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GLENCOE

UNDERSTANDING

Readings and Case Studies in Psychology To the Teacher

Readings and Case Studies serve as a supplement to material in the textbook and provide an in-depth look at important issues, , and in psy- chology. They also encourage students to develop their critical thinking abilities.

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No matter how you organize your teaching resources, Glencoe has what you need. The Teacher’s Classroom Resources for Understanding Psychology provides you with a wide variety of supplemental materials to enhance the classroom experience. The booklets are designed to open flat so that pages can be easily photocopied with- out removing them from their booklet. However, if you choose to create separate files, the pages are perforated for easy removal. The individual booklets supplied in Teacher’s Classroom Resources give you the flexibility to organize these resources in a combination that best suits your teaching style. Below are several alternatives. •Organize all resources by category (all tests, all enrichment and extension activities, etc., filed separately) •Organize all resources by category and chapter (all Chapter 1 activities, all Chapter 1 tests, etc.) •Organize resources sequentially by lesson (activities, quizzes, readings, etc., for Chapter 1, Chapter 2, and so on)

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ii Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Contents C R C R C Re C C C R R R C C R C R C R C R C R C R C R R C R C R C R eading 5:Creativity andAging eading 4: Teenagers inCrisis eading 6:Reversing Stroke andSpinal Cord Damage eading 2:Falsifiability eading 1:Ethics inPsychology eading 8: Weightlessness andPerception eading 7:Cross-Cultural Studies ofSleep eading 15:Stress Out ofPlace 14: Typeeading Personalities T eading 13:ChangeinJapanese College Admissions Policies eading 12: The Excited Brain eading 11:Sound Patterns eading 10:Remembering Details eading 9:Different Outlooks eading 17:Modifying Orangutan Behavior eading 16: The Hunt forMood Genes ase Study 5:Generativity AmongRefugees andSurvivors ase Study 4:Hormones andDepression ase Study 3:Body Image andDieting inChildren ase Study 2:First Impressions ase Study 1:EarlyInvestigations intoPsychological Oddities ase Study 6:Dual-Brain Psychology ase Study 10:Eyewitness Testimony ase Study 8:Perfect Pitch ase Study 7:Self-Hypnosis ase Study 15:Juror Stress ase Study 14:Can Personality Traits Predict Career Success? ase Study 13: Who Is Intelligent? ase Study 12:Facial Expressions ase Study 11:Peacekeeping with Words ase Study 9:Conditioning Aggression ase Study 17:Family Therapist andSchoolCounselor Work asa Team ase Study 16:Panic Disorder ading 3: American ChildCareading 3:American Today ...... 6 ...... 39 ...... 73 ...... 34 ...... 51 ...... 17 ...... 41 ...... 71 ...... 56 ...... 77 ...... 9 ...... 1 ...... 21 ...... 65 ...... 59 ...... 46 ...... 63 ...... 28 ...... 48 ...... 11 ...... 75 ...... 44 ...... 19 ...... 54 ...... 36 ...... 31 ...... 79 ...... 14 ...... 26 ...... 23 ...... 61 ...... 3 ...... 68 ...... 81 ...... iii Reading 18: What Makes a Good Marriage? ...... 84 Case Study 18: Culture and Conflict Resolution ...... 87 Reading 19: Who’s Steering the Ship? ...... 89 Case Study 19: Parental Involvement and Students’ Aggressive Behaviors...... 92 Reading 20: Folklore, Gossip, and the Internet ...... 95 Case Study 20: “The Jury Will Disregard That!” ...... 98 Reading 21: Steve Blass ...... 100 Case Study 21: “Can I Get Some Service Here?” ...... 102 Answer Key ...... 105 Co py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

iv Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. behavior includethefollowing: K a framework inwhichpsychologists canmakedecisionsabouttheirconduct.According toGerald Although thisdocumentdoesnotaddress possibleethicalandunethical action,itdoesprovide every developed by Psychological theAmerican Association(APA) asabasisfortheirprofessional conduct. decision making.Ethical usethe more thangood. harm decision toseekadvicefrom himorher?It shouldbe. Psychologists whooperate unethicallymaydoyou members oftheprofession. Would factorinyour theethicalconductofapsychologist beanimportant Directions: N oocher andPatricia Keith-Spiegel, thatshouldguideapsychologist’s themainprinciples ethical m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame Ps 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. What doesitmeantobeethical?People whoare ethicaluseasetofmoral values toguidetheir y chology, likemostprofessions, hasacodeofprofessional conductthatgoverns theactionsof chologists workconvergetoformthedelicate fulness, andrespectforthosewithwhompsy- Being faithful. circumstances. gists wouldwanttobetreatedundersimilar table. Othersshouldbetreatedaspsycholo- Being just. and utility. respect forautonomy, availableresources, must bebalancedagainstdoingnoharm, positive effectonothers.Often,thisprinciple gists makeshouldhavethepotentialfora Benefiting others. and self-reliance. whom weworktowardgreaterindependence often inthebusinessofmovingthosewith gists work.Membersofourprofessionare participants, andotherswithwhompsycholo- ultimate goalofclients,students, of othersisacceptedbypsychologistsasan their actionsdonotinterferewiththewelfare als todecidehowlivetheirlivesaslong Respecting autonomy. mized tothegreatestextentpossible. potential fordamageiseliminatedormini- same timetakingcaretoensurethatthe to benefitthosewithwhomtheywork,atthe commission oromission,psychologistsstrive Doing noharm READING R ead thefollowing selection,thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. Actions shouldbefairandequi- Issues offidelity, loyalty, truth- (nonmaleficence). Through All decisionsthatpsycholo- The rightsofindividu- E 1 thical Principles ofPsychologists andCodeofConduct London: OxfordUniversityPress,4–5. Source: 9. 8. 7. 6. Koocher, G.,&Keith-Spiegel,P. that ensuresself-respect. cult] route,butinthelongrunitisone sometimes thelongerandmorearduous[diffi- integrity. Puttingprinciples overexpediencyis blame ormakingexcusesareactingwith actions andinactions,whoavoidshifting quences, whoacceptresponsibilityfor act withaconsiderationofpossibleconse- Accepting accountability. unethical actions. viding hedgesagainstunprofessionaland quality professionalservices,aswellpro- one’s workareimportant inensuringhigh- tence, doingone’s best,andtakingpridein Pursuit ofexcellence. professional boundaries. to thosewithwhomtheywork,yetmaintain Psychologists shouldbeconsiderateandkind T ability thatdecisionswillbeethical. as worthyofrespect.Thisenhancestheprob- According dignity. action ismorelikely. intent tomisleadordeceiveanyone,ethical straightforward, sincere,candid,andwithout trust] relationships.Whenpsychologistsare standards necessaryinfiduciary[basedon reating otherswithcaringandcompassion. Ps Psychologists viewothers (1998). y Maintaining compe- Ethics in chology Psychologists who Ethics inPsychology. (continued) 1 Name ______Date ______Class ______

Understanding the Reading Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 1. What do psychologists use to identify ethical and unethical behavior?

2. What is ethical behavior?

3. In what two ways do the principles say psychologists could do harm?

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided.

4. Which of the items on the list could be viewed as general ethical principles that could apply to everyone, not just psychologists?

5. What factors may cause a to act unethically? Co py

6. Psychologists who disregard moral values in their personal lives can still maintain the ethical stan- ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. dards required by the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Do you agree with this statement? Explain.

7. According to the nine items on the list, what is an ultimate goal of psychologists regarding clients, students, or participants?

2 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. seemed tobediscredit them. The society, led also suspiciousofintellectuals whoseonlygoal they didnotseetheneed. tific study; They were no interest scien- inbeingsubjectedtorigorous people whopracticed psychic phenomena had Method ter ofitinrespect tothetheories.” about the mystics whohaveusuallyproved toberight entifics hasbeenonceforalldecided,itisthe ever adebatebetween themysticsandsci- “I the Society ofPsychical Research whenhewrote: time, explainedthedifficultyoftaskfacing H existence. nomena orfindascientificexplanationfortheir wanted toeitherdebunkthesemysticalphe- ter, admitofnodeliberate control.” The society r similar phenomenawhichare incidentally apparitions, hauntedhouses,concerning and and others;and,secondly, tocollectevidence with hypnoticsubjects, mediums, clairvoyants, onsystematicexperimentation “. .first,tocarry nomena together. The societyhadtwopurposes: scienceandpsychic phe- purpose ofbringing R chic phenomena. The Society ofPsychical nity becameembroiled inadebateaboutpsy- totheir research.tific methodrigorously psychology, theydidattempttoapplythescien- r behavior. Althoughtheydidnothavethe facetofhuman the scientificstudyofevery Introduction Directions: N eported, butwhich,from theirfugitivecharac-eported, esearch toolsandthetechnologyofmodern esearch in1882forthespecific wasformed n psychology, physiology, andmedicine, wher- m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame ypothesis Early psychologists recognized theneedfor The societyfacedadifficulttask.First, many W In AESTUDY CASE illiam James, aleadingpsychologist atthe

the late1800spsychological commu- facts R ead thefollowing casestudy, thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. , whilethescientificshadbet- 1 waking. On being waked he has no memory of waking. Onbeingwakedhe hasnomemory told thathewillpokethefire insixminutes after by r ofsubjectsasa involved theautomaticwriting Gu r actionsasa hypnotic trances orperforming r the phenomenonofhypnoticsuggestion. The deceitful actionoftheparticipants. not beexplainedby random chanceorby the was foundtobeahoax,manyothercasescould Although oneofthecases, involvingtwosisters, identify anobjectthoughtofby anotherperson. ied 30peoplewhoclaimedtohavethepower to on thoughttransference, ortelepathy. They stud- emerge atfirst.” w y the ideathatitsfirstdutyissimplytoexistfrom ers, therefore, shouldaccustomthemselvesto “I theory. James expressed asfollows: hisconcern sometypeof ly haveenoughevidencetoform menting thesecases, thesocietywouldeventual- nomenon. He believedthatby carefully docu- reported caseofpsychic phe- witnesses inevery and withtheparticipants extensive them tocontinuegatherfactsby conducting even withmeagerresources. He challenged r the financialresources toadequatelyfundits phenomenon. ly seekinganswers toseeminglyunexplainable also hadreputations andforhonest- forfairness hasty conclusions. Other membersofthesociety andhisunwillingnesstodrawhis impartiality these people. Sidgwick waswidelyregarded for esult ofposthypnoticsuggestion. esult ofposthypnoticsuggestion.Edmund subjectsunder esearchers various observed esearch. James urged thesocietytocontinue ear to year and perform thisrecordingear toyear andperform function ell, thoughnoconclusiveresults ofanysort ts [theSociety ofPsychical Research] sustain-

r Pr ney performed one set of experiments that onesetofexperiments ney performed “F Another area ofresearch forthesocietywas F The society’s secondchallengewastofind or twoyears, thesocietyfocusedprimarily ofessor Henry Sidgwick, toreassure tried or example, atrance asubjectduring is Early Investigations into Psychological Oddities (continued) 3 Name ______Date ______Class ______the order, but while he is engaged in conversa- explained by mere chance. In fact, they calculat- tion his hand is placed on a planchette, [a device ed that such occurrences happen 440 times that when lightly touched is believed to produce more often than can be attributed to chance. automatic writing] which immediately writes the sentence, ‘P., you will poke the fire in six min- Conclusions utes.’ Experiments like this, which were repeated The Society of Psychical Research failed to in great variety, seem to prove that below the impress many in the scientific community with upper the hypnotic conscious- its findings. Much of their research is considered ness persists, engrossed with the suggestion and crude by modern standards. Their efforts, how- able to express itself through the involuntarily ever, do indicate that they did apply the scientif- moving hand.” ic method consistently. James responded to crit- Gurney became the most tireless worker for ics of the society by saying “… most of the the society. He also researched witchcraft, would-be critics of the Proceedings have been apparitions, and mental telepathy. His study of contented to oppose to [sic] the phenomena witchcraft involved reviewing the accounts of recorded the simple presumption that in some hundreds of witch trials. He found that there was way or other the reports must be fallacious “no first-hand evidence recorded in the trials [false], . . .” He criticized scientists who dismiss except the confessions of the victims themselves; things that are not easily explained and catego- and these, of course, are presumptively due to rized simply because they do not fit into the way either torture or hallucination.” they think things should be. His exploration of apparitions and mental The Society of Psychical Research produced telepathy involved collecting about 700 cases of a great body of evidence, but developed no con- reported experiences. In these experiences, one crete theories. The exploration into unexplained person would get a mental image of a person in phenomena continues to the present. Of all the distress. He found many of these cases to be phenomena explored, only hypnosis has been honest reports and concluded that “the mind of brought into the mainstream of psychological the person undergoing the calamity was at that research and practice. The other areas moment able to impress the mind of the percipi- researched by the society remain in the realm of ent [sic] with an hallucination.” Further research parapsychology. into this phenomenon in both England and the Source: James, W. (1897/1956). The Will to Believe and Other United States led the society to find that such Essays in Popular Philosophy. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., experiences happen too frequently to be 299–327. Co py

Understanding the Case Study ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 1. What was the purpose of the Society of Psychical Research?

2. What two reasons are cited for the difficulty of the society’s research task?

4 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8. 7. 6. 5. Directions: 4. N 3. m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame Why doyou toexplainpsychic thinkthesociety failedtoproduce phenomena? anytheories As afunctionalist,whywould havebeeninterested inthe work ofthesociety? Do you think William James thework andfindingsofthesociety? supported Why orwhynot? Do you thinktheSociety ofPsychical Research accomplisheditsgoals? Why orwhynot? What did William James ofthesociety? sayaboutthecritics What areas ofpsychic phenomenawere studiedby thesociety? T hinking Critically Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. 5 Name ______Date ______Class ______

READING 2 Falsifiability Directions: Read the following selection, then answer the questions that follow.

Psychology, like other , is advanced when psychologists propose new theories. The theories are tested by various research methods. The results of the tests may support or refute the theory. A theo- ry that is supported by one study will be examined and tested by other researchers. These additional studies may provide additional confirmation of the theory or may find flaws in the original theory. Testable theories, then, are stated in such a way that they can be proved false.

In 1793 a severe epidemic of yellow fever struck specific. The theory must go out on a limb, so to speak, Philadelphia. One of the leading doctors in the city because in telling us what should happen, the theory at the time was Benjamin Rush, a signer must also imply that certain things will not happen. If of the Declaration of Independence. During the these latter things do happen, then we have a clear outbreak Rush was one of the few physicians who signal that something is wrong with the theory: it may were available to treat literally thousands of yel- need to be modified, or we may need to look for an low fever cases. Rush adhered to a theory of med- entirely new theory. Either way, we shall end up with a icine that dictated that illnesses accompanied by theory that is nearer to the truth. In contrast, if a theory fever should be treated by vigorous bloodletting. does not rule out any possible , then the He administered this treatment to many patients, theory can never be changed, and we are frozen into including himself when he came down with the our current way of thinking, with no possibility of illness. Critics charged that his treatments were progress. Thus a successful theory is not one that more dangerous than the disease. However, fol- accounts for every possible happening because such lowing the epidemic, Rush became even more a theory robs itself of any predictive power. confident of the effectiveness of his treatment, even though several of his patients had died. The Theory of Knocking Rhythms Why? . . . A hypothetical example will show how the falsifia- bility criterion works. A student knocks at my door. A Theories and the Falsifiability Criterion colleague in my office with me has a theory that makes Benjamin Rush fell into a fatal trap when assess- predictions about the rhythms that different types of ing the outcome of his treatment. His method of evalu- people use to knock. Before I open the door, my col- ating the evidence made it impossible to conclude that league predicts that the person behind it is a female. his treatment did not work. If the recovery of a patient I open the door and, indeed, the student is a female. Co meant confirmation of his treatment (and hence his Later I tell my colleague that I am impressed, but only py ri theory of medicine), then it only seems fair that the mildly so because he had a 50 percent chance of being ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. death of a patient should have meant disconfirmation. correct even without his “theory of knocking rhythms.” Instead, he rationalized away these disconfirmations. He says he can do better. Another knock comes. My By interpreting the evidence as he did, Rush violated colleague tells me it is a male under 22 years old. I one of the most important rules regarding the con- open the door to find a male student whom I know to struction and testing of theories in : he made it be just out of high school. I comment that I am some- impossible to falsify his theory. what impressed since our university has a consider- Scientific theories must always be stated in such able number of students over the age of 22. Yet I still a way that the predictions derived from them can maintain that, of course, young males are quite com- potentially be shown to be false. Thus the methods of mon on campus. Thinking me hard to please, my col- evaluating new evidence relevant to a particular theo- league proposes one last test. After the next knock, my ry must always include the possibility that the data will colleague predicts, “Female, 30 years old, 5 feet 2 falsify the theory. This principle is often termed the fal- inches tall, carrying a book and a purse in the left hand sifiability criterion. . . . and knocking with the right.” After opening the door The falsifiability criterion states that, for a theory and confirming the prediction completely, I have quite to be useful, the predictions drawn from it must be a different response. I say that, assuming my colleague

(continued) 6 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. that hasbeenrepeatedlyconfirmed.Theyassume Many peoplethinkthatagoodscientifictheoryisone tions forthewayweviewconfirmationofatheory. Not AllConfirmationsAreEqual N falsification. . such awaythattheyarecompletelyprotectedfrom door willbelessthan100yearsold)orarephrasedin be true(forexample,thenextpersontoknockonmy tions thataresogeneraltheyalmostboundto themselves injeopardythisway. Theymakepredic- themselves tofalsification.Badtheoriesdonotput es tall. who arenot30-year-old femaleswhoare5feet2inch- have falsifiedit.Forexample,therearealotofpeople more potentialobservationstherewerethatcould The morespecificandprecisethepredictionwas, that thespecificityvarieddirectlywithfalsifiability. impact whentheywereconfirmed.Notice,however, dictions. Themorespecificpredictionsmadeagreater has todowiththespecificityandprecisionofpre- es, rangingfrom“Sowhat?”to“Wow”? Theanswer friend’s threepredictionsyielddifferentrespons- impressed. appear atmydoor, Iamnowinfactextremely did notplayatrickandarrangeforthesepeopleto 4 3. 2. 1. Directions: . m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame The principleoffalsifiabilityhasimportantimplica- Good theories,then,makepredictionsthatexpose Why thedifferenceinmyreactions?do What is the most important characteristic of confirming evidence? characteristic ofconfirming What isthemostimportant What typesofpredictions canbemadeusinggoodtheories? What isthefalsifiabilitycriterion? Why didBenjamin Rush believehistreatment worked? Understanding theReading Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. the shiftingoceanofmodernworld. can neverbefalsified.Theyareislandsofstabilityin dead endsareoftentemptingpreciselybecausethey the peoplewhoinhabitit.Indeed,suchtheoretical deeper understandingofthenatureworldand ing theorythatinevitablyhindersthesearchfora sumer resisttheallureofnonscientific,all-explain- tool toevaluateevidencewillhelptheresearchcon- firming instances.Usingthefalsifiabilitycriterionasa confirming evidence,butalsoatthequalityofcon- less than100yearsold). are allvirtuallyunfalsifiable(forinstance,aperson than theconfirmationof20differentpredictionsthat left handknockingwiththeright)hasagreaterimpact feet 2inchestall,carryingabookandpurseinthe able prediction(forinstance,afemale,30yearsold,5 One confirmationofahighlyspecific,potentiallyfalsifi- prediction exposesitselftopotentialdisconfirmation. less impressivedependingontheextenttowhich confirmations areequal.Confirmationsmoreor of the“theoryknockingrhythms”illustrated,notall the criticalelement.Thereasonisthat,asourexample number oftimesatheoryhasbeenconfirmedisnot ofatheory. Butfalsifiabilityimpliesthatthe the amountofconfirmingevidenceiscriticalin Psychology. Source: Thus wemustlooknotonlyatthequantityof Stanovich, K.E. New York: HarperCollins, 21–8. (1996). How toThinkStraightAbout (continued) 7 Name ______Date ______Class ______

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided.

5. The theory states: “Hypnosis will help you ‘remember’ things from your childhood that never occurred.” Is the theory stated in such a way that it can be proved false? Why or why not?

6. How can theories that are proved to be false still be useful in advancing psychology? Co py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

8 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. assistants made eye contactwithasalesclerk, watch inthepalmsoftheir hands. When the clothing. asmallstop- The assistants carried tant entered thesamestore inbothtypesof wore bothtypesof clothing.However, noassis- above.of theoutfitsdescribed Eachassistant dise sold. or gender-neutral dependingonthemerchan- r clerks were oftheresearch informed study. The conduct theresearch. None ofthestores’ sales- one-entrancethe managersofvarious stores to urbs. The researchers from obtainedpermission upper middle-class, predominantly whitesub- in twonearby malls. Both mallswere locatedin white blouse, leatherpumps, andgoldjewelry. two-piecebusinesssuit,a included askirted, leather dress shoes. The women’s businessattire piece suit,awhitebutton-down atie, shirt, and business attire forthemenconsistedofatwo- shoes, bluejeanjacket. andawell-worn The faded jeans, soiledathletic anoldsweatshirt, outfit forboththemenandwomenconsistedof sex: onecasualandbusiness. The casual They consistedof: diverse racial were andethnicorigin recruited. Method customersreceive.affect thespeedofservice hypothesis assumesthatallthree factorsmay you receiveance affecttheservice instores? The H Directions: N esearchers classifiedthestores asmale, female, m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame ypothesis Does your gender, race, orphysicalappear- The sixassistantsentered thestores inone The researchers conductedtheexperiment The researchers chosetwooutfitsforeach one Hispanic female one Hispanic male female American one African male American one African one Caucasian female one Caucasian male To AESTUDY CASE

test thehypothesis, sixassistantsof R ead thefollowing casestudy, thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. 2 1. ing significantfactorsandinteractions offactors: delayed service. The results indicatedthefollow- store, andtypeofclothingaspotentialfactorsfor Results watch wasstopped. approached andsaid “May Ihelpyou?”, the provide service. For example, ifthesalesclerk until asalesclerk madeanobvious attemptto thestopwatch.they started The stopwatch ran Psychological Research sex, race,andclothing,AscitedinHorvat, J.,&Davis,S. Source: Mo r exists inthebehaviorofsalesclerks. The clerks were Caucasian. Apparent discrimination r speed ofservice. Upon examination,the Conclusions 4. 3. 2. 1. page. show?What dothecharts ra 4. 3. 2. not thespecificreasons forit. this studyonlyexamined the delayinservice, and gender. It tonote, isimportant however, that esearchers ofsales- foundthatthemajority acial discrimination appears tobeclear-cut.acial discrimination ce, andattire isshown atthetopofnext re r The analysisexaminedgender, race, typeof Sa quickly totheassistantsinbusinessattire. No C of dress, were more served slowly than andHispanics, Americans African regardless quickly thanthemen. F quickly thanwomen. M The meandatafortheinteraction ofgender, gender andrace andattire gender andattire type ofattire ace emales incasualclothingwere more served

aucasians. Kraus, M.etal. subtle is the discrimination basedondresssubtle isthediscrimination en inbusinessclothingwere more served lesclerks’ firstimpressions doaffectthe

matter therace, wasgivenmore service First Impressions . NewJersey:Prentice Hall,14–9. (1998). Latencytoserveinstores:Effects of Doing (continued) 9 Name ______Date ______Class ______

Delays of Service Business Clothing Experienced by Customers Casual Clothing

Male 200 200 Female

100 100 Delay in Service (Seconds) Delay in Service (Seconds) 0 0 African American Hispanic Caucasian African American Hispanic Caucasian

Assistants Assistants

Understanding the Case Study Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 1. What were researchers attempting to determine?

2. What types of stores were used for this study?

3. What was being measured in this study? Co py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 4. Who received the fastest service? The slowest?

Thinking Critically

Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. 5. What are the independent variables in this study? 6. If you were managing one of these stores and were given the results of the study, what recommen- dations would you make to your salesclerks? 7. One study of this type cannot be generalized to assume that all salesclerks in all stores will react in the same ways. What factors should be changed in future studies to verify or dispute the study’s conclusions?

10 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. centers? affected by care inchild-care for children? Is childdevelopment viewofcaring What isthehistoric r quality ofchilddevelopmentthat withthe claim tobeconcerned society. inthisdebate Allparties dren are raised American inmodern the homehasnecessitatednonmaternal careofvari- industrialized societies,mothers’ employmentoutside bors, whoarealsocaringfor their ownchildren.In in thecareofsiblings,grandmothers, orfemaleneigh- of poorqualitycareonchildren’s development;.. research communitytothepossiblydamagingeffect has alertedconsumers,governments,andthe predominance ofnon-relativecareinthelastdecade care wasseldomraisedasanissueofconcern.The and safetyofrelatives’offspring,therefore,quality sumably, someemotional commitmenttothehealth paid providersthanbyrelatives.Relativeshave,pre- place ratherthansharedamongfemalerelatives. degree towhichchildcareisboughtinthemarket- changed overtimeandvariescross-nationallyisthe have reducedthatsourceofbabysitters.Whathas female relatives,buthighratesofemployment children ofworkingparentswerecaredforbyother among femalerelatives.Untilrecently, mostAmerican times. Childcarehasalwaysbeenshared,usually ity anywhereintheworldeithernoworearlier dren isaculturalmythofanidealized1950s,notreal- Directions: N esults from alternatives. thevarious m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame D In agriculturalsocieties,infants aretypicallyleft T Exclusive maternalcareofinfantsandyoungchil- oday, moreAmericanchildrenarecared forby ebate rages abouthow chil- READING R ead thefollowing selection,thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. Family ChildCare Employed Mothersin1993 Preschoolers ofFamilieswith Primary Child-CareArrangementsfor Source: *Includes mothersworkingathomeorawayfromhome. Current PopulationReports,70. (Nonrelatives) Centers Casper, L.M.(1996). 21% 30% 3 Mothers’ employmentwasculturally sanctionedand factories andofficestoreplace menawayatwar. workers duringthewarbrought manymothersinto workforce afterchildbearing. Theneedforindustrial Scarr, 1984). ed thefathers’economicproductivity(Kagan,1980; important emotionalroleinthehomethatcomplement- attention todevelopwell.Mothersweregivenan began tohavetenderpsychesthatrequiredmaternal required extensiveeducationandknowledge.Children longer anaturalspeciesresponsebutrolethat late 19thandearly20thcenturies,childrearingwasno knowledgeable caregiversbegantobestressed.Inthe without adirecteconomicrole. settings, andwomengenerallyremainedathome, the factoryandoffice,menfollowedworkintonew When employmentmovedoutsidethehomeandinto ically productiveworkersandprimarychildcaregivers. trial partsoftheworldtoday, womenarebotheconom- use ofnonmaternalchildcare. employment providesaguidetothedemandforand ous types...Tracing historicalchangesinmaternal Who’s MindingOurPreschoolers? Prior toWorld War II,fewwomenremained inthe In acorrelateddevelopment,mothers’rolesas Prior totheIndustrialRevolution,andinnonindus- American Child American Mother* 6% Other Relatives9% U.S. BureauoftheCensus, Care Today Father 16% Grandparents 17% Others 1% (continued) 11 Name ______Date ______Class ______supported by the government provision of child-care actions with in a safe, healthy, and stimulating centers attached to war factories. Mothers, as Rosie environment, where early education and trusting rela- the Riveter, took on the many paid work roles that had tionships combine to support individual children’s previously been denied them. physical, emotional, social, and intellectual develop- After the war, government and cultural supports ment (Bredekamp, 1989). . . . for mothers’ employment were withdrawn, child-care Researchers have explored the possible long-term centers were closed, and mothers were told to go effects of day-care experiences in different qualities of home to make way in the workplace for returning vet- care for children from different kinds of backgrounds. erans. The birthrate soared and new suburbs were Children from low-income families are definitely bene- built as federally sponsored highway programs fueled fited by quality child care, which has been used as an a boom in housing outside of cities. All of this was a intervention strategy (Field, 1991; Ramey et al., 1985, direct result of government policy that held as ideal a Ramey & Ramey, 1992). Poor children who experience two-parent family with a working father and a non- high-quality infant and preschool care show better working mother, ensconced in single-family dwelling. school achievement and socialized behaviors in later Erroneous predictions about an economic reces- years than similar children without child-care experi- sion after the war, which became instead an economic ence or with experience in lower quality care. For poor boom fueled by unfulfilled consumer demand for cars, children, quality child care offers learning opportuni- refrigerators, and housing, left many jobs open to ties and social and emotional supports that many women. Many mothers did not follow official advice to would not experience at home. go home, and female employment has grown steadily For children from middle- and upper-income fami- since. Goods and services that used to be homemade lies, the long-term picture is far less clear. With a few (e.g., clothing, canned goods, and cleaning) came to exceptions that can be explained by the confounding be increasingly purchased, requiring additional family of family with child-care characteristics in the United income. As the divorce rate and single motherhood States, research results show that the impact on soared, more mothers needed jobs to support their development from poorer versus better care within a families. Today most mothers are employed. broad range of safe environments is small and tempo- In 1995, 62% of mothers with children under six rary. Given the learning opportunities and social and years were employed. This rate was up more than 2% emotional supports that their homes generally offer, from 1994 and nearly 5% from 1993. Among mothers child care is not a unique or lasting experience for with children under two years, 58% were working in these children. March 1995, up 4% from 1993 (1996 Green Book, as cited in Hofferth, 1996). The ideal of a nonemployed References mother remained strong, however. One legacy for Bredekamp, S. (1989, November). Measuring quality through a national accreditation system for early childhood programs. Paper working mothers of the baby-boom generation and presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational beyond is guilt about their employment. . . . Research Association, San Francisco, CA. In surveys by Working Mother magazine in 1995 Field, T. (1991). Quality infant day-care and grade school behavior and performance. Child Development, 62, 863–70. and 1996, readers expressed strong preferences for (1996). Child care in the United States today. The Future of

Hofferth, S. Co center-based care over home care, whether by rela- Children, 6 (2), 41–61. py Kagan, J. (1980). Perspectives on continuity. In O.G. Brim & J. Kagan tives or not. Child safety and parental control over the ri

(eds.), Constancy and Change in Human Development. Cambridge, ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. arrangements were prominent reasons for the prefer- MA: Harvard University Press, 1–15. ence. Home care is unsupervised and usually unli- Mason, K., & Duberstein, L. (1992). Consequences of child care for censed. Television exposés of abuse and neglect in parents’ well-being. In A. Booth (ed.), Child Care in the 1990s: Trends and consequences. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 127–158. day-care homes have appeared regularly over the last Ramey, C., Bryant, D., Sparling, J., & Wasik, B. (1985). Project CARE: A decade. Relatives do not always abide by parents’ comparison of two early intervention strategies to prevent retarded child-rearing preferences, such as toilet-training tech- development. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 5 (2), 12–25. niques and feeding routines. Paid help is more depend- Ramey, C., & Ramey, S. (1992). Early educational intervention with able and controllable. Child-care centers are open disadvantaged children—to what effect? Applied and Preventive even if one caregiver is ill or on vacation (Mason & Psychology, 1, 131–140. Scarr, S. (1984). Mother Care/Other Care. New York: Basic Books. Kuhlthau, as cited in Mason & Duberstein, 1992). There is an extraordinary international consensus among child-care researchers and practitioners about Source: Scarr, S. (1998). American child care today. American what quality child care is: It is warm, supportive inter- Psychologist, 53, 95–106.

12 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 6. 5. Directions 4. 3. 2. 1. Directions N m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame How society.industrial C children? Why? Which children benefitmostfrom qualitychildcare: poor, middle-income, orupper-income What eventcausedlarge numbersofmotherstoentertheworkforce inthe20thcentury? Pr In Understanding theReading T ompare andcontrast therole ofmotherswithyoung children inanagricultural societyandinan

ior totheIndustrial roles didmothershave? Revolution, whattwoprimary hinking Critically 1993, whatpercentage ofpreschool children withworking motherswere cared forby arelative?

does societyaffectthedecisionofmothersyoung children toentertheworkforce? : Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. : Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. 13 Name ______Date ______Class ______

Body Image CASE STUDY 3 and Dieting in Children Directions: Read the following case study, then answer the questions that follow.

Introduction Boys Girls Traditionally, dieting and similar behaviors Overweight 19.3% 23.7% that show concern for physical appearance have Normal weight 59.9% 48.6% been reserved for teenagers and adults. This Underweight 20.8% 27.7% study examines dysfunctional eating behaviors in children as young as seven. This study builds on early research that indicated that children as The first part of the was a behavior young as third grade were concerned about inventory that asked questioned like “I diet …” being overweight and their appearance. with answer choices that included always, some- Preadolescent children are at a great risk of times, and never. Then, more open-ended ques- doing permanent physical and cognitive harm to tions were asked that allowed children to explain themselves by dieting. Children have less body what dieting means. One concern in designing a fat than adults and are growing and developing questionnaire to be used with children is the at a rapid rate. Risks of dieting for children tendency for young children to give expected include kidney failure, dental decay, heart beat answers to leading questions. To avoid errors irregularities, stunted physical growth, and created by leading questions, children were reduced cognitive development. given the option to answer “I don’t know,” “I never diet,” or similar responses to the open- Hypothesis ended questions. Children were next shown a series of seven Body image and dieting behaviors are gender-appropriate figures that ranged from understood by children as young as seven. very thin to obese. Children responded to the Children at that age envision an ideal body following questions: shape, know that restrictive eating behaviors influence body shape, and express dissatisfac- 1. Which figure looks most like the way you tion with their current body size and shape. currently look?

2. Which figure looks most like the way you Co

Method would like to look? py ri A sample of 431 children in the second, 3. Which figure looks most like the way you ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. third, and fourth grades in Melbourne, Australia, feel? participated in a survey. The survey was Finally, children took a modified version of designed to assess knowledge of what dieting is the designed by researchers and determine how many children had engaged to measure dieting behaviors, food occupation, in some type of restrictive eating behavior. Part and weight concerns. This 26-item survey asks of the survey also examined the children’s ideas questions like “I am scared about being over- about ideal body shape and weight. Parents con- weight.” Children select from a range of respons- sented to their children’s participation in the es from always to never. survey. Participants were assured that all their responses would be kept confidential. To begin the study, the children’s current Results body weights and heights were recorded. Results The researchers examined the results of the were as follows: surveys by age group, body mass (underweight,

(continued) 14 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. the following table: significantly different. The findingsare shown in ference between theidealandhow theyfeltwas size andtheidealbodysize. In addition,thedif- cant difference between theirperceived body with it.Both boys andgirlsdisplayed asignifi- their bodyimageandare frequently dissatisfied y 3. 2. 1. were: ofdietingamongparticipants popular forms indicated thattheyhaddieted. The three most ed thattheyhavedieted.More girlsthanboys achieve abeautifulbody. P P and manymore willtalkaboutgoingonadiet. willgoonadietthisyear one infiveAmericans D society’s beliefsandattitudestoward dieting. about dietingshowed aclearunderstandingof what dietingwas. Oftheremainder, theirideas 28 percent indicatedthattheydidnotknow weight, overweight),normal andgender. About N 3. 2. 1. Directions oung assevenhaveaclearunderstandingof eople seedietingasanacceptablewayto opular culture idealizes thinasbeautiful. F F ieting hasbecomeanationalpastime. About m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame eiglre hnteiel3%34% 30% 13% 18% eeling larger thantheideal eeling smallerthantheideal The studyclearlyshowed thatchildren as eating healthyfoods r foods actively reducing theirintakeofspecific A to them? What three assessmentswere children askedtomakeabout thegender-appropriate figures shown What percentage ofboys andgirlswere overweight? weight? Ofnormal What wasthepurposeofthisstudy? in thestudy? Who participated educing theiroverall intakeoffood Understanding theCaseStudy bout 23percent indicat- oftheparticipants : Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. osGirls Boys influence ofrole modelssuchasparents. ance, andthe bettereducationaboutnutrition, include society’s emphasisonphysicalappear- tothem.Possibletially harmful explanations clear understandingofbehaviorsthatare poten- why children atsuchayoung agehavesucha faction anddieting. strong correlation between body-image dissatis- concepts. Studies withadolescentshaveshown a have theabstract reasoning skillstorelate these This findingindicatesthatchildren donotyet between body-image dissatisfactionanddieting. for theirideal. chose amore muscularandsolidrepresentation choose thetall,leanfigure astheirideal.Boys I body shapeandsize totheseyoung children. society iscommunicatingmessagesaboutideal body shapeandsize. Researchers believethat ticipants expressed dissatisfactionwiththeir ed withdieting.Asignificantnumberofthepar- understand theconceptandbehaviorsassociat- Conclusions Genetic Psychology in thechild’s world:Conceptualizationandbehavior. Source: nterestingly, thegirlsinstudytendedto The studydidnotshow astrong correlation Fu Children from allagegroups sampled Kostanski, M.,&Gullone,E. r ther studyisneededtohelpunderstand , 160 (4) , 488–98. (1999). Dietingandbodyimage Journal of 15 Name ______Date ______Class ______

4. What dieting practices did children say they had tried?

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided.

5. What part of the hypothesis was not supported by the findings of this study? What does this suggest about children’s cognitive skills?

