europe' 90 47 1.2. 1.859 - The United Principalities of and \Tallachia 9l .r-. : ,:ear ens'- Vlad's Second Reign 48 1.3. 1.877 - The declarati6l ef ildipendence 92 -: - . l:=:.r'ivanianBorder 51 1.4. The newly independent and the crown of steel of the

51 Romanian kings 94

53 2. FROM THE HISTORICAL PANTHEON OF HEROES TO

:::.- :.> oi \\'a11achia 54 THE REALM OF FICTIONAL 95 -- 1,.--^- - -- i ., rrridt \ 54 2.1. 's novel 98 3. ' - . ---,(tr-1 I 56 THE LEGACY OF VLAD III TEPE$ [THE IMPALER] 104 : - -::. :i rhe Crusade Ducat' 56 4. A VISIONARY RULER 106 :: -:-.r::!: the Saxons 59 4.1. A Message Conveyed through a Coin: 59 Halley's Comet (t456) Guiding the lVallachian Eagle 106

l(lt\ ut 4.2. The Birth of Romania: 2l May 787 7, 1O:OO, Bucharest tt2

1-: 61 4.3. Halleys Comet and events in Romania's history 114 6t 4.4. The Church Mad built at Ti,rggor -

---,. l.'..:be 64 a storied place thick with historical narratives 1 18 r:r-:: ::r. Ottomans, Ready for the crusade 55 66

69

70 I

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:P:S JaPUnSrrU PUE UOTSUa] PaSBeJf, UI p.:Pp aq Ppoqs o.e\t aq] ueal(leq o s3qlJnL{J aq} uee.r'tqeq )EaJq IBUU Jl? e peleJrunurruorxa sale8al pded ::z:rtzd Sursnuo:durolun aq] uaq.&\ aJuessrBuea dl.reayo pue8al e1;lesraa '.{I qrrnr{r ura}sea aq}go d}rroqtnz V YIHf,V'I]VIO. {O AOAEIOAIII ) .urrorlln? a^Eq Plnoqs - qJrnqr CV'IA ;: - odod eq] wq] pa^erleq euloU :1:o:d oruog sE drnluar qlI I aq] ur I IUVd ::? re-\o salndsrq 'aruo1;o rarrrod -:rrtrlod o] anp peuesro,la' (acuce:d sr.ro)srp snor8qea ']seg aq] tuor; \ ar{l ruou selr?uorssrru (JrloI{lEO u-r.r.r: suor8ar rI ?lS uI'lortuor pu? ; s-uaruaar8esrp pue aldoulluelsuoo ::E-r ot ue8aq aruog Surleads-une1 .,rr sP-\\ arrdug ueruod aql aJurs e irede; '1'1

)U-r:I UACVOUB V I 1. A BROADER EUROPEAN CONTEXT

1.1. Papacy and Crusades

Since the Roman Empire was divided into \7est and East (285 CE), Latin-speaking Rome began to claim superiority over Greek-speaking Constantinople and disagreements evolved over the church boundaries and control. In Slavic regions rivalry developed between Latin (Roman Catholic) missionaries from the \7est and Byzantines (Orthodox) from the East. Religious discords (differences in doctrine, clerical practice) worsened due to political conflicts particularly regarding the power of Rome. Disputes over authority became even more intense tTI in the 1lth century as Rome proclaimed its primacy over all churches. Rome believed that the pope - the religious leader of the western church should have authority over the patriarch the religious ) OF EAILACHIA - - authority of the eastern church. The tensions became a schism in 1054 riearlv Renaissance when the uncompromising patriarch of Constantinople and the three papal legates excommunicated each other. However, this was not the or final break between the Churches of East and \7est. Rather the breach between the two should be dated to after 1096 when the crusades increased tension and misunderstanding between Latins and Greeks.33

ea Causes ofthe crusades At the origin of the idea of the crusade rests several factors of which first is the tradition of pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the center of the spiritual world of Christians. A road whose difficulties and perils turned the journey to the Holy Places into the penitence that could bring the medieval man absolution of sins. On the other hand, the Islamic conquests ensouled by the spirit of jthad, the holy Muslim war, created a response in the Christian world and contributed to the idea of the legitimacy of the war against the infidels. The idea of the crusade emerged from these two backgrounds, but the success of Pope Urban II's (r.1088-99) sermon at Clermont, which led to the outbreak of the first crusade in 1095 must be viewed through the lenses of change, manifested itself very strongly at the time of the First Crusade, and that had been developing long before as a result of the broadly disseminated propaganda dedicated to reforming papary.34 :sEI ,(rnluec sqBJV r:o. atq ' I6ZI ur pue qtg 1 aql p,Je LgOl ur rourry BrsV peltJteuad oqr,n sryn1 1n(tag eqr; . i--orssessod u:a1sa7p, Jo ssol eql sue8rd aqt tsure8r tq8g agr ur slq8rul uralselNJo dlaq aqr urory luauaq (slua^a o1 e:rdurg auquezdg equo slseJalur aq] sruJel ' rrlor{w3 pue utetse4\) sroradura repcruedJo uI -: -:o :aldourluetsuoJ yo lsanbuoc aqt 'toe[ord sr: ixo! su?rlaua1 aqr dq peuJnl se.t. aql Jo sJolEllrul el{l JoJ ue^a uorsaqpe paDadxaun uE Jo }uarua^oru 10r eqt sellasap uorlueru pnads y e SurraSSrrl 'adorng uralse/Xr ssoJf,B slapuur aql lsurEBE rr{8u aqr ol eqt e8essaur aqt parJJBJ (3ra1c srql 'drrper eJnf,es pue 3unr1 :c :orrBzrueSJo aql ol pal ]Er{t sassef,Jns IIEJ 3o ? olur uopuetsrJq3 Sururnt arlt snorS[eJ eqt osrrr :? Drno-\\ oq,ta. 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- tfues imbued with superstitions, of who ruled the Holy Places) should also be considered. There was even a nletion, is to be taken into account tradition of the Byzantine emperor in recruiting Norman mercenaries, the Crusades. The Orient had for only that they had proved unstable: ready at any time to revolt and :nce of a world of wonder and rather eager to realize for their own benefit (and to the detriment not e Dark Age', with Rome ravaged bY only of the Arabs but also of the Byzantines) a Mediterranean empire. mion lnowledge almost comPletelY Towards the end of the 1lth century, the Emperor of Constantinople l F,mpire flourished and came to be chose to ask help from the pope, and to plead his case throughout trt expanded its power and influence Christendom, thus allowing him to benefit from the military force of 'Western n and reached also Italy. The much knights. culture of the Byzantine The increasing power ryiritual.West of Venice and other Italian republics and their to ttre constituted an aPPeal interest in supporting, for commercial reasons, Christian expansion r lands. In the \7est, the economic in the Arab-ruled space, is another factor to consider when trying to ilrelopment had already begun, but explain the success ofthe idea ofthe crusade. r certajn increase irr population at all So, Pope Urban II moved by the appeal for aid from Emperor rEes remeined ilsufficient and could Alexios I Komnenos (r.1031-1118) at Constantinople, realized the ;tre excess of the population towards necessity of protecting Europe most practically by carrying the war zson, could have been a solution. into the enemy's country. And with the broad view of a statesman Vestern society not only consented probably that he foresaw the gain in authority that would accrue to the sede. The large category ofknights, papary from the leadership in a universal movement that would arouse D& many of whom were, however, religious enthusiasm and be conducted under the guidance of the Iprental wealt]r, which belonged to Church of Rome.3s The Crusaders managed to liberate vast territories bfted to make a living by the force in the Near East (Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli) includingJerusalem, which ar was the daily way of life, but the was conquered in 1099. imate of peace in the \fest tended to These conquests would establish the foundations of the Latin fesation. By proclaiming God's peace principalities of the Holy Land (the kingdom of the rg Eas forbidden, and Christianizing Jerusalem, principality of Antioch, the county of Tripoli, the counry of Edessa), rh of Rome sought to direct these where models of \Testern feudalism previously unknown to the els that would serve its interests. The Orient, were applied. Confronted with the lack of coordination among y and as a result of its internal reform, the feudalists settled in the Orient, the land's protection was mainly lheld supreme moral authodry in the assured by the military monk orders (The Knights Hospitaller, the mands and insignia of secular power. Templars, and the Teutonic Knights). But Latin dominion was soon ry to the pope of Rome had helPed contested by Muslims, who would achieve in the coming centuries people, turning Christendom into a successes that led to the organization ofnew crusades. lerg)- carried the message of the call asoss 'Western Europe, triggering a A special mention deserves the Fourth Crusade (|ZOZ-O+), which hesion even for the initiators of the was turned by the Venetians from its original goals, and ended with the conquest of Constantinople: on its throne until 1261 ruled Latin emperors ('Western and Catholic). !e interests of the Byzantine Empire to tnigtrts in the fight against the pagans The loss of \Testern possessions in Syria continued during the arl Asia Minor irr 1067 and the Arabs 1 3th century and in l29l , the last point of Latin resistance, Acra was