6. Why do you think some children are dissatisfied with their body sizes?

7. What recommendations would you make to parents who are concerned about the findings of this Co study? py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

16 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. may befeltforseveral decades. a smoothtransition from childhoodtoadulthood. The consequencestotheadolescent and tosociety so rapidly thatitisforcing itsadolescentstoward timeandtraining for adulthoodwithoutthenecessary Although notallresearchers agree, there societyischanging issomeevidencetosuggestthatAmerican Directions: N tures oftheadultcommunity. Theft,violence,sex, and teenage cultureandlanguage, havebecomeminia- schools, whichwereoncethe settingforaunique directed onlytoadultaudiences andconsumers.High the artsofpersuasionandsexual innuendoonce nurturing. Theynowseeteenagersasfairgameforall privileged groupwhorequirespecialprotectionand longer abidebytheunwrittenrulethatteenagersarea to attainfully. The media andmerchandisers,too,no a teenagerforanadulthoodtheythemselveshaveyet give theirteenagers;otherparentssimplycannottrain riage, parenting,andleisure,thattheyhavenotimeto in reorderingtheirownlives,managingacareer, mar- eration ofworkers.Andsomeparentsaresoinvolved job skillstodevoteanytimepreparingthenextgen- adults aretoobusyretoolingandretrainingtheirown middle-aged, withoutanytimeforpreparation.Many challenges withthematurityonceexpectedonlyof T have hadaprematureadulthoodthrustuponthem. have losttheironceprivilegedposition.Instead,they this endeavor. young peopleneededtime,support,andguidancein tion fromchildhoodtoadulthoodwasdifficultandthat were undergoing.Societyrecognizedthatthetransi- able transformationstheirbodies,minds,andemotions thus receivedthetimeneededtoadaptremark- assuming adultresponsibilityanddecorum.Teenagers of youthfulspirit,anecessaryMardiGrasbefore flaws] andexcesseswereexcusedasanexpression nurtured. Theteenager’s occasionalfoibles[minor sidered importantandthereforeitwasprotected intellectual, social,andmoraldevelopmentwascon- generation,” the“futureleaders”ofAmerica.Their position inthesocialstructure.Theywere“next barely adecadeago,teenagershadclearlydefined not insocietyatlarge.Thiswasalwaysthecase: ety today—notinourhomes,notschools,and eenagers nowareexpectedtoconfrontlifeandits m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame M In today’s rapidly changingsociety, teenagers There isnoplaceforteenagersinAmericansoci- any adultsbelievethatitismore difficulttobeateenagertodaythanwhentheywere growing up. READING R ead thefollowing selection,thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. 4 ever facedbypreviousgenerations ofadolescents.It them tonewandmorepowerful stressesthanwere vulnerable tostresswhileatthe sametimeexposing teenagers adoubleblow. Ithasrenderedthem more adapt tonewdemandsandsituations. make aformidabledemandontheteenager’s abilityto heavy burdenonayoungperson;takentogether, they goal. Anyoneofthesenewstresseswouldputa school settingsthathinderratherthanfacilitatethis tration oftryingtopreparefortheirlife’s workin not encounter. Andthird,theymustcopewiththefrus- expectations forthefuture,thatearliergenerationsdid encing losses,totheirbasicsenseofsecurityand available topastgenerations.Second,theyareexperi- fronted withmanymorefreedomstodaythanwere This stressisofthreetypes.First,teenagersarecon- stress thanwereteenagersinpreviousgenerations. dinate stress:teenagerstodayaresubjecttomore tent tomeetthechallengesthatareinevitableinlife. leaves theteenagermorevulnerableandlesscompe- to constructasecurepersonalidentity, today’s society defenses againststress.Byimpairinghisorherability of selfisthusonetheteenager’s mostimportant demands withconsistencyandefficiency. Thissense young persontodealwithbothinnerandouter secure senseofself,personalidentity, allowsthe ing himorherguidanceanddirectionforthefuture.A ing to,theteenager’s pastwhileatthesametimegiv- ing senseofselfthatbringstogether, andgivesmean- Having apersonalidentityamountstohavinganabid- the formationofthatall-importantself-definition. personal identity, theabsenceofthatperiodimpairs protected periodoftimewithinwhichtoconstructa closely relatedways.First,becauseteenagersneeda today’s teenagers affectsthemintwodifferentbut schools astheyareinthestreets. substance abusearenowascommoninthehigh Contemporary Americansociety hasthusstruck The secondeffectofprematureadulthoodisinor- The impositionofprematureadulthoodupon T eenagers in Crisis (continued) 17 Name ______Date ______Class ______is not surprising, then, to find the number of stress- Source: Elkind, D. (1984). All grown up and no place to go: related problems among teenagers has more than tre- Teenagers in Crisis. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. pp. 3–6. bled in the last decade and a half.

Understanding the Reading Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 1. When teenagers were considered future leaders, how did society treat them?

2. What changes does the author believe have occurred in society to make teens lose their place?

3. According to the author, how have high schools changed?

4. What two effects on teens does the author cite as a result of society’s push toward premature adulthood?

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided.

5. Do you agree with the author’s point of view about society’s treatment of teens? Explain your Co

reasoning. py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

6. Compose a letter to your congressional representative expressing your views on allowing advertisers to use sex or violence to sell products to teens.

18 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 1. ed themintofourcategories: wereparticipants 14and16,Brooks-Gunn divid- problems. stage asthosewithandwithoutdepressive tions, Brooks-Gunn thegirlsateach categorized girls were 14,16,and22.Based ontheevalua- psychological were madewhenthe beginning ofthestudy. Physical, emotional,and study involving120girlswhowere 14atthe Method ing adolescenceorlaterinlife. developing problems withdepression eitherdur- tional dysregulation andaffectthelikelihoodof ty andstress athomeandschoolresult inemo- H cent females. bylation experienced large numbersofadoles- adulthood isaffectedby theemotionaldysregu- gates whetherdepression inadolescenceor adolescence. In study, thisparticular sheinvesti- r G have littlecontrol over theiremotions. Brooks- have notedthatmanyyoung womenseemto late adolescenceorearlyadulthood.Researchers until adultlevelsofestrogen are reached during ol levelincreases rapidly. This increase continues ment. At theonsetofpuberty, afemale’s estradi- adolescentdevelop- infemalesduring lems arise U Introduction Directions: N esearch centersontransitions inandout of unn labelsthisemotional niversity, hasresearched how emotionalprob- m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame ypothesis J this category. A of depressive problems ateitherevaluation. P B Br Ho eanne Brooks-Gunn, Ph.D., from Columbia ositive bout 65percent fellinto oftheparticipants ased ontheevaluations madewhenthe AESTUDY CASE ooks-Gunn conductedalongitudinal r monal changes in females during puber- monal changesinfemalesduring R These participants showedThese participants no signs ead thefollowing casestudy, thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. dysregulation . Her 4 Results 4. 3. 2. chological problems laterinlife. The studydoes forfemalesdonotseemtocausepsy- puberty Conclusions adolescence. middle tive schoolandfamilyeventsduring more hadexperienced these participants nega- withit. struggling The studyindicatedthat depression adolescence, during butwere now tered somefemaleswhohadnotexperienced wereparticipants 22,theresearchers encoun- adulthood. ly higherrate ofdepressive problems inearly ous. Recurrent showed participants onlyaslight- C body imagesanddidnotrelate aswell topeers. ages ofmenarche. They tendedtohavepoor r lescence. Participants whowere as categorized earlyado- family conflictsandproblems during aslatetransient moregorized experienced images. It cate- alsoindicatedthatparticipants asearlytransientgorized hadpoorer body study showed whowere thatparticipants cate- does notleadtodepression laterinlife. The dysregulation asaresult changes ofhormonal ecurrent hadhigherbodyfatandslightlyearlier onflicts withparents were alsomore numer- of the participants fellintothiscategory.of theparticipants of depression atbothages. About 10percent R this category. A depressive problems at16butnot14. Late transient this category. A depressive problems at14butnot16. Early transient The hormonal changesthatoccurduring The hormonal Du F or the majority ofparticipants, emotional or themajority bout 10percent fellinto oftheparticipants bout 10percent fellinto oftheparticipants ecurrent r ing theevaluations made whenthe These participants showedThese participants signs Hormones and These participants showedThese participants These participants showedThese participants Depression (continued) 19 Name ______Date ______Class ______suggest, however, that the combination of emo- Source: Azar, B. (1995). Paths that lead to teen depression. The APA Monitor, 26 (10), 26. tional dysregulation, family and school stress, and other emotional factors such as poor body image do increase the of recurrent or chronic psychological problems.

Understanding the Case Study Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 1. What changes occur in a female’s estrogen level during puberty?

2. What is emotional dysregulation?

3. What was the purpose of the ? Did the study results support the hypothesis? Explain.

4. What categories did Brooks-Gunn use to classify participants after the first two evaluations? Co

5. What do the results suggest about the adolescent experience of participants who were categorized py ri as recurrent? ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper.

6. What does the study suggest about the importance of physical appearance to adolescent females? 7. Do you think the emphasis on appearance is innate or learned? Provide evidence to support your position.

20 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. found thatthinkingandacting creativelycanhelppeo- life, thuspeakinglateinhe noted. like GrandmaMoses—begincreativecareerslaterin peak earlierthannovelists.Inaddition,somepeople— peaks, Simontonadded:Forinstance,lyricpoetsmay face death. more meaningfulandaestheticallyconciseasthey nomenon: atimeinwhichpeople’s workbecomes the musicalscaleinadifferentway. music tomoreradical‘twelve-tone’thatused had earlier, changingfromwritingtraditionalpolytonal later lifetocomposepiecesmuchdifferentlythanhe age, Simontonhasfound. ‘Swan-song’ creativity not declinewithage,thoughitmaychangeinform. posers, writersandartists. Davis, hasstudiedthecareertrajectoriesofcom- professor ofpsychologyattheUniversityCalifornia- people developnewcreativestylesinoldage. sions arehappieroldpeople;andthatmanycreative process; thatthosewhofollowedtheircreativepas- that beingcreativecanaddrichnesstotheaging the agingprocess.Inarangeofstudies,they’vefound lives ofolderpeopleandhowcreativitycanenhance they’re past70. Grandma Moses,don’t starttheircreativecareersuntil and PabloPicasso.Andsomecreativepeople,like end ofhislife.SodidAugusteRenoir, ClaudeMonet Matisse createdsomeofhisgreatestworknearthe and purposethatenhancesthequalityoftheirlives. musicians oftenremain productive andcreative throughout theirlives. Their creativity brings r Directions: N emain creative throughout theirlives. Creativity isnotreserved fortheyoung. , artists, and m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame W A recentstudyatUniversityof Nebraska-Lincoln Different kindsofartistshavedifferentcreative Relatedly, Simontonhasfounda‘swan-song’ phe- IgorStravinsky, forexample,beganin Creative peopleoftenchangestrategiesinold Simonton hasfound,inpart,thatcreativitydoes For thepast20years,DeanKeithSimonton,Ph.D., Psychologists havebeenstudyingthecreative Despite asevereintestinaldisorder, painterHenri ould you describe yourselfould you ascreative? describe Recent research indicatesthatcreative peopletendto READING R ead thefollowing selection,thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. 5 consistently creativethroughouttheirlives. Of theremaining40percent,halfsaidthey’dremained become evenmorecreativeasthey’vegottenolder. bility, thestudyfound. tion, creativitycanencouragegreatercognitiveflexi- being creativeenhancedtheirlifesatisfaction.Inaddi- nonartists andartistsages60older—saidthat Participants inthestudy—whowereamixof ple adapttotheagingprocessandfindmeaninginlife. increase withage. Source: even inoldage,’hesaid. ‘People withlotsofcreativepotentialkeeponcreating their oldageshouldbenodifferent,Simontonsaid. more successfulandenjoyable. ativity hadenhancedtheirlivesandmadeoldage lives andwouldn’t dothings differently, andthatcre- tions, theyreportedthatwerehappywiththeir sions intheircareers,Dudeksaid.Withfewexcep- the meninstudieshadfollowedtheircreativepas- strived tobefamous,butwhohadfulfillingcareers.All successful; and‘niceguys,’menwhohadnever divided thearchitectsintothreegroups:famous;very the study, allofthosewhowerestillalivein1991.She were 53-years-oldonaverage. artists between1958and1960.Participantsin and colleaguesof124malearchitects,engineers California-Berkeley studybyDonaldMackinnon,Ph.D., Dudek, Ph.D.,hasfound.. out lifearehappierpeopleinoldage,Stephanie Follow yourpassion Sixty percentofthestudyparticipantssaidthey’d If peopleexercisecreativitythroughouttheirlives, Dudek interviewed70oftheoriginalarchitectsin In 1991,DudekfollowedupaUniversityof Those whofollowtheircreativepassionsthrough- Margoshes, P. The APA Monitor (1995, May).Creativesparkliveson,can , 26 (5), and Aging Creativity 37. (continued) 21 Name ______Date ______Class ______

Understanding the Reading Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 1. What does Simonton’s study of creativity and aging indicate?

2. What is ‘swan-song’ creativity?

3. Can creativity increase with age?

4. Into what three groups did Dudek divide the participants in her 1991 study? What were her conclusions?

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided.

5. Does a creative person need to achieve fame to find satisfaction with his or her talents? Why or why not? Co py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

6. List one or more areas in which you are creative. Projecting into the future, develop a life plan that would allow you to use your creativity throughout your life. Consider how you can develop your tal- ents and how you can use them even if physical limitations slow you down.

22 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. By Directions: N 4. 3. 2. 1. erativity behaviorswere examined: among refugees andsurvivors. Four specificgen- horrors. r memberoftheirfamilies.surviving Allhadexpe- left thecampstotallyaloneinworld,only r Su suffered relatively thewar. fewcasualtiesduring U like theUnited States, China,andtheSoviet R into twogroups: refugees andsurvivors. r atic genocideastheHolocaust. Those who these Jews hadbeenkilled. We know thissystem- emained attheendofwarcouldbedivided or oftheconcentration camps. Many survivors ienced severe andamultitude of deprivation efugees fledtheirhomelandsforsafehavens nion. Refugee familiesremained togetherand m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame r

the endof World War IIin1945,sixmillionof vivors were thosewholivedthrough theter- In the nextgeneration tothecelebrations, C from onegeneration tothenext. T family unittonurture children. Pa vival children. through bearing B R echnical generativity, whichpassesonskills ecent studieshavecompared generativity iological generativity, which ensures sur- ultural generativity, whichintroduces AESTUDY CASE

r 1939, eightmillionJews livedinEurope. ental generativity, whichcreates astable R ead thefollowing casestudy, thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. 5 r ty were apparent between the twogroups. The Pa was notpossible. much more opentoadoptionifreproduction option. Refugees alsodesired children, butwere biological children. Adoption wasnotseenas an group wastheneedtohave among thesurvivor way tocontinuethefamilyline. Especiallystrong vivor group viewed theneedforchildren as a vivor group’s desire wasstronger. The entire sur- exhibited strong biologicalgenerativity, thesur- Generativity Biological at lengthtogatheradditionaldata. assess generativity. Eachwasalsointerviewed usedto completedtwosurveys participants y from 63to75. They hadbeenadolescentsor efugee group expressed andemo- bothmaterial oung adultsatthetimeofwar. The study r Si Although bothrefugee groups andsurvivor The participants inthestudyrangedThe participants inage generations. r ental Generativity ites, andcultural achievementsofpast gnificant differences inparental generativi- Generativity Among Refugees and Survivors (continued) 23 Name ______Date ______Class ______tional components to raising children. Typical the twentieth century it has focused primarily on nurturing behaviors found in the population at the establishment and protection of a Jewish large characterize the refugee group. The sur- homeland. Largely as a result of the Holocaust, vivor group focused primarily on providing the state of Israel was created in 1948 to give the materially for their children. Since all had Jews a homeland. Both refugees and survivors experienced extreme loss and deprivation, they have been strong supporters of Zionism. desired to provide materially for their children Survivors speak with pride of the one positive so that they would never have to suffer. The effect of the Holocaust. They have contributed emotional distance noted in the survivors also generously to the state, although none of the appears to result from their experiences in the study participants lived in Israel. camps. With such a tragic and painful past, emo- For survivors, another consistent cultural tional connections, even with their own chil- theme was that the Holocaust be remembered dren, proved difficult. Typical nurturing behav- so that it is never repeated. As the survivors have iors were often a missing component in the aged, they have recognized the need to have the homes of survivors. Should they speak of the events of the Holocaust and their suffering past to their children? All expressed reluctance, remembered, not only by their families, but also but most eventually shared at least a portion of by humanity. This larger cultural context has their stories with their children. become a rallying point as the survivors approach the end of their lives. Technical Generativity Technical generativity was not prevalent in Conclusions either group. Few participants had completed Disruptions early in life affect one’s future high school or had any formal professional train- drive toward generativity. Refugees lived through ing. Therefore, they had no technical skills to the upheaval, but did not experience the terror pass on to their children. Although most partici- of the concentration camps. For many of them, pants were economically secure, their achieve- guilt was a significant element of their existence. ments resulted from hard work rather than a Although their culture was destroyed by the war, good education. Both groups valued education they still felt guilty for not having suffered like highly and made provisions for their children to the concentration camp survivors. They seemed receive good quality educations. Both groups less able than the survivors to make new cultural especially valued higher education, even though connections and find significant purpose in life they had been denied the right to it. beyond raising their families. Survivors could not escape their past. It

colored every part of their future. They showed Co Cultural Generativity stronger generative behaviors largely as a means py ri

The war and the Holocaust virtually of defining their past. Except for nurturing skills ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. destroyed the culture into which the refugees needed for strong parental generativity, they and survivors had been born. During the two showed more generative behaviors than the decades after the war, both groups showed limit- refugees. The interviews with survivors demon- ed interest in their cultural heritage. As the sur- strate that they have used generative behaviors vivors aged, however, they expressed more inter- to build a future out of the horrors of the past. est in passing on Jewish heritage and traditions. Their cry of “Never Again” has become a For many, the holidays and celebrations of reminder to all societies of the horrors of the Jewish life gained significance. Holocaust. One strong component of cultural generativ- Source: McAdams, D. & de St. Aubin, E. (1998). Generativity and ity that appeared in the survivor group was . Washington, DC: American Psychological Zionism. Zionism is an ancient , but in Association.

(continued) 24 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 6. 5. Directions: 4. 3. 2. 1. Directions: N m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame could learn morecould learn abouttheirparents’ Holocaust experience. Explain thisapparent contradiction. dren askedthe researchers ofstudyparticipants fora copy oftheirparents’ sothat they they were reluctant toshare withtheirchildren. theirexperiences In fact,several oftheadultchil- feltstrongly thattheHolocaustAlthough survivors beremembered sothatitwouldnotberepeated, the survivors? Why orwhynot? W ofcultural group?What wasthestrongest part generativity forthesurvivor difference between thetwogroupsWhat wastheprimary inparental generativity? Which generative behaviorwasleastevidentamongbothgroups? What twogroups were usedforthestudy? Understanding theCaseStudy T ould you expectveterans of World War IItoshare anyofthesamegenerative characteristics with hinking Critically Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. 25 Name ______Date ______Class ______

Reversing Stroke READING 6 and Spinal Cord Damage Directions: Read the following selection, then answer the questions that follow.

Brain injuries, including strokes and severe head trauma, disable tens of thousands of Americans yearly. In addition, spinal cord injuries that result in paralysis occur daily. The disabilities that result can be devastating to the victims. Regenerating brain tissue and repairing spinal cord damage are not yet possible, but strides are being made toward reducing the severity of many disorders and injuries. Eventually, researchers hope to use a combination of methods to repair the damage.

Scientists are on the brink of doing the unthink- by a physical blow. Brain cells, or neurons, are either able—replenishing the brains of people who have suf- damaged or die right away because they are deprived fered strokes or head injuries to make them whole of nourishing blood. again. And as if that is not astonishing enough, they This initial destruction then triggers a chemical think they may be about to reverse paralysis. attack against tissue that was not damaged in the pri- The door is at last open to lifting the terrifying sen- mary injury. The second phase of injury invokes a tence these disorders still decree—loss of physical process called excitotoxicity and it affects nearby function, cognitive skills, memory, and personality— healthy cells, often killing more brain tissue than the which costs the nation $65 billion annually. initial injury. Until recently there was virtually nothing doctors Like someone yelling “fire” in a crowded theater, could do for the 500,000 Americans who have strokes damaged and dying cells scream out a slew of chemi- each year, the 500,000 to 750,000 who experience cals. These chemicals, which normally help brain cells severe head injury, or the 10,000 people who are para- talk to each other, become dangerously toxic in exces- lyzed after spinal cord damage. sive amounts. They literally cause healthy cells to But that is about to change. Researchers now become overexcited to the point of death, when they think it may be possible to replace destroyed brain too spew out their death-throe chemicals. cells with new ones to give victims of stroke and brain Interestingly, scientists believe that excitotoxicity injury a chance to relearn how to control their body, is a genetically programmed suicide mechanism form new thinking processes, and regain . devised by nature to kill unneeded or unhealthy cells. And after demolishing the long-standing myth that Such cell death occurs during fetal development, for brain cells can’t regenerate or proliferate, scientists instance, to get rid of billions of overproduced brain are developing ways to stimulate cells to do just that. cells and the webbing between fingers. Although stroke, head injury, and paralysis are It is this same excitotoxic response that is rapidly Co py

three of the most devastating things that can happen triggered in stroke, head trauma, or spinal injury to ri to anyone, scientists have recently learned that the produce the destructive secondary injury. Evidence ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. damage they cause is not preordained: it takes place also indicates that the excitotoxic reaction can occur over minutes, hours, and days, giving them a precious over a longer period of time, causing a slow form of opportunity to develop treatments to halt much of the suicide that may be the final pathway for cellular death damage. in Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and other degenerative Most of the new remedies are not yet available, neurological disorders. but an explosion of research in the last five to ten The suicide reaction—its scientific name is apop- years has convinced scientists that some of them will tosis—begins when a damaged or dying neuron work. . . . releases massive amounts of a neurotransmitter called Scientists are finding that treatments that work in glutamate. Glutamate is normally one of the most one type of injury—stroke, head trauma, or spinal important chemical messengers in the brain. damage—are likely to work in the others. All of these But when too much glutamate is present, the disorders share many of the same mechanisms of cell NMDA receptors (“doors” on cell surfaces) are destruction, which come in two phases, primary and jammed open. Sodium floods in, causing the cell to secondary injury. swell. Calcium rushes in and smashes at the cell’s In the primary, or initial, injury, blood flow to a part genetic controls, producing enzymes that eat away of the brain is blocked by a clot that plugs an artery or the cell’s internal support structure and destructive

(continued) 26 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. cade ofsecondaryinjuryisleadingtothedevelopment “Everything juststartsgoinghaywire.” right,” Washington University’s DennisChoisaid. liner withasledgehammerandstartingtohitleft membrane wall. molecules, calledfreeradicals,thatchewawayits N 6. 5. Directions: 4. 3. 2. 1. Directions: m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame The discoveryofthekeystepsinsuicidecas- “It wouldbelikegoingintothecabinofa747jet- her to participate in a study of these drugs? inastudyofthesedrugs? her toparticipate Why orwhy not? for humans. If someoneyou cared asevere forexperienced headtrauma, wouldyou wanthimor havebeensuccessfulinanimals, usedareAlthough experiments thedrugs notyet widelyavailable injuries? What commonpsychological effectsoccurinvictimsofstrokes, headtraumas, andspinalcord What happenswhentoomuchglutamateispresent inthebrain? What isthebiologicalpurposeofexcitotoxicity? injuries? What are commontostrokes, thetwophasesofcelldestruction headtraumas, andspinalcord What are thecommonconsequencesofstrokes, headtraumas, andspinalcord injuries? Understanding theReading T hinking Critically Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. ma, orspinalinjurycanbeprevented. damage thatnormallyoccursfromastroke,headtrau- that byblockingthesecondaryinjury, muchofthe of drugstoblockthem.Experimentsinanimalsshow McMeel Publishing,173–7. Discoveries ofHowtheMindWorks. Source: Kotulak, R. (1997). Inside theBrain:Revolutionary Kansas City, MO:Andrews 27 Name ______Date ______Class ______

CASE STUDY 6 Dual-Brain Psychology Directions: Read the following case study, then answer the questions that follow.

Neurologists, psychiatrists, and psycholo- The Human Brain gists have demonstrated that different areas of the brain are responsible for different behaviors and control different sensory inputs. For exam- Left Right Hemisphere Hemisphere ple, studies have shown that the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body. Scientists also attribute different abilities to the right and left hemispheres. The left hemisphere controls language and verbal reasoning, while the right hemisphere manages spatial under- standing. Recent studies have sought to identify if emotions are processed differently by the two hemispheres. This area of study has been labeled “dual-brain psychology.” Corpus callosum

Existing Research He hypothesized that the right brain did recog- nize the object, but simply had no way to name Psychiatrist Fredric Schiffer began his stud- it. He repeated the experiment. When an image ies in dual-brain psychology by reviewing the was flashed on the left side of the screen, the research done with patients who had undergone patient was asked to use his right hand to select commissurotomies, a surgical procedure that the object from a group of objects. Although the separates the brain’s two hemispheres by sever- patient could not name the object, he always ing the corpus callosum. This radical surgery has made the correct selection. Zaidel concluded proven successful in relieving severe epileptic that although the right brain is mute, it does seizures. Dr. Eran Zaidel researched how the process visual information correctly.

brain functions after this radical surgery. He Co Other studies with commissurotomy used simple visual and motor tests to under- py

patients have shown that, when divided, the two ri stand how the two halves of the brain work. He ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. halves of the brain function independently had a patient sit in front of a screen. Pictures enough to say that the patient has two minds. were flashed to either the right or left side of the screen. Pictures that were flashed to the right side of the screen were processed by the left Dual-Brain Psychology Research hemisphere and vice versa. Zaidel asked the Schiffer wondered what applications Zaidel’s patient to name the objects shown in the pic- findings had on those whose brains were intact. tures. The patient could name the objects that Since information is processed differently by the were flashed on the right side of the screen, but two hemispheres, he hypothesized that emo- could not name the objects flashed on the left tions are also processed differently. To test his side of the screen. This seemed to confirm that hypothesis, he modified two pairs of safety gog- language is a left brain function and that the gles. On one pair, he used white tape to com- right brain is mute. pletely cover the left lens and the left half of the Zaidel took the study one step further. Even right lens. This allowed vision through the right though the right hemisphere is mute, he won- visual field only. Therefore, the information dered how the right brain processed the picture. would be processed by the brain’s left hemi-

(continued) 28 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. cated strong differences. minor differences inemotions, whilesomeindi- ences inabouthalfthepatients. Some sensed visual field.Subsequent indicateddiffer- trials when shehadbeenseeingthrough herright than much calmerwhencontemplatingthetrip and notbeovercome withanxiety. She was positive. She thoughtshecouldmanagethevisit city. This timeherresponses were much more asked herhow shewouldfeelinthedifferent ofadjustment,he field. Aftera15-secondperiod glasses thatgavehervisiononlytotheleftvisual the visit. did notbelievethatshecouldgothrough with anxious.that shewouldfeellostandvery She ety? Could shedealwithit?Her response was in thedifferent city. What washerlevelofanxi- visual field.Schifferaskedhertoimagineherself ered, allowing hertoseeonlyfrom herright the pairthathadleftsidecompletelycov- goggles towear asthesessionbegan.She chose her phobia.Schifferhadselectapairofthe and wasworking withDr. Schiffertoovercome iar places. She neededtotravel toadifferent city an agoraphobic womanwhofeared allunfamil- One ofthefirstpatientstotestgoggleswas patients toselectonepairofthegoggleswear. hemisphere. which wouldbeprocessed by thebrain’s right This allowed visionthrough theleftvisualfield, halfoftheleftlens. lensandtheright the right sphere. Ontheotherpair, hecompletelycovered 2. 1. Directions: N hemispheres process emotionsdifferently, m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame To Schiffer hadherputontheotherpairof Du What does the right hemisphereWhat doestheright ofthebrain control? What doesthelefthemisphere ofthebrain control? Understanding theCaseStudy

further testthehypothesisthatdifferentfurther r ing sessions, heasked Answer the following questionsinthespaceprovided. r ness, andage, didnotsignificantlyaffect the possible variables, includinggender, handed- showed significancewaslevelofanxiety. Other levels ofanxiety. In that fact,theonlyvariable r pants, fourhadafour-point difference intheir two pointorgreater difference. Ofthe70partici- two pairsofglassesand23percent reported a one-point difference inanxietylevelbetween the Results Science ofDual-BrainPsychology Source: whole person. towork togethertocreatecan learn ahealthy, hemispheres. In addition,thetwohemispheres els ofanxietyby teachingthemtousedifferent developed thatallow patientstoreduce theirlev- process emotionsdifferently. Treatments canbe Conclusions of anxietywiththesecondpair. pair ofglasses. Participants alsorated theirlevel r extreme gavetheir anxiety).Afterparticipants ety usinga5-pointscale(0fornoanxietyto4 ment, theywere askedtorate theirlevelofanxi- of glasses. ofadjust- Aftera45-secondperiod pants. They were randomly assignedtoonepair Schiffer usedthetapedglasseswith70partici- esults. ating. exhibitedhigh These fourparticipants atings, theywere askedtoswitchtheother Of the70participants, 60percent reported a The brain’s hemispheres leftandright do Schiffer, F. (1998). Of Two Minds:TheRevolutionary . NewYork: The FreePress. 29 Name ______Date ______Class ______

3. Describe the results of Zaidel’s study on commissurotomy patients.

4. What was Schiffer’s hypothesis about emotions?

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided.

5. Why would patients with high levels of anxiety show a greater difference in level of anxiety between the brain’s two hemispheres?

6. Anxiety has many causes, including depression, phobias, bipolar disorder, and post-traumatic stress Co

disorder. Describe further research that could be conducted to determine if different causes py ri

of anxiety are processed differently by the brain and, therefore, require different types of dual-brain ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. therapy.

30 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. may influencefactorsranging fromsleep-related undreamed ofinsleeplabs,Worthman suggests.They W a bevyofbrainandbodymonitors. ries whereindividualscatchwinks whilehookedupto night. Sleepstudiesthereforetakeplaceinlaborato- sleep: aloneorwithapartnerforsolidchunkofthe assume thattheyatleastknowhowpeopleshould don’t yetknowwhypeoplesleep anddream,they disturbances. taken stridestowardtreatinginsomniaandothersleep intense dreamsoftenoccur. .Researchershavealso of rapid-eye-movement(REM)sleep,duringwhich into slumber’s biology. Earlyresearch identifiedperiods Over thepast50years,scientistshaveavidlydelved geoning disciplineofsleepresearch,Worthman says. folk takeforgranted. however, looksanythinglikewhatmodernWestern University inAtlanta.Noneofthesesnoozestyles, reports anthropologistCarolM.Worthman ofEmory has uncoveredawidevarietyofsleepcustoms, hunter-gatherer groupsandothertraditionalsocieties the sleeppatternsandpracticesofdifferentcultures.. Surprisingly, anthropologistshaverarelyscrutinized common asstockcarracingorteleconferencing. bedtime andasingleboutofsleepprovesaboutas evolution, solitaryshut-eyeorganizedaroundaregular as 200yearsago. or eventoinhabitantsofWestern Europeasrecently currently livingoutsideofthemodernWestern world— this familiarritual.Itsimplydoesn’t applytopeople nerves, looseningthemupforslumber. bed. Maybealittlereadingortelevisionmassagesthe After disrobing,youdousethelightsandclimbinto your bedroomwithsaggingeyelidsandstifleayawn. ferent ofourancestors. from thepatterns New research maychangethewaywe viewsleep. Anthropological researchpatterns? intoday’s indicatesthatsleep patterns culture dif- maybestrikingly Directions: N m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame estern groupsmaymoldsleep’s biologyinways What is your pattern ofsleep?DopeopleinallculturesWhat isyour share pattern andthroughout similarsleep However, thedistinctivesleepstylesofnon- While investigatorsreadilyconcedethatthey This findingraisesprofoundquestionsforthebur- An initialattempttodrawbacktheveilsofsleepin In suchcontexts,andprobablythroughouthuman There’s asurprising twist,however, attheheartof Ah, thesweetsimplicityofsleep.You trampinto READING R ead thefollowing selection,thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. 7 monies, individualsentersomnolent, ornear-sleep, pants tocopewithsleepdeprivation. Inothercere- sleep. Forinstance,initiation rites oftenforcepartici- threat oremergency. . awakened atallhoursofthe night towarnothersofa can countontherebeingsomeoneelseuporeasily communal sleepequalssafesleep,becausesleepers ers inIndonesia.Forallthesegroupsandsixothers, Swat PathanherdersinPakistan,andBalinesefarm- agers inParaguay, Kunghunter-gatherers inAfrica, activities. from predators,andotherpeople’s nearbynighttime animals, firesmaintainedforwarmthandprotection noise emanatingfromothersleepers,variousdomestic shared spacesthatfeatureconstantbackground middle-class bedrooms,sleeptypicallyunfoldsin much alike.Farfromthewallpaperedconfinesof ing suspicionsthatpeopleeverywheresleeppretty 10 non-Western populations. assembled apreliminarypictureofsleeppracticesin absorbed aboutnighttimeactivities,Worthman has sleep. Afterplumbingwhattheresearchershad own admission,hadsystematicallystudiedhowpeople flung populations,noneoftheinvestigators,bytheir herders, andvillage-basedfarmers.Amongthesefar- more traditionalsocieties,includingnomadicforagers, whom sheknewhadintimateknowledgeofoneor ed, answerwas‘zero,’”shesays.. prehistory ofsleep.“[My]bald,ifsomewhatoverstat- him whatanthropologistsknowaboutthehistoryand disorders onsleep.HeaskedtheEmoryscientisttotell School ofMedicine,whostudiestheeffectsmood cian RonaldE.DahloftheUniversityPittsburgh sleep. In1994,shehadaconversationwithpediatri- W sleep phases.. genes tothebrain’s electricaloutputduringvarious orthman toherdiscipline’s ignoranceofhowpeople Many ritualsoccuratnightand exploittheneedto Groups inWorthman’s analysisincludeAchefor- W So, Worthman contactedsevenresearchers A seeminglyinnocentquestionawakened orthman’s findings ripthecoversoffanylinger- Studies ofSleep Cross-Cultural (continued) 31 Name ______Date ______Class ______states in order to magnify an occasion’s psychological mystery. Still, in settings that roughly mimic ancient impact and to induce spiritual visions. nighttime conditions, sleep undergoes an intriguing Consider the communal sleep of the Gebusi, New shift, says psychiatrist Thomas A. Wehr of the National Guinea, rainforest dwellers, who grow fruit in small Institute of (NIMH) in Bethesda, MD. gardens and occasionally hunt wild pigs. Women, girls, When prohibited from using artificial light from and babies crowd into a narrow section of a communi- dusk until dawn, people who formerly slumbered in ty longhouse to sleep on mats. Men and boys retreat to solid blocks of time begin to sleep in two periods sepa- an adjacent, more spacious longhouse area, where rated by an hour or two of quiet rest and reflection. they sleep on wooden platforms. Wehr and his coworkers asked 15 healthy adults Gebusi females retire at dark for about 10 hours of to rest and sleep in darkness for 14 hours (6 P.M. to rest and sleep. In contrast, the men stay up later and 8 A.M.) each night for several weeks. Volunteers slept frequently conduct rituals. About once a month, every- for 11 hours each of the first few nights, apparently to one attends an all-night dance and feast, catching up catch up on their sleep. They then settled into a pat- on sleep the next day. tern of lying awake for a couple of hours before falling Each week or two, Gebusi men go to seances led asleep for 3 to 5 hours in the evening. An hour or so of by a “spirit medium,” at which they try to keep spirits quiet wakefulness ensued, followed by about 4 more awake throughout the night. Participants attempt to hours of sleep in the early morning. . . . slip in and out of a near-sleep state as the medium, Participants in Wehr’s study usually awoke out of who’s usually adept at operating in this half-conscious REM sleep to end their first slumber session. During condition, sings about the spirit world and other REM sleep, the brain becomes about as active as it is matters. when wide awake. One function of this sleep phase As in most of the other studied societies, the may be to set the stage for waking up, Wehr holds. Gebusi express concerns about exposure to ghosts, If prehistoric people slept in two nightly periods, evil spirits, and witchcraft during sleep. They consider then regularly awakening out of REM sleep may have deep sleep risky, since a sleeper’s spirit may wander off allowed them to reflect on and remember their dreams too far and fail to return. The Gebusi view group slum- in a semiconscious state that’s generally unavailable to ber as a way to lessen the danger of spirit loss, which modern sleepers. Sleep compressed into a single stint they view as especially likely while a person dreams. may thus encourage modern humans to lose touch Whether or not one believes that sleeping puts a with dreams, myths, and fantasies, Wehr argues. person’s spirit at risk, slumber appears to have crucial These results, first reported in 1993, also raise the effects on body and mind. A culture’s sleeping style possibility that people who wake up once or twice serves as a growing child’s training ground for manag- each night don’t necessarily suffer from insomnia. ing biologically based systems of attention and alert- “A natural human sleep pattern may reassert itself in ness, Worthman contends. Balinese farmers provide a an unwelcome world and get labeled as a disorder,” striking example of this sleep-related tutoring. Wehr says. Balinese infants are carried and held continuously The two-phase sleep pattern observed by Wehr by caregivers so that they learn to fall asleep even in corresponds remarkably closely to the way in which hectic and noisy situations. This grooms them to exhib- most Western Europeans slept between 500 and 200 Co py

it what the Balinese call “fear sleep” later in life, years ago, according to historian A. Roger Ekirch of ri Worthman says. Children and adults enter fear sleep Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. by suddenly slumping over in a deep slumber when Blacksburg. While doing research for a book on night- they or family members confront intense anxiety or an time behaviors during that era, Ekirch came across unexpected fright. They are literally scared into sleep. several hundred references to what he identifies as Infants in middle-class American homes, who usu- “segmented sleep.” ally sleep alone, may not learn to ground their sleeping From country farms and villages to city apart- and waking cycles in a flow of sensations that include ments, early modern Europeans usually sank each bodily contact, smells, and background noises, evening into what they called a “first sleep,” which Worthman proposes. In fact, babies forced to bounce lasted for several hours. Shortly after midnight, they back and forth between the sensory overload of the awoke and spent 1 or 2 hours in a “watching period.” waking world and the sensory barrenness of dark, A “second,” or “morning,” sleep followed. quiet bedrooms may often find it difficult to relax, fall The watching period presented many opportuni- asleep, wake up, or concentrate, she theorizes. . . . ties, Ekirch notes. People coming out of their first sleep If sleeping patterns in traditional societies remain often stayed in bed to pray, converse with a bedfellow, little known, those of prehistoric humans are a total contemplate the day’s events or the meaning of a

(continued) 32 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. to sexoratimeforinnerreflection.Onlyintensive an unavoidablestretchofdowntimethanasaprelude watching period,afterarecuperativefirstsleep. intercourse withtheirwivestypicallyoccurredinthe dozed offexhaustedatthestartofeachnight.Sexual scious stateofcontentmentthatwasprizedatthetime. dream, orsimplylettheirmindswanderinasemicon- N 6. 5. Directions 4. 3. 2. 1. Directions m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame These days,Western societiestreatsleepmoreas A 16th-centuryphysicianwrotethatmanylaborers this view?Given theanthropological view, whatrecommendations wouldyou make toyour friend? explanation forhisproblem? How by contributed mighttheinformation anthropologists change traditional cultures? differsogreatly inAmerica Why dosleeppatterns from thoseofourancestorsandin more Y What did Thomas Wehr discover inhissleepstudy? What is “fear sleep” by asexperienced theBalinese? Why dopeopleinsomecultures sleepincommunalgroups? sleep patterns? difference between thecurrentWhat istheprimary sleeppractices intheUnited States andhistoric an hourmostnightsaround 2or3 Understanding theReading T ou have a friend whoreportsou haveafriend thathefallsasleepeasilyaround 11 hinking Critically : Answer thefollowing questionsonaseparate sheetofpaper. : Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. A . M .H e seemsnearexhaustion. What wouldbethetraditional landscape. ize whatitmeanstosleepnormally.” predicts. nate thelushnessofsleep’s landscape,Worthman investigations acrossculturesandclasseswillillumi- Source: Adds Wehr, “We’re goingtohavereconceptual- Bower, B. Science News,156(13), (1999, September25).Slumber’s unexplored P P . . M M ., .

but thenawakensforabout 205–207. 33 Name ______Date ______Class ______

CASE STUDY 7 Self-Hypnosis Directions: Read the following case study, then answer the questions that follow.