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I of Dacia in the lst century CE (histon maps.ro) I economical context

].d'r .:. ;enter of the ancient Dacian : lr ::e Romans in 106 CE and called :-:-: c: Dacians, Celts, and Germans - e .:r. ;'nerged into the Daco-Romans, the :lr :: :a:on' peoples, predominantly rll- language. 'cr "nd rr =:--;:: arrived in Pannonia and settled :: c: arms - along the course of the - :-a:eau of Transylvania and flowing :r1-e:s, rvestward and southward, the ,r; :o1d, and silver were transPorted. c::rg stock raising in the grassy plain .:. :;:ron appeared like a land beYond '"i-:ereiiom the name Transylvania. r:n :ni:norv till the Renaissance times :.: j re to humanists'writings. :s>-:3, rhe Hungarians took over the e: ; -:- s uf fi cient workforce constrained Map of the middle basin by Johannes Honterus (1498-1549) - ifr' S9o-1301) to appeal to foreign the territories of Transylvania, \Tallachia and Moldavia under the name DACIA - published in Cosmographiae", (tS+t) (https://commons. :.ol:rent of the underground riches ,,Rudimenta Bragov, wikirnedia.org/wiki/FileJohann-Honterus_Septemcastrensis_de_Corona.jpg)

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'suerre8unH erll se ur8rro crr8n :i.( ot .(trrorrd qlrrvr spoo8 Jraq] -ouurC oruEs arpJo uorlepdod r ,sra14ezg aq] paplas erazrr (suerqtefur3 '- ilas : jo lsEal ]B ro; dols ol papueurep uJetsEe) Jertuo{ uJalsue aql uo 'snq1 's-raproq erlt Jo uoqcelord pue erazra. erue,rldsuEJJ uJeqlnos ur epBJl Jraql Sursrcraxa sluErllJeru lEql Surlepdrls [utuue5 w y4cat1adolg] aSalarrd tq8rr ayders lertrraruruof, aqt palurr8 eJea deql 'l:n1uac qtuaeilnoJ etp q 'qlnos eqt pue tsea eql uro{ Surruoc sa}noJ aper} eql uo pe}En}rs uor}rsod cr8ale:1s rraql ro st?eJql qlr^\ PeJrBd ara^\ spuEruap uro{ Pe}lueueq Jeproq uErqtBIIElN erp JEeu palEnIS - lpE}suuBruraH rpaa pue d1urcur '[ereoSrq8rgl 8:nqsseqog ! -Io lrrrds ,suoxBs aql Jo ]uoJJ ur tp"tsuory ]nq ueqlJo IIV pue i:rurrd u?rqJEII?lN ar{} Jo suoJJa eq} ' [6aqag] qreqlrlt]hl ' [arrSpr6] soorg '[mqrg] rprrsuurur-rag ' [zrofurg] f ur,o-l oq,^^'auolqJ uErrIlEIIBlN eq] 01 tp"tsuoJ) eJen. Eruelldsurrl uJeqtnos ur esaq] Jo ]ueuodtur : DJuasro,/\\ ue^e s?A\ uelqoJd eqJ tsour eql 'slf,rJlsrp uoxEs oat aql puE (slepBlrl 0I tsBel ]E ere..!^. aJaql spJE,{!\JaUE uara tua8tnquaqats sefi\'erue,rldsuerl JoJ arueu 'uorlelnlads Lcuarrnr Surseercur JI uerureC aW) aru*S uoxes aql se.tr. prcads :uaCra sarlrf, uoxeS uEruEAI(su?rI ,ueles, q ]sera]ur y J suorlJ?suBJ] JoJ saf,uanbasuoJ is'ErlBplory pue ETTIJEIIEIN o1 'suerqledreD eq] (rusrf,rloglBJ Jar'o eleJ8rrue ol pepnap Jo ol peualuoc '-_\\ Jo uollenlB^aP PaJJoJua sIqI 'se8ap,urd:raq] dael o1 raqlou? 'snJrts Jraql paarrdap se,la salqou uerueruo5 rtr siT?-11 aql purqeq paretlaqs ,Juaruour 'ged Jo egt;o ued E ellq4\ 'af.fi$,roxr5 aql rc slztlwor uerre8unll eqt urqrl \ r'..rrEII?lN Jo auoJq] aql o] stuErurElf, pasredsrp aJeA{ ser}rledrcuud luertue Jreql pue 'slueseed ear; ro :ilrouE Surlurodde dq :o '(1 elsrpBIA sreuoruruof, aql ol paper8uurtop eJe.&\ solqou ueruBruo1 eql -' ur patuer8 peq ',{:e8ung go Sury Jo {uEr 'seuroldrp pdor ssassod rou prp oqlt lrrpqou uErueruod :: -roie:g uaal(]aq pelBnlrs) '$erp8pg Ieuortrper] eqrSo sa8ap,urd aql passerddns saldegSo drseudp no(uy c-\\t -rraql Surzras sE qJns 'serlpuad '(ZS-SOEt) r(\eu eql yo s8url eql uaqa qtueaurqt eql dn perr-lasard a:-:uroc uer.re8un11 panlB^ap aqt qtra '^Jn1uar ilp eql ol Sarnurerey4l pue eqt ot Saieg puu 6e:p8pg ararr,r. :: a8ueqcxa ]q8u E parrnbar sacurrd 'qtrou 'qlnos ]uelrodurr ]soru aql qJrq \ r tdf sapzau4 pue sa]Dponaxoa sr'.or-.ard ;o rg8rerrr aql ot Surprocce Jo [sarlrpdrour uBrusruou erp erue,rldsuerl uI palslxa eJeql rsaprlua aseqr aprsSuoly r :: petdacce ]ou se,la' eSeuroc penlelap ,.rrcqc ,leas, r?y?g aqt ur Surpert uaq,l.r 1so1 daqr [slaptlro ot JeJeJ a^^r areq d1era1r1 ueaur ,eirrlsrg I Jql ol s?,^^ sauo -&\au JoJ surof, PIo 'rytzs pue aruUS eq1-)'tsBe eqt ol Wzs raplezs lg8ra pue pur ,quou r paurEurer anp,r aSurqcxe rreq] elq/!\ ,ro6e:g 'sprrlsrp uoxBs ona] sE IIeArr sE pu? qlnos aql ol af.lruS ,.d-ro1rrra1 I :o uortrEJJ ar{l Jo uounururp 3 s?A\ uoxEs ,ueles, eql 5e1uar eqt ur pue lsal4. er{l ol pdor, uo r::P:1lP \ep eql uo luapuedap'durouoca sloltluu uerrr8unll :uorleu qlea Jo seJluaf, allleJlsrurrupe pue pll1pn( rl sr.orres p?r{ ilEJ slqt 'ZgrI ot gggI se paluu8rsap serlrlua snorJ?A palrrodrocur pue (suerueruo1 aqr (q :uir1: tnq suror a>lrJls ppoc serur-rd pasn ruJal JI BIS E) 'ponaroo ro 'a1np u dq pa1 sena aturloJd ".{J r :'.ir ra-\o oslu peq dre8ung Iorluol ,r'aBen8uel Jrarlt ur ,adorng _ -ue8ung;o 3ur;1 su saldeg-no(uy uastltDs - suoxes arueu aql 1oo1 .slsan8 qslualC, aseg] uJalsue ,3rnqep8e141;o I .o S0€I ur uorlJele eqr 3urrvro11o3 ur sluauelDas uEruraC IIB roJ Iepour aqt orutrag qllqa -r r:norE Surtep uorwnlrs e) 'sarur:d r.EI uoxes aqr Suurrollog 'uor8ar eql ur sertrJ tsJU eq] peqsrlqelsa pu? raurqg :::'j1111 aqt uaa.,rl.}aq 1ur1 a8epsse,r aqt pelDas a:atr\'seuoz 3:nqruaxnl pue'a1eso141 aql uro{ stsruolof, r(suergtedre3 -- I :45 rll?lg arl] Pu? eqnuBC raaol uJeqlnos aql) :auuory ureqtnos aql puaJep pue seurur ::-rrrllp-N q8norqr spoo8 rraqt qtrrrr JaAIrs pu? plo8 eqr rroldxe 01 qloq Jog 'usrl{oqle3 01 uorsJeluor Jroql :-i..:r:r sluPqtJaru ]pElsuoJ) aql gg€I nlle ,pazrlr-{r8u141, dlenpe eJe.&\ oqrrr. 'suerre8unH erll se ur8rro crr8n :i.( ot .(trrorrd qlrrvr spoo8 Jraq] -ouurC oruEs arpJo uorlepdod r ,sra14ezg aq] paplas erazrr (suerqtefur3 '- ilas : jo lsEal ]B ro; dols ol papueurep uJetsEe) Jertuo{ uJalsue aql uo 'snq1 's-raproq erlt Jo uoqcelord pue lr. i: the eastern frontier (eastern demanded to stop for at least one month in one of these cities and sle -. a:opulation of the same Finno- sell their goods with priority to Saxon burghers.3s Much more, in rri. c r','ere actually'Magyarized' after 1358 the Kronstadt merchants received privileges of freely circulating Fo: l.c--n io exploit the gold and silver with their goods through \Tallachia on the routes directing to the lrcl:r:: the southern CarPathians), lower Danube and the . This was a direct consequence of e. --c Lu,remburg zones, were settled the vassalage link between the Hungarian crown and the \Tallachian -.:e :e .ion. Following the Saxon law princes. (a