Background erful pain reliever, and Valium, a drug commonly What happens when traditional medicine prescribed to treat anxiety. None of these drugs fails to provide relief from chronic pain? Chronic proved helpful; the many side effects actually pain is long-term pain from a known or made the problems worse. unknown source that cannot be relieved through When she entered the Behavioral Medicine surgery or physical therapy. Millions of Clinic, she walked with a cane, had limited Americans suffer from chronic pain at some movement in her head and neck, and continued period in their lives. Traditional medicine has to be depressed. Since she had received little treated such pain with medications and selected relief from traditional medical treatments, she exercises. Statistics show that 40 percent of the had begun to study the principles of self-hypno- people who are prescribed medication for sis from library books. She slowly learned how to chronic pain will abuse their medication. manage her pain through a self-induced state of Society, including those in the medical profes- hypnosis. While seated, she would close her eyes sion, is exploring alternative treatments that and visualize her pain as a lake. She became pro- may prove as effective, and perhaps more effec- gressively more relaxed by continuing to use tive, than traditional medical treatments. mental imagery to reduce the size of the lake. She used these techniques to make the pain more manageable and to deal with her anxiety over the exercises physical therapists asked her A woman in her late 40s was injured in a car to do. The doctors at the Behavioral Medicine accident. Her most serious injury was a com- Clinic encouraged her to continue with the self- pression fracture of her spine. The fracture and hypnosis on a daily basis, to be as physically accompanying muscle spasms resulted in severe active as possible, and to try to live without pain and continuous pain. No type of surgery could medications. relieve her pain, so doctors gave her a series of Within seven months, she: pain medications, nerve blocks, and anesthetics. ■ was nearly free of all pain

These procedures managed the pain, but had Co ■ was not taking any pain medications unpleasant side effects. py ■ had increased her physical activity and was ri

Two years later, the woman was in another ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. walking without the cane car accident. This time, in addition to cuts and ■ had returned to work part-time bruises, she fractured her breastbone, one rib, ■ was no longer suffering from depression and a foot. After this accident, her pain wors- ened and she had difficulty completing simple tasks such as combing her hair and dressing her- self. She was unable to work. She also experi- Conclusions enced additional health problems in the next Cases such as the one described here are several months. helping to shift the focus of the medical commu- The pain, frustration over her limitations, nity toward a biopsychosocial approach to the and uncertainty about the future left her treatment of pain. This approach combines tra- depressed. Over the next six months, she visited ditional medical treatments with psychological several doctors at several clinics seeking help. and social approaches to treatment. The most Doctors prescribed 13 different medications at common alternative treatments are group thera- various times to either manage her pain or affect py, relaxation therapy, biofeedback, guided her mood. The drugs included Darvocet, a pow- imagery, and hypnosis.

(continued) 34 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. r trolling bothacuteandchronic painandat cate thathypnosisisespeciallyeffectiveatcon- ferers. Several studiesover thepast30years indi- ation therapy andhypnosis, forchronic painsuf- treatments,these alternative especiallyrelax- many physiciansandpsychologists. It allows the N 7. 6. Directions 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Directions elieving theaccompanyingdepression. m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame S The National Institutes ofHealth support If Why doyou thinkself-hypnosisrelieved painwhenalltheothertreatments failedinthisinstance? What typesoftreatment are combinedinthebiopsychosocial approach topainmanagement? How didsheuseforherpain? What imagery self-hypnosis? Why didthewomanincasestudylearn What ischronic pain? elf-hypnosis isthetechniquepreferred by Understanding theCaseStudy T

given theoptionofhypnosis orself-hypnosistomanagepain,whichwouldyou prefer? Why? hinking Critically

did sheusethisimagetoreduce herpainlevel? : Answer thefollowing questionsonaseparate sheetofpaper. : Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. 521–23. chologist willbeseenasamanipulator. lessens thechancethatphysicianorpsy- patient more control andresponsibility. It also hypnosis inthecontrolofpain. your patientprefersanalternativepaincontrolmethod:Self- Source: Mickelson, C.,Brende,J.,&Gonzalez,J. Southern MedicalJournal (1999). Whatif , 92 (5), 35 Name ______Date ______Class ______

READING 8 Weightlessness and Directions: Read the following selection, then answer the questions that follow.

In the second half of the 20th century space travel became a reality. Until the first space travelers braved the unknown, scientists and doctors could only speculate on how the human body would react to weightlessness. Some of their speculations proved true, such as space motion sickness that is com- monly experienced by space travelers at the beginning of a flight. Others proved false. One thing has become quite clear—the body can adapt to weightlessness and then readjust to gravity. Researchers are attempting to use what has been learned in space to treat people on Earth with problems such as bal- ance disorders.

. . . As most doctors can attest, it is difficult to pre- effective force of gravity on our bodies do we conscious- dict what will happen when a brand-new challenge is ly perceive it. Otherwise our perception is indirect. presented to the human body. Time and again, space Our senses provide accurate information about travel has revealed its marvelous and sometimes sub- the location of our center of mass and the relative tle adaptive ability. But only in the past few years have positions of our body parts. This capability integrates scientists begun to understand the body’s responses signals from our eyes and ears with other information to weightlessness, as the data—the cumulative experi- from the vestibular organs in our inner ear, from our ence of nearly 700 people spending a total of 58 person- muscles and joints, and from our senses of touch and years in space—have grown in quantity and quality. pressure. Many of these signals are dependent on the Pursuit of this knowledge is improving health care not size and direction of the constant terrestrial gravita- only for those who journey into space but also for those tional force. of us stuck on the ground. The unexpected outcome of The vestibular apparatus in the inner ear has two space medicine has been an enhanced understanding distinct components: the semicircular canals (three of how the human body works right here on Earth. mutually perpendicular, fluid-filled tubes that contain hair cells connected to nerve fibers), which are sensi- Feeling Gravity’s Pull tive to angular acceleration of the head; and the otolith Although many factors affect human health during organs (two sacs filled with calcium carbonate crys- spaceflight, weightlessness is the dominant and single tals embedded in a gel), which respond to linear accel- most important one. The direct and indirect effects of eration. Because movement of the crystals in the weightlessness precipitate a cascade of interrelated otoliths generates the signal of acceleration to the Co responses that begin in three different types of tissue: brain and because the laws of physics relate that py ri gravity receptors, fluids and weight-bearing structures. acceleration to a net force, gravity is always implicit in ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Ultimately, the whole body, from bones to brain, reacts. the signal. Thus, the otoliths have been referred to as When space travelers grasp the wall of their gravity receptors. They are not the only ones. spacecraft and pull and push their bodies back Mechanical receptors in the muscles, tendons and and forth, they say it feels as though they are station- joints—as well as pressure receptors in the skin, par- ary and the spacecraft is moving. The reason is ticularly on the bottom of the feet—respond to the embedded in our dependence on gravity for perceptual weight of limb segments and other body parts. information. Removing gravity transforms these signals. The The continuous and pervasive nature of gravity otoliths no longer perceive a downward bias to head removes it from our daily consciousness. But even movements. The limbs no longer have weight, so mus- though we are only reminded of gravity’s invisible cles are no longer required to contract and relax in the hand from time to time by, say, varicose veins or an usual way to maintain posture and bring about move- occasional lightheadedness on standing up, our bodies ment. Touch and pressure receptors in the feet and never forget. Whether we realize it or not, we have ankles no longer signal the direction of down. These evolved a large number of silent, automatic reactions and other changes contribute to visual-orientation illu- to cope with the constant stress of living in a downward- sions and feelings of self-inversion, such as the feeling pulling world. Only when we decrease or increase the that the body or the spacecraft spontaneously reori-

(continued) 36 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. on May3,[1998].To connectthisworkwithpatients study aftertheNeurolabshuttle mission,whichended Scientific ResearchinParisundertook justsucha Medicine andGillesClement of theNationalCenterfor space travelerswhosuffera loss ofbalanceonEarth. flight studiesmayallowdoctorstohelpthosenon- ing theirbalancebutrecoverthissenserapidly, post- returning fromspaceinitiallyhavedifficultymaintain- part ofphysiology. Becauseotherwisehealthypeople and avoidfallsisanimportantpoorlyunderstood body-weight changes.Thewaywecontrolourbalance our growthandmaturationduringperiodsofmajor patterns. Similarchangesoccuronthegroundduring physiological changesinbothreceptorsandnerve-cell where thefeetare.Theadaptationprobablyinvolves and forsomespacetravelers,“down”becomessimply Scientific American. [Gibbs, W. W. (1994,December).Virtual realitycheck, and sensorypatternspresentduringrealmotion through whichonecannavigatewithouttheforces puter systemsdesignedtocreatevirtualenvironments, similar motionsicknesscanalsobeelicitedbycom- motor activitynecessarytocontroltheheaditself.A including thealterationofpatternsandlevels results fromtheconvergenceofavarietyfactors, clear thatthisexplanationwassimplistic.Thesickness which conflictswiththebrain’s expectations.Nowitis sickness totheunusualpatternofvestibularactivity, flights. has beenreportedbycosmonautsattheendoflong days orsoofweightlessness,butsomethingsimilar sickness usuallydoesnotlastbeyondthefirstthree appetite, stomachawareness,vomiting.Spacemotion ness: headache,impairedconcentration,lossof tures manyofthesymptomsterrestrialmotionsick- or moreofspacetravelers,amotionsicknessthatfea- with informationfromthedirectgravityreceptors.. probably dependsonvisualandairflowcuesalong feel asiftheyarefalling.Theperceptionoffalling curve oftheplanet—spacetravelerssaytheydonot spacecraft’s forwardvelocitycarriesitaroundthe free fall—theonlydifferencefromskydivingisthatthe fuses thebrain.Althoughorbitalflightisaperpetual time inspace. degrees.” Suchillusionscanrecurevenaftersome off, Iimmediatelyfeltasthoughwehadflipped180 flight experiences,said,“Whenthemainenginescut cialist ByronK.Lichtenberg,commentingonhisearlier flight ofonlyoneday. Lastyearshuttlepayloadspe- sensations ofbeingupsidedownearlyinaspace- ents. In1961cosmonautGhermanTitov reportedvivid N m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame Bernard CohenoftheMount Sinai Schoolof Over time,thebrainadaptstonewsignals, At onetime,scientistsattributedspacemotion The aggregateofsignalchangesproduces,inhalf The lackofothercriticalsensorycuesalsocon- ] human postureandbalancecontrol.. are creatingthefirstwhole-bodycomputermodelof Administration andtheNationalInstitutesofHealth, supported bytheNationalAeronauticsandSpace Northwestern Universityandateamofresearchers, suffering frombalancedisorders,BarryW. Petersonof in bedforalongtimeandby some elderlypeople. ance isalsoexperiencedbypatients whohavestayed without feelingfaint.Thisso-called orthostaticintoler- cannot standquietlyfor10minutes justafterlanding people onEarth.Forexample,mostspacetravelers wardly similarto“abnormal”eventsoccurringinill healthy peopleduringorjustafterspaceflightareout- responding tothoserisks. Biomedical ResearchInstitute,toassistindefiningand funded aspecialresearchbody, theNationalSpace of long-durationspacetravel,NASAhasselectedand comprehensive attackonallthepotentialhumanrisks ation ofmedicalstudies.Recognizingtheneedfora sophisticated laboratoryequipmentforthenextgener- more thantheMirorSkylabstations)andwillinclude have 46,000cubicfeetofworkspace(nearlyfivetimes humans. Onitscompletioninfiveyears,thestationwill tunity toinvestigatetheeffectsofspacetravelon next year, willprovideresearcherswithanewoppor- assembly ofwhichshouldbeginlatethisyearorearly future interplanetarymissions.Infact,thestation, upcoming InternationalSpaceStationandforany mal lives.Thisisclearlygoodnewsfordenizensofthe space forlongperiodsandreturntoEarthleadnor- ing indicatesthathumanscannotliveandworkin exception ofthemusculoskeletalsystem.Sofarnoth- a fewdaysorweeksoflanding,withthepossible straight, whethertheireyesareopenorclosed. to bemoving—andtheywobblewhiletryingstand during headmotionitistheirsurroundingsthatseem report experiencingavarietyofillusions—forexample, three timesmyweight.”Returningspacetravelers The firsttimeIpushedmyselfup,feltlikewaslifting son saidafterninedaysinspace:“It’s quiteashock. lenged duringandjustaftertheirdescent.Asoneper- general rule. we havedata.We donotyetknowwhetherthisisa do workreversibly, atleastovertheintervalsforwhich the flight.We nowknowthatmostsystemsinthebody should returntoitsnormalconditionatsometimeafter weightlessness arecompletelyreversible,everything weight, complementarychangesoccur. Iftheeffectsof Down toEarth Scientific American Source: Many ofthe“normal”changesthattakeplacein Most ofthebody’s systemsreturntonormalwithin Space travelerscertainlyfeelgravitationallychal- When spacetravelersreturntotheworldof White, R.J. , (1998). Weightlessness andthehumanbody. 279 (3), 58–63. (continued) 37 Name ______Date ______Class ______

Understanding the Reading Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 1. What is the primary effect on the human body during spaceflight?

2. What structures of the inner ear are sensitive to side to side movement of the head?

3. What structures of the inner ear are sensitive to forward motion of the head?

4. What is the difference in perception between skydiving and spaceflight?

5. What Earth-based activity may create motion sickness similar to that experienced during spaceflight? Co py ri

6. What immediate effect of gravity do space travelers experience when they return to Earth? ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper.

7. Imagine that a recent editorial published in the leading newspaper in your community stated “We have only limited funds. Research dollars should be spent helping people here on Earth, not sending people into outer space.” Write a rebuttal of this statement. 8. What would a typical day be like if you could not distinguish which way was up and which was down?

38 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Although thetrait itmustbe maybeinherited, pitchwhile othersdonot. perfect inherit trait;pitch isaninherited that issome, people innate, andwhennurtured willsurvive. fect pitch. pitchis They concludedthatperfect found thatallthepeopleintheirsamplehadper- cannot understandoneanother.) Researchers are sodifferent thatspeakersofeachlanguage two Chinesedialects, Mandarin and Cantonese, usesthe samecharacters,Chinese writing butthe and thewayword isspoken.For example, all r based onthesoundsofanalphabet. There isno word isspoken.(Note: Tonal languages are not meanings dependingonthetoneusedwhen guages; thatis, thesameword mayhaveseveral speakers. Both oftheselanguagesare tonallan- ing asampleofnative andChinese Vietnamese fect pitch. They reached thisconclusionby study- D at theUniversity ofSouthern California atSan about theinfluenceofheredity. First, researchers Method andResults be nurtured and developedinorder tosurvive. H another noteasareference. pitch. That is, theycansinganoteifgiven pitchdevelopakeensenseofrelativeperfect atively rare talent.Musicians whodonothave pitch thanthegeneral population,itisstillarel- in E-flat.Althoughmore musicianshaveperfect fluorescent lightshuminB-flatandtoiletsflush r anyothertonefora each timewithouthearing and nameitorcansingtheexacttoneofanote P Background Directions: N elationship between theway aword iswritten eference. People pitchknow withperfect that eople with perfect pitchcanhearasinglenote eople withperfect iego theorized thatallinfantsareiego theorized withper- born m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame ypothesis A The second theory proposed thatperfect The secondtheory R Pe esearchers havedevelopedtwotheories bout 1 in 2,000 people have perfect pitch. bout 1in2,000peoplehaveperfect AESTUDY CASE r fect pitch is an inherited traitfect pitchisaninherited thatmust R ead thefollowing casestudy, thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. 8 one ethnicgroup thathasahighincidenceof father, sister, andyounger brother. fect pitch. This isanability heshares withhis involved intheresearch, Shai Shaham, has per- bers withthesametalent.Oneofscientists r percent pitch withperfect oftheparticipants infamilies.fect pitchdoesseemtorun About 48 to identifyothertraits, pitch. suchasperfect believe thatitistimetousetheknowledge gained . factorsforcertain Researcherstary r pitch. sponsible forperfect To date, mostgenetic identify thespecificgeneandDNAsequencere- this trait. sample andaskedifotherfamilymembersshare pitch,theyaskedforablood ple withperfect notes correct. Onceresearchers identifiedpeo- hadtoget38ormorefect pitch,participants the tone. In order tobeclassifiedashavingper- pants wrote down thenotethatcorresponded to all walksoflifeusing40pure tones. The partici- proposed thistheory. They sampledpeoplefrom U nurtured inorder todevelop. Researchers atthe eported thattheyhadone ormoreeported familymem- esearch hasbeentargeted atidentifying heredi- niversity ofCalifornia atSan Francisco have The researchers are interested particularly in R U esearchers havealready identifiedthat per- sing neurobiology, researchers hopedto P erfect Pitch (continued) 39 Name ______Date ______Class ______perfect pitch—the Ashkenazi Jews of Eastern ed, but the ability must be nurtured through Europe. For several centuries this relatively small exposure to music and music education. group married primarily within their ethnic group. As a result their gene pool is considered Conclusions homogeneous. Ashkenazi Jews who have or had Researchers still do not fully understand perfect pitch are the late pianist Vladimir how we perceive the world. As science and tech- Horowitz, Metropolitan Opera’s artistic director nology develop, they hope to be able to clearly James Levine, and the San Francisco Symphony’s identify which perceptual traits and abilities are music director, Michael Tilson Thomas. By con- inherited and which are learned. The most con- centrating on one ethnic group, researchers clusive research to date indicates that perfect hoped to quickly narrow the search for the tell- pitch does have an inherited component. The tale DNA. sample of tonal language speakers was too small Researchers also asked participants a second to conclude that perfect pitch is an innate ability. question: Did you study music as a young child? Even if perfect pitch is inherited, it seems The findings indicated that early music training apparent that the ability must be nurtured and is essential to maintaining one’s perfect pitch developed. Most educators would not recom- ability. Most participants who have perfect pitch mend forcing children to take music lessons at a began music lessons by the age of 6. Researchers very young age, but they do recommend expos- found that only 2 percent of those with perfect ing children to music, especially classical music. pitch began music training after the age of 12. Sources: Dickinson, A. (1999). Little musicians. Time, 154 (24), 114; These findings led researchers to conclude that Krieger, L. (1997). Perfect pitch: Nature or nurture. San Francisco the ability to perceive pitch perfectly is inherit- Examiner, A15.

Understanding the Case Study Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper.

1. What is perfect pitch? 2. What was the researchers’ hypothesis? 3. Who did the researchers in San Diego use as participants? Why were these participants used? 4. What did the researchers find with the sample of people who spoke a tonal language? 5. What did the researchers at the University of San Francisco use to test for perfect pitch? Co

6. What did the San Francisco researchers conclude about nature versus nurture as it relates to perfect py ri pitch? ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper.

7. Do you think that all speakers of tonal languages have perfect pitch? How would you test your hypothesis? 8. What other perceptual abilities may have an inherited and a learned component?

40 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. ness, numerous badeventsbeyond evenwhenencountering theircontrol. their careers, are betterathletes, andmaylivelonger. Optimists are lesslikelytosuccumbhelpless- ently. Many studieshaveshown thatoptimistsare healthier, getbetterjobs, advance more quicklyin Directions: N m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame C are temporary. helplessness believethecauses ofbadevents there toaffecttheirlives.People whoresist nent: thebadeventswillpersist, willalwaysbe of badeventsthathappento them areperma- People whogiveupeasilybelievethecauses Permanence and personalization. explanatory style:permanence,pervasiveness, you areanoptimistorapessimist. less andhopeless.Itisthehallmarkofwhether think youarevaluableanddeserving,orworth- view ofyourplaceintheworld—whetheryou Y thought, learnedinchildhoodandadolescence. words youmouthwhenfail.Itisahabitof your explanatorystyle,ismorethanjustthe more inlife.” away quicklyanyway, and,besides,there’s much tune, say:“Itwasjustcircumstances,it’s going do.” Others,thosewhoresistgivingintomisfor- last forever, it’s goingtoundermine everythingI ually sayoftheirmisfortune:“It’s me,it’s goingto Some people,theoneswhogiveupeasily, habit- misfortunes, smallandlarge,thatbefallyou? defeats. . the everydaysetbacksaswellmomentous become, orhowenergized,whenyouencounter yourself determineshowhelplessyoucan helplessness. Your wayofexplainingeventsto whereas apessimisticexplanatorystylespreads mistic explanatorystylestopshelplessness, great modulatoroflearnedhelplessness.Anopti- explain toyourselfwhyeventshappen.Itisthe style that whateveryoudodoesn’t matter. the quittingresponsethatfollowsfrombelief Learned helplessness ognitive learning theorists have identified that optimists and pessimists process information differ- haveidentifiedthatoptimistsandpessimistsprocess information theorists ognitive learning our explanatorystylestemsdirectlyfromyour READING There arethreecrucialdimensionstoyour Y How do is themannerinwhichyouhabitually our habitualwayofexplainingbadevents, R ead thefollowing selection,thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. you think aboutthecausesof is thegiving-upreaction, Explanatory 9 ceed, believingsuccesswas a fluke. good eventsmaygiveupeven whentheysuc- ceed. Peoplewhoseetemporaryreasonsfor manent causestryevenharderaftertheysuc- causes: moods,effort, abilities, themselves intermsofpermanentcauses:traits, “My rivalisnogood.” “I’m talented.” “I’m alwayslucky.” PERMANENT “My rivalgottired.” “I tryhard.” “It’s myluckyday.” TEMPORARY temporary causes. optimistic thanpeoplewhobelievetheyhave good eventshavepermanentcausesaremore of explainingbadevents. events isjusttheoppositeofoptimisticstyle have anoptimisticstyle.. blame badeventsontransientconditions,you times’s manent, pessimisticstyle.Ifyouthinkin and “You nagwhenIdon’t cleanmyroom.” “Diets don’t workwhenyoueatout.” “I’m exhausted.” TEMPORARY “You willalwaysnag.” “Diets neverwork.” “I’m allwashedup.” PERMANENT never’s People whobelievegoodeventshaveper- Optimistic peopleexplaingoodeventsto The . Ifyouthinkaboutbadthingsin and optimistic styleofexplaininggood always’s. Different Outlooks lately’s, and abidingtraits,youhaveaper- (Pessimistic) (Optimistic) (Optimistic) (Pessimistic) Pessimists nametransient if youusequalifiersand sometimes’s. . People whobelieve always’s some- (continued) 41 Name ______Date ______Class ______

Pervasiveness: Specific vs. Universal themselves better than people who blame them- Permanence is about time. Pervasiveness is selves do. about space. . . . Low self-esteem usually comes from internal It comes down to this: people who make style for bad events. universal explanations for their failures give up INTERNAL (Low self-esteem) on everything when a failure strikes in one area. “I’m stupid.” People who make specific explanations may “I have no talent at poker.” become hopeless in that one part of their lives “I’m insecure.” yet march stalwartly on in the others. Here are some universal and some specific EXTERNAL (High self-esteem) explanations of bad events: “You’re stupid.” “I have no luck at poker.” UNIVERSAL (Pessimistic) “I grew up in poverty.” “All teachers are unfair.” “I’m repulsive.” . . . Of the three dimensions of explanatory “Books are useless.” style, personalization is the easiest to under- stand. After all, one of the first things a child SPECIFIC (Optimistic) learns to say is “He did it, not me!” “Professor Seligman is unfair.” Personalization is also the easiest dimension to “I’m repulsive to him.” overrate. It controls only how you feel about “This book is useless.” yourself, but pervasiveness and permanence— . . . Now for the converse. The optimistic the more important dimensions—control what explanatory style for good events is opposite you do: how long you are helpless and across that for bad events. The optimist believes that how many situations. events have specific causes, while good events Personalization is the only dimension simple will enhance everything he does; the pessimist to fake. If I tell you to talk about your troubles in believes that bad events have universal causes an external way now, you will be able to do it— and that good events are caused by specific even if you are a chronic internalizer. You can factors. . . . chatter along, pretending to blame your troubles on others. However, if you are a pessimist and I SPECIFIC (Pessimistic) tell you to talk about your troubles as having “I’m smart at math.” temporary and specific causes, you will not be “My broker knows oil stocks.” able to do it. . . . “I was charming to her.” The optimistic style of explaining good events is the opposite of that used for bad UNIVERSAL (Optimistic) events. It’s internal rather than external. People “I’m smart.” who believe they cause good things tend to like “My broker knows Wall Street.” themselves better than people who believe good Co

“I was charming.” py things come from other people or circumstances. ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Personalization: Internal vs. External EXTERNAL (Low self-esteem) When bad things happen, we can blame our- “A stroke of luck. . .” selves (internalize) or we can blame other peo- “My teammates’ skill. . .” ple or circumstances (externalize). People who blame themselves when they fail have no self- INTERNAL (High self-esteem) esteem as a consequence. They think they are “I can take advantage of luck.” worthless, talentless, and unlovable. People who “My skill. . .” blame external events do not lose self-esteem Source: Seligman, M.E.P. (1991). Learned Optimism. New York: when bad events strike. On the whole, they like Alfred A. Knopf, 15–16, 43–50.

(continued) 42 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 6. 5. Directions: 4. 3. 2. 1. Directions: N m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame r Does beinganoptimistmeanthatyou alwaysblameothersforyour troubles? Explain your the reading. From theseresults, doyou tendtobeanoptimistorapessimist? D List three goodeventsandthree badeventsthathave occurred inyour lifeinthepastmonth. Which ofthedimensionscontrols whatyou do? What are thethree style? dimensionsoftheexplanatory style? When doyou developyour explanatory What are styles? thetwoexplanatory easoning. Understanding theReading T escribe your reactionsescribe totheevents. usingthethree Classifyeachdescription dimensionslistedin hinking Critically Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. 43 Name ______Date ______Class ______

CASE STUDY 9 Conditioning Aggression Directions: Read the following case study, then answer the questions that follow.

Male blue gourami fish establish territories fish served as the unconditioned since that contain good nesting sites. Once estab- the sight of another male fish causes the blue lished, males defend their sites by biting and tail gourami to defend his territory. Training beating rivals who enter their territory. The loser occurred over 24 days. The researchers divided of the fight displays recognizable submission. the 36 fish into two groups. Each fish in the The submissive posture includes folded fins, Pavlovian-conditioned group (PAV) was condi- faded color, and a more horizontal body angle. tioned using a red light (conditioned stimulus) Karen Hollis and a group of researchers set paired with the presentation of a stimulus fish out to answer the question: Are conditioned fish (unconditioned stimulus). more likely to continue winning even when the Although the fish in the unconditioned conditioned stimulus is not present? group (UNP) saw both the red light and the Thirty-six adult male blue gouramis were stimulus fish during training, the light and stim- used. The researchers divided the aquariums ulus fish were never presented together. into three sections (left, right, and center) using Therefore, no conditioning occurred. two acrylic panels, one opaque and one trans- After training, researchers conducted a two- parent, that could be raised and lowered (see part contest. In the first part of the contest, diagram below). Researchers placed 36 fish in researchers paired some of the PAV with UNP. the left and right compartments. Throughout the The PAV were presented with the red light imme- study, they remained either on the left or the diately before the contest. They won 80 percent right, even when moved to other aquariums. of the contests against their UNP counterparts. The center compartments contained stimu- In the second part of the contest, Pavlovian-con- lus fish during the training phase. The stimulus ditioned fish encountered each other; however, researchers presented some with the red light Opaque (PAV-L) immediately before the contest and oth- Panel ers with no light (PAV-NL). PAV-L won all of the contests against the PAV-NL. Red Light

Transparent After two days of rest, the winners and losers Co

Panel faced another contest, this time with a different py ri

male fish. All of the Pavlovian-conditioned fish ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. that won their first encounter also won their second contest. 12 3The findings indicate that conditioned males were better able to vigorously defend their terri- tories. While the exact physiological mechanism is unknown, it appears that Pavlovian-condi- tioned males had a competitive advantage. The long-term consequences of conditioning seem also to be positive since it appears that winning previous contests sets the stage for winning future contests. The results seem to indicate that the winners continue to win.

Source: Hollis, Karen, et al. (1995). Pavlovian conditioning of aggressive behavior in blue gourami fish (Trichogaster trichopterus): Winners become winners and losers stay losers. PAV Group Stimulus Fish UNP Group Journal of , 109 (2), 123–33.

44 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7. 6. 5. Directions: 4. 3. 2. 1. Directions: N m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame winning? In E W more poorlythantheunconditionedfish(UNP)whenfacingPAV-L fish? Why doyou thinkthatPavlovian-conditioned fishthatwere notshown thelight(PAV-NL) performed C In In What wastheunconditionedstimulusandconditionedinthisstudy? F Understanding theCaseStudy T or whatpurposedomalebluegourami fishestablishterritories? xplain your answer. ontest 1? ould conditioningaggressiveness inothertypesofanimalsorhumansshow similarresults?

hinking Critically addition toconditioning,whatotherexplanationsare possible forthefindingthatwinnerskeep the secondcontest,whatpercentage oflosersfrom Contest 1defeatedawinnerfrom the firstcontest,how were set up? thecontestpairings Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. 45 Name ______Date ______Class ______

READING 10 Remembering Details Directions: Read the following selection, then answer the questions that follow.

Have you ever been surprised to find that you have completely forgotten an event that someone else remembers vividly? Some theories of memory assume that our brain keeps a record of everything that we have encountered. Other theories propose that the brain does not keep a permanent record of every- thing. Some things are completely erased, while others are stored in such a way that some effort is required to retrieve them.

“What do you mean, you don’t remember? Linton learned some interesting things about her That was the party where John made such a fool own memory. After about six months of studying her- of himself; he actually tried to eat the artificial ivy.” self, she found she would typically be quite depressed “Was that the same party where he tried to after each test session. The reason was that her gen- put the poodle in the punch bowl?” eral procedure was to “warm up” before each test by “No, No. Not that one. That was years ago. simply thinking over the highlights of her life over the You mean you really don’t remember?” previous year. During these warm-up exercises, she usually thought of happy times—friends, successes, a A fascinating article on remembering by a good life. But when she started pulling the individual University of Utah psychologist, Marigold Litton, begins events from her file box, she discovered that the cards with these “memories.” Litton had always been inter- contained not only happy memories but also numerous ested in studying people’s ability to remember events irritations: Her car breaks down and she can’t find any- that had occurred in their lives. When she began this one to help; she fights with a lover; she gets a paper work, her first question was “Where can I find some rejected by a scientific journal. Once she realized the people who will be available for long periods of time, source of stress, it seemed to help reduce it. who are reliable, who won’t move away, who won’t get After six years of studying her memory, she trans- bored with the study, and whom I could conveniently ferred all the information to special computer cards follow on a regular basis?” The only person she could and fed them to a computer. The computer analyses find who satisfied all of these criteria was herself. She revealed that by the end of any one year, she had for- would be the sole subject. gotten 1 percent of the items written during that year. Every day for the six-year period from 1972 until By the time those items were about two years old, she 1977, she wrote down what happened to her. Each

had forgotten about 5 percent more. Forgetting contin- Co memory was recorded on a separate card in the form ued so that by the time the study ended, she had for- py

of a brief description, such as “I have dinner at the ri

gotten over 400 items of the 1,350 she wrote down for ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Canton Kitchen; delicious lobster dish,” or “I land at 1972, or about 30 percent. In general she seemed to Orly Airport in Paris.” On the back of each card she forget things at a low, fairly steady rate, with the num- wrote the date for each event, and then gave it a rating bers of forgotten items usually increasing slightly from in terms of how important, emotional, or surprising the year to year. event was. By 1977 she had written down descriptions What kinds of things did she remember? Most of of more than five thousand items. the memories were fairly unique, nonrepeated events, Every month she tested her memory. She picked like a traffic accident, or surprising events, like a ten- about 15 cards at random from the file and read the nis game in which one of the players was injured. It descriptions. Each item could be anywhere from one was pretty easy to supply a date for “the tennis game day to six years old, and for each she tried to remem- in which Ed got hit in the eye.” However, she could not ber as quickly as possible when the event had remember the names of the other players in the game. occurred. Linton reasoned that the more information Assuming that Linton’s memory processes are like she had about an event and its context, the more most of ours, this suggests that people remember gen- accurately it could be dated. Each month she spent eral information for some time, but that many details from eight to twelve hours testing her memory in this drop out. way.

(continued) 46 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. when ittookplace.Butbecomeseasierandto be possibletorememberanyoneconversationoreven several phonecallsfromthesameperson,itmaynot Despite theseapparentlosses,allisnotgloomy. After or relivedunlesstheyareunusuallysignificant. locked inmemoryforalltime,unlesstheyarerepeated memories areregularlydroppingout.Theynot N 7. 8. 6. Directions: 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Directions: m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame Overall, Linton’s resultssuggestthatspecific If What potentialproblem couldmartheaccuracy ofLitton’s study? “I occurred, whichwouldyou bemore likelytoremember twoyears from now? C overWhy doroutine eventstendtofadefrom memory time? tendedtobelong-lasting? What typesofmemories At testshavethiseffect? Why didthememory I not? nitially whathappenedtoMarigold Littonaftereachtestsession? Understanding theReading T

omplete thesentencebelow witharoutine response response. andwithasurprising If eachevent

y

was riding the bus with a friend whosuddenly…” thebuswith a friend was riding hinking Critically the endoftestin1977,how muchof1972’s hadsheforgotten? memories ou were to conductastudyofyour own memory, wouldyou useLitton’s method? Why orwhy Answer the following questionsonaseparate sheetofpaper. Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. thought, undergoesaspringcleaning. erable knowledgeisretained.Themind,Linton that eventhoughspecificeventsareforgotten,consid- identify andremembertheperson’s voice.Thismeans Source: 121–123. Loftus, E . (1980). Memory. Reading, MA:Addison-Wesley, 47 Name ______Date ______Class ______

CASE STUDY 10 Eyewitness Testimony Directions: Read the following case study, then answer the questions that follow.

as possible the external, emotional, and cog- nitive conditions that existed at the time of the event. Even small details, such as weath- er, are not ignored. 2. Focused Retrieval Every effort is made dur- ing the interview process to keep the witness focused on the events. The interviewer pre- vents outside distractions and interruptions. 3. Extensive Retrieval Although the process seems tedious to many eyewitnesses, the Cognitive Interview encourages the witness to repeatedly attempt to retrieve the event’s details. Research has shown that the more attempts someone makes to remember particular details, the more likely he or she is Background to successfully retrieve the details from Hypnosis has been used with traumatized memory. crime victims to help them reconstruct crime 4. Witness-Compatible Questioning scenes. Defense attorneys, however, have ques- Individuals organize and store memories dif- tioned both the techniques used and the results ferently. The Cognitive Interview, therefore, of the hypnosis. Some studies suggest that hyp- is not a set series of questions. The inter- nosis can be used, either inadvertently or delib- viewer must determine the general way in erately, to alter memory. Other studies have con- which an individual witness stores memo- cluded that little memory enhancement occurs ries and tailor the questions to help the wit- through hypnosis. As a result of these studies ness reconstruct the event in as much detail and defense attorney objections, some states as possible.

limit the admissibility of evidence discovered Co The interview itself is divided into several

through hypnosis. Psychologists, therefore, have py

phases. At first the interviewer asks the witness ri

researched other ways to enhance the memory ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. to recount the event in as much detail as possi- of eyewitnesses without using hypnosis. Funded ble. Although a record is made of the account, by a grant from the National Institute of Justice, the interviewer uses this phase to plan for the two researchers, Ronald Fisher and R. Edward more detailed interview to follow. The interview- Geiselman, developed a nonhypnotic interview er seeks to understand the way in which the process that helps the eyewitnesses reconstruct witness stores and processes memories. In the the events. second phase, the interviewer guides the witness Using crime scene training tapes designed to through a detailed reconstruction of the events train police officers, the researchers developed using the information learned during the first the Cognitive Interview. The interview is based phase. Finally, the interviewer uses various men- on four principles: tal representations to learn more details about 1. Event-Interview Similarity Based on the the events. For example, if a witness cannot theory that we remember things better when remember a name, he or she will be asked to placed in a similar situation, the Cognitive recall any information about the name, such as Interview seeks to reconstruct as accurately number of syllables, first letter, or ethnicity.

(continued) 48 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. ness remember additionaldetails. willhelpthewit- Often thesebitsofinformation interviews wasasfollows:interviews es torobberies. forrecordingThe criteria the tape-record witheyewitness- selectedinterviews study. Initially, thepoliceofficerswere askedto D Method than thestandard policeinterview. mation from eyewitnesses ofreal-life crimes H N interviews usingtheCognitive tech- Interview interviews trainers. the techniqueandreceived feedbackfrom the training, theCognitive group Interview practiced trained andbecamethecontrol group. After I groups. Onegroup wastrained intheCognitive pretraining interviews. conducted 88interviews. These were usedasthe 1. Directions: nterview technique.nterview The othergroup wasnot ade Police were Department includedinthe m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame ypothesis we enough sothatampletimeandresources cooperative.” to bereasonably fluentinEnglishand victimorwitnesshad (c) eachinterviewed the suspectorsuspectsandevent; or witnesshadadecentchancetoobserve (b)atleastonevictim thorough interview; S The Cognitive yieldsmore Interview infor- The post-training phaseconsistedof24 N Du events? Why hashypnosisbeenquestionedasameansofhelping eyewitnesses remember scene crime ixteen robbery detectivesfrom theMetro-ixteen robbery Understanding theCaseStudy re ext, thedetectiveswere dividedintotwo “(a) Eachcasewastobeserious r

ing theinitialphase, the16detectives available, ifnecessary, toconducta Answer the following questionsinthespaceprovided. untrained group. obtained 63percent more thanthe information trained anduntrained group, thetrained group obtained increased 115percent. one detectivetheamountofusefulinformation pared totheirpretraining interviews. In fact,for cent more aftertraining usefulinformation com- I 2. 1. Results (5), victims andwitnessesofcrime. the cognitiveinterview:Enhancingrecollectionofactual Source: accurate, detailedeyewitness accounts. enhancementasameansofobtaining memory r witnesses. The Cognitive process Interview can obtainedfrom eye-the amountofinformation arememories stored, cansignificantlyincrease which usespsychologists’ knowledge ofhow Conclusions of opinionorunrelated factswere ignored. number ofrelevant factsdiscovered. Statements group. wereThese interviews analyzed forthe from theuntrained nique and23interviews nterview process obtainedonaverage 47per- nterview eplace hypnosis and other speculative forms of eplace hypnosisandotherspeculativeforms 722–27. When comparison wasmadebetween the When comparison D group. pared from theuntrained tointerviews I same detectivewere assessed. I T Tr nterviews from thetrained groupnterviews were com- beforenterviews andaftertraining from the wo typesofresults were analyzed: Fisher, R.,Geiselman,&Amador, M. etectives whowere trained intheCognitive aining intheCognitive process, Interview Journal ofAppliedPsychology, 74 (1989). Fieldtestof (continued) 49 Name ______Date ______Class ______

2. What are the four principles of the Cognitive Interview?

3. What people made up the control group in this study?

4. Describe the two ways in which the data from the study were analyzed.

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided.

5. In the Cognitive Interview, the interviewer seeks to reconstruct the external, emotional, and cogni- tive conditions surrounding the event. Why are each of these important in remembering events? Co py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

6. The Cognitive Interview process yields more facts about events than standard police interview tech- niques. Further research has examined whether recall using the Cognitive Interview technique results in more incorrect facts. What would you expect the findings to be?

50 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Directions: N Language American m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame Sign READING R ead thefollowing selection,thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. This ideaofputtinganunknown objecttoa vidual soundpatternstoparticular meanings. words,’ explainedJusczyk. into soundpatternsandpick out individual ‘Babies needtobreakthatsentencedown times thannot,theyimbeditinasentence. teach theirchildrenaparticularword,more from meanings.Evenwhenparentstryto first yearlisteningtospeechsoundsdetached aren’t sleeping,infantsspend mostoftheir University ofNewYork-Buffalo. Whenthey chologist PeterJusczyk,PhD,oftheState ception developsfirstandfastest,sayspsy- language. It’s notsurprisingthatsoundper- develops fasterthananyotheraspectof terns oftheirnativelanguages.Thisability infants firstlearntodistinguishsoundpat- guage incrementally, researchersfindthat Sounding itOut languages becomemoredifficult. harder tolearninsuchsmallincrementsand But bypuberty, thebrain’s maturitymakesit dren’s languagelearning thatmakesiteasy. hypothesis, it’s the incrementalnatureofchil- nizing soundpatterns.Accordingtoone incremental, withthefirststepsimplyrecog- ma. They’refindingthatlanguagelearningis tion arebeginningtounderstandAlex’s dilem- pled withit? learn thelanguagesoeasilywhileAlexgrap- stand, letalonespeak,Arabic.Whydidshe lating forhimwhilehestruggledtounder- Middle East,his7-year-old sisterwastrans- rassments ofadultlife:Afteramonthinthe asecondlanguagemorelearning difficult. these smallbits. Instead itresponds towholethoughts, sentences, andideas. This makes small piecesiseasier. Asthebrain matures, in itlosesitsabilitytoprocess information sound patterns. Researchers asecondlanguageincrementally thatlearning theorize in r esearch andthenattachmeaningstothe soundpatterns suggeststhatinfantsfirstlearn Once thathappens,theycan relate indi- As evidenceofhowchildrenlearnlan- Psychologists studyinglanguageacquisi- At age15,Alexlearnedoneoftheembar- Why are children asecondlanguagemore abletolearn readily thanadults?Recent 11 and ‘Eliza.’ same soundpatternas‘Joshua,’ then‘Maria’ hear hisname,then‘Agatha,’ whichhasthe sound patterns.Forexample, Joshuawould their nameandtheothertwo withdifferent names—one withasimilarsoundpatternto infants alsoheardrecordingsofthreeother turned itsheadtowardthespeaker. The timed whetherandforhowlongthebaby infant’s namethroughaloudspeakerand their names,theresearchersplayedeach ing aforeignlanguage. their nativelanguagethantosomeonespeak- old infantslistenlongertosomeonespeaking recognizable sounds.Forexample,6-month- sounds, theylistentothemlongerthanless which findsthatwhenbabiesrecognize researchers reasoned. antecedents ofrelatingsoundtomeaning,the names mightprovideafirstcluetothe the ageatwhichinfantsrecognizetheir bly beoneofthefirstrecognized.Deciphering more thanmostotherwords,soitwillproba- their names.Babieshearownnames and-a-half-month-old infants’responsesto PhD, ofIndianaUniversityrecentlystudied4- student DeniseMandelandDavidPisoni, sound patternstomeaning,Jusczyk,graduate attach themtoobjectsintheenvironment. store wordpatternsinmemoryandeventually occurs, buthecontendsthatbabiesalso ested in. such aswords,tonameobjectsthey’reinter- tional viewthatbabieslearnsoundpatterns, known soundpatterniscontrarytothetradi- To They basedtheirstudyonpastresearch, To Jusczyk doesn’t denythatobject-naming

measure howlongbabieslistenedto study howbabieslearntogofrom Sound Patterns (continued) 51 Name ______Date ______Class ______

The infants listened longer to their own names Less is More than to any other name, even the ones with similar The critical learning period doesn’t end abruptly, sound patterns. ‘This finding suggests that 4-and-a- Newport said. Instead the ability to learn language half-month-olds have a rather detailed representation gradually declines as the brain matures. By late puber- of the sound patterns of their names,’ the researchers ty, everyone learns at about the same rate. concluded. Traditional neurobehavioral theory likens the This doesn’t mean they understand what their decline in learning to the winding down of a biological names mean, but it’s the first step, said Jusczyk. clock: The mechanism for language learning is at its ‘Infants as young as 4-and-a-half months of age are prime in young children and declines as they mature. learning to recognize sound patterns that will have a Newport’s theory examines the decline in learning special personal significance for them,’ he concluded. ability more as a difference in how children and adults Younger is Better approach learning. Research shows that children can only handle small bits of information at a time because These incremental steps to learning language may they have a more limited perspective than adults. make children better learners than adults, according to For example, when given novel information, such a theory developed by psychologist Elissa Newport, as signs from American Sign Language, children do PhD, of the University of Rochester. Because language poorly, often remembering only a piece of the sign— has many components, learning it in small pieces the hand shape, but not the hand movement or vice makes things easier, she reasons. versa. Adults, on the other hand, have a wide perspec- Her theory issued from work on the ‘critical peri- tive; they’re quite good at remembering whole signs, od’ theory of language learning: The idea that there’s a for example. finite period when children can easily learn language, In the case of language learning, Newport an idea based on anecdotal evidence that children believes that ‘less is more.’ Children’s limited perspec- learn foreign languages faster than adults. tive forces them to learn language in stages. To test the theory, Newport and colleague They acquire a few pieces at a time and learn Jacqueline Johnson, PhD, of the University of Virginia slowly how to put them together. This system works for studied Chinese subjects who had learned English as a learning language because language is composed of second language. The 44 subjects in the study differed many little parts. by the age they arrived in the United States (from 3 Adults, on the other hand, perceive all the pieces years old to 39 years old). None knew English before at once and have to find the organization within the big arriving, all had been living in the United States for no picture. Indeed, adults learn languages fast at first, less than five years and an average of 10 years, all had picking up lots of vocabulary and entire sentences at learned English by immersion in the culture and all had one time. attended American schools since their arrival. But they soon fizzle out, taking a long time to truly The researchers found that the younger people understand the organization of a foreign language. were when they arrived in the United States, the better Newport likens it to the tortoise and the hare: Children they scored on a language test designed by the

start out slowly, but far surpass adults over time. Co researchers. The correlation between language ability py

and age of arrival was as strong as that between height Source: Azar, B. (1996). Sound patterns: Learning language keys. ri and weight—one of the strongest correlations around, The APA Monitor, 27 (1), p. 20. ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. said Newport. ‘It’s clear that there is a superiority of children over adults in language learning,’ said Newport.

Understanding the Reading Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 1. What is the first task an infant faces in learning his or her native language?

(continued) 52 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2. 7. 6. Directions: 5. 4. 3. N m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame How and adultsexcel? Although children language, abilitytolearn do teens mayhaveasuperior atwhattypesoflearning shouldbegininhighschool. instruction Which viewdoyou support? Why? grade. Some peopleargue thatyoung children already haveenoughtolearn andsecondlanguage Y in alanguagestudy? NewportWhat didElissa andJacqueline Johnson concludefrom theirstudyofChineseparticipants oflanguagelearning? theory period What isthecritical patterns? What didJusczyk findaboutaninfant’s attentiontohisorherown namecompared toothersound T our school district is considering introducing children isconsidering our schooldistrict toasecondlanguagebeginninginthefirst hinking Critically

did Peter Jusczyk testinfants’ abilitiestorecognize theirown names? Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. 53 Name ______Date ______Class ______

CASE STUDY 11 Peacekeeping with Words Directions: Read the following case study, then answer the questions that follow.

president spoke forcefully for the need for improved educational opportunities. Noun/pronoun sequence: Bill Clinton addressed the media. He spoke forcefully for the need for improved educa- tional opportunities. Noun/zero anaphora (no noun or pronoun): Bill Clinton addressed the media and spoke forcefully for the need for improved educa- tional opportunities. Chinese uses the same strategies; however, zero anaphora is much more common in The United Nations Flag Chinese than in English. To see how Chinese speakers whose second language was English used their native language Increasingly, the United States, in conjunc- in understanding English, Healy and Tao devel- tion with the United Nations, sends peacekeep- oped a study using standard reading compre- ing troops around the globe. U.S. troops serve hension tests. Some tests were given intact; that alongside troops from other United Nations is, no modifications were made. Some tests were countries. Barriers to communication and altered using the zero anaphora strategy. Finally understanding are great. As a result, the U.S. some had changes to noun phrases and pro- Army has become keenly interested in foreign nouns that would be considered inappropriate language training. in both English and Chinese. The three versions of the tests were adminis- Hypothesis tered to both native English and native Chinese

Psychologist Alice Healy, Ph.D., along with speakers. Co

colleagues at the University of Colorado, is py ri working with the army using Results ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. to analyze how people learn a second language. Native Chinese speakers scored consistently Their hypothesis is that: “People use strategies lower on the intact and inappropriate versions. from their native language to process and under- However, they did significantly better on tests stand foreign language….” using the zero anaphora strategy. The findings seem to indicate that the Chinese speakers did Method for Testing Native Language transfer their native language skills to under- Strategies standing English. Healy and postgraduate assistant Liang Tao, The army can use these findings as they Ph.D., examined the use of pronouns and noun design foreign language training programs phrases to identify subjects in sentences. for troops who may be assigned for overseas Examples of common English phrasing include: postings.

Noun/noun phrase sequence: Source: Azar, B. (1995). Psycholinguistics helps keep the peace. Bill Clinton addressed the media. The The APA Monitor, 26 (5), p. 36.

54 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 6. 5. Directions: 4. 3. 2. 1. Directions: N m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame skills amongitstroops? What recommendations asitseekstoaddress wouldyou maketotheArmy itsneedsforlanguage keeping troops? forpeacekeepingtroops tobeablecommunicateclearlywithotherpeace- Why isitimportant What were theresults oftheHealy/Tao study? What three commonsubjectidentifierstrategies are usedinbothEnglishandChinese? What isAliceHealy’s asecondlanguage? hypothesisaboutthewaypeoplelearn Why istheUnited States interested Army inforeign languagetraining? Understanding theCaseStudy T hinking Critically Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. 55 Name ______Date ______Class ______

READING 12 The Excited Brain Directions: Read the following selection, then answer the questions that follow.

When you do not get enough sleep, what happens to your ? Do you lack the energy and drive to care about what is happening around you? Psychologists and other scientists are discovering that our moods are largely regulated by chemical activity in the brain. Sleep deprivation affects the levels of these chemicals and reduces our motivation.

The neuroscience of is still in a fairly the limbic system, which is sometimes called the emo- early stage of development. For thousands of years, tional brain. This is because we must be wired not only people have been thinking about what sorts of things to react quickly to challenge in a purely mechanical make us feel happy or unhappy, elated or depressed. way but also to be motivated emotionally to face chal- While it is not known exactly how sleep and sleep debt lenges. The reticular activating system sets the emo- help the brain create good feelings and bad, we are tional brain on edge, as when runners ready to start learning how the brain puts itself in an “up” mood and a race get down on their hands and the balls of their how addictive drugs create a “high” by stimulating the feet. The activating system doesn’t so much create brain’s pleasure centers. We also have a simple model feelings as set an emotional tone for any stimulus that of how the brain becomes activated and fully con- filters into our brain. scious during waking and dreaming activity. What we The activity of the limbic system is like the back- have found is that the biochemistry of wakefulness and ground music in a movie. The screen shows someone sleep is intimately tied in with the state of the emotion- creeping down a hallway at night toward a closed al part of the brain. The waking brain naturally excites door. If the background music is tense, perhaps in a and primes itself for vital with the external minor key, with a few discordant notes thrown in, we world, while the sleep-deprived brain suppresses that interpret the scene as suspenseful and feel anxious natural buoyancy by damping the brain’s neurochemi- about what might lie behind the door. If the music is cal activity. bouncy and jovial, like something out of an old Charlie A brain circuit called the reticular activating sys- Chaplin movie, we interpret the same scene quite dif- tem plays a major role in arousal. It is highly likely that ferently. We are prepared for humor and might imagine the biological clock operates on this system to wake the doorknob coming off when the person tries to open up the brain and keep it awake. The reticular activating the door. If a monster does pop from behind the door,

system is a small collection of nerves that originates we might think “What a silly monster suit.” Co

deep in the brain stem, the most ancient and primitive Now consider the movie that constantly plays in py ri

part of the brain. A relatively few cells in the brain your head—the images of the world around you that ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. stem reach out and touch nearly every cell in the sensory stimulation tells you is “reality.” The nerve brain. These cells carry neurotransmitters, that relay cells sprouting out of the base of the brain are creating activating signals from the reticular activating system. the mood music inside you by acting directly on all the These neurotransmitters are norepinephrine, dopamine, other brain cells, making them more or less reactive to and acetylcholine. Norepinephrine is one of the key the scenes that are coming in from the outside world. neurotransmitters for arousal, acting as the brain’s When we get a good night of sleep, and the reticular form of adrenaline. Dopamine is known to be involved activating system is priming the emotional brain prop- in body movement and pleasure. Acetylcholine also erly, our norepinephrine and dopamine infusions cre- acts as a prime arousal chemical and is known to be ate a positive, energetic “background music.” The important in carrying signals concerning muscle move- result is a feeling of mental and physical energy we ments. Another neurotransmitter, serotonin, also has a call vitality and an internal psychological push called strong effect on mood. motivation. Without them we get depressed. (I should These excitatory neurochemicals prepare the note that clinical depression is very different from feel- brain’s 100 billion nerve cells to react more quickly. ing low or down. In clinical depression, the brain’s nat- It is also no surprise that they interface closely with ural biochemistry is seriously altered.)

(continued) 56 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. tional ormentallychallengingsituations.Theincreased the reasonwefeelmentalfatiguewhenfaceemo- adenosine concentrationinthebrainmaybepartof activity sothatitdoesn’t runtoofast.Increasing adenosine actsasanaturalgovernor, reininginbrain adenosine ispresentinthebrain.Thissurplusof the brainisveryactiveandusingalotofenergy, more energy source,adenosinetriphosphate,orATP. When that resultswhenthebrainbreaksdownitsprimary nisms isadenosine.Adenosineoneofthemolecules and uncockingthehammerinemotionalbrain. to stimuli,slowingtherateofinformationprocessing, GABA receptormakesanervecellmuchlessreactive benzodiazepine sleepingpillsacton.Anactivated in thebrainisGABA,receptorthatalcoholand brakes. Themostwidelydistributednervecellreceptor nerve cellsandneurotransmittersactasthebrain’s smoothly astheyshould.You feeldown. alerting isimpaired.Your thoughtsdon’t flowas neurotransmitters. Whennerveactivityisdecreased, tion maypreventthebrainfromreplacinglost are lost.Bykeepingbrainactivityhigh,sleepdepriva- cells. Somearerecycledbackintothecellandothers the day, neurotransmittersarereleasedfromnerve tory neurotransmittersinthebrain.Overcourseof mood isthatsleepsomehowreplenishestheseexcita- N 4. 3. 2. 1. Directions m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame Another ofthebrain’s primarybrakingmecha- To One majorhypothesisabouthowsleepaffects What isthe “emotional brain” andwhatdoesitdo? How Which neurotransmitters control motivation? ofthebrainWhat part playsamajorrole inmotivation? Understanding theReading

counterbalance thebrain’s accelerators,other

do the excitatory neurochemicals affectmotivation?do theexcitatory : Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. increases. We feelaliveagain. Dopamine andnorepinephrinereleaseinthebrain dust withamatch.We havetofallasleep. need tostayawake—it’s liketryingtolightwetsaw- tal trickwillstimulatebrainactivityintheareaswe the brain’s sleep drive triumphs.Atsomepointnomen- harder, andgiveourselvesapeptalk,buteventually counteract thiswecanwalkaround,concentrate al brainmakesusfeellessvital,motivated.To in thought;andquenchingnerveactivitytheemotion- of nerveactivityinthecerebralcortexmakesusslow motor areasmakesuslesscoordinated;thedampening act, think,andfeel.The by thisbrakingaction,theeffectsshowupinhowwe brain. Asvariousareasofthebrainaresloweddown and dampeningsystemsarefightingforcontrolofthe reticular activatingsystem,asifthenerveexcitatory cuits ofthebraindampdownstimulation more timeweareawake,theinhibitorycir- mechanism, therebylinkingsleepinessandmood.The actively suppressesbrainactivitythroughthisbraking then depressesbrainactivity. brain activitymaycreatealotoffreeadenosine,which New York: Delacorte Press,pp.278–281. Source: After wesleep,thebrakesareoffagain. One schoolofthoughtholdsthatthesleepdrive Dement, W.C., &Vaughan, C. dampening ofnerveactivity (1999). The PromiseofSleep (continued) . 57 Name ______Date ______Class ______

5. What is one hypothesis of how sleep affects our moods?

6. What are the two primary receptors that slow activity in the brain?

7. As nerve activity slows in the limbic system, how do we feel?

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided.

8. You are on the track team at your school. The state championships are being held on Saturday. Your coach insists that the entire team get a good night’s sleep on Friday. The coach has even asked the team members’ parents to set a 10 P.M. curfew for this Friday night. You and your date had planned to go to the late movie on Friday, but you know that if you are caught breaking curfew, you will not be allowed to compete. Why do you think your coach is insisting on the curfew? What should you do?

9. Does this biological explanation of motivation contradict the other theories of motivation discussed in your textbook? Why or why not? Co py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

10. Recall the last time you were in a bad mood. How much sleep did you get the night before? Did your mood become worse as you became more tired? Do you think there was a correlation between sleep and your mood in that instance? Explain.

58 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. of the innate signal and the learned display of theinnatesignaland learned early childhood. The actual expression isaresult during culturally learned accepteddisplayrules innate signalforthefacial expression andthe processed, thesignalisfiltered through boththe Differences Between Cultures displayrules.American marked differences between Japanese and widely amongcultures. Specifically, there are expressions are made. vary These displayrules within theculture affecthow andwhenthese are usedforthesevenemotions, display rules H all peopleregardless ofrace, culture, orgender. sions are tobebiologicallyinnatein theorized ness, sadness, andsurprise. These facialexpres- r tures makethesamebasicfacialexpressions in facial expressions ofemotion.People across cul- differences.noted somestriking Along withthosesimilarities, researchers have facial expressions andJapanese. ofAmericans example, existbetween the manysimilarities anddifferencessimilarities amongcultures. For tures. Studies offacialexpressions havenoted emotional expressions ofpeoplefrom othercul- P Directions: N eaction toanger, contempt,disgust, fear, happi- eople from oneculture maymisunderstandthe m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame ypothesis When anemotionissenttothebrain tobe Although thesamebasicfacialexpressions R Emotions are expressed ofways. inavariety esearch hasidentifiedsevenuniversal AESTUDY CASE R ead thefollowing casestudy, thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. 12 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. five ways: r sadness, andanger. This findingcontinuesto facial expressions, whichincludedfear, disgust, and Japanese exhibitedthesame participants Results participant. was intheroom witheach status experimenter stressful filmsagain,butthistimeahigher- In viewed thevideotapesalone.series, participants videotaped withouttheirknowledge. In thefirst forceps. The participants’ facialexpressions were with including anamputationandachildbirth asked toviewextreme stress-inducing films participants. In thestudy, were theparticipants W Method ules. Cultures mayaffecttheinnatesignalin allace Friesen andJapanese usedAmerican

the second series, participants viewed the the secondseries, participants of theexpressions atthesametime. B ing somethingdifferent thanwhatyou feel. M showing more emotionthanwhatisfelt. Amplify theexpression, whichresults in no facialexpression evenwhenoneisfelt. N showing lessemotionthanisfelt. D Du A studyconductedby Paul Ekmanand lend expressions, whichmixestwoormore eutralize theexpression, whichresults in eamplify theexpression, whichresults in ask theexpression, whichresults inshow- r ing the first series, both American ing thefirstseries, bothAmerican F acial Expressions (continued) 59 Name ______Date ______Class ______support the findings that there are universal Conclusions expressions. The Americans had no culturally based During the second series, the presence of the display rule that was affected by the presence of experimenter had no effect on the facial expres- the experimenter. The Japanese participants sions of the American participants. The Japanese were reacting to the culturally based display rule participants, however, either displayed no emo- that negative emotions are not shown in the tion or smiled. These responses not only differed presence of someone of higher status. This dis- from their American counterparts, they were play rule caused them to mask their facial totally different from their initial responses to expressions. the same films. Source: Matsumoto, D. (1996). Unmasking Japan: Myths and Realities About the Emotions of the Japanese. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Understanding the Case Study Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 1. What has research indicated are the seven universal facial expressions of emotion?

2. How do researchers believe we acquire these seven universal facial expressions?

3. If there are universal facial expressions, what causes differences in the way emotions are expressed?

4. Identify two of the five display rules. Co py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5. According to this experiment, what difference exists between the way in which Americans and Japanese express emotions?

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper.

6. What display rules do Americans have? 7. How are display rules, like the Japanese rule in the study, formed?

60 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. university fullofpeoplewhocan onlystudyisn’t all enough creative,originalminds,” hesays.“Havinga Japan today. Societyhaslostitsvitality, wedon’t have on theOAsystem. University, whichnowadmits10percent ofitsstudents academic affairsatTokyo’s prestigious Waseda knowledge-oriented,” saysHikotaKoguchi,deanof just beanewemphasisonqualityoverequality. cators saythattheanswertoJapan’s problemsmay But inasignofthedepthchangesahead,edu- could threatenJapan’s highlyvaluedegalitarianism. increasing numbersofreluctant,rebelliousstudents. Japan, nowburdenedbyrecessionandtroubled argue, wouldbeacrucialsteptowardreinvigorating cation, endingthefocusonrotelearning.This,they sis oncollege-entranceexamswillchangeK–12edu- say, forthecountry. Advocatessay diminished empha- sea changefortheeducationsystemand,observers American schoolsdo. tions, aswelltheirexamgrades,muchtheway based onextracurricularactivitiesandrecommenda- admissions” (OA)systemthatevaluatesstudents of Education’s backing, theyareintroducingan“office worth intermsofexamgradesalone.WiththeMinistry reconsidering theirpracticeofmeasuringastudent’s tunities downtheroad. dent canattend.That,inturn,oftenshapesjoboppor- to thedecimalpoint—determinewhatcollegeastu- tion here.Gradesfromthosetests—calculateddown entrance examsthatareafocalpointofK-12educa- dents nationwidemustdotopasstheuniversity Directions: N universities. J school dayhasended. The pressure todowell ontheentrance examsisimmense. Anewpolicyamong additional preparation fortheexams. These many parents sendtheirchildren tospecial their score collegeentrance onrigorous exams. High schools prepare students fortheseexams, and apanese collegesanduniversities, however, maychangethe waystudentsare admittedtocollegesand m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame “You canseeitinthebureaucraticquality of “Until now, Japaneseeducationhasalways been Critics chargethattheendofentranceexams The shiftawayfromentranceexamsrepresentsa But recently, someJapanesecollegeshavebeen This studyingmarathoniswhathighschoolstu- Japan’s “examhell”mightjustbecoolingdown. In

J apan students have traditionally earned the right toattendspecificcollegesanduniversitiesbyapan studentshavetraditionally theright earned READING R ead thefollowing selection,thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. juku juku 13 , whichare after-school programs designedtoprovide sessions canlastuptofourhoursaftertheregular dumb downeducation,thatthe rigorousstandardsof people nervous.Criticsargue thattheOAsystemwill creative approachtoeducation.” sities arefocusedonexams, they can’t adoptamore complaints fromhighschoolsthatbecausetheuniver- schools tochangetoo,”saysMr. Noie.“We oftenhear learning islargelytherule.“Thisawayforhigh create adominoeffectinK-12education,whererote an evil,we’rejustsayingit’s noteverything.” ative students.We’re notsayingtheentrance exam is “[The OAsystem]isawaytofindmoremotivated,cre- head oftheministry’s entranceexamdepartment. tial studentshaveaftertheyenter,” saysAkiraNoie, say theshiftwillyieldbenefits. percentage ofadmissions—educationministryofficials selectively—in afewfacultiesoronlyforcertain lic universitieswillfollowsuit. system sincethen.Nextyear, threewell-regardedpub- other privateuniversitieshavepartiallyadoptedtheOA admitting somestudentsontheOAsystem.Seven business. sumers meanschoolshavetomakechangesattract more competitiveindustrythesedays.Fewercon- Japan’s declining birthrateismakingeducationa the onlyobjectivewaytojudgecandidates.But potential students,fromrecommendationstoexams. urging themtousevariousmeasuresevaluate has beensendingguidelinestothecountry’s colleges, exams. Indeed,since1967theMinistryofEducation sis onegalitarianism,there’s nofutureforJapan.” that goodanymore.Unlesswecorrecttheoverempha- But strayingfromthetriedand truemakessome The ministryexpectsthecollege-levelchangesto “A writtenexamdoesn’t tell aschoolwhatpoten- While theseschoolsareonlyusingtheOAsystem In 1990,Tokyo’s blue-chipKeioUniversitybegan The schoolshavealwaysinsistedthatexamsare Colleges aren’t legallyrequiredtoholdentrance Admissions Policies Japanese College Change in (continued) 61 Name ______Date ______Class ______

Japanese schools will slide if more “creative” teach- addition to good grades. Students who have to work ing is introduced. part time for financial reasons will suffer from “oppor- “There are many cases where not-very-smart stu- tunity discrimination,” he says, as they won’t be able to dents are being accepted at top-ranking universities volunteer the way other students will. these days,” wrote prep school teacher Hiroshi Yamada Students themselves have none of these misgiv- in an opinion piece in last month’s Sapio magazine. ings. “Universities should definitely look at students’ “This recommendation system will make things worse.” abilities, not just their marks,” says Maiko Kitagawa, a An employee at one of Japan’s ubiquitous prep high school junior in Tokyo. “I just hate it when I see schools, or juku, Mr. Yamada teaches kids whose par- older friends endlessly cramming for the entrance ents send them to prep school after their normal exams.” school day is done. At Tsukuba University, one of the national universi- The added hours of nighttime and weekend study ties that will begin using the OA system next year, the are supposed to give them an edge—although juku vary mood is upbeat. “People are all different,” says widely in quality and wealthier parents can afford better Makoto Natori, vice president of academic affairs. schools. Fewer entrance exams mean fewer juku. “We can’t apply one fixed measurement to everybody.” Others argue the end of entrance exams will cre- He argues that the OA system will allow students ate rents in Japan’s social fabric. “We have to remem- to rediscover the love of learning after years of study- ber that there are some areas that were meant to be ing simply to make the grade. “We want students with equal, and the exam system is one of them,” social enthusiasm, students who can think on their own,” he critic Tetsuya Miyazaki writes in the February issue of says. “That’s what Japan needs right now.” Shukan Bunshun magazine. Source: Gaouette, N. (1999, March 2). Judging kids on more than Mr. Miyazaki argues that some students will suffer exams. Christian Science Monitor, 91 (65), 16. if schools start to look for extracurricular activities in

Understanding the Reading Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. 1. Why is a good score on the college entrance exams so important to Japanese students? 2. What does Hikota Koguchi, dean of academic affairs at Waseda University, claim is the problem with the current entrance exam system? 3. What new system is being used by some colleges and universities? 4. Why are critics nervous about changing the system? Co

5. How does Tetsuya Miyazaki think the new system will create “opportunity discrimination”? py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. 6. Why are the Japanese college entrance exams a form of egalitarianism? 7. Compare and contrast the Japanese college entrance exam system and the United States system for college admissions. Use a graphic organizer similar to the one below to organize your information.

Japanese U.S. system system

Both

62 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. as researchers andpsychologists. understand intelligenceinmuchthesameway peoplerecognizesame terms, everyday and And althoughtheymaynotexpress itinthe unintelligent person.Astatisticaltechnique anintelligentor ideally thebehaviordescribed the 250behaviors. Ratings were basedonhow we ple responding toanewspaperadvertisement unintelligence. To refine further thelist,28peo- and80described 170 described gence, orunintelligence. gence, academicintelligence, intelli- everyday them tolistbehaviorsthatcharacterized intelli- ablanksheetofpaperandasking participants markets. involvedgivingthe Oneexperiment super- way towork, andhomemakersentering dents studyingatalibrary, commutersontheir 476 menandwomen. The studyincludedstu- Method H and explainintelligence. r , hasconductedextensive S good ideaofwhatintelligenceis. Robert input from theexperts, mostpeoplealsohavea to explainthenature ofintelligence. Without gence is. uselong,expansivedefinitions Experts Directions: N esearch intohow peoplerecognize everyday ternberg, whodevelopedthetriarchicternberg, modelof m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame ypothesis re M A listof250distinctbehaviorswascompiled; P Ev

ersonal interviews wereersonal interviews conductedwith selected torate ona10-pointscaleeachof AESTUDY CASE ost peoplethinktheyknow whatintelli- eryday peopleknoweryday whatintelligenceis. R ead thefollowing casestudy, thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. 13 everyday slant.”everyday for intelligenceingeneral buthad more of an intelligence were somewhatlesssimilartothose changed. importance The facetsforeveryday for intelligence, except thattheirordering of academic intelligencewere almostthesameas in order ofperceived importance. The facetsfor ter, andinterest andculture—again inlearning lem-solving ability, socialcompetence, charac- intelligencewerefor everyday practical prob- lem-solving ability, andsocialcompetence, and academic intelligencewere verbalability, prob- and socialcompetence. Comparable facetsfor practical problem-solving ability, verbalability, (in descendingorder ofperceived importance) ligence ashavingthree facets, whichwe labeled Results characteristics. final listintoafewprimary known asfactoranalysiswasusedtorefine the theory ofhumanintelligence. Source: common senseintheconductofourlives.” tests measure, competenceand suchaseveryday our society, which includesalotmore thanIQ ofwhatpeople meanbyonly part intelligencein hand, whatpsychologists studycorresponds to psychology meanby intelligence. On theother spond generally towhatpeople untrained in chologists meanby intelligenceseemstocorre- clear.is surprisingly Onthewhole, whatpsy- between theviewsofscientistsandnonscientists Conclusions “I “O Sternberg, RobertJ. t turned outthatpeopleconceivedofintel- t turned ur studyshowed thattheresemblance W ho IsIntelligent? (1988). New York: Viking. The triarchicmind:Anew (continued) 63 Name ______Date ______Class ______

Understanding the Case Study Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 1. Does the author believe that only experts can recognize intelligence? Explain.

2. How did the author test his hypothesis?

3. What three facets did the participants attribute to intelligence?

4. What facets of everyday intelligence were identified?

5. Did the author find that researchers or everyday people had the broader view of what constitutes intelligence? What is the broader view? Co py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 6. What kind of test could you design to evaluate a person’s everyday intelligence?

7. Further studies indicated that students placed more value on academic intelligence as a part of gen- eral intelligence than working people did. Why do you think this happened?

64 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Investors once contenttobuystocksandhold them most vividmanifestationofthis newnationalbehavior. climbing, skateboardingandparagliding ismerelythe extreme sportslikeBASEjumping, snowboarding,ice thrill seekingandrisktaking. The riseofadventureand lennium, Americahasembarked onanationalorgyof than weknoworcaretoadmit.Headingintothemil- seems, wemayallhavemoreincommonwithhim fit withourtimes.AsextremearisktakerasMcGuire safety behindtoleapintothevoid—maybeaperfect isn’t time.Therearenosecond chances. malfunctions, don’t botherreaching forareserve—there get intoiteveryday. a thousandjumpersintheU.S.andmoreseekingto the sporthasneverbeenmorepopular, withmorethan 18-year history, 46participantshavebeenkilled.Yet one ofthesportingworld’s highestfatalityrates:inits antenna, span(bridge)andearth(cliffs)—jumpinghas of allextremesports.BASE—anacronymforbuilding, another BASEjump. cry ofdefiance,thanksandvictory;hehassurvived way, pasteventhehawkswhocircleravine.Itisa the dam,pastcommutersputteringbyonroad- whoop thatrisespastthosemortalsstillperchedon clearly audibleabovetherushingwater, letsoutawar along thecreek.Hehurriedlypackshischuteandthen, winding creek.Whenhelands,isaspeckonpath is soaring,carvingSturnsintotheair, swoopingovera cheting throughthegorgelikeagunshot,andMcGuire cold concrete.Thechutesnapsopen,thesoundrico- handy andthatnoillwindwillslamhimbackintothe his canopywon’t collapse,thathistoggleswillbe his parachutewillopenfacingawayfromthedam,that onds and137ft.heisflyingat65m.p.h.Hepraysthat falls 16ft.,intwoseconds63andafterthreesec- crete daminNorthernCalifornia.Inonesecondhe And ChanceMcGuire,25,isairborneoffa650-ft.con- Directions: N create suchdifferences? ers, whiletheJapanese averse. tendtoberisk Doenvironmental differences orinnatepersonalitytraits characteristics. Psychologist Frank Farley, forexample, tak- tendtoberisk hasproposed thatAmericans between people. Some psychologists alsoexplore whethergroups ofpeopleshare commonpersonality his orherlifeandanotherpersonunwillingtoleavehome?Researchers toexplainsuchdifferences try m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame Still, thesport’s starkmetaphor—ahumanleaving It isanactivitywithoutmarginforerror. Ifyourchute McGuire isapractitionerofwhathecallstheking FIVE. ..FOUR.THREE..TWO..ONE..SEEYA!” P ersonality theorists exploreersonality theorists how peopleconducttheirlives. What makesonepersonwillingtorisk READING R ead thefollowing selection,thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. 14 been insteady declinethroughoutthe90’s. baseball, touchfootballandaerobics, allofwhichhave play withdanger. Contrastthatwithactivities like sport—the growthcurvesreveal anationthatlovesto boarding, scubadiving,youname theadventure nearly 5.5millionparticipants. Mountainbiking,skate- boarding hasgrown113%infiveyearsandnowboasts pation inso-calledextremesportsiswayup.Snow- to AmericanSportsDataInc.,aconsultingfirm,partici- sense ofpushingoutpersonalboundaries.According weekend warriorsandprofessionalathletesalikea edge, wheredanger, skillandfearcombinetogive participate inactivitiesclosertothemetaphorical an eagernessonthepartofmillionsAmericansto unfelt sincethepostwarera. are actingoutoursuccessasanation,inmanner alities, oursenseofourselves.Perhapsweasapeople ity athome,wecouldbeseekingtoupsizeourperson- decade ofAmericantriumphalismabroadandprosper- express someinveterateneedtotakerisks. major groundwar—maybewhatcausesAmericansto dented prosperityandalmostadecadewithout these thingstohappen.”Thatenvironment—unprece- of Risk. best-selling Bernstein, aneconomicconsultantandauthorofthe about themarketthananyoneelse,”saysPeter trading, andpeoplereallythinkingtheyknowmore people spendmoney, changejobs,thequitrate,day in waystheydidn’t behaveinothertimes—theway period ofprosperityhasencouragedpeopletobehave firms, upfrom12%justfouryearsago.“Theextended graduates arejoiningventure-capitalorhigh-tech missed asjustplainstupid.. have shunnedandourgrandparentswoulddis- take forgranted,weengageinrisksourparentswould volatile careersofrisktaking..Inwaysmanyus quit theirdayjobstobecometraders,making The risingpopularityofextremesportsbespeaks There isacertainlogictoit:attheendof A full30%ofthisyear’s HarvardBusinessSchool T “It takesaparticularkindofenvironmentforall ype TPersonalities Against theGods:TheRemarkableStory (continued) 65 Name ______Date ______Class ______

The pursuits that are becoming more popular have your parents; smallpox, measles and polio have virtual- one thing in common: the perception that they are ly been eradicated. somehow more challenging than a game of touch foot- Combat survivors speak of the terror and the ball. “Every human being with two legs, two arms is excitement of playing in a death match. Are we some- going to wonder how fast, how strong, how enduring how incomplete as people if we do not taste that terror he or she is,” says Eric Perlman, a mountaineer and and excitement on the brink? “People are [taking risks] filmmaker specializing in extreme sports. “We are because everyday risk is minimized and people want to designed to experiment or die.” be challenged,” says Joy Marr, 43, an adventure racer And to get hurt. More Americans than ever are who was the only woman member of a five-person injuring themselves while pushing their personal limits. team that finished the 1998 Raid Gauloises, the grand- In 1997 the U.S. Consumer Products Safety daddy of all adventure races. This is a sport that Commission reported that 48,000 Americans were requires several days of nonstop slogging, climbing, admitted to hospital emergency rooms with skate- rappelling, rafting and surviving through some of the boarding-related injuries. That’s 33% more than the roughest terrain in the world. Says fellow adventure previous year. Snowboarding E.R. visits were up 31%; racer and former Army Ranger Jonathon Senk, 35: mountain climbing up 20%. By every statistical meas- “Our society is so surgically sterile. It’s almost like our ure available, Americans are participating in and injur- socialization just desensitizes us. Every time I’m out ing themselves through adventure sports at an doing this I’m searching my soul. It’s the Lewis and unprecedented rate. Clark gene, to venture out, to find what your limitations Consider Mike Carr, an environmental engineer are.”… and paraglider pilot from Denver who last year sur- Psychologist Frank Farley of Temple University vived a bad landing that smashed 10 ribs and collapsed believes that taking conscious risk involves overcom- his lung. Paraglider pilots use feathery nylon wings to ing our instincts. He points out that no other animal take off from mountaintops and float on thermal wind intentionally puts itself in peril. “The human race is currents—a completely unpredictable ride. Carr also particularly risk taking compared with other species,” mountain bikes and climbs rock faces. He walked he says. He describes risk takers as the Type T person- away from a 1,500-ft. fall in Peru in 1988. After his ality, and the U.S. as a Type T nation, as opposed to recovery, he returned to paragliding. “This has taken what Farley considers more risk-averse nations like over many of our lives,” he explains. “You float like a Japan. He breaks it down further, into Type T physical bird out there. You can go as high as 18,000 ft. and go (extreme athletes) and Type T intellectual (Albert for 200 miles. That’s magic.” Einstein, Galileo). He warns there is also Type T nega- America has always been defined by risk; it may tive, that is, those who are drawn to delinquency, be our predominant national characteristic. It’s a coun- crime, experimentation with drugs, unprotected sex try founded by risk takers fed up with the English and a whole litany of destructive behaviors. Crown and expanded by pioneers—a word that seems All these Type T’s are related, and perhaps even utterly American. Our heritage throws up heroes— different aspects of the same character trait. There is, Lewis and Clark, Thomas Edison, Frederick Douglass, says Farley, a direct link between Einstein and base Teddy Roosevelt, Henry Ford, Amelia Earhart—who jumper Chance McGuire. They are different manifesta- Co py

bucked the odds, taking perilous chances. tions of the thrill-seeking component of our characters: ri Previous generations didn’t need to seek out risk; Einstein was thrilled by his mental life, and McGuire— ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. it showed up uninvited and regularly: global wars, well, Chance jumps off buildings . . . . childbirth complications, diseases and pandemics from The question is, How much is enough? Without the flu to polio, dangerous products and even the some expression of risk, we may never know our limits omnipresent cold war threat of mutually assured and therefore who we are as individuals. “If you don’t destruction. “I just don’t think extreme sports would assume a certain amount of risk,” says paraglider pilot have been popular in a ground-war era,” says Dan Wade Ellet, 51, “you’re missing a certain amount of Cady, professor of popular culture at California State life.” And it is by taking risks that we may flirt with University at Fullerton. “Coming back from a war and greatness. “We create technologies, we make new getting onto a skateboard would not seem so discoveries, but in order to do that, we have to push extreme.” beyond the set of rules that are governing us at that But for recent generations, many of those tradi- time,” says psychologist Farley. tional risks have been reduced by science, govern- ment or legions of personal injury lawyers, leaving Source: Greenfeld, K.T. (1999, September 6). Life on the edge. Time, boomers and Generation X and Y to face less real risk. 29–36. Life expectancy has increased. Violent crime is down. You are 57% less likely to die of heart disease than (continued) 66 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8. 7. 6. Directions: 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Directions: N m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame Do you agree withFarley’s view?Defend your position. ofpersonalitycharacteristics? Indeterminant whatways? Does Frank Farley’s theviewthatenvironment istheprimary orundermine hypothesis support whenother animalsdonot? Why dohumanstakeintentional risks How How What explanationsare givenfortheincreased ofextreme popularity sports? N claimisournewnationalbehavior? What doesthewriter Understanding theReading T ame three are waysinwhichAmericans expressing thisnationalbehavior. hinking Critically

does Frank Farley characterize the Type T personality? have risks beenreduced lives? have risks inoureveryday Answer the following questionsonaseparate sheetofpaper. Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. 67 Name ______Date ______Class ______

Can Personality CASE STUDY 14 Traits Predict Adult Career Success? Directions: Read the following case study, then answer the questions that follow.

Introduction Method A longitudinal study conducted over 70 years Researchers used the intergenerational stud- explored the relationship between personality ies, a set of three studies that followed partici- traits using the five-factor model of personality pants from early childhood to retirement. The (“Big Five”) and general mental ability with Institute of Human Development at the career success. For the purposes of the study, University of California, Berkeley administered two aspects of career success were considered: the studies. The sample was drawn from two of intrinsic success (job satisfaction) and extrinsic the studies. The first enrolled 318 children from success (income and occupational status). Berkeley who were born between January 1928 The dimensions of the five-factor model and July 1929. The second study began in 1931 include neuroticism, extroversion, openness to with 212 children seven to nine years old. experience, agreeableness, and conscientious- The studies continued to gather information ness. Neuroticism involves six facets: anxiety, from the sample for more than 60 years. During hostility, depression, self-consciousness, vulner- their childhood, study participants had many ability, and impulsiveness. Extroversion involves measurements taken through medical examina- sociability and is related to the experience of tions, strength tests, and extensive interviews by positive emotions. Conscientiousness includes trained psychologists. Many of these measure- three related facets: achievement orientation, ments were collected several times throughout dependability, and orderliness. Openness to the person’s childhood. experience is characterized by intelligence and Researchers conducted three major follow-up unconventionality. Agreeableness is being trust- studies when participants were ages 30–38, ing of others and likeable. 41–50, and 53–62. There was also a follow-up mail survey completed in 1990 when participants Hypotheses were 61–70. The psychologists conducting the study to The study explored several hypotheses in compare personality to career success were not measuring intrinsic and extrinsic career success. the researchers involved in the intergenerational Co

The primary hypotheses are as follows: py study. As frequently happens with longitudinal ri ■ Neuroticism will be negatively related to studies, researchers make the data available to ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. intrinsic and extrinsic career success. other psychologists for analysis. Since the inter- ■ Extroversion will be positively related to generational study collected so much informa- intrinsic and extrinsic career success. tion, the personality researchers could make reliable and valid analyses based on the data. ■ Conscientiousness will be positively related to extrinsic career success. Results ■ Personality measures collected in adulthood will explain more variance in career success Results indicated that neuroticism was sig- than will childhood measures. nificantly negatively correlated with job satisfac- tion (intrinsic career success), while openness ■ General mental ability will be positively to experience, conscientiousness, and general related to extrinsic career success. mental ability were significantly positively corre- ■ Personality will explain incremental variance lated with job satisfaction. in career success beyond that explained by Neuroticism is negatively correlated to general mental ability. intrinsic and extrinsic career success. Individuals

(continued) 68 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. will childhoodmeasures. In fact,thestudyshows will explainmore incareer variance successthan that personalitymeasures collectedinadulthood explained by general mentalability. incareermental variance successbeyond that the Big Five traits explainedsignificantincre- most consistentresult. conscientiousness andjobsatisfactionwasthe r correlated. In anunhypothesized effect, and income/occupationalstatuswere positively career(intrinsic success). between extroversion andjobsatisfaction sic career success, butnocorrelation wasfound E career supported. successwasonlypartially positively correlated andextrinsic tointrinsic tional level. affect bothjobsatisfactionandincome/occupa- overtors carry intotheirwork environment and events andtohavebadmoodslinger. These fac- likely tobeespeciallyaffectedby negativelife and physicalsymptoms. Neurotic individualsare ative moods, anxiety, fear, depression, irritability, ofproblems, avariety experience includingneg- who score highonneuroticism are more likelyto N 3. 2. 1. Directions: esearchers foundthatthecorrelation between xtroversion waspositivelycorrelated toextrin- m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame The study did not support thehypothesis The studydidnotsupport The results thehypothesisthat alsosupport R The secondhypothesisthatextroversion is What were theresearchers’ hypotheses? What twoareas ofcareer successwere studied? How Understanding theCaseStudy esearchers foundthatconscientiousness

many participants weremany participants enrolled inthestudy? Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. ableness wastheleaststableoffivetraits. scientiousness wasthemoststable, whileagree- r that mostoftheBig Five personalityfactorsare to beemployed injobsinvolvingphysicalactivity. high ontheneuroticism factorwere mostlikely r but theystayed awayfrom conventional,rule- tended togravitate toward investigative jobs, who rated highingeneral mentalabilityalso thinking, organizing, andunderstanding. Those to investigativejobsandthosethatrequire C and jobshighininterpersonalactivities. tendedtogravitateverts toward socialjobs personality types, thestudyshowed thatextro- sonality measures. to predict career successusingchildhoodper- traits are relatively stableover time, itispossible careerextrinsic success. Since thepersonality between personalitytraits and andintrinsic ticular career traits pathsandparticular and Conclusions span. traits, generalmentalability, andcareersuccessacrossthelife Source: elatively stableover time. Ofthefivefactors, con- egulated jobs. Study whoranked participants onscientious individualstendedtobeattracted In R Personnel Psychology, 52(3), esults indicateacorrelation between par- Judge, T.A., &Higgins,C.A.

terms ofcareerterms pathschosenby different 621–52. (1999). Thebigfivepersonality 69 Name ______Date ______Class ______

4. Which hypotheses were not supported by the findings of the study?

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided.

5. Is it important to try to match personality, mental ability, and career path? Why or why not?

6. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages to job candidates if a company uses personality test Co

results as hiring or promotion criteria. py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

70 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. even whenothermattersshould bemorepressing; child’s worrisomeillness. ing adrawn-outmaritalfight, dothetaxesdespitea some ongoingsituationofthreat: carryonatworkdur- have tocontinuewithlifeasusual whiledealingwith modern liferarelyallowforthatoption.Mostoftenwe and dispatchitonthespot.Butstresssituationsin tion andbodilyarousalarepoisedtodealwithathreat focuses onthethreatathand.Thisisfinewhenatten- night, itconcentrateshismindwonderfully.” Sir, whenamanknowsheistobehangedinfort- new. SamuelJohnson saiditpithily:“Dependuponit, central task,butlosttrackofthelight. more andanxious,theycouldcontinuewiththe light. Asthediveproceededandvolunteersgot tracking taskandatthesametimemonitoraflashing , thevolunteershadtoperformacentral learned someemergencyprocedures.Duringthedive actual, butminor, dangersinvolved,andthevolunteers Because oftheoxygenchangesthereweresome dramatic, withrealchangesinpressureandoxygen. and Egstrom,1971).Thedive,doneunderwater, was deep-sea diveinapressurechamber(Weltman, Smith classic studyvolunteerswereputthroughasimulated under stressisamplydocumented.Forexample,ina available forotherthings.Thenarrowingofattention source ofthreat,narrowingtherangeawareness tages anappropriateresponse. situation, oroccursatsuchahighpitchthatitsabo- ting forconfrontingagiventhreatintrudesintoanother becomes anxiety. Inanxiety, arousalthatmightbefit- hand—more particularly, whenitistoogreat—then require extramentalandphysicalreserves. increased arousalisfittinganduseful;suchtasks or returningatennisservebothactivatearousal.This um ofarousal.Grapplingwithatoughmentalproblem Directions: N day-to-day events. attention onresolving thethreat. When ourattentionisfocusedonathreat, we are lessabletodealwith S ome reactions are physical,suchastensingthemuscles;othersare cognitive, suchasthefocusingof m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame Attention primedtofocuson a threatdominates When thestressresponsedrivesattention,it The notionthatanxietynarrowsattentionisnot During ananxietystate,attentioncanclingtothe But whenthearousaldoesnotfittaskat Anxiety istheextremeendofordinarycontinu- Threats create stress inallhumans. Our ofreactions bodieshaveavariety toperceived threats. READING R ead thefollowing selection,thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. 15 carried toanextreme.Theseinclude: of intrusionsissomeaspectthestressresponse and particularlyinstructive:everyoneofthevarieties guises anxiousintrusionstake.Hislistiswide-ranging been abletoenumeratemanyoftheguisesanddis- patients withstress-basedsymptoms,Horowitzhas upset bythefilms,moreintrusions. after thefilmaboutrunning.Themorepeoplewere seeing thefilmsoncircumcisionoraccidentsthan intruding filmflashbacksduringthetonetaskafter the task. wrote areportofwhathadbeenontheirmindduring lance. Betweensegmentsoftones,thevolunteers though boring,demandsafocused,sustainedvigi- lower, orthesameasprecedingtone.Thistask, task inwhichtheyratewhetheratonewashigher, well asaneutralfilmofmanjogging. woodworking shop(botharemildlyhorrifying)—as Aborigines, theotherdepictingbloodyaccidentsina showing ritualcircumcisionamongteenage of volunteerswatchonetwostressfulfilms—one awareness withasimpleexperiment.Hehadgroups thoughts andfeelingsimpingeonawareness. with anattentionaldefinitionofanxiety:unbidden reenactments ofthestressevent.”Thissquareswell cult todispel,andofdirectorsymbolicbehavioral “unbidden ideasandpangsoffeelingwhicharediffi- (Horowitz, 1983).“Intrusion,”Horowitzwrites,refersto described bythepsychiatristMardiHorowitz tional definitionofanxietyis,infact,thisveryintrusion. thoughts ofthethreatintrudeoutturn.Theopera- •P • Based onadetailedinvestigationofdozens Not surprisingly, thevolunteersreportedfarmore After seeingthefilms,volunteersundertooka Horowitz showedhowanxietyimpingeson The roleofintrusioninanxietyismostthoroughly Stress OutofPlace awareness ofthestressfulevent thatrecurs mood. up andsubsideratherthanbeing aprevailing Pangs ofemotion,wavesfeeling thatwell reoccupation andruminations, acontinual (continued) 71 Name ______Date ______Class ______

uncontrollably, beyond the bounds of ordinary • Unbidden sensations, the sudden, unwanted thinking through of a problem. entry into awareness of sensations that are • Intrusive ideas, sudden unbidden thoughts unusually intense or are unrelated to the situ- that have nothing to do with the mental task ation at the moment. at hand. • Startle reactions, flinching or blanching in • Persistent thoughts and feelings, emotions or response to stimuli that typically do not war- ideas which the person cannot stop once they rant such reactions. start. • Hypervigilance, excessive alertness, scanning References and searching with a tense expectancy. Horowitz, M. (1983). Psychological response to serious life events. In • Insomnia, intrusive ideas and images that dis- Shlomo Breznitz (ed.), The Denial of Stress. New York: International Universities Press. turb sleep. Weltman, G., Smith, J.E., & Egstrom, G.H. (1971). Perceptual narrowing • Bad dreams, including nightmares and anx- during simulated pressure-chamber exposure, Human Factors, 13, ious awakening, as well as any upsetting 79–107. dream. The bad dream does not necessarily Source: Goleman, D. (1985). Vital Lies, Simple Truths: The Psychology of have any overt content related to a real event. Self-Deception. New York: Simon and Schuster, 44–46.

Understanding the Reading Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 1. Where does anxiety fit on the scale of arousal?

2. What happens during an anxiety state?

3. What happened to the divers as their level of anxiety increased? Co py

4. What is the attentional definition of anxiety? ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

5. Identify three features of the stress response to an extreme.

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. 6. Why is it more difficult to concentrate on boring tasks when you are under extreme stress? 7. Describe a stressful situation that you have encountered. Did you experience any of the anxious intrusions? If so, what were they? If not, how did you avoid these intrusions? 72 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. same group three months later. al lives. wasre-administeredThe survey tothe stress causedby tothejurors’ disruption person- alsomeasured thesurvey the of thetrial, part stress.jury In additiontostress aspectsthatwere item checklistdesignedtomeasure 20aspectsof usinga90- immediatelyafterthetrial surveyed as thecontrol group forthestudy. The group was but were notselected. The 120 veniremen served onthejury poolquestionedtoserve the original alternates, and120 ‘veniremen’ whowere of part in thecar.” tosaveherbaby,door asshetried whowasstill was dragged formore thanamilefrom hercar inwhichawoman 1993 carjackinginMaryland the samecase. The caseinvolveda “notorious two separate withtwodefendantsfrom juries began withapilotprogram usingjurors from stress.longitudinal studyofjury The study V Method stress andcanhavelong-lastingconsequences. ate physicalandpsychological symptomsof detailscanresultinvolving gruesome inimmedi- H begun toexaminethestress levelsofjuries. nationwide press coverage, psychologists have innocence? Asmore casesreceive significant intheirdutytofindguiltor it hamperjuries stress If there levelofthejury? isaneffect,does details, photographs, andexhibitsaffectthe Directions: N entis, Ph.D., havedesignedandbegunamajor m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame ypothesis How The survey group consistedof20jurors,The survey 8 Thomas Hafemeister, J.D., Ph.D., andLarry Ju AESTUDY CASE r or stress longanddifficultcases during

do jury trials that involvemanygory trials do jury R ead thefollowing casestudy, thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. 15 stressful foralljurors. w genders asaresult experience. oftheirjury significant differences inthestress levelofthe threesurvey monthslater, however, showed no women showed more stress thanmen. The verdict. inthe toparticipate not giventheopportunity they hadlistenedtoalltheevidence, butwere stress thatseemedtostemfrom thefactthat amountof yieldedasurprising the alternates stress asaresult oftheirservice. The findingson significant experienced The jurors andalternates marked levelsofstress resulting from thetrial. Results making. Source: daily lives.” suggestions aboutreturning successfully totheir standing amongjurors; and makingconcrete andunder- mutualsupport fostering the trial; not forcing jurors to discusstheirreactions to r r includes: “making sure jurors understandthe that debriefing mends afive-stepmodelforjury jurors dealwiththestress. Hafemeister recom- havetakenanactiverole inhelping some courts the responsibility placedonthejurors. However, Conclusions eactions tostress withjurors; encouraging but reviewingeasons forthedebriefing; normal ell asthedeliberations, were foundtobehighly The gruesome evidenceandtestimony,The gruesome as In The veniremen, asexpected,didnotshow Ju APA Monitor, 26(6), DeAngelis, T. ry

the survey immediatelyafterthetrial, the survey

stress islikelytheinevitableproduct of (1995). Whatfactorsinfluencejurordecision- 5–6. Juror Stress (continued) 73 Name ______Date ______Class ______

Understanding the Case Study Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 1. What are veniremen?

2. How did the veniremen function in this survey? Why?

3. When were the surveys administered to the jurors?

4. What was the surprising factor in the alternates’ stress level?

5. What suggestions did Hafemeister make for helping jurors deal with stress during a trial?

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 6. Among our constitutional rights is the right to a fair trial by a jury of our peers. Does juror stress threaten our right to a fair trial? Defend your answer. Co py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

7. In highly publicized cases, jurors are often sequestered to avoid being influenced by the media or by other people’s discussion of the case. What effect do you think sequestration has on juror stress?

74 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. whether individualsfromaffected familiesarelikelyto and 15aswell. studies havepointedtoareasonchromosomes4,6,13, 18 appearstobeahotspotformoodgenes,butother According toonestudy, the“longarm”ofchromosome search. er onaparticularchromosome,thusnarrowingthe the hunterknowsamoodgeneliesclosetothatmark- manic-depression is“linked”toanyofthesemarkers, DNA whoselocationsareknown).Ifithappensthat ic markers(thefewthousandgenesorsegmentsof people whohavethedisorderalsocertaingenet- analyzes theDNAfromthispopulationtoseeif ed populationthatispronetomanic-depression,then the sourceofradiowaves. a secretradiotransmitterbygraduallyhominginon human genesisliketrackingdownanenemyspywith sible formanic-depressionoutofthe100,000orso life experiencesalsoplayarole. one gene,aswithsicklecellanemia.Environmentand bly attherootofmanic-depression,ratherthansimply that acombinationofgenesworkingtogetherisproba- likely tohaveageneticbasis.However, Barondessays people, anditrunsinfamilies.Therefore,theillnessis ogist SamuelH.Barondes,authorof better drugstocontrolthedisease,predictsneurobiol- genes arefound,theyshouldhelpscientistsdevise genes thatleadtomanic-depression.Ifsuchmood cians hopethatsuchresearch willleadtoeffectivetreatments forbipolardisorder. disorder. Althoughsomecontroversies ofresearch, surround thissort manypsychologists andphysi- to allow psychobiologists tozero tothedevelopmentofbipolar inonthespecificgenesthatcontribute r and hypothesize thatheredity inthedevelopmentofdisorder. plays apart Until recently, however, are thoughttohaveageneticbasis. Researchers ofthesedisorders havedocumentedfamilyhistories Directions: N esearchers theirhypotheses. havenothadthetoolstotestandconfirm New technologiesare beginning m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame Manic-depression affectsoneoutofevery100 M Finding moodgeneswillallow testingtodetermine The resultssofararetantalizingbutinconclusive. The mood-genehunterfirstfindsafamilyorisolat- The processoffindingthespecificgenesrespon- Researchers arehuntingfor“mood-disorder” anic depression, commonlycalledbipolardisorder, isoneofmanypsychological disorders that READING R ead thefollowing selection,thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. Mood Genes . 16 them.” be usedtoforetellourdestinies,butalsoforestall posits, concludingthatsuchknowledge“maynotjust manic-depression—even initialattacks,”Barondes covery maybethepreventionofallsymptoms well inallcases. aren’t sureexactlywhythey work,andtheydon’t work as Prozac,werediscoveredbyaccident.Scientists Barondes writes.Currentantidepressantdrugs,such targets. Suchachangeofdirectionissorelyneeded,” egories ofdrugswithcompletelydifferentmolecular will providetheopportunitytodevelopwholenewcat- perform intheemotionalcircuitryofbrain. make andthejobsthatthesespecializedmolecules the proteins,enzymes,orhormonesthatmoodgenes New drugswouldresultfromabetterunderstandingof less, sotheissueofeugenicscouldbecomemoot. may beeffectiveenoughtorenderthediseaseharm- forgo. benefits fordiseasesuffererswillbetooenormousto research forthisreason,butBarondesarguesthatthe dren withthedisease.Peoplewillobjecttomood-gene parents mightchooseabortionratherthanbearchil- may eventuallybeperformedonfetuses,andsome symptoms. diagnoses ofmanic-depressioninpeoplewhoshow get thedisease.Mood-genetestswouldalsoverify Source: “In thelongrunamajorbenefitofmood-genedis- “Knowing theidentityandfunctionofmoodgenes New drugsmadepossiblebymood-generesearch Controversy formood-genetestingseemslikely:It Minerd, J. (1999). Thehuntformoodgenes. Mood Genes T he Huntfor Futurist (continued) , 33 (5), 11. 75 Name ______Date ______Class ______

Understanding the Reading Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 1. How common is manic depression (bipolar disorder)?

2. How could identifying the specific gene or genes involved be used to help people with a genetic tendency for the disorder?

3. What potential controversies does the author raise about the gene research?

4. Why does Samuel Barondes think that knowing the identity and function of mood genes could aid in the development of drugs to treat the disorders?

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 5. Take one of the following positions and write a defense of the position: Gene research to find the exact source of psychological disorders should be funded by tax dollars. Gene research has too much potential for misuse. No tax dollars should be used to fund such

research. Co py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

6. What do you think Samuel Barondes means when he says that the knowledge gained from the research “may not just be used to foretell our destinies, but also to forestall them”?

76 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. seek treatment. impossible task.Her husbandinsistedthatshe Ev isolated andstayed athomewheneverpossible. afraid thatshewasdying.She grew increasingly ness ofbreath wouldcausedizziness. She was around otherpeople. Her rapid pulseandshort- especially whenshewasoutsidethehouseand the frequency oftheattacksincreased. more by frightened whatwashappeningtoher, the attackswere infrequent, butasshebecame attacks, whichalwaysoccurred atnight.At first F wouldbepounding. be sweating andherheart en inthemiddleofnightterror. She would panic attackswhenshewas26.She wouldawak- ulate housekeeping.She beganexperiencing homemaker andtookgreat inherimmac- pride thenextnineyears.during She wascontentasa dered by amugger. fied her. When shewas17,herfathermur- into loudarguments. Her parents’ fightingterri- herparentswhen hewasdrinking, wouldget she wasyoung. Her fatherwasanalcoholic,and great dealofseparation anxiety, especiallywhen far awayfrom hermother. She a experienced treated hersymptomsby removing hertonsils, V than Valium, nonegaveheranyrelief, and antidepressants andantianxietydrugs. Other r not depression. It wasonlyasymptomofher Although Jane wasdepressed, herproblem was depression shocktherapy. andgivenelectric length oftime. She wasdiagnosedwithsevere N Diagnosis Case History Directions: N eal disorder. She wastreated of withavariety or sometime, shedidnottellanyone aboutthe alium onlyhelpeduptoa point. The physicians one were abletorelieve hersymptomsforany m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame en going to the grocery becameanearly en goingtothegrocery S J J Over thenext20years, Jane saw200doctors. ane married at21andhadthreeane married children ane hadbeenashychildwhodislikedbeing he began to have attacks during theday,he begantohaveattacksduring AESTUDY CASE R ead thefollowing casestudy, thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. 16 panic attack(Talan, 1994). focating. The sensation isfalse, but theresult isa sends asignaltothebrain thatthepersonissuf- person suffersfrom abreathing problem that alarm” theory. concludesthat the This theory O ofrelaxation”period (Barlow &Cerny, 1988). in herbody, suchasmuscletwitches, this during that asensitivepersonmightreact toachange piration haveslowed. Some researchers think when thebodyisrelaxed rate andheart andres- “ she wasasleep. Researchers havefoundthat general population” 1993). (Wilson, higher tendencytoward panicdisorder thanthe children ofalcoholicsshowed asignificantly factor. ADuke University studyfound “that adult in thefamilyisalsosuspectedasacontributing than outgoingchildren (Ritter, 1995).Alcoholism children are more prone toanxietyinadulthood ties. Additional research hasconcludedthatshy aperson’sbegin during lateteensorearlytwen- panic disorder laterinlife. The attacksusually childhoodisonesuspectedcauseof during that separation anxietyandfear ofbeingalone correctly diagnosedherpanicdisorder. mended therapy. Jane finallysawatherapist who physical causeforherproblem. They recom- three times, butthedoctorscouldnotfind any panic attacksreturned. She washospitalized the When hersecondhusbandbegandrinking, like adifferent person.At 42,sheremarried. manager andraising herchildren. She seemed y denly. The panicattacksalso ceased.For several know how toprovide ananswer. she wasgoingtodie, andnooneseemedto ments thatproved worthless. Jane oftenfeltlike inner earimbalance, ofothertreat- andavariety pulling herteeth,tellingthatshehadan nocturnal panic attacks occur during lightsleep panicattacks occurduring nocturnal ears, shethrew herselfintoworking asanoffice ther researchers propose the “false-suffocation Why didJane’s panicattacksceaseforsever- I The therapist knewthatresearch indicates When Jane was 37,herhusbanddiedsud- nitially, Jane’s attacksbeganatnightwhile P anic Disorder (continued) 77 Name ______Date ______Class ______

al years? Researchers are not certain, but they most. She came to realize that she had distorted have found that there is no noticeable pattern in ideas about herself and her environment. As she the attacks. They may occur regularly for a time, learned to change those ideas, her symptoms suddenly cease, and just as suddenly reappear. diminished. Jane learned to think logically about In Jane’s case, the need to support and raise her her fears and to understand that most of them family after her first husband’s death may have were unwarranted. She came to understand that helped ease the attacks. Many sufferers of panic there was nothing physically wrong with her. She disorder find that throwing themselves into work also accepted the fact that she would have panic does help the symptoms. Work, however, is not a attacks from time to time, but that they would cure; the attacks usually begin again. The imme- not kill her. As she accepted the attacks, they diate cause of Jane’s recurrent attacks may have occurred less frequently. been her second husband’s drinking. This may have reminded her too much of her childhood struggles with an alcoholic father. References Barlow, D.H., & Cerny, J.A. (1988). Psychological Treatment of Panic. New York: The Guilford Press, 16. Treatment Ritter, M. (1995, May 25). Inhibited tots may suffer anxiety later, study says. The Record. Once properly diagnosed, therapists current- Talan, J. (1994, May 30). The realm of Freud may lose a territory. The ly recommend a combination of cognitive, Record. Wilson, M., et al. (1993). Psychiatric disorders in adult children of behavior, and drug therapy to help a person alcoholics. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150 (5), 793–800. recover. Medication is used only to control the

symptoms while the person is working on recov- Source: Weinstock, L., & Gilman, E. (1998). Overcoming Panic ery. Medication is not considered a long-term Disorder. Chicago, IL: Contemporary Books. solution. Cognitive therapy helped Jane the

Understanding the Case Study Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 1. When did Jane’s panic attacks begin? When did the initial attacks occur?

2. What incorrect diagnoses did Jane receive? Co py ri

3. What caused Jane’s panic attacks to cease for a time? ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

4. What theories have been proposed for the causes of panic disorder?

5. How is panic disorder generally treated today?

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. 6. Why do you think panic disorder is so difficult to diagnose? 7. Why do you think that Jane’s need to work and raise her children alone eased her symptoms for a period of time?

78 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. and expenseofshootingthem withatranquilizerdart gotothetime, trouble never askedthembefore.”Why Suedmeyer justsmiled. their belliesallthemoredicey. shots, drawingbloodandrubbingultrasoundgooon be dangerous.Thatmakestheprospectofgivingthem times strongerthanhumans.Gettingclosetothemcan them first. orangutans orothergreatapes,theyhadtoimmobilize needed todrawbloodorperformanultrasoundon species.” information aboutreproductioninanendangered Zoo, butitalsoprovidedresearcherswith“invaluable did theaccomplishmentreflectwellonKansasCity because Jill’s last babywasstillborn. the orangutanfetuslikeneverbefore—acriticalstep, swollen tummyforultrasounds. her headandallowSuedmeyertorubgelon to waddlethefrontofhercage,grabbarsover for analysis.And,almostunbelievable,theytrainedher blood. Theyhadherurinateintoacupandhanditover hole cutinthetopsoSuedmeyercouldregularlydraw the worldhasbeenabletogetanorangutando. ment, theytrainedhertodothingsthatnootherzooin Jill, totrustthem.Intheend,usingpositivereinforce- have workedcountlesshourstogetthemother, named Moore andseniorstaffveterinarianKirkSuedmeyer take careofher. ship betweenthebaby’s motherandthehumanswho Directions: N its development. pregnant orangutan. By modifyingherbehavior, theywere abletomonitorthehealthoffetusduring tition ofthebehavior. Specialists attheKansas CityZoo usedspecialfoodrewards ofa togainthetrust ofoperantform conditioninginvolvesgivingrewards fordesired behavior. The reward encourages repe- iors. Behavior modificationtechniques includeclassicalconditioningandoperant conditioning.One m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame “All youhavetodoisaskthem,” hesaid.“We just So howdidtheKansasCityZoomanageit? Orangutans areextremelystrong—sixtoseven As longasanyonecanremember, ifzoostaff Zoo DirectorMarkWourms wasthrilled.Notonly That allowedcaretakerstomonitorthehealthof They gothertostickarmintoPVCpipewitha During thelastseveralyears,zoologistBeth …This isthestoryofone-of-a-kindrelation- B ehavior modificationtechniquesare widelyusedwithhumanstohelpchangeunwantedbehav- READING R ead thefollowing selection,thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. 17 t‘” it.‘ my gosh.There’s justnowayshe’s goingtoletussee to holditupincaseweneeded togiveitabottle. inside thebars.Andwewereteachingherthings,like bars,” Mooresaid. reinforcement totrainJillshowherthebaby. see theinfantorangutan,Mooreevenusedpositive get areally, really big treat. pipe, getatreat.Letthemstickyouwithneedleand —with pudding,raspberriesorsomethingelse. if hecameclosetoSuedmeyer, hewouldberewarded nothing, hejustsat. come tothebarsandjustsit.Notranquilizergun. come up,itwasabadthing.” animal’s feelings about thevet. with anotherorangutan.Itstartedchangingthe operant conditioning—beganalmostsevenyearsago almost anything. Suedmeyer andMoorelearnedorangutanswoulddo sal orangutansymbolfor“more.” they lifttheirheadsandpuckerlips—theuniver- blueberries andyogurt.You canseeitintheirfacesas Orangutans lovethem.Theyalsogelatin,frozen reinforcement? when youcanearntheircooperationwithpositive “But whenshehadherownbaby, Ithought:‘Oh “Eventually wegaveherthelittlestuffedanimal “We startedwithhertouchingthebabyoutside They practicedwithastuffedorangutan. Since zoostaffmembersknewtheywouldneedto Come here,getatreat.Putyourarmthroughthe They trainedJillthesameway. Eventually, throughtraining,theanimallearnedthat Then hechangedhisapproach.Hedecidedto “Before,” Suedmeyersaid,“everytimeIwould The programofbehaviormodification—called With time,trainingandbigspoonfulsoftreats, Enter thepuddingandfrozenraspberries. Orangutan Behavior Modifying (continued) 79 Name ______Date ______Class ______

But Jill surprised Moore by showing her the baby, sweetest thing I have ever seen.’ It was phenomenal.” named Pendamai, an Indonesian word meaning Whether you want an animal to show you her “peacemaker.” baby or let you give her a shot, the key is patience, “She came up to the bars, and I told her it was trust, training and rewards. really a beautiful baby,” Moore said. “I said, ‘Gosh, Jill Orangutans can’t reason like humans, Suedmeyer you did such a beautiful job.’ And I said, ‘Can I see said. But they can make a simple cost-benefit decision. your baby?’ ” And she just sort of leaned forward and “It’s like: ‘Yeah, that’s going to hurt. But it won’t let us look at the baby. hurt that badly, and I really like those raspberries.’” Zoo spokeswoman Denise Rendina saw the whole thing. “That animal absolutely presented the baby for Source: Fussell, James A. (1999, October 24). Zoo staff wins ape mom’s Beth to see,” she said. “I was just like, ‘That is just the trust. Kansas City Star. Reprinted in The Columbus Dispatch. p. 6D.

Understanding the Reading Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 1. Identify three things Jill, the orangutan, was taught to do.

2. What rewards did the zoologist and veterinarian use to modify Jill’s behavior?

3. How did the behavior modification help them monitor the health of the fetus?

4. Why had Jill learned to dislike the veterinarian? Co py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

5. Once the baby was born, how did the behavior modification help the veterinarians monitor the baby’s health?

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. 6. How did the zoologist and veterinarian use systematic desensitization to accomplish their goals? 7. What similarities and differences exist between behavior modification in humans and in animals?

80 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. their father, infact,thelastvisitwastwoyears away. The children littlecontact with havevery r two years before then. The children havealways been divorced fiveyears andwere separated for and David (children’s biologicalfather)have plaint wasthatshedidnotliketoread. Cindy the samebehaviorsasRobert. Her chiefcom- was alsoinadvanced classes butdidnotexhibit ter, Rebecca, an11-year-old inthefifthgrade, always endedupfightingwiththem.Robert’s sis- Cindy, becausehe fewfriends Robert hadvery a punishmentforhisbehavior. According to y was involvedwithaboys cluboffandonforone intensive reading assignments. Socially, Robert courses hewastakinginschool,whichincluded plained constantlyabouttheadvanced-level fights withhisfellow students. Robert alsocom- with specifictasksthatledtoRobert gettinginto was easilydistracted andoften gotfrustrated & Wells,1995). the interactions within[Robert’s] family”(Hinkle stand boththeteacher-student interaction and [Robert’s] behavior, acounselorhastounder- selor knewthat “in order tofullyunderstand Additionally,school district). theschoolcoun- (this centerwasonareferral listforRobert’s school wouldbebeneficialforthewholefamily his family, outsidethe andthatseekingservices R control. The schoolcounseloralsofeltthat felt Robert’s repeated misbehaviorwasoutof on theadviceofRobert’s schoolcounselor, who was brought tomeby his mother. This wasdone Case Study Directions: N family therapist canbestaddress Robert’s problems. The studyispresented by thefamilytherapist. trouble inschoolandwithhissocialskills. By working together, theschool,familyunit,and esided withCindy, withDavid livingtwostates ear until his mother took this privilege awayas ear untilhismothertookthisprivilege obert’s problems stemmedfrom conflictwithin m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame Cindy, Robert’s mother, reported thatRobert R The following studyusesateamapproach toprovide therapy toa9-year-old boy whoishaving obert, a9-year-oldobert, boy grade, inthefourth AESTUDY CASE R ead thefollowing casestudy, thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. 17 F D sixtoninemonths.every Within thelastmonth, three timesayear andsentCindychildsupport r ago andtheyonlysawhimforoneday. Up until which leavesherdrained attheendof day. Roles him. children nothavingacloserelationship with the not aboutDavid dad. Cindyadmittedherbitterness absence; Robert saidhedidnotcare abouthis r r and thoughtsfreely. When askedabout David’s municated well witheachother, feelings sharing the decisions. Allappeared quitecloseandcom- and, withRobert andRebecca’s input,madeall family relationship]. Cindyheldtheauthority their roles viaafamilygenogram oftheir [achart of their “system” anddefinedthemembers Members system (Lewis, 1996). wouldbeforthefamily-schooltion efforts sub- be thewholefamily, sincethefocusofinterven- client forthatsession(andthosetocome)would had someemotionalproblems. However, the R R ecently, David calledRobert andRebecca twoor eportedly becausetheynevertalkabouthis eportedly ole, CindyandRebecca eyed becameteary amily Sessions obert’s schoolcounselorsuggestedthatRobert tohaveanindividualsession;afterall, obert avid hadcalledthemfourtimes. being aresponsible fatherandhersadnessfor Cindy statedthatshewas a full-timenurse, As afamily, Cindy, Rebecca, andRobert spoke F F or theinitialvisit,Cindyintendedfor amily Therapist and School Counselor W ork asaTeam (continued) 81 Name ______Date ______Class ______

After her “compensated” work at a local hospital, Robert acted out during transitions and com- she goes home, where she performs various plained that many of the boys in his classes tried household chores, including cooking dinner, to start fights with him. They also felt that Robert washing dishes and clothes, and helping Robert was lacking appropriate social skills. To recipro- and Rebecca with their homework. Robert and cate, Cindy and I shared that Robert resented his Rebecca spend the day at school and the after- father and his father’s random phone calls; he noon in day care. At home, they spend up to five felt he did not have a constant “male” to talk to, hours completing their homework. Robert and let alone listen to him. . . . It was also shared that Rebecca have assigned chores, but these are Cindy was not allowing Robert to attend a boys often put aside so they can complete their club as a consequence of him not completing his homework. homework.

School Discussion Robert stated that the teachers at his and After this meeting, it was agreed that the Rebecca’s school did not like him and never lis- desired change was for Robert to feel in control tened to him. Furthermore, they assigned “stu- of his emotions. Thus, a mutual agreement was pid” homework that was too difficult for any established. Cindy’s role would be to set up a “human being” to do. Rebecca did not complain household structure with rewards and conse- as much but admitted getting frustrated with the quences for chores and homework and allow many assigned readings. Cindy stated that the Robert (and Rebecca) opportunities to interact school counselor recommended that Robert see socially with other children outside of school. a therapist because his chronic behavior was This would include Robert attending the boys more than could be handled at school. Robert club unconditionally and possibly getting a acknowledged that he often did not feel in con- mentor. . . . Also, as a family, Cindy, Rebecca, and trol and was not sure why. Robert would have to set aside some quality time where each could be free from his or her daily routines. Finally, family members would Intervention need to discuss the father’s role in their lives and To offer problem-oriented family counseling set up an agreement with him to establish a rou- to this group, it was important to collaborate tine of communication. with the other “professionals” involved with My role would be one of continuing sessions Robert and his family (Kraus, 1998). This collab- in which Robert could talk about his feelings oration formed a structure made up of separate toward his father and the family could connect

organizations so there would be a “pooling of these emotions with Robert’s current anger. Co resources and expertise with a commitment of Another role would be to encourage the family py ri partnership agencies to a common mission” to develop a schedule so that each member ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (Cassidy & LaDuca, 1997). This collaboration could share a proportionate amount of house- included the family members, the family thera- hold chores with encouragement from Cindy. pist, and the school counselor. The school coun- The school counselor would have the task of selor had to be recruited, since she represented a coordinating classroom arrangements with unique position within Robert’s school as a liai- Robert’s teachers. This would include placing son with his teachers. Coordinating a meeting of Robert in the front of the classroom to reduce this type can be difficult when there are many his distractions and pairing him with another individuals involved. However, the information student so he would have the opportunity to gathered is invaluable because it serves to edu- improve his social skills. The school counselor cate all those involved about factors of which would also place Robert in a group counseling each may be unaware. setting with other children who shared similar It was in this collaborative “community” issues. (Keys et al., 1998) that information was shared Thus, there was now a family-school coali- about Robert’s behavior. Cindy and I learned tion involved in helping Robert express and con- from the school counselor and teachers that trol his emotions. . . . Hence, as family therapists,

(continued) 82 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. address issues. that itoftentakesacollaborative to effort selors. This inclusionisanexampletoourclients thatis, ourfellowwhole family; schoolcoun- our client.In doingso, we havetooffer “our” our role isoftentolookatthewholefamilyas of significant information thatcouldaffectboth of significantinformation settings haveonfamilylifeistobeleftignorant toignoreparty theinfluencethatthesevarious affecting thepresenting problems. For either culturalopen tothevarious influencesthatare the schoolcounselorandfamilytherapist be plan. With thisasagiven,itisimperative that aboutthemosteffectivetreatmentbringing from bothsettingstoassistin include parties to ficulty athomeorschool,itisimportant their concerns. dif- When achildisexperiencing foreffectivelyaddressingwithin theformula issuesaretextually ifpertinent tobeincluded Conclusion N 6. Directions: 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Directions: 7. m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame F How What changeswere recommended forRobert atschool? What familychangeswere recommended toCindyandherfamily? acollaborativeWhat professionals formed teamtoprovide helptoRobert andhisfamily? What wasRobert’s relationship withhismotherandfather? What problems wasRobert havingatschool? The studyrecommends treating familiesincontext. What does thismean? Why isitimportant? amilies mustbestudiedandtreated con- T Understanding theCaseStudy hinking Critically

might theirregular contactwithhisfatherhaveaffectedRobert’s behavior withhispeers? Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. Answer thefollowing questions onaseparate sheetof paper. 276–279. school counselors:Acollaborativeendeavor. Source: Lewis, B. References failure.to risk is inthebestinterest ofthefamily. To dolessis have acommongoal—toprovide that aservice differ, theschoolcounselorandfamilytherapist treatment plan.Althoughtheroles andsettings the assessmentofsituationandeventual Kraus, I. Keys, S.G.,Bemak,F., Carpenter, S.L.,&King-Sears,M.E. Hinkle, J.S.,&Wells, M.E. Cassidy, K.A.,&LaDuca,S.T. by schoolcounselors. approach. Greensboro, NC:ERIC/CASS. Problems. Systems TheoryandFamilyTherapyintheResolutionofSchool W A collaborationbetweeneducationandhumanservices.InW.M. youth. Collaborative consultant:Aroleforcounselorsservingat-risk alsh &G.R.Williams(Eds.), Rotter, J.C.,&Boveja,M.E. (1998). Afreshlookatschoolcounseling:family-systems (1996). Aproposalforinitiatingfamilycounselinginterventions Journal ofCounselingandDevelopment,76, Springfield, IL:CharlesC.Thomas. Professional SchoolCounseling,1(4), (1995). Familycounselingintheschools. The SchoolCounselor, 44(2) (1997). Sweethomefamilysupportcenter: Schools andFamilyTherapy:Using (1999). Familytherapistsand Family Journal 12–17. , 93–99. 123–133. (1998). , 7 (3), 83 Name ______Date ______Class ______

READING 18 What Makes a Good Marriage? Directions: Read the following selection, then answer the questions that follow.

What makes a marriage work? Psychologist John Gottman is using a state-of-the-art laboratory to conduct a longitudinal study to learn more about what ingredients make a successful marriage. Although much research has focused on couples who are dealing with difficulties, Gottman’s study also examines characteristics that lead to successful marriages.

The myth of marriage goes like this: somewhere psyche that they could navigate roadblocks without out there is the perfect soul mate, the yin that meshes creating emotional gridlock. easily and effortlessly with your yang. And then there Gottman’s research also contradicts the Mars- is the reality of marriage, which, as any spouse knows, Venus school of relationships, which holds that men is not unlike what Thomas Edison once said about and women come from two very different emotional genius: 1 percent inspiration and 99 percent perspira- worlds. According to his studies, gender differences tion. That sweaty part, the hard work of keeping a mar- may contribute to marital problems, but they don’t riage healthy and strong, fascinates John Gottman. cause them. Equal percentages of both men and He’s a psychologist at the University of Washington, women he interviewed said that the quality of the and he has spent more than two decades trying to spousal friendship is the most important factor in mari- unravel the bewildering of emotions that tal satisfaction. binds two humans together for a year, a decade or Gottman says he can predict, with more than 90 even (if you’re lucky) a lifetime. percent accuracy, which couples are likely to end up Gottman, 56, comes to this endeavor with the best in divorce court. The first seven years are especially of qualifications: he’s got the spirit of a scientist and precarious; the average time for a divorce in this group the soul of a romantic. A survivor of one divorce, he’s is 5.2 years. The next danger point comes around 16 to now happily married to fellow psychologist Julie 20 years into the marriage, with an average of 16.4 Schwartz Gottman (they run couples workshops years. He describes one couple he first met as newly- together). His daunting task is to quantify such intangi- weds: even then they began every discussion of their bles as joy, contempt and tension. Ground zero for this problems with sarcasm or criticism, what Gottman research is the Family Research Laboratory on the calls a “harsh start-up.” Although they professed to be Seattle campus (nicknamed the Love Lab). It consists in love and committed to the relationship, Gottman cor- of a series of nondescript offices equipped with video rectly predicted that they were in trouble. Four years cameras and pulse, sweat and movement monitors to later they were headed for divorce, he says. Co py

read the hearts and minds of hundreds of couples who An unequal balance of power is also deadly to a ri have volunteered to be guinea pigs in longitudinal marriage. Gottman found that a husband who doesn’t ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. studies of the marital relationship. These volunteers share power with his wife has a much higher risk of have opened up their lives to the researchers, dissect- damaging the relationship. Why are men singled out? ing everything from the frequency of sex to who takes Gottman says his data show that most wives, even out the garbage. . . . those in unstable marriages, are likely to accept their Among his unexpected conclusions: anger is not husband’s influence. It’s the men who need to shape the most destructive emotion in a marriage, since both up, he says. The changes can be simple, like turning happy and miserable couples fight. Many popular ther- off the football game when she needs to talk. Gottman apies aim at defusing anger between spouses, but says the gesture proves he values “us” over “me.” Gottman found that the real demons (he calls them Gottman’s research is built on the work of many “the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse”) are criticism, other scientists who have focused on emotion and contempt, defensiveness and stonewalling. His human interaction. Early studies of marriage relied research shows that the best way to keep these heavily on questionnaires filled out by couples, but demons at bay is for couples to develop a “love map” these were often inaccurate. In the 1970s several psy- of their spouse’s dreams and fears. The happy couples chology labs began using direct of cou- all had such a deep understanding of their partner’s ples to study marriage. A big boon was a relatively

(continued) 84 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. summarize thecomplaintsof a patientandvalidatethe ing.” Itwasoriginallyusedby therapiststoobjectively long-term benefitsforcouples whoseekhelp. shown thatmanycurrenttreatments producefew no basisinresearch.Severalrecentstudieshave credentialed therapistsmayuseapproachesthathave can hangoutashingleasmarriagecounselor.” Even zine saidpartoftheproblemwasthat“almostanyone satisfaction withvariouspsychotherapies.Themaga- riage therapyrankedatthebottomofapollpatient and stable.”Ina1995 of whatrealcouplesdotokeeptheirmarriageshappy “because itisnotbasedonsolidempiricalknowledge sarily help.“Therapyisatanimpasse,”Gottmansays, more likelytohaveemotionalorschoolproblems. divorced. Kidssufferaswell;iftheirparentssplit,they’re than thoseofpeoplewhoareunhappilymarriedor are healthier;eventheirimmunesystemsworkbetter tween marriageandwell-being.Happilymarriedpeople be- world, andstudieshaveshownadirectcorrelation has oneofthehighestdivorceratesinindustrialized as puttingoffregularmammograms.TheUnitedStates relationship. Thatdelay, Gottmansays,isasdangerous long enoughtohavedoneseriousdamagetheir seek helphavebeenhavingproblemsforsixyears— a matterofpublichealth.Theaveragecouplewho Buddy couldstay, onlynotasoften.) of therelationship.(Tim andKaraultimately decided and othermonitors,providesamultidimensionalview combined withthedatacollectedbyheart,sweat The frequencyofnegativeandpositiveexpressions, How oftendidhefidget(indicatingtensionorstress)? she rollhereyes(asignofcontempt)whenhespoke? tern ofgoodandbadmoments.Howmanytimesdid every secondofinteractiontocreateastatisticalpat- researchers takesceneslikethisandbreakdown spending thenightonTim andKara’s couch.The constantly abouthisfriendBuddy, whooftenwoundup between them.Onecouple...,Tim andKara,argued front ofthecamerasaboutsubjectsthatcauseconflict about thehistoryoftheirmarriage.Theythentalkin real experts.TheLoveLabvolunteersareinterviewed couples whosemarriageswork;hethinksthey’rethe ble, Gottmanthoughtitwasalsoimportanttostudy between spouses. tually providedanotherwaytomeasureinterchange devised acodingsystemforthehumanfacethateven- In 1978researchersPaulEkmanandWallace Freisen easier tostudytheemotionalflowbetweenspouses. record thatcouldbeendlesslyreplayedmadeitmuch new toolforpsychologists:videotape.Havingavisual N m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame One example:theprocesscalled “activelisten- But goingtoamarriagecounselorwon’t neces- Gottman andotherresearchersseetheirworkas Although earlystudiesfocusedoncouplesintrou- Consumer Reports survey, mar- University ofWashington andAndrewChristensenat get fromtheircommunitiesand extendedfamilies. families toprovidethekindof supportpeopleusedto would beongoinggroupsessions withotheryoung to helpspousesgetthroughthetransitionparenting hold andchild-careduties.TheCowanssayoneway spouses aspartnerswithwhomtheysharedhouse- The happiestcoupleswerethosewholookedontheir and makethemoneisquiteatrick,”Pape-Cowansays. “Trying totaketwopeople’s dreamsofaperfectfamily in maritalsatisfactionatthispoint,researcherssay.) (Two-thirds ofcouplesexperiencea“precipitousdrop” critical periodsinamarriage:thebirthoffirstchild. of California,Berkeley, arelookingatoneofthemost and-wife team(marriedfor41years)attheUniversity Philip CowanandCarolynPape-Cowan,ahusband- have begundevisingnewapproachestotherapy. the corneroflivingroom. other wasmoreimportantthannewspaperspiledupin ences, acknowledgingthattheiraffectionforeach the yearstheymanagedtoaccommodatetheirdiffer- demanded neatness,andhecouldn’t careless).Over constantly aboutorderintheirhousehold(she ens themarriage.OnecoupleGottmanstudiedargued spouses dealwiththeseissuesinawaythatstrength- marital conflictsfallintothelattercategory. Happy lead toemotionalgridlock.Gottmansays69percentof that mayrepresentunderlyingconflictsandcan marriage: solvableconflictsandperpetualproblems with thetwokindsofproblemsthatarepartevery appreciating thebestineachother. Theylearntocope a “soundmaritalhouse”byworkingtogetherand start laughing,andthetensionisdefused. tongue—mimicking their4-year-old son.Theyboth suddenly putsherhandonhipandsticksout wants asnazzierJeep).Inthemidstofyelling,wife about thekindofcartobuy(shefavorsaminivan;he In hisbook,Gottmandescribesonecouplearguing flict. Humorisoftenpartofasuccessfulrepairattempt. ativity fromgettingoutofcontrolinthemidstcon- reaching outtoeachotherinaneffortpreventneg- found. Thepartnersmakefrequent“repairattempts,” of relatingtoeachotherduringdisputes,Gottman lazy slob.” and saying,“So,I’mhearingthatyouthinkafat, have ahardtimesteppingbackinthemiddleoffight Gottman says.Evenhighlytrainedtherapistswould has beenmodifiedformaritaltherapy—ineffectively, you’re hurtbythat.”)Inrecentyearsthistechnique think yourfatheralwayslikedsisterbetterand way thepatientisfeeling.(“So,I’mhearingthatyou T As psychologistslearnmoreaboutmarriage,they In happyunions,couplesbuildwhatGottmancalls Happily marriedcoupleshaveaverydifferentway wo otherresearchers—NeilJacobson atthe (continued) 85 Name ______Date ______Class ______

UCLA—have developed what they call “acceptance Patterns of physical abuse, for example, are extremely therapy” after studying the interactions of couples in difficult to alter, Gottman says. And there are cases conflict. The goal of their therapy is to help people where the differences between the spouses are so learn to live with aspects of their spouse’s characters profound and longstanding that even the best therapy that simply can’t be changed. “People can love each is futile. Gottman says one quick way to test whether a other not just for what they have in common but for couple still has a chance is to ask what initially attract- things that make them complementary,” says ed them to each other. If they can recall those magic Jacobson. “When we looked at a clinical sample of first moments (and smile when they talk about them), what predicted failure in traditional behavior therapy, all is not lost. “We can still fan the embers,” says what we came upon again and again was an inability Gottman. For all the rest of us, there’s hope. to accept differences.” Despite all these advances in marital therapy, Source: Kantrowitz, B., & Wingert, P. (1999, April 19). The science researchers still say they can’t save all marriages— of a good marriage: Psychology is unlocking the secrets of happy and in fact there are some that shouldn’t be saved. couples. Newsweek, 133 (16), 52–57.

Understanding the Reading Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 1. What was John Gottman’s unexpected conclusion in conducting his longitudinal study?

2. What emotions and behaviors has Gottman identified that are destructive to marriage?

3. What technology do researchers use today to help gather data? What type of data can be gathered with this tool?

4. Why do researchers see their work as a matter of public health? Co py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

5. What do the Cowans recommend to address the stress that many marriages experience at the birth of their first child?

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. 6. Why may “active listening” not work as a therapy technique in marriage counseling? 7. Zick Rubin has identified three components of romantic love: need, attachment, and intimacy. How can love maps and acceptance therapy strengthen these three components?

86 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. in Germany. The Kurdish andLebanesepartici- mal legalsystem. r ly members, friends, andneighborsare often the state. Disputes, especiallythoseamongfami- and religion over takepriority lawsenactedby r tem, membersoftheculture acceptthestate’s legal system. When conflictsreach thelegalsys- friends, orneighborsoftenendupintheformal va overof thestatetakepriority tradition ormoral r Ku vidualistic, Germany, andtwocollectivistic, Method H types ofculture. r study examinesthewayinwhichconflictsare expectations abouthow toresolve them. This When conflictsarise, eachculture hasdifferent these cultures helpsusliveinaglobalworld. given priority. Understanding differences in the group’s opinions, beliefs, andattitudesare tudes are givenpriority. In collectivisticcultures, tures, theindividual’s opinions, beliefs, andatti- Chinese andtheKurds. In individualisticcul- S between individualisticcultures liketheUnited be slow andsubtle. Amajorcultural divideexists culture changesover time, thesechangestendto acting, andbeliefsthatguidebehavior. Although culture share acommonlanguage, mannerof generation passestothenext.People withinthe ofbeliefs,tern activities, andknowledge thatone Background Directions: N esolved informally, rather thanthrough thefor- legalprocess.esolved usingaformal The laws esolved anddisputesare settledinthetwo ule oflaw. In collectivistic cultures, tradition tates andcollectivisticcultures suchasthe m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame ypothesis lues. Conflicts between familymembers, r dish andLebanese. The studywasconducted C The studyexaminedthree cultures: oneindi- In ulture maybedefinedasanintegrated pat- AESTUDY CASE

individualistic cultures, conflictsare R ead thefollowing casestudy, thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. 18 on shameandguilt. in-group resolution ofconflicts, andtheirviews their willingnesstoacceptgovernment lawover the participants’ viewsoflegitimateauthority, ofopen-ended questionsabout asked aseries cousin isseverely injured.” intoaphysical fightinwhichthe ment turns and deniesthathesoldhimacar. Aheatedargu- thesellerclaimsnottoknowfrom theseller; him after twodays, thecousinwants anexplanation from astranger. Because theenginebroke down that your cousinhadboughtasecond-handcar the cultures oftheparticipants. vignettes were typicalofwhatwouldbefoundin ensure thattheconflictsituationsin tions. Cultural reviewed experts thevignettesto five vignettesinvolvingtypicalconflictsitua- all usedthesamequestionnaire. It consistedof language ofeachparticipant. The interviewers ism andcollectivism. usedtomeasure14-question survey individual- completeda lectivistic mind-set,participants while theKurds andLebanesehadamore col- hadamoreGermans individualisticmind-set, cultureing oftheGerman andlegalsystem. directed torespond basedontheirunderstand- their homeland. were participants The German on theirunderstandingofthelegalsystems to respond totheinterviewers’ questionsbased (Kurds) orLebanon(Lebanese). They were asked their adultlivestothatpointineither Turkey we pants were seekingasyluminGermany. They Ku tends tobeindividualistic andtheculture ofthe r Results esearcher’s culture assessmentthat German r re ds andLebanesetendsto be collectivistic. After reading thevignette, theinterviewers The firstvignettewasasfollows: “Imagine wereThe interviews conductedinthenative To The 14-question survey verified the verified The 14-questionsurvey

r ecent arrivals to Germany andhadspent toGermany ecent arrivals

verify the original assessmentthatthe theoriginal verify Conflict Resolution Culture and (continued) 87 Name ______Date ______Class ______

For purposes of analysis, the responses of the Conclusion Kurds and Lebanese were combined and com- Members of collectivistic cultures are more pared with the German responses. willing to abide by the norms of tradition and Legitimate authority to resolve conflicts rests religious or moral authority. They are less likely with the state in individualistic cultures. German to involve the state, represented by police participants were much more willing to resolve authority and the court system, in settling dis- disputes in court than were the Lebanese and putes, especially if those disputes involve people Kurdish participants. Participants from the col- in their own group. For example, disputes lectivistic cultures gave more weight to tradition among family members or neighbors do not and religion as the legitimate authority in resolv- generally find their way to court in collectivistic ing conflict. cultures. Instead they are resolved as a part of In addition, members of individualistic cul- normal social relationships with a friend or fam- tures preferred a formal process to resolve dis- ily member serving as a mediator between the putes and conflicts. When crimes were commit- parties in conflict. ted, the Germans recommended calling the Members of individualistic cultures tend to police and involving the courts. Members of the rely more heavily on the state and the formal collectivistic cultures preferred an informal legal system to resolve conflicts. They prefer process that involved self-regulation and a will- legal consistency and are willing to take disputes ingness of the offending party to apologize. involving family members or friends through the Often family members of the parties in a conflict formal legal process. help resolve the dispute. Source: Bierbrauer, G. (1994). Toward an understanding of legal culture: Variations in individualism and collectivism between Kurds, Lebanese, and Germans. Law & Society Review, 28 (2), 243–64.

Understanding the Case Study Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 1. How are individuals and groups viewed differently in individualistic and collectivistic cultures?

2. What is the hypothesis of the study? Co py

3. What method was used to conduct the study? ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

4. How did the researchers verify the accuracy of their assumption about the culture of each partici- pant? Was their assumption accurate?

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. 5. Given the nature of each culture, explain why collectivistic cultures rely more heavily on tradition and religious and moral authority, while individualistic cultures rely more heavily on the authority of the state. 6. Write a vignette that could be used to assess collectivistic and individualistic viewpoints. Then dis- cuss the vignette from each perspective.

88 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. planned accordingly. Anditpaidoff.Theworstprob- possible aspectofthejourney, thoughtitthrough, and possible. Amundsenhadcarefully consideredevery trip. Healsoequippedhispeople withthebestgear carry everybitoftheirsupplieswiththemthewhole all alongtheroute.Thatwaytheywouldnothaveto were incredible.Helocatedandstockedsupplydepots travel. plenty oftimetoresteachdayforthefollowingday’s each day. Thatwouldallowboththedogs andthemen traveled fifteentotwentymilesinasix-hourperiod ple. Thedogswoulddomostoftheworkasgroup expert skiersanddoghandlers.Hisstrategywassim- dogsled. Whenheassembledhisteam,chose be totransportalltheirequipmentandsuppliesby and determinedthattheirbestcourseofactionwould of theEskimosandotherexperiencedArctictravelers painstakingly plannedhistrip.Hestudiedthemethods Amundsen CarefullyChartedHisCourse planning wouldpayoff. other endoftheearth.Northorsouth—heknewhis Amundsen changedhisgoalandheadedtowardthe covered thatRobertPearyhadbeatenhimthere, the firstmantoreachNorthPole.Butwhenhedis- nally intendedtogoAntarctica.Hisdesirewasbe Roald Amundsen.Ironically, Amundsenhadnotorigi- of Navigation. Their storiesarelife-and-deathillustrationsoftheLaw goal: tobethefirstinhistoryreachSouthPole. gies androutes,theleadersofteamshadsame incredible mission.Thoughtheyuseddifferentstrate- Directions: N leaders setadirection andcommunicatetheirplantothegroup. social club, itmusthaveapurposeanddirection. Effective the group. Whether thegroup isalarge corporation orasmall the “law ofnavigation,” acoursefor whichistheabilitytochart improving theirskills. Oneskillthatgoodleadersdevelopiscalled Greatlearned. leadersagree thattheyare and alwayslearning a leader. But mostpsychologists agree thatleadershipskillscanbe m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame Amundsen’s forethoughtandattentiontodetail Before histeameversetoff,Amundsenhad One ofthegroupswasledbyNorwegianexplorer In 1911,twogroupsofexplorerssetoffonan What makesagoodleader?Some personalitytraits mayhelpmake READING R ead thefollowing selection,thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. 19 Scott Violated theLawofNavigation that onemanhadtohaveextracted. lem theyexperiencedonthetripwasaninfectedtooth the SouthPoleonJanuary17, 1912.Theretheyfound ten weeks,Scott’s exhaustedgroupfinallyarrived at they hadpreparedenoughsupplies foronlyfour. minute decisiontotakealongafifthman,eventhough drated. MakingthingsevenworsewasScott’s last ally lowonfueltomeltsnow, everyonebecamedehy- them verydifficulttofind.Becausetheywerecontinu- too farapart,andoftenpoorlymarked,whichmade supplies Scottestablishedwereinadequatelystocked, was alsoduetoScott’s poorplanning.Thedepotsof else, theteamwasalwayslowonfoodandwater. That quate gogglesScotthadsupplied.Ontopofeverything everyone becamesnowblindbecauseoftheinade- get hisbootsontoswollen,gangrenousfeet.And team memberrequiredanhoureverymorningjustto designed thatallthemendevelopedfrostbite.One other equipment.Theirclothesweresopoorly sledges. Itwasarduous[difficult]work. themselves endeduphaulingthetwo-hundred-pound mals hadtobekilled.Asaresult,theteammembers of theTransantarctic Mountains,allofthepoorani- those frigidtemperatures.Whentheyreachedthefoot days intothetrip.Theponiesdidn’t farewelleitherin the motorsonsledgesstoppedworkingonlyfive ized sledgesandponies.Theirproblemsbeganwhen Instead ofusingdogsleds,Scottdecidedtousemotor- tion wastheantithesis[opposite]ofAmundsen’s. some exploringintheAntarcticarea.Scott’s expedi- Scott, aBritishnavalofficerwhohadpreviouslydone After coveringagruelingeight hundredmilesin Scott hadn’t givenenoughattentiontotheteam’s The otherteamofmenwasledbyRobertFalcon W ho’s Steering the Ship? (continued) 89 Name ______Date ______Class ______the Norwegian flag flapping in the wind and a letter The larger the organization, the more clearly the from Amundsen. The other well-led team had beaten leader has to be able to see ahead. That’s true them to their goal by more than a month! because sheer size makes midcourse corrections more difficult. And if there are errors, many more peo- If You Don’t Live by the Law of Navigation. . . ple are affected than when you’re traveling alone or As bad as their trip to the pole was, that isn’t the with only a few people. The disaster shown in the worst part of their story. The trek back was horrific. recent film Titanic was a good example of that kind of Scott and his men were starving and suffering from problem. The crew could not see far enough ahead to scurvy. But Scott, unable to navigate to the very end, avoid the iceberg altogether, and they could not was oblivious to their plight. With time running out and maneuver enough to change course once the object desperately low on food, Scott insisted that they col- was spotted because of the size of the ship, the largest lect thirty pounds of geological specimens to take built at that time. The result was that more than one back—more weight to be carried by the worn-out men. thousand people lost their lives. Their progress became slower and slower. One member of the party sank into a stupor and died. Where the Leader Goes. . . Another, Lawrence Oates, was in terrible shape. The First-rate navigators always have in mind that former army officer, who had originally been brought other people are depending on them and their ability to along to take care of the ponies, had frostbite so chart a good course. I read an observation by James severe that he had trouble going on. Because he A. Autry in Life and Work: A Manager’s Search for believed he was endangering the team’s survival, it’s Meaning that illustrates this idea. He said that occa- said that he purposely walked out into a blizzard to sionally you hear about the crash of four military relieve the group of himself as a liability. Before he left planes flying together in a formation. The reason for the tent and headed out into the storm, he said, “I am the loss of all four is this: When jet fighters fly in just going outside; I may be some time.” groups of four, one pilot—the leader—designates Scott and his final two team members made it only where the team will fly. The other three planes fly on a little farther north before giving up. The return trip the leader’s wing, watching him and following him had already taken two months, and still they were 150 wherever he goes. Whatever moves he makes, the rest miles from their base camp. There they died. We know of his team will make along with him. That’s true their story only because they spent their last hours whether he soars in the clouds or smashes into a writing in their diaries. . . . Scott had courage, but not mountaintop. leadership. Because he was unable to live by the Law Before leaders take their people on a journey, they of Navigation, he and his companions died by it. go through a process in order to give the trip the best Followers need leaders able to effectively navi- chance of being a success. gate for them. When they’re facing life-and-death situ- ations, the necessity is painfully obvious. But, even Navigators Draw on Past Experience when consequences aren’t as serious, the need is just Every past success and failure can be a source of as great. The truth is that nearly anyone can steer the information and wisdom—if you allow it to be. ship, but it takes a leader to chart the course. That is Successes teach you about yourself and what you’re Co py

the Law of Navigation. capable of doing with your particular gifts and talents. ri Failures show what kinds of wrong assumptions you’ve ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Navigators See the Trip Ahead made and where your methods are flawed. If you fail General Electric chairman Jack Welch asserts, “A to learn from your mistakes, you’re going to fail again good leader remains focused. . . . Controlling your and again. That’s why effective navigators start with direction is better than being controlled by it.” Welch experience. But they certainly don’t end there. is right, but leaders who navigate do even more than control the direction in which they and their people Navigators Listen to What Others Have to travel. They see the whole trip in their minds before Say they leave the dock. They have a vision for their desti- No matter how much you learn from the past, it nation, they understand what it will take to get there, will never tell you all you need to know for the present. they know who they’ll need on the team to be success- That’s why top-notch navigators gather information ful, and they recognize the obstacles long before they from many sources. They get ideas from members of appear on the horizon. Leroy Eims, author of Be the their leadership team. They talk to the people in their Leader You Were Meant to Be, writes, “A leader is one organization to find out what’s happening on the grass- who sees more than others see, who sees farther than roots level. And they spend time with leaders from out- others see, and who sees before others do.” side the organization who can mentor them.

(continued) 90 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. to possessapositiveattitude.You’ve gottohavefaith Represent bothFaithandFact Navigators MakeSureTheirConclusions themselves andothers. gators countthecostbeforemakingcommitmentsfor stock andthoroughlythinkthingsthrough.Goodnavi- mitments thataregoingtoimpactmypeople,Itake my responsibilitiesasaleader. SobeforeImakecom- when itcomestoleadership.ButI’malsoconsciousof spontaneous. Ontopofthat,Ihavereliableintuition Making Commitments Navigators ExaminetheConditionsbefore N 7. 6. Directions: 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Directions: m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame I likeaction,andmypersonalitypromptsmetobe Being abletonavigateforothersrequiresaleader course forthegroup. Ev What stylesofleadershipmightusethelawnavigation discussedby theauthor? How How What doesLeroy Eims sayaboutleaders? How What were thedifferences between Amundsen’s andScott’s expeditions? T Understanding theReading aluate the leader of a secondary group a towhichyou belongbasedonhisorher abilitytochart aluate theleaderofasecondary hinking Critically

can failures inleadershiphelpaleader? did thesedifferences affecttheoutcomesofexpeditions? does the author describe thequalitiesofeffectivenavigatingleaders? does theauthordescribe Answer the following questionsonaseparate sheetofpaper. Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. Leadership. Source: gating leader. fact. Butthat’s whatittakestobeeffectiveasanavi- optimism andrealism,intuitionplanning,faith them theirvision.”Sometimesit’s difficultbalancing illusions. Theyunderstandthatself-deceptioncancost “Realistic leadersareobjectiveenoughtominimize you’re goingtogetblindsided.AsBillEasumobserves, lenges. Ifyoudon’t goinwithyoureyeswideopen, can’t minimizeobstaclesorrationalizeyourchal- also havetobeableseethefactsrealistically. You to beabletakeitinreallife.Ontheotherhand,you confidently makethetripinyourmind,you’renotgoing that youcantakeyourpeoplealltheway. Ifyoucan’t Maxwell, J.C Nashville, TN:ThomasNelson,Inc.,33–39. . (1998). The 21IrrefutableLawsof 91 Name ______Date ______Class ______

Parental Involvement CASE STUDY 19 and Students’ Aggressive Behaviors Directions: Read the following case study, then answer the questions that follow.

Introduction lived with, how well they got along with their Aggressive and violent acts have increased in parents, and how closely their parents moni- schools across the United States. Violence pre- tored their activities. This section also included vention programs seek to reverse the trend. A a series of 10 statements designed to assess cross-sectional study of middle school students students’ perception of their parents’ attitude explored whether there should be a strong about aggressiveness and violence. Students parental component in such programs. responded “yes” or “no” to these statements indicating if their parents had recommended this solution to conflict. For example, one state- Hypothesis ment was “If someone calls you names, ignore The researchers stated their hypothesis as them.” Students responded by indicating if their follows: “that students who do not live with both parents had ever given them this advice. parents, who have poor relationships with their parents, who have low parental monitoring, and Results who perceive that their parents support fighting will be more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior The average number of aggressive acts com- and carry weapons.” mitted by students in the prior week was 16, although the majority of these acts were not considered violent. About 10 percent admitted Method to carrying a handgun to school and 25 percent The study consisted of a survey of all sixth, had brought other kinds of weapons to school. seventh, and eighth graders from urban middle On all measures of aggressive behavior, the inci- schools in a large school district in Texas. The dence was lower for girls than for boys. final sample included 8,865 usable surveys, rep- In the family life measures, 60 percent resenting 88.5 percent of the school population. reported that they lived with both parents, and Students were evenly distributed by gender and 70 percent said that they had a good or very grade. good relationship with their parents. There was a Before the survey was administered, parental marked difference in parental monitoring Co permission was obtained. Students were assured py between boys and girls. Only 50 percent of the ri that all results would be confidential. Students boys reported that their parents monitored the ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. were given the opportunity to decline participa- majority of their activities, while 66 percent of tion, although few did. The first part of the sur- the girls reported high parental monitoring. vey asked students to self-report their aggressive All the measures of family structure played a behaviors during the past week. Aggressive significant role in aggressiveness of these stu- behaviors ranged from teasing and name-calling dents. Students who lived with both parents to fighting. Students reported the number of were the least likely to commit violent acts at times during the past week that they had engaged school. They were less likely to fight, be injured in such behaviors using a scale of 0 to 6 times. in a fight, or carry a weapon. Students who Separate questions asked for the frequency of had a good relationship with their parents fighting, injuries due to fighting, and if weapons were somewhat less likely to commit violent had been brought to school. acts or to be involved in fights. In addition, The second section of the survey asked stu- those students who reported high parental dents to describe their relationships with their monitoring were three times less likely to parents. Specifically, it asked students who they commit aggressive acts.

(continued) 92 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. to 64percent. even more witharange striking from 7.5percent involved inafight. The difference amonggirlsis their parents aggression supported hadbeen w involved inafightatschoolwithinthepast peacefulsolutionshadbeen ents supported ple, only14.5percent ofboys whosaidtheirpar- r solution toproblems were muchmore likelyto believed theirparents fightingasa supported r aggression andviolence. Ofallthemeasures, and students’ perceived parental stancetoward aggressiveness compared studentaggressiveness aggressive behaviorsandweaponcarrying. Source: solutions toconflict. ents toencourage peaceful themtosupport can alsoincludeaneducationalelementforpar- involvement withtheirchildren. These programs structure, theprograms canencourage parental may notbeabletoinfluencethebasicfamily program’s success. While prevention programs parental involvementwillbeakeyfactorinany trators search forwaystoreduce aggression, too high.Aspsychologists andschooladminis- of violenceandaggression inschoolstodayis Conclusions N 2. 1. Directions: esort toviolenceresolveesort conflicts. For exam- elationship proved strongest. Students who eek, while57.5percent ofboys whobelieved m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame The finalmeasure offamilystructure and M Who were inthisstudy? theparticipants What isthehypothesisofthisstudy? Understanding theCaseStudy Orpinas, P., &Murray, N. ost observers believethattheprevalenceost observers Answer the following questionsinthespaceprovided. (1999). Parentalinfluencesonstudents’ Behavior , 26 (6), 774–87.

Percentage

Percentage 100% 100% 20% 40% 60% 20% 40% 60% 80% 80% 0% 0% 0 1357891001234567 246 89101234567 Number ofViolentActs Number ofViolentActs Violent ActsbyBoys Violent ActsbyGirls Carried Handgun Fought atSchool (continued) 93 Name ______Date ______Class ______

3. What was the average number of aggressive acts committed by students in the prior week?

4. Which of the family structure measures influenced students’ aggressive behaviors?

5. Which family structure measure is most clearly related to school violence?

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 6. What elements would you include in a violence prevention plan for students? Why?

7. What elements would you include in a violence prevention plan for parents? Why? Co py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

8. What other factors may be contributing to the rise of violence in schools?

94 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. phony sitesareasoldthe medium itself;justthis appeared, saiditwouldcooperate. operates theservicewhere phonyWeb page source ofthestoryyesterday, andLycos Inc.,which undoubtedly clearedatidyprofit. to capitalizeoninstantchangesinstockprices, losses, whilesomedaytraders,whousetheInternet Some investorswereleftsheepishlycountingtheir ticated snake-in-the-grass.Andthefraudworked: T American technologycompanycalledPairgain Bloomberg News hardware, itmustbeso.’” mation, sowethink,`Ifitcomesthroughexpensive Internet seemstobeasophisticatedpurveyorofinfor- author of studies attheUniversityofCaliforniaDavisand said PatriciaTurner, aprofessor ofAfrican-American people arepronetobelievethemandpasson. proliferate incyberspace,andperfectlyreasonable meaning colleaguesandfriends.Rumorshoaxes thing youreadonline—evenwhenit’s relayedbywell- in thehypeaboutInternet:You can’t believeevery- hammered homeanimportantlessonthatisoftenlost meting—on Wall StreetWednesday [April7,1999].It takeover sentstockpricessoaring—andthenplum- Directions: N circulate onthe Web, itisproving difficulttostop. almost instantaneously. Oncegossipormythhasbegunto tronic communicationcanspread gossiparound theglobe line. isasoldhumanhistory. Gossip Today, however, elec- how messagebecameby garbledtheoriginal theendof would passasecret messagefrom persontoandsee echnologies Inc.,wasobviouslytheworkofasophis- m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame Hackers andhoaxerswhoalter pagesorpost Government regulatorsweresearchingforthe The bogusWeb site,whichlookedlikeapageof “We trusttechnologymorethanthegovernment,” A phonyWeb sitetoutingamythicalcorporate Do you remember theoldgameoftelephone? You I HeardItThroughtheGrapevine. READING R ead thefollowing selection,thenanswer thequestionsthatfollow. and “reported”thesaleofan “The 20 these storiesistrue.Butallof themhavebeencircu- 2007, disenfranchisingAfrican-Americans? Noneof alerted thattheVoter RightsActissettoexpire in movie theatersandcoin-return slots?Haveyoubeen or needlesinfectedwiththeAIDS virusthatshowupin mall parkinglotsorgangmemberslurkingonhighways pets? Haveyoubeencautionedaboutkidnappersin about asbestosintamponsorairfreshenerthatkills the OprahWinfreyshow?Haveyoubeenwarned designer Tommy Hilfiger makingraciststatementson businesses ortoinspiregenuinefear. quick cash.Butstillothershavethepotentialtoharm annoying, likethechaine-mailpromisinggoodluckor that charged$250foracookierecipe.Othersare ly circulatedtaleabouttheupscaledepartmentstore dlers. spreading asfastacoldvirusinroomfulloftod- corruption andgloom,breedrapidlyincyberspace, ated incyberspace.Tall talesofhorroranddoom, neighbor tobywordofmouth—hasprolifer- the old-fashionedurbanlegend—oncepassedfrom ing ontheInternetforinformationandcommunication, always infectious.Asmoreandpeoplearerely- on lineisn’t alwaysmalicious,althoughitisalmost widely readWeb site.Butthespreadofmisinformation celebrity MattDrudgeroutinelyspreadsrumorsonhis site forMayorRudolphGiulianiofNewYork. Andcyber convince browsersitwastheofficialSenatecampaign week, aprankstersetupsatiricpagedesignedto A fewexamples:Haveyouheardtheoneabout Some oftheserumorsareharmless,likethewide- F and theInternet olklore, Gossip, (continued) 95 Name ______Date ______Class ______lating for years via e-mail and electronic bulletin to die. “It’s like one of those carnival games, where boards. Enough people believe them to make these you have a mallet and you have to hit whatever comes rumors multiply with a few taps on a keyboard and a up,” said Gary Alan Fine, a sociology professor at click of a mouse. Northwestern University and author of Manufacturing Folklorists who study such trends say these Tales. “It comes up. It is batted down. Then a few rumors proliferate because they tap into deep societal weeks later, it comes up again in another place.” fears. “They touch on our ambivalence about the A textbook example of a diving rumor emerged things we worry about, the things that concern us,” late last year. According to the original tale, Steve Turner said. Rumors about the spread of the AIDS virus Burns, host of the Nickelodeon children’s show “Blue’s and tall tales about stolen kidneys, for instance, reflect Clues,” had died in a car crash. The rumor fizzled, but common anxieties about infectious disease as well as a few weeks ago, it reemerged—with dramatic embel- a general concern about the health care system. And lishment. The new version claims that the cable net- rumors about government conspiracies, such as the work is covering up Burns’s death by using a look-alike one about the Voter Rights Act, reveal an overall soci- in the show, a tale similar to the “Paul is dead” stories etal distrust of “official” information. that circulated about Paul McCartney in the ‘60s and At the same time, these stories can stroke egos; ‘70s. But this particular story didn’t just affect mature people who pass them on to friends and colleagues adults: It spread among young children, who were often feel as if they are doing a good deed. “It feeds a understandably distraught. “Some people might think person’s sense of self-importance,” said Barbara this is a joke, but it isn’t funny for these children,” said Mikkelson, . . .”They think, `If I can warn you about this Angela Santomero, the show’s co-creator and co- big scary thing that is happening in our world, for that executive producer. “They regard Steve as a great moment, I will feel like I’m in the spotlight a little bit.’ camp counselor, and that’s why they’re so upset.” “And you also have access to a wider audience,” Daniel Anderson, a psychology professor at the she said. “Before if you got a great story, you’d make a University of Massachusetts at Amherst and a “Blue’s photocopy and stick it up on the bulletin board by the Clues” consultant, said the rumors were likely started elevator. Now all you have to do is hit the alt-forward by cynical adults who are put off by the show’s inno- key and send it out.” The ease of transmission makes it cence. “There is a resentment of the characters that nearly impossible to kill an Internet rumor, no matter have special places in the hearts of children,” he said. how outrageous, defamatory, or potentially damaging. “But these kinds of rumors can be extremely destruc- The Hilfiger rumor, for one, exploded on the Internet in tive and are certainly upsetting to young children.”. . . 1996, and it’s still going strong. According to the story, For all of its chaotic freedom, the Internet has a long proven false, the designer went on the Oprah dark side: Every day is April Fools’ Day in cyberspace. show and said that he didn’t want African-Americans Pernicious rumors are difficult to squelch and even or Asians to wear his pricy signature clothing. Both harder to trace. “It’s hard to find the precise moment Hilfiger and representatives from the Oprah show when an urban legend comes into being,” said issued statements denying the rumor—Hilfiger has Mikkelson. “It’s like trying to find out where a river never even appeared on the show—but the tale sim- starts.” mers down for a while and then reemerges apace. Co py

That kind of story is what experts call a “diving Source: Hartigan, P. (1999, April 9). Unfounded rumors can prove ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. rumor,” a tale that is repeatedly debunked but refuses indestructible in cyberspace. Boston Globe, p. A1.

Understanding the Reading Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 1. What happened when a phony Web site announced a mythical corporate takeover?

(continued) 96 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2. 8. 7. 6. Directions: 5. 4. 3. N m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame y How How How How What isa “diving rumor”? multiply? saytheserumors Why dofolklorists I Gi nternet. T ou dotoaddress thefalsehood? ve an example of a business that may have been harmed from amyththatwasspreadve anexampleofabusinessthatmayhavebeenharmed viathe hinking Critically

we would you feelifyou were spreading rumors thevictimofuntrue ontheInternet? What would can you avoidbeingfooledby anurbanmyth? do theseurbanmythsstrengthen your existingattitudes? Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. re

urban legendsspread before theInternet? 97 Name ______Date ______Class ______

CASE STUDY 20 “The Jury Will Disregard That!” Directions: Read the following case study, then answer the questions that follow.

Hypothesis used to kill the victims had Wilson’s fingerprints When a judge tells a jury to disregard certain on it, and a witness testified that he had seen the information, can the jury forget what they have defendant in front of his wife’s home on the read or heard? How can the opposing attorney night of the killings. minimize the effects of such information? The The defense argued that the evidence hypothesis of this case study assumes that an against Wilson was circumstantial; that Wilson’s attorney can reduce the effects of pretrial public- fingerprints were on the knife because it was his ity or inadmissable evidence by creating the sus- own hunting knife, which was among the many picion that this information was presented with personal items he had left in the house when he ulterior motives. moved out; and that the testimony of the eyewit- ness was unreliable and not relevant to the mur- ders themselves. Method Participants were randomly assigned to one To test the hypothesis, an experiment was of three groups: the control group, the pretrial conducted in which participants became mock publicity group, and the suspicion group. The jurors in a murder trial. Researchers prepared a control group read only the transcript of the trial transcript and created what looked like trial. Their judgment then was solely based on copies of newspaper articles and a set of instruc- the facts presented in the case. tions to the jurors. These were standard judicial Before being given the transcript, partici- instructions directing jurors to not be influenced pants in the pretrial publicity group were given by prejudice or passion, and to make all judg- copies of newspaper-style articles. One ments “from evidence received in the trial and described the crime, the accusations against the not from any other source.” defendant, and that he had been arraigned. A Participants were asked to imagine that they second article reported that Wilson had a history were jurors in an actual trial. Each was to read of beating his wife and reported that “sources” the material provided and make a decision con- said Wilson’s fingerprints had been found on the cerning innocence or guilt in the case. There

murder weapon and that witnesses had placed Co

would be no jury deliberation. Responses from him at the scene of the crime. Also included was py each “juror” would be anonymous. ri a column called “In My Opinion” complete with ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All participants read the same 22-page tran- a photograph of the “columnist.” This column, script of the trial, State of New York v. Charles written in an emotional and hostile way, report- Wilson. The defendant, Charles Wilson, was ed that Wilson was an alcoholic, prone to vio- accused of killing his estranged wife and a male lence when drinking, and quoted unnamed neighbor. The transcript consisted of the judge’s sources saying Wilson was jealous of his wife. opening instructions to the jury, the opening The column contained other bits of negative and closing statements of the prosecution and information about Wilson and called strongly for the defense, and the testimony of six witnesses. his conviction. The prosecution argued that Wilson believed Participants in the suspicion group were also his wife was having an affair, hired a private given the packet of newspaper articles and the investigator to prove this, and killed his wife and column, plus one additional item: a brief news the neighbor when he discovered them together article that called into question the motives of in her home. Wilson had moved out of their the media covering the case. At no point was the home two weeks before the murder. The knife columnist mentioned specifically, although the

(continued) 98 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. lic opinion.” inthemedia information “in order toswaypub- attorney’sthe district officemayhaveplanted dant’s innocence.” suggested that The attorney ignores factswhichwouldpointtoward adefen- tosellpapers,information andknowingly fine exampleofhow themediamanipulates said, coverage“The asanother ofthiscaseserves coverage ofthecase “completely libelous” and column. calledthemedia The defense attorney diddenytheallegationsin defense attorney r suspicious aboutthepretrial publicitywould dant wasguilty, butthatmakingparticipants the likelihoodthattheywouldthinkdefen- topretrialparticipants publicitywouldincrease Results N 7. 6. Directions: 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Directions: educe thiseffort. m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame The principal hypothesiswasthatexposing The principal lessened? How make alljudgments “from evidencereceived andnotfrom anyothersource”? inthetrial In How individually? Why? We How What kindof “evidence” didtheresearchers prepare aspretrial publicity? toserve What wasthehypothesisofthiscasestudy? guilty ornotguilty? T Understanding theCaseStudy

hinking Critically a casewhere there hasbeenconsiderable pretrial publicity, to ajury whywouldajudgeinstruct re

can pretrial How publicityprejudice onjuries? peoplewhoserve canthisprejudice be did theresults amongthecontrol, pretrial vary publicity, andsuspiciongroups? did thecolumn, “In My Opinion,” create theattitudeinreader thatthedefendantwas the jurors todeliberate togetheranddecideasagroup, orwere theirdecisionstobemade Answer the following questionsonaseparate sheetofpaper. Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. & SocialPsychologyBulletin effects ofpretrialpublicityandinadmissibletestimony. that information?Theuseofsuspiciontoreducetheprejudicial Source: such publicitycanoffsetthenegativeeffects. re toward conviction,butthatcreating suspicion against thedefendantcaninfluenceajury Conclusions than were jurors inthecontrol group. group, however, were nomore likelytoconvict the defendant.Participants inthesuspicion against publicity tendedtobiastheparticipants ters votedguilty, indicatingthatnegativepretrial pretrial publicitygroup, more thanthree-quar- ty ofthejurors offered aguiltyverdict. Ofthe garding themotivesbehindsource(s) of The studyshows thatpretrial publicity In Fein, S.,&McCloskey, A.L.

the “no publicity”control group, aminori- , 23 (11), (1997). Canthejurydisregard 1215–26. Personality 99 Name ______Date ______Class ______

READING 21 Steve Blass Disease Directions: Read the following selection, then answer the questions that follow.

Professional athletes are paid large sums of money to entertain us. We demand excellence in return for that money. What happens when a successful athlete suddenly loses his ability to perform, not because of a physical problem, but because of a psychological problem? Steve Blass did not find an answer to this problem. Today the advances in sports psychology may be able to supply other profes- sional athletes the help they need to stay on top of their game.

It almost never fails. Any time a big league pitcher Modern sports psychology was popularized in the can’t find home plate with his fastball, Steve Blass gets late 1960s by Soviet and East German doctors in their a telephone call. Any second now, he can expect work with Olympic athletes. Yet, 30 years later, Ravizza Atlanta pitcher Mark Wohlers’ agent to break in with says only about half a dozen major league baseball an emergency call. “They say, ‘We’d like you to talk to teams employ psychologists. In the macho world of this guy,’” Blass says, “and I say, ‘I’m the last guy you baseball, getting players to open up is about as easy want to talk to him!’” as hitting Greg Maddux. “This is about being great, it’s Blass is baseball’s most enduring mental mystery. not that you’re messed up,” Ravizza tells players. After pitching the Pittsburgh Pirates to the 1971 World Former Angel Damion Easley, now with Detroit, has Series title, and winning 19 games the next year, Blass been using hypnotherapist Pete Siegel since 1995, yet lost control of his pitches in 1973 and was out of the only recently admitted it publicly. Easley didn’t even tell game, at 32, in 1974. “To this day, I don’t know what his teammates. Salmon says, “A lot of players say, caused it,” says Blass, now a Pirate broadcaster. “I ‘Hey, wait a minute, I don’t need my whole game ana- never had a sore arm in my life.” The malady remains lyzed.’” Easley finally “came out” because he credits commonly known in baseball circles as “Steve Blass Siegel for salvaging his career. “I feel it’s my responsi- Disease.” Blass didn’t have a team psychologist to turn bility to help others,” Easley said recently. to, although on his own he sought out everything short “And when I went through a tough time, this is of shock therapy. “I went to a hypnotist and he said, how I got out.” Ravizza is not familiar with Siegel’s ‘You’re a bad subject.’” Blass wishes he could have work, but says that, in general, players have to be tapped into today’s advances in sports psychology. “I careful in seeking counsel. “There is no magic dust,” think there would be more things for me to try,” he Ravizza says. “A hypnotist says, ‘I’m going to change Co says. There have been considerable strides made in you overnight?’ I’m sorry, I disagree. You might get a py ri helping athletes cope with the mental side of sports. quick fix, but it’s got to be developed over time. I see a ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Agent Leigh Steinberg says many of his famous clients lot of people selling witch oil.” Salmon agrees. “People use acupuncture, acupressure, meditation and yoga are always looking to jump on your coattails and be for stress relief. The Dodgers and Angels have sports associated with success of a person,” he says. “You psychologists on staff, although many players are still can confuse players, overload players. Paralysis by reluctant to take a seat on the couch. “No one wants analysis. I take a very simple approach.” Some see to admit it’s mental,” Angel team psychologist Ken today’s modern players and wonder how they could Ravizza says. “They say ‘It’s my arm, my mechanics, it’s possibly be stressed out. “In my day, you had to pro- not my head.’ It’s the biggest barrier I have to overcome, duce on the field, then had to work in the winter to put the whole shrink image. I say, ‘I’m not a shrink, I’m a food on the table,” former Dodger Ralph Branca says. stretch.’ On the Angels, maybe one-fourth of the guys “I’d say there was more pressure in my day.” Many of are really into it.” Troy Percival and Tim Salmon are two today’s players enjoy salaries that can secure them for Angels not reluctant to admit they work with Ravizza. life, free agency, guaranteed contracts and no-trade Percival uses breathing techniques to stay calm on the clauses. “There could be a lack of pressure,” St. Louis mound. “The game goes from 100 to 1,000 mph,” he Cardinal Manager Tony La Russa argues. “It’s a tough says. “If you can’t slow it down, the game’s over.” time to be excellent, tougher now than ever before.

(continued) 100 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. N therapy particularlyeffective.“You willfind,whilenot mary caregiver. Steinberghasfoundonemethodof It isSteinberg,infact,whoservesashisclients’pri- Who needsashrinkwhenyoucanleanonyouragent? clients, mostlyNFLstars,seesportspsychologists. Steinberg sayshedoesn’t believeanyofhistop can bealcoholthatendsupbeingthestressreliever.” says. “Unfortunately, iftheydon’t dealwithitwell, not necessarilycalm,placidandcontent,”Steinberg with largeamountsofmoney, powerandsuccessare ly raisedexpectationsforplayersandfans.“People media coverageandsports-talkradiohavedramatical- ferent thaninthepast.”Steinbergsaysincreased locker roomarewatching.Scrutiny, that’s probablydif- some guymakesajokeaboutitandalltheguysin sportscaster, part-timecomedian.Ifyouscrewup, says. “Oneverynewschannelthereissomesarcastic less stress.“ESPNshowseverythingyoudo,”Salmon says. Salmonalsodisagreesthattoday’s athleteshave single week,unhappyathletescallup,”Steinberg is different,Steinbergarguesthatit’s veryreal.“Every worry, believeme.”Yet, ifstressonthemodernathlete like conditionsofemployment.Alotthemdon’t natural motivatorsarenotthereanymore,likesurvival, Y 5. Directions: 4. 3. 2. 1. Directions: 6. ou havetodigrealdeepinsideyourself.Alotofthe m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame If players inthe1950sand1960s? What isthedifference between thestress feltby professional baseball players todaycompared to What doesKen Ravizza, theAnaheimAngelsteampsychologist, cautionaboutseekingcounsel? How What happenedtoSteve Blass thatendedhisprofessional baseballcareer? show, whatwouldyou say? Y psychologist. Manysports fansare million-dollarathletes. callingincomplaining aboutpampering radioAssume you listentoasports-talk program. The professional teaminyour cityhasjusthired a of therapy ortreatment wouldyou recommend? T Understanding theReading ou think it is a good idea to have a sports psychologist availableou thinkitisagoodideato haveasports toplayers. When you call intothe

y hinking Critically ou were whattypes psychologist andhadaplayer a sports whosuddenlywasunabletoperform,

was modern sports psychology popularized? sports was modern Answer the following questionsonaseparate sheetofpaper. Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. Angeles Times. athlete copewiththementalsideofworldsports. of therapyareavailabletohelptoday’s stressed-out,struggling Source: named afterus.” Gehrig,” hesays.“Theonlytwoguyswithdiseases there, Ijustfrozeup.”Blass’legacy?“MeandLou in thebullpenandbefine,butwhenIgotahitterup I didn’t seeanydifference,”hesays.“Icouldwarmup was throwinggoodandwhenIbad, film projectorsinaroomandputupthefootagewhenI no baseunturnedinsearchofacure.“Iwouldputtwo not solvethemysteryofSteveBlass,althoughheleft the greatonesthriveonthat.”Sportspsychologycould changed. Theyallstandnakedbeforethegods,and of proathletesisembarrassment,”hesays. to beinthepublicspotlight.“Oneofbiggestfears Ravizza thinksmostfansunderestimatewhatitmeans Steinberg says. satellite dish,flippingfromTVshowtoshow,” chair athome,withnoonetalkingtothem,a scientific, formanyathletesit’s theabilitytositona “When itcomestoperformance,thathasn’t “That’s probablytheNo.1methodofveggingout.” Dufresne, C. p. 12. (1998, August9).Skullsessions:Manyforms Los 101 Name ______Date ______Class ______

CASE STUDY 21 “Can I Get Some Service Here?” Directions: Read the following case study, then answer the questions that follow.

Hypothesis is defined as the time when the person entered Common sense tells us that waiting time in the line until the time the checker began to serve checkout lines directly correlates with customer him or her. The serve time measured the actual satisfaction, a subject of concern for some checkout process from the checker’s greeting to industrial/organizational and consumer the point where the money was received and the psychologists. Customer satisfaction increases as receipt was given. waiting time decreases. There, however, is a dif- The remaining researchers were assigned to ference between objective waiting time and per- interview customers as they started to leave the ceived waiting time. Objective waiting time is store. The brief interview consisted of four the actual time spent in line. The perceived wait- questions: ing time may be longer or shorter than the 1. How long do you think you were waiting in objective waiting time depending on a variety of line today before you reached the checker? factors such as the person’s mood, what else the (perceived wait time) person has to do, the apparent efficiency or inef- 2. Was your wait today shorter, longer, or about ficiency of the checkers, and the customer’s as long as you expected? (participant’s expectations about waiting in line. For this study, expectations about the wait) both objective and perceived waiting times were 3. How satisfied are you with the service assessed. you received today? (satisfaction with the checker) Method 4. How satisfied are you with the store? (satis- To test the hypothesis, two large, high-vol- faction with the store) ume supermarkets from different chains were The sample consisted of 117 customers from selected. The store in Sacramento, California, is the Woodland supermarket and 155 customers located in a predominately white community. from the Sacramento store. Customers’ median age is 37.4 years and median income is $37,721. The Woodland, California, Results Co store is located in a community with a predomi- py nantly white and Hispanic population. Research confirmed that the store environ- ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Customers’ median age is 30.4 years and median ment (busy or slow) and the speed of the check- income is $34,420. ers (faster or slower) did affect objective waiting Store management at both stores cooperated time, perceived waiting time, and serve time. with the study. Measurements were taken during Objective waiting time was longer at the slow times (8 A.M. to 11 A.M.). and busy times Sacramento supermarket when the store was (4:30 P.M. to 7:30 P.M.) on two separate Saturdays. busy. Objective waiting time was longer at the Observation prior to these two dates determined Woodland supermarket when the store was slow. which checkers were faster and which were At both stores objective waiting time was longer slower. with a slow checker than with a fast checker. Several research teams were used. Each con- Perceived waiting time was longer at the sisted of three or four members so that as large a Sacramento store when the store was busy, sample as possible could be gathered. Some whereas the opposite was true at the Woodland researchers were assigned to the checkers. They store. At the Sacramento store, perceived waiting used naturalistic observation techniques and time was longer with the slower checker, where- recorded the wait time and serve time. Wait time as at the Woodland store the speed of the checker

(continued) 102 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. ceived waitingtimewasgreater thantheirobjec- ence onsatisfactionwiththestore. littleinflu- buthadvery faction withtheserver waiting timeinfluencedsatisfactionordissatis- increases.the server Interestingly, perceived ceived waitingtimedecreases, satisfactionwith Conclusions N expected. ing timeswere thanoraslongthey shorter at the Woodland store indicatedthattheirwait- Sa E Sa tion withthestore itself,ineithersupermarket. expectations didnotaffectcustomers’ satisfac- than oraslongtheyexpected. Waiting time whentheirwaitingtimeswereservice shorter stores, customerswere more satisfiedwiththeir the store wasnotbusy. store butwaslongeratthe Woodland store when time. did notaffectthecustomer’s perceived waiting 2. 1. Directions: ighty-nine percent ofcustomersatthe m ______Dt ______Cas______Class ______Date ______ame cramento store, and96percent ofcustomers cramento store andthe Woodland store. F R C At Se What isthedifference between objectiveandperceived waittime? What typeofstore wasselectedasthesettingforthisstudy? S or the majority ofcustomers,or themajority theirper- Understanding theCaseStudy tanding inlineiscommonfast-foodoutlets, retail stores, banks, themeparks, andotherplaces. esults of the study confirmed thatasper- esults ofthestudyconfirmed ustomer satisfactionwashighatboththe

rv both theSacramento andthe Woodland e timewasconstantattheSacramento Answer thefollowing questionsinthespaceprovided. time. influential thanperceived orobjectivewaiting which thisstudydidnotmeasure, may bemore tion. Interaction between checkerandcustomer, decreasedo notnecessarily customersatisfac- waiting timeandlongerobjective increases customersatisfactionwiththeservice. R tomer andcheckerincrease slow during times. ers, suggestingthatinteraction between cus- decreased, withtheslower speedofthecheck- faction atthe Woodland store increased, not environment (busyornotbusy).Customer satis- ied theirspeedwiththechangesinstore A timeswhenthestoreduring wasnotsobusy. timewereserve longeratthe Woodland store times, butobjectivetime, perceived time, and asmuchbetween busytimesandslownot vary ence theirsatisfactionwiththeservice. ing time, nottheactualwaitingtime, didinflu- tive waitingtime. Customers’ perception ofwait- Psychology: InterdisciplinaryandApplied,131(6), effect ofwaitingtimeoncustomersatisfaction. Source: pparently checkersatthe Woodland store var- esults implythatthisheightenedinteraction This studyshowed thatlongerperceived Checkout timeattheSacramento store did T om, G.,&Lucey, S. (1997). Afieldstudyinvestigatingthe Journal of 655–60. (continued) 103 Name ______Date ______Class ______

3. What four questions did the interviewers ask?

4. Why was the objective wait time longer at the Woodland store when the store was not busy?

Thinking Critically Directions: Answer the following questions in the space provided. 5. Why is it important for store management to study customer satisfaction as it correlates with cus- tomers’ wait times?

6. If the study showed that perceived wait time is important to the customer, what could store managers do to make perceived wait time seem shorter for shoppers? Co py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

7. As an industrial/organizational or consumer psychologist, what recommendations would you make to the management of the Woodland store about the personality characteristics of checkers? Explain your answer.

104 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Answer Key Chapter 1,Reading 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Chapter 1,CaseStudy 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. explain psychic phenomena. I condition, andtogivethemrespect. and dignityashumanbeings, toimprove their The ultimategoalistotreat clientswithrespect behavior. life. The mediaregularly report examplesofsuch life willeventuallyspillover intoone’s professional inone’sthat alackofethicalprinciples personal and onepersonal. Those whodisagree willargue or appeartolead,doublelives, oneprofessional S upon, evenby someonewithnomoral principles. thatcanberecognizedboundaries andacted code ofconductgivesapsychologist significant ment. Those whoagree withitwillargue that the S attitude, andrevenge. desire forrecognition, anunfeelingoruncaring psychologists toactunethicallyincludegreed, S compassion.” faithful,” and “treating and otherswithcaring statements seemtobe “being just,” “being forliving.However,ethical principles thebroadest all nineoftheitemscouldbeviewed asgeneral S harm. notgiventhatresultsnot takenorinformation in that result Omissionrepresents inharm. actions sion errors. Commission represents actionstaken through commissionoromis- They coulddoharm fessional conduct. that follow asetofmoral values oracodeofpro- E Association. of Conduct Ps such phenomena. It failedinthatendeavor. entire toexplain purposewastodeveloptheories collected animpressive bodyofevidence, its S He sis, witchcraft, apparitions, andmentaltelepathy. The societystudiedthoughttransference, hypno- cial resources toconductthestudy. andalackoffinan- to scientificexperimentation practicing psychic phenomenatobeingsubjected The tworeasons citedare theresistance ofthose should be. that didnotfitintotheiridea ofthewaythings thinking, becausetheydismissedanyphenomena ts purposewastousescientificresearch to tudents shouldrecognize thatalthoughthe society tudents maypointtopeopletheyknow wholead, tudents mayagree ordisagree withthisstate- tudent answers willvary. The for tudent answers mayvary. In abroad sense, thical behaviorconsistsofactionsanddecisions y

chologists usethe said thattheywere closed-mindedintheir from the American Psychologicalfrom theAmerican E thical Principles andCode 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Chapter 2,Reading 8. 7. 6. 3. 2. 1. Chapter 2,CaseStudy to betotallywrong. areastions assignedtovarious ofthebrain proved accurate insight,eventhoughthespecificfunc- r est proposals thatdifferent ofthebrain parts were ing outotherpossibilities. For example, theearli- andrul- have abasisfordevelopingnewtheories When research results falsifyatheory, researchers y ness, theyremember thesefalseeventsastrue, arethe participants returned conscious- tonormal hypnosis thingsthathavenotoccurred. If, when way by whoare suggestingtoparticipants under inageneral couldbeconfirmed that thetheory S thanitsquantity.important evidenceismoreThe qualityoftheconfirming theories. S proved false. that predictions canbe madeusingthetheory mustbestatedinsuchaway Scientific theories treatment. died were toosicktohavebeensavedby any people gotbetter. He rationalized thatthosewho He phenomena. w able tounderstandhow thehumanmindworks explanations orthatresearchers havenotyet been fact thatsomeaspectsofbehaviordefyscientific Answers willvary. Possible answers includethe living. these phenomenatohelppeoplewitheveryday hoped thatpsychologists couldfindwaystouse aboutpsychic phenomena,Jamesuseful theories life.everyday If thesocietycouldhaveproduced and thewaythatmentalprocesses couldimprove W r he encouraged themtocontinuegatherand It attire ofthecustomer)was beingmeasured. (basedontherace,The delayinservice gender, or neutral merchandise. stores thatspecialized infemale, male, orgender- the study. The stores were one-entrance (smaller) R byservice salesclerks. of clothing,andtypestore affectedthedelayin R esponsible fordifferent functionsproved tobean ecord facts. ou would have a confirmation ofthetheory.ou wouldhaveaconfirmation tudent answers mayvary. Some studentsmaysay pecific predictions canbemadeusinggood etail stores intwoshoppingmallswere usedin esearchers were studyinghow race, gender, style

ell enoughtocreate forsome scientifictheories appears that he did support theirresearchappears thathedidsupport since illiam James wasinterested inmentalprocesses

believed histreatment worked becausesome 105 Answer Key

4. Caucasian males in business clothing received the affordable care signals a lack of support. Also, the fastest service. African American males in casual values that society places on child rearing will attire received the slowest service. affect the decision of mothers to enter the work- 5. The independent variables are gender, race, type force. If having “all the right things” is viewed as of store, and type of clothing. critically important, many mothers of preschoolers 6. Student answers will vary. Many will say that sales- may feel pressured to re-enter the workforce even clerks should be reminded of the importance of all if they would prefer to stay at home. customers. Service based on race or gender should not be the model used by any store. Service based Chapter 3, Case Study on attire may be somewhat more defensible, espe- cially if the store is busy. Salesclerks should be 1. The purpose of the study was to see if young chil- reminded, however, that first impressions can be dren engage in and understand body image and misleading. dieting behavior. The study’s participants were 431 7. The malls used in this study were located in pre- children in the second, third, and fourth grades in dominantly Caucasian, upscale areas. Also, the Melbourne, Australia. salesclerks were primarily Caucasian. Future stud- 2. Results showed that 19.3 percent of boys and 23.7 ies could use urban malls and stores with a better percent of girls were overweight while 59.9 percent racial mix of salesclerks and customers. of boys and 48.6 percent of girls were of normal weight. 3. Children were asked to select the figure that most Chapter 3, Reading resembled them, the ideal figure, and the one that 1. In 1993, 48 percent of preschool children with they felt most like. working mothers were cared for by a relative. 4. Children had actively reduced their intake of spe- 2. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, mothers were cific foods, reduced their overall food intake, and economically productive workers and primary eaten healthier foods. child caregivers. 5. The study did not support the idea that young 3. World War II caused large numbers of mothers to children understand the relationship between enter the workforce to replace the male workers restrictive eating habits and body-image dissatis- away at war. faction. This indicates that children do not yet 4. Children from low-income families gain the most have fully developed abstract reasoning skills and benefit from quality child care because low- that their reasons for dieting are other than income children benefit from learning opportuni- because of poor body image. ties and social and emotional supports that they 6. Student answers will vary. Examples include unre- otherwise might not get. alistic expectations and trying to fit in with peers. 5. In agricultural societies, where the home and the 7. Student answers will vary. Recommendations may farm were seen as a unit, mothers contributed to include encouraging parents to know what their the family’s income by working on the farm. Since children think about their body and how that much of the family’s food came from the farm, affects their self-image, and helping their children Co mothers also canned and preserved food for use identify other qualities about people that are more py ri during the winter. This assured that the family meaningful than physical appearance. ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. would have food during the farm’s nonproductive months even if there was limited income during Chapter 4, Reading those months. Mothers also took the primary responsibility for child rearing. 1. Society paid close attention to the moral, intellec- In industrial societies, work was no longer tual, and social development of teens. Society also done at home, which often left the mother unable recognized adolescence as a time of transition to provide economically for the family. Her role from childhood to adulthood. became primarily one of child rearing. If the fami- 2. The author cites the pace of change, adults who ly’s income was not sufficient, however, many are too busy for parenting, adults who have not mothers had to learn to juggle work outside the yet matured fully themselves, aggressiveness of home with child-rearing responsibilities. merchandisers and the media to sell to the teen 6. Student answers will vary. Societies that value the market, and the serious real-world problems that economic role of mothers in the workplace will are commonplace in high schools. support that role by accommodating the responsi- 3. High schools have become miniature communi- bilities of work and child care. Providing quality ties with all the social problems found in the adult child care is a signal of support, while lack of good, world.

106 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2. 1. Chapter 5,Reading 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Chapter 4,CaseStudy 6. 5. 4. Answer Key concise astheyfacedeath. work becomesmore meaningfuland aesthetically ‘Swan-song’ creativity isatimeinwhichpeople’s enjoyment ofoldage. Also,change inform. creativity mayenhancethe Cr teens. in adolescencethatoccursamongAmerican cal appearance doesnotseemtocausethestress vide examplesfrom othercultures inwhichphysi- whowouldpro- the socialdevelopmenttheorists wouldcomefrom thatthebehaviorislearned port place insocietyasachildbearer. Evidence tosup- r state thatfemaleevolutionhasbeenbasedprima- biological (innate)basisforthebehaviorwould S extremely toadolescentfemales. important The studysuggeststhatphysicalappearance is adolescence.lems during enced numerous otheremotionalandsocialprob- menarcheexperienced earlier. They alsoexperi- R chological problems laterinlife. donotcausepsy- puberty monal changesduring transient, andrecurrent. She concludedthathor- areThe categories positive, earlytransient, late adolescence oradulthood. lihood ofdevelopingdepression eitherduring changesandstresseffect ofhormonal onthelike- The longitudinalstudywasdesignedtothe adolescence.during to control one’s emotions. It occursfrequently Emotional dysregulation istheseeminginability The estrogen levelincreases rapidly. innuendo. exposure to suchthingsasviolenceandsexual desensitization ofchildren resulting from repeated the classfavorsnorestrictions, citestudiesonthe tofreewill citetheright of speech.If themajority types ofmerchandise andmediaavailable tothem Studentsgood form. nolimitsonthe whosupport S many ofthesocietalproblems theauthorlists. view ofoldergenerations, theywilllikelyrelate to have adifficulttimeunderstandingthepointof S while exposingteenstoincreased stress. The authorcitesincreased vulnerability tostress, ily ontheabilitytoattract amateandtakeone’s tudent answers willvary. Evidence the tosupport tudent answers willvary. The lettersshouldbein tudent answers willvary. Althoughteensmay ecurrent hadhigherbodyfatand participants eativity doesnotdeclinewithage, butmay 6. 5. Chapter 5,CaseStudy 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. 4. 3. around theircreative talents. find waystobuildcareers andlifelonghobbies y something thatcanonlybedonewhenyou are tend toviewcurrent talentsasjustforfunor S tothecreator.ativity brings of creativity isthejoy andsatisfactionthatthecre- talents tobesatisfied. The more aspect important not essentialtobecomefamouswithone’s creative In not achievedfameorfortune. creativity hadenhancedtheirlivesevenifthey o H pared tothosewhodied. They wantedthe wasnotsignificantcom- felt thattheirexperience especially whenthechildren were young. Others not wanttocolortheperspectiveoftheirchildren, want theirchildren toknow oftheirpain;theydid simply couldnotspeakofthepast.Others didnot The actualreasons seemtovary. Some survivors cultural generativity. andveterans oftechnicalor interms survivors ty. There appearstobelittleconnectionbetween parallels couldbedrawn withparental generativi- difficult timeconnectingemotionallytoothers, so inwaroftenhavea experiences have hadterrible erativity toveterans. wasimportant Veterans who W S group.generativity forthesurvivor Z emotional support. or often lackedtheabilitytogivestrong nurturing Su dren aswell as provide needs. fortheirmaterial The refugees were more able tonurture theirchil- atrade.high schoolorlearned the twogroups, sincemanyhadnotcompleted T camp. vivors hadsuffered through lifeinaconcentration H The twogroups were refugees ofthe andsurvivors we had fulfillingcareers. She foundthat thesemen forfame,and menwhohadneverstrived butwho The three groups were successful; famous;very more creative astheyaged. that 60percent oftherespondents hadbecome A University ofNebraska-Lincoln studyindicated oung (e.g., athletictalents).Many creative people tudent answers willvary. Oftenyoung people tudent answers willvary. The baby boomafter echnical generativity wasleastevidentamong wn stories remembered.wn stories Others couldnot sepa- ionism wasthestrongest componentofcultural olocaust remembered, their butnotnecessarily olocaust. Refugees hadfledEurope, whilesur- orld War IIseemstoindicate thatbiologicalgen-

r general, creativity canbeanendinitself.It is re vivors provided forthephysicalneeds, but , ingeneral, happy withtheirlivesandthat 107 Answer Key

rate the guilt of survival from their stories. To tell great anxiety will show a greater difference of the experience would bring back the guilt. between hemispheres than those with low levels Finally, in some families the Holocaust experience of anxiety. formed a great emotional chasm between the sur- 6. Additional research could study people with vari- vivor and his or her children. When the survivor ous disorders. Similar tests could be performed was finally ready to speak of the events, the chasm with each disorder to determine if anxiety levels seemed too wide to cross. change from hemisphere to hemisphere. For example, do most people with depression show greater anxiety in the left or right brain? If it is Chapter 6, Reading found that one hemisphere is significant, thera- 1. Common consequences of strokes, head traumas, pies can be developed to treat that hemisphere. and spinal cord injuries include loss of physical function, paralysis, cognitive impairment, loss of memory, and changes in personality. Chapter 7, Reading 2. The two phases are primary and secondary injury. 1. Current patterns call for one extended sleep peri- Primary injury occurs at the moment of the stroke od. In the past, and in other cultures, sleep is often or trauma. The secondary injury occurs over hours conducted in two parts with a period of wakeful- or days. ness or semi-wakefulness in between. 3. Excitotoxicity is a genetically programmed mecha- 2. Communal sleep equals safe sleep. It provides nism to kill unneeded or unhealthy cells. safety from predators, attackers, and spirits. 4. The NMDA receptors are left open, minerals enter 3. Fear sleep is a state of deep sleep that is a sudden in excessive quantities, and enzymes are produced reaction to intense anxiety or unexpected fright. that destroy the cell membrane. Certain people who are accustomed to sleeping in 5. Student answers will vary. Psychological effects sensory-filled locations may engage in fear sleep. include changes in personality, feelings of hope- 4. He found that people slept in one long stretch for lessness and despair, and emotional upheaval. the first few days, presumably to catch up on their 6. Student answers will vary. Scientific clinical stud- sleep. Then they slept in two segments with a time ies are needed for all drugs to win approval by the of wakefulness between the segments. Food and Drug Administration. Although drugs 5. The traditional view is that the friend is suffering prove effective in animals, the same results may from insomnia. The anthropological view would not be obtained in humans. In addition, the vari- suggest that this is a normal sleep pattern. Using ous side effects may make the drug unusable in the anthropological model, your friend should go humans. The risk and potential benefits of partici- to bed earlier and use the wakeful period in the pating in a study must be carefully weighed. middle of the night in some constructive manner. 6. Student answers will vary. Explanations include artificial light has shortened the sleep cycle, the Chapter 6, Case Study relative safety of modern life from traditional 1. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the nighttime threats, and the rise of an industrial Co body, language, and verbal reasoning. society that regulates the day by work shifts. py ri

2. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. body and spatial reasoning. 3. Zaidel’s study confirmed that language is a Chapter 7, Case Study left-brain function. However, it demonstrated that 1. Chronic pain is long-term pain from a known or the right brain does process visual information unknown source that cannot be relieved through correctly. surgery or physical therapy. 4. Schiffer hypothesized that emotions are processed 2. She was not being helped by any of the traditional differently by the left and right hemispheres of the approaches to pain management, so she took brain. responsibility for her own health and learned how 5. Student answers may vary. Some may conclude to manage the pain through self-hypnosis. that anxiety results from disparity between the left 3. She used a lake to symbolize her pain. and right hemispheres. If this is true, those with 4. She became more relaxed and eased the pain by low levels of anxiety have better integrated the two visualizing the lake getting smaller. She was able halves of the brain. Therefore, there is little differ- to reduce her pain to a more manageable level. ence when studying only one hemisphere. Others 5. The biopsychosocial approach combines tradi- may explain that if the emotions that create the tional medical treatments like surgery and physi- anxiety are stronger in one hemisphere, those with cal therapy with psychological and social

108 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Chapter 8,CaseStudy 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Chapter 8,Reading 7. 6. Answer Key apy, hypnosis, andbiofeedback. approaches suchasgroup therapy, relaxation ther- tonal languages. S similar totheoneusedat University of pitchstudy the hypothesisistoconduct a perfect Answers willvary. The mostobvious waytotest nurtured. onlyifdeveloped and butwillflourish inherited, The researchers concludedthattheabilityis They used40pure tones. pitch. They foundthattheentire samplehadperfect guage. Chinese speakersbecausetheyuseatonallan- The researchers usednative and Vietnamese component. andalearned inherited pitchhasbothan The hypothesiswasthatperfect without havinganothernoteforreference. Pe would bedifferent. students toconsiderhow theirday-to-day lives This isacreative assignment.Challenge writing body works onEarth. has helpedusunderstandmore abouthow the center around thewaysinwhichresearch inspace S sions. are. ofillu- avariety They alsomayexperience and makingthemfeelheavierthantheyactually gravityThey experience pullingontheirbodies the sametypeofmotionsickness. Vi the lackofperceptual cues. falling astheydowhenskydiving probably dueto In for forward motion. The otolithorgans intheinnerearare responsible r The three semicircular canalsoftheinnerearare spaceflight. during W become available. decides, rather thanwaitingforthehypnotistto to usethetechniquewheneverandwherever one advantage ofself-hypnosisistheability a primary S hypnosis astheexplanationforsuccess. the altered stateofconsciousnessachievedduring S esponsible forsidetomotion. tudent answers willvary. Their should tudent answers willvary. Many studentswillnote tudent answers willvary. Answers shouldexplore outhern California atSanouthern Diego with speakersof eightlessness is the primary effectonthebody eightlessness istheprimary r

r spaceflight, travelers donotfeelliketheyare tual reality gamesandsimulationscancreate fect pitchistheabilitytoidentifyanoteortone 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Chapter 9,Reading 2. 1. Chapter 10,Reading 3. 2. 1. Chapter 9,CaseStudy 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. O by optimism andpessimism,usethetestdeveloped means conclusive. For amore thorough testof S or pessimistic. find thattheirresponses are optimistic primarily S Pe permanence,pervasiveness, andpersonalization. The three styleare dimensions oftheexplanatory hood andadolescence. Y pessimist. stylesareThe twoexplanatory optimistand B events.frustrating orirritating S we tioned fishpresented withthered light(PAV-L) unconditioned fish(UNP),andPavlovian-condi- P while theconditionedstimulusisred light. The unconditionedstimulusisthefish, nesting sites(toattract asuitablemate). M testing. developed forspecialized usesuchasperfume butmustbe sense ofsmellthatmaybeinherited, Answers willvary. Anexamplewouldbetheacute are more inlatercontests. fitandlessfearful cal punishmentthanlosers. Asaresult, winners is thatwinnersincurlesspainandtakephysi- S successful. motivation fortheaggressiveness maynotbeas aggressiveness itwithastrong withoutpairing other typesofanimals. However, conditioning that similarconditioningwouldbepossiblewith instincts are strong inotherspecies, itseemslikely S attract thebestfemales. possibilities ofthemaleby allowing themto The bestnestingsitesenhancethereproductive 1 (0%). No (PAV-NL). we ou develop your explanatory style during child- styleduring ou developyour explanatory tudent answers will vary andtheexercisetudent answers willvary isby no tudent answers willvary. Students are likelyto tudent answers willvary. The strongest possibility tudent answers willvary. Since territorial he becamedepressed becausesheremembered avlovian-conditioned fish (PAV) were paired with efore thetestsshewould review the highlightsof ptimism. ale blue gourami fish establish territories for ale bluegourami fishestablishterritories rv

re re Se

loser ofContest 1defeatedawinnerofContest asiveness and permanence control whatyouasiveness andpermanence do.

ligman, which is printed in ligman, whichisprinted paired withPavlovian-conditioned fishthat not presented withtheconditionedstimulus Learned 109 Answer Key

her life. During the reviews she generally recalled process does not yield more incorrect facts than happy memories. During the memory tests she standard police interview procedures. The pur- was reminded of irritations that had occurred. pose of the Cognitive Interview is not to alter 3. She had forgotten over 400 of the 1,350 items, or memories, but to retrieve them more effectively. about 30 percent. 4. Long-lasting memories tended to be fairly unique, Chapter 11, Reading nonrepeated events, or surprising events. 5. Routine events tend to be uninteresting and rela- 1. Infants first learn to recognize the sound patterns tively unimportant. We are unlikely to share them of their native languages. with others or review the events in our minds. 2. Jusczyk played each infant’s name through a loud- 6. Students will complete the sentence in many speaker and timed whether and for how long the ways. In general, they will be more likely to infant turned his or her head in response. remember the surprising event two years from 3. The infant responded for a longer period to his or now. her own name than to other names, including 7. Student answers will vary. Some students will ones that sounded similar. point out that Litton was really only testing her 4. The critical period theory is the idea that there ability to remember dates, not general memory is a finite period when children can easily learn function. (Note: This can be extended to a group language. project in which students design a test of their 5. They concluded that children are superior to own memories.) adults in learning language because they learn 8. By constantly writing down her memories and sound patterns first and then attach meaning to testing herself periodically, Litton was using tech- the patterns. niques that actually helped to encode memories 6. Most students will take the position that second- and improve recall. Most people do not record language instruction should be introduced in their memories or test themselves and might not younger grades. They will base their reasoning on recall events as easily as Litton did. the reading, which points to children’s superior ability to learn languages and the fact that the brain matures by puberty to the point that lan- Chapter 10, Case Study guage learning becomes difficult. 1. Some believe that hypnosis can be used to alter 7. Student answers will vary. Abilities at which memories, as well as enhance them. Since eyewit- teens and adults are superior to children include ness testimony is to be based on recollections of the ability to reason, solve problems, and think the facts, alterations to memories could affect the critically. ability to recall facts correctly. 2. The four principles of the Cognitive Interview Chapter 11, Case Study are event-interview similarity, focused retrieval, extensive retrieval, and witness-compatible 1. Since the Army is participating in peacekeeping questioning. missions with other United Nations troops, it must Co 3. The control group consisted of the robbery detec- address how it will keep peace and communicate py ri tives who were not trained in the Cognitive with troops whose native language is not English. ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Interview technique. 2. Healy hypothesized that people use strategies 4. The data were analyzed by comparing the inter- from their native language to process and under- views of the trained detectives before and after stand foreign language. training and by comparing the post-training inter- 3. The three strategies are: noun/noun phrase, views of the trained group with interviews of the noun/pronoun, and noun/zero anaphora. untrained group. 4. Native Chinese speakers did worse on the unal- 5. Student answers will vary. Using the information- tered and inappropriate tests, but better on the processing model of memory, we know that mem- zero anaphora test. This indicates that these peo- ories are originally encoded through our senses. ple did use strategies from their native language in That makes the external conditions of the event understanding their second language. important. One way we store information is by its 5. Peacekeepers must clearly understand their roles importance. Therefore, events that are more emo- and avoid conflicts among themselves in order to tional or cognitively more significant may be be able to mediate disputes and diffuse tense situ- remembered better or longer. ations. Clear and precise communication is neces- 6. The actual results, which students should be able sary to achieve this goal. to infer, indicate that the Cognitive Interview

110 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Chapter 12,CaseStudy 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Chapter 12,Reading 6. Answer Key 10. 9. 8. such displayrule. their facialexpressions. haveno The Americans tus. In suchsituations, theJapanese willmask ative emotionsinfront ofsomeonehighersta- thatkeepsthem from displayingneg- display rule difference isthattheJapaneseThe primary havea mask, orblendtheexpression. areThe rules todeamplify, neutralize, amplify, sions are made. which we liveaffecthow andwhentheexpres- D are innate;we are withthem. born R fear, happiness, sadness, andsurprise. The sevenemotionsare anger, contempt,disgust, We GABA andadenosineslow brain activity. neurotransmittersexcitatory inourbrain. One hypothesisisthatsleepmayreplenish the ilar tothebackground musicinamovie. the emotionaltoneforstimuliwe receive, sim- The emotionalbrain isthelimbicsystem.It sets to react more quickly. The neurochemicals prepare thebrain’s cells nerve dopamine, acetylcholine, andserotonin. The neurotransmitters are norepinephrine, any stimulusthatreaches thebrain. r deepinthebrain stem,playsamajor of nerves The reticular activating system,asmallcollection language. the languageorhaveaworking knowledge ofthe keeping troops. Such individualseitherspeak which you willmostlikelyneedtosendpeace- generation immigrants to from thecountries be torecruit U.S.citizens whoare first-orsecond- S amount ofsleep. acorrelationdescribe between theirmoodandthe Answers willvary. Most studentswillbeableto the strength orweakness ofourmotivation. tion onlyexplores thechemicalchangesthataffect ment onmotivation, whilethebiologicalexplana- includestheeffectofenviron- incentive theory plements theothertheories. For example, the should show thatthebiological explanationcom- S well onSaturday.one nightifyou wanttoperform w physically, mentally, andemotionallywhenitis The coachknows better thatthe bodyperforms ole inmotivation andarousal. It setsthetonefor tudent answers willvary. Onesuggestionwould tudent answers willvary, butthebasicresponse esearchers thatthesefacialexpressions theorize ell rested. You forthis thecurfew shouldobserve isplay rules thatareisplay rules uniquetotheculture in

feel lessvitalandmotivated. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Chapter 13,Reading 4. 3. 2. 1. Chapter 13,CaseStudy 7. 6. decisions. other thantestscores inmakingadmission and universitieshavealwaysconsidered factors and differences suchasthefactthatU.S.colleges oftestscoresas theimportance foradmission, r S y scores, notonwhoyou know orhow muchmoney onentrancealways beenbasedstrictly exam versities. Admission totheseuniversitieshas chance atadmissionstothebestcollegesanduni- The entrance examsallow allstudentsanequal ipate inextracurricular activities. have towork afterschoolandare unabletopartic- He and willcreate socialunrest. down the ofeducation,will hurt equality inselection,willresult inthedumbing Cr tions inadditiontotheexamscores. dents’ extracurricular activities andrecommenda- current system.It aboutstu- usesinformation The officeadmissionssystem(OA) isreplacing the country’s power various structures. it lackscreative ideasinthe mindswithoriginal He dents’ possiblechoicesofjobsupongraduation. the studentcanenter. This, shapesstu- inturn, whichcollegeoruniversity The examsdetermine and interest andculture. inlearning lem-solving ability, , character, F ability, verbalability, andsocialcompetence. identified practicalThe participants problem-solving for eachtypeofintelligenceor unintelligence. The behaviorswere refined intoalistofbehaviors ligence, intelligence, everyday andunintelligence. iors thatcharacterize intelligence, academicintel- He intelligence aswell. No many centuries tomeettheirsocialneeds.many centuries tional society. wereThe displayrules over formed laws. The Japanese havearather andtradi- formal r S encouraged. play ofemotionisdiscouraged; inothers, itis their own experiences. In somefamiliesthe dis- S esearch such thetwosystemstofindsimilarities esult from cultural norms, traditions, andsocial ou have. tudent answers willvary. Encourage studentsto tudent answers willvary. usually Display rules tudent answers willvary. They willlikelydraw on acets of everyday intelligenceareacets ofeveryday practical prob- itics are thattheOA systemwilldestroy nervous

, theauthorbelievesthatlaypeoplecanidentify thinks that the new system will hurt thosewho thinks thatthenewsystemwillhurt claims thatsocietyhaslostitsvitalitybecause asked 476 men and women to describe behav- asked 476menandwomentodescribe juku industry, 111 Answer Key

5. Everyday people had the broader view in that they 3. The researchers explored several hypotheses, included everyday competence and common including the following: Neuroticism will be nega- sense in their lists. tively related to intrinsic and extrinsic career suc- 6. Student answers will vary. Most students will cess. Extroversion will be positively related to likely identify some type of “What would you do intrinsic and extrinsic career success. if” situations. Conscientiousness will be positively related to 7. Students are surrounded by academia on a daily extrinsic career success. Personality measures col- basis. Since it is a larger part of their lives than for lected in adulthood will explain more variance in working people it is likely to be more significant in career success than childhood measures. General their descriptions. Also, since many students are mental ability will be positively related to extrinsic relatively young, they may not have discovered the career success. Personality will explain incremen- importance of common sense and character in tal variance in career success beyond that daily living. explained by general mental ability. 4. The study did not support the hypothesis that extroversion is related to job satisfaction (intrinsic Chapter 14, Reading career success). It also did not support the 1. He identifies risk taking and thrill seeking as our hypothesis that personality measures collected in new national behavior. adulthood will explain more of the variance in 2. Three expressions of this new behavior are career success than will childhood measures. increased participation in extreme sports, career 5. The study suggests that career success will be choices in volatile industries, and an upswing in greater when personality traits, general mental the use of hard drugs. ability, and the career path match. If people are 3. The increased popularity of extreme sports may not well suited for the career they have chosen, result from a need for danger and risk, a sense of they are likely to face frustration, job burnout, or pushing personal boundaries, the need to test our other negative experiences that will lessen career limits, and the lack of risk in our everyday lives. success. 4. Risks have been reduced by science, government, 6. Student answers will vary. Advantages include lawsuits, and medical advances. finding out before you accept a job that you are or 5. He sees risk takers as Type T personalities. are not well suited for it, a reasonably objective 6. Student answers will vary. Students may cite the way to reduce the list of candidates for a position, ability to create that seems to be unique to and some level of assurance that you will be a humans. They could argue that all creativity is a good fit with the job. The two largest disadvan- form of risk taking. tages are possible discrimination by eliminating 7. Farley’s hypothesis supports the view that person- candidates who may be otherwise qualified for the ality traits are environmentally determined. The job and eliminating qualified candidates because genetic makeup of Americans is extremely diverse, the job type has not been properly correlated with making an inherited need for risk taking unlikely. personality factors or general mental ability. Farley’s position is that culture strongly influences Co human development of their personalities. py ri 8. Student answers will vary. Some will note that Chapter 15, Reading ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. although interest in extreme sports is growing, the 1. Anxiety is at the extreme high end of the arousal total number of Americans involved in these activ- scale. ities is very small. It may not be accurate, there- 2. Attention clings to the source of the threat and fore, to classify the personality of an entire nation focuses attention on the threat by narrowing by a small percentage of its population. Some stu- awareness. dents will support Farley’s view by saying that the 3. The divers continued to concentrate on the cen- cultures of the two countries are vastly different. tral task but lost track of the light. Cultural influences may shape a personality char- 4. The attentional definition of anxiety states that un- acteristic like risk taking. wanted thoughts and feelings intrude on awareness. 5. Students will list three of the following: pangs of emotion; preoccupation and ruminations; persist- Chapter 14, Case Study ent thoughts and feelings, emotions or ideas that 1. Three hundred eighteen from Berkeley, and 212 the person cannot stop; hypervigilance or exces- from Oakland. sive alertness; insomnia; bad dreams; unbidden 2. The study focused on intrinsic (job satisfaction) sensations; or heightened startle reactions. and extrinsic (rate of pay, occupational status) 6. Your mind and body are reacting to the stress by career success. focusing attention on the cause of the stress. With

112 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Chapter 16,Reading 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Chapter 15,CaseStudy 7. Answer Key targeted and effective drugs canbedeveloped. targeted andeffective drugs everyone. By identifyingthespecificgenes, more position theychoose. Althoughtheymay statethe S can simplybeforgotten. orrepetitiveattention thusfocused,boring tasks Pr C ed, andapositivetestcouldleadtoanabortion. Once thegenesare identified,fetusescanbetest- It It stress affectstheoutcomeoftrial. stress, but there is notclearevidencethatthe studies pointtosequestration asasource ofjuror S address thepotentialproblem. jurors managethestress islikelythebestwayto some detailswillcreate stress; however, helping be fairer. The reality involvinggrue- isthattrials als, thatwould askthemtoexplainanalternative believe thatjuror stress oftri- affectsthefairness S about returning successfullytotheirdailylives. among jurors; andmakingconcrete suggestions andunderstanding mutualsupport fostering forcing jurors todiscusstheirreactions tothetrial; tions tostress withjurors; encouraging butnot reviewingsons forthedebriefing, reac- normal includes: makingsure jurors understandtherea- H the verdict orsentencing. analyzed theevidence, buttheyplayed norole in listenedtoallthetestimonyand The alternates andthreethe trial monthslater. wereThe surveys administered immediatelyafter onthejury. ofactuallyserving dent variable because theywere notexposedtotheindepen- The veniremen asthecontrol group served questioning process butare notselected. V state wasreached. that thesituationwasresolved before theanxiety anyofthesymptoms,did notexperience itislikely any ofthesymptomslistedinreading. If they they feltstress. Students mayhaveexperienced S drugs thatcantreatdrugs thedisorder. ilies, diagnoses, verify and, hopefully, leadtonew in families. tudents should write avigorous defenseofthe tudents shouldwrite tudent answers willvary. Afewinconclusive tudent answers mayvary. However, ifstudents situationsinwhich various tudents willdescribe eniremen are potentialjurors whocompletethe urrently, researchers donot know like whydrugs

afemeister suggestedafive-stepmodelthat would allow testingofmembersaffectedfam- 100people,affects about1inevery anditruns o zac work. Such alsodonotwork for drugs 6. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Chapter 16,CaseStudy 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Chapter 17, Reading gene therapy ormoleculemanipulation. disorders can bediagnosedandcorrected through Ba take astand. other sidesofthecontroversy, theyshouldclearly symptoms may, foratime, subside. and notlettheattacksoverwhelm them,the lems. When theyare abletofocusonotherthings der faceisthinkingirrationally abouttheirprob- One oftheproblems thatpeoplewithpanicdisor- depression, however, willnotsolvetheproblem. depression.do experience Treating thepersonfor lems. Most peoplewhosufferfrom panicdisorder r like theincreased andbreathing heart rates are S therapies are beingused. only tocontrol thesymptomswhileother behavior, therapy. anddrug areThe drugs used P ferers are thechildren ofanalcoholicparent. childhood.Manyanxiety andshynessduring suf- r them feelliketheyare suffocating.Other panic disorder havebreathing problems thatmake light stageofsleep. Others thinkthatpeoplewith the personnoticingphysicalchangeswhileina S children. and shethrew herselfintoworking andraising her The attacksceasedwhenherfirsthusbanddied ance, and other diagnosesofphysicalailments. litis, problems withherteeth,aninnerearimbal- J occurred only atnight. The attacksbeganwhenJane was26.Initially, they r health ofthefetus. They were abletodraw blood able toavoidtranquilizing theanimaltocheck side thebars. Eventually, Jill wouldberewarded They beganthemodification by simplysittingout- get Jill toshow themthebaby. Through behaviormodification, theywere ableto with thetranquilizer gun. J By r The rewards consistedofpudding,frozen raspber- nate intoacup, andallow anultrasound. J ane wasdiagnosedwithsevere depression, tonsil- ill learned that the veterinarian woulddisableher thattheveterinarian ill learned ill wastaughttoallow thevettodraw blood,uri- eal. Physicians must first rule outphysicalprob-eal. Physicians mustfirstrule esearchers theattackstoseparation attribute egularly and perform ultrasounds.egularly andperform ies, gelatin,frozen blueberries, andyogurt. tudent answers willvary. The physicalsymptoms ome researchers thinktheattacksare causedby anic disorder isoftentreated withcognitive,

r modifying theorangutan’s behavior, theywere ondes envisionsatimewhenpsychological 113 Answer Key

each time she came near the vet. The rewards 7. Student answers will vary. Treating a family in con- reduced her anxiety about the vet. Through each text means to consider the circumstances that stage of the conditioning, the rewards continued affect the family and its members. In this case, to reduce anxiety and encourage Jill to cooperate, Robert’s behavior at school affected his behavior even if the procedure was painful or uncomfort- at home. Additionally, Robert’s strained relation- able. ship with his father affected him in school and in 7. The basic process of behavior modification is the social situations. By examining all aspects of same for humans and animals. The differences Robert’s situation, the counselor and therapist will exist in the types of rewards and in the range of be better able to help Robert. applications for which behavior modification is used. In animals, the rewards must be tangible. In Chapter 18, Reading humans, the rewards can be intangible, such as acknowledgment and appreciation. In humans, 1. He found that anger was not the most destructive mental imaging can be used to conquer fears, emotion in marriage. whereas animals do not have the reasoning capac- 2. He has found that criticism, contempt, defensive- ity to respond to mental imaging. ness, and stonewalling are destructive. He also identified an unequal balance of power as a cause of marital difficulty. Chapter 17, Case Study 3. Researchers use videotapes in which they can 1. Robert was disruptive especially during transi- closely examine the emotional responses between tions, and he often complained that the other boys partners. They provide a more accurate record wanted to fight with him. He lacked good social than self-reported behaviors. skills. He also had a great deal of homework and 4. Studies have shown that happily married couples struggled with the amount of reading that was are healthier and have a stronger immune system. required. In addition, unhappy marriages often result in 2. Robert had a good relationship with his mother. emotional problems for the couple and emotional She was supportive and consulted him in deci- and behavioral problems for the children. By elim- sions affecting him. Robert had little contact with inating these problems, better health can be main- his father. His father had recently been calling tained. more frequently, but Robert had no stable rela- 5. They recommend that couples share household tionship with him. and child care responsibilities. They also recom- 3. The professionals were the family therapist and mend group therapy with other new parents. the school counselors. Some students will include 6. Student answers will vary. When people are com- Robert’s teachers, but the counselor actually par- municating in destructive ways, no amount of ticipated in the therapy and consulted with teach- active listening is likely to resolve the problem. ers about Robert’s progress. Gottman identifies criticism, contempt, defensive- 4. Cindy would set up a household structure that ness, and stonewalling as demons of marriage. If provided rewards and consequences for chores this is true, couples who listen actively to their Co and schoolwork completion. Robert would be partner’s expression of these negative emotions py ri encouraged to interact socially with other chil- will damage their relationship further rather than ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. dren, including attending the boys club. As a improving it. family, they would establish quality time that 7. Student answer will vary. A love map demonstrates would be free of chores and schoolwork. They acceptance and intimacy because the person is would discuss the role of Robert’s father and able to explain his or her spouse’s dreams and establish a pattern of communication. fears. Acceptance therapy starts from a point of 5. Robert will be placed at the front of the class to acceptance of the differences that exist in the rela- reduce distractions. He will be paired with another tionship and communicating the need to maintain student to improve his social skills. He will also and strengthen the relationship. participate in group counseling with other chil- dren in similar situations. Chapter 18, Case Study 6. Student answers will vary. Robert does not know what to expect from males. He may be disappoint- 1. Individuals’ beliefs, opinions, and behaviors are ed with infrequent contact and confused by his more important in individualistic cultures. In col- father’s recent attempts to maintain more contact. lectivistic cultures, the group’s beliefs, opinions, He may translate that into a lack of trust toward and attitudes are more important than those of other people, especially his peers. the individual.

114 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 1. Chapter 19,Reading 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. Answer Key dispute. wouldlikelybecalledintomediatethe friend Inly endupincourt. acollectivisticculture, a vidualistic culture, thistypeofdisputewouldlike- approaches usedby thetwocultures. In anindi- demonstrate thattheyunderstandthedifferent clear strategy thatbalanced progress withtheabil- adequate suppliesandthebest gear. He hada clothing.Hepriate suppliedhisexpeditionwith Eskimos (Inuit), aboutmodes of travel andappro- tion ingreat detail.He consultedexperts, the Amundsen prepared andplannedfortheexpedi- ment. Astheyargue, anantiquelampgetsbroken. goes tothedealer’s shoptocontinuetheargu- day. The twogetinaheatedargument. Arthur thathehadnoothersetsinhisshop Arthur correct sethasbeendelivered. The dealertells one. phonesthedealer, Arthur whoinsiststhatthe set nextweek. When thesetarrives, itisthewrong makes arrangements withthedealertodeliver the two, acheckforthepurchase, writes and lar instyle. He finally selectsthemore expensiveof is decidingbetween twoantiquesetsthatare simi- isshoppingforanewdiningroom set.HeArthur S such asthestate. r istic society. To prevent anarchy, to authority are notcommontoallmembersoftheindividual- and, infact,encouraged. Traditions andreligion cultures, differences amongpeopleare tolerated tudes, beliefs, andbehaviors. In individualistic ofthegroup,be apart thesameatti- you learn oftraditionthings interms orreligion. In order to the individual. The group oftendefinesthese behaviors, andattitudesare more than important In tivistic culture. the Kurds andtheLebanesewere from acollec- wereGermans from anindividualisticculture and theresearchers’port assumptionthatthe They useda14-itemsurvey. The results didsup- ticipants. we naire assessingpeople’s attitudes. The interviews The researchers usedvignettesandaquestion- lution process. r C disputes evenamongfamilymembersandfriends. people rely legalsystemtoresolve ontheformal The hypothesisisthatinindividualisticcultures, esolve conflictisgiventoalegitimateauthority, eligious authority, disputereso- andaninformal tudent vignetteswillvary. Possible vignette: ollectivistic cultures rely ontradition, moral and

S collectivistic cultures, thegroup anditsbeliefs, re tudents’ analysesoftheirvignettesshould

conducted inthenativelanguageofpar- 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Chapter 19,CaseStudy 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. need to understand what services areneed tounderstandwhatservices available for social andproblem-solving skills. All students faced by teens. Some teensneedtoimprove their lems, andcounselingavailable forthestresses demonstrate meansofresolving alternate prob- r S forviolence.port violence andastudent’s perceived parental sup- The strongest relationship existsbetween student foraggressiveness.port parental andperceived monitoring, parental sup- with bothparents, goodrelationship withparents, All fourmeasures influencedaggressiveness: living The average was16acts. in trict Texas. seventh, andeighthgrades inanurbanschooldis- wereThe participants 8,865studentsinthesixth, weapons.sive behaviorandcarry fightingwillbemoreport likelytoexhibitaggres- andwhoperceivetoring, thattheirparents sup- with theirparents, whohavelow parental moni- with bothparents, whohavepoorrelationships The hypothesisisthatstudentswhodonotlive examples whenpossible. this group. Encourage studentstoincludespecific evaluate theleader’s abilitytosetadirection for Studentsschool andtheleaderisprincipal. Answers willvary. group couldbethe Asecondary group. leader, by definition,doesnotset direction forthe styles usethelawofnavigation.Alaissez-faire anddemocratic leadership The authoritarian pared, effective, andwise. He this knowledge tobuildfuture successes. wrong assumptionsandflawed methods. They use Leaders canusefailures toponderandchange do