situation dating around the formation of 'il7allachia and : irlcre. tor all German settlements in following the election in 1308 of Charles Robert of the House of -res:s :ook the name Saxons - Sachsen Anjou-Naples as King of ).3e Hungaryhad control also over the minting of coins. The rVallachian -r-{. cr ',oreuod, (a Slavic term used princes could strike coins but aligned with Hungarian ones. From \Wallachian r:a::C r-anous entities designated as 1355 to 1452, this fact had serious consequences for the es .-: each nation: Hungarian comitats economy, dependent on the devaluations of Hungarian coinage, which J,,r i:r the center; the'seven' Saxon was a diminution of the fraction of precious metal (silver) in coins, while their exchange value remained -. 'r,:-- ,s trvo Saxon districts, Bragov the same. Therefore, exchanging \Wallachians. --:i :.' :he east. [The Stihle and sztik, old coins for new ones was to the detriment of Also, l-e :::.; io citadels] they lost when trading in the Balkans and Ottoman Empire, as the devalued coinage was not accepted at its face value but rather evaluated :r-:... :: Trans-vlvania the Romanian according to the weight of precious metal. \Thenever \Wallachian j:::-.' c: rvhrch the most important princes required a right exchange rate for their money, contrasting s,o-.::, =nd \laramures to the north, with the devalued Hungarian coinage, the Crown had threatened with :-:r::.,, rvhen the kings of the new penalties, such as seizing their two Transylvanian fiefs: Amlag and -S- the privileges of the ':pDressed Flgirag, (situated between Brasov and Sibiu which Louis of Anjou, ,r:lo :.c not possess royal diplomas. King of Hungary, had granted 1365 to his \Tallachian vassal *r-ri;.ced ro the rank of commoners in - Vladislav I), or by appointing another prince from the long queue of :::.:]: orincipalities were dispersed claimants to the throne of \Tallachia, who were watching for their : :--. Srron Sfllftle. \rhile a part of the moment, sheltered behind the walls of the Saxon cities. o; r-:-: status, another part, to keep L.-.---..n. or decided to emigrate over This enforced devaluation of \(allachian coinage had dramatic

^u t:L Jd\ Id. consequences for transactions operated abroadao while the Transylvanian Saxon cities experienced unparalleled prosperity, e si-! 3:i Sa-xon StrihJa (the German increasing currency speculation. 1--'''.-'..ris71, even if afterwards there --:- :1\o Saxon districts. The most The problem was even worsened by political refugees - claimants \Wallachian :e:ri Transvlvania were Kronstadt to the throne, who found protection in Transylvania. A1l \Wallachian . Srcos -Ora$tie], Miihlbach [SebegJ, the efforts of the princes to obtain the expulsion failed "l o: :hem but mainly Kronstadt and in front ofthe Saxons'spirit offreedom and hospitality. Except these ie \\-allachian border benefitted from demands were paired with threats or adequate bribes. oc :he trade routes coming from the eer--h century, they were granted the .e .S:;telrechf in German] stipulating ::aie in southern Transylvania were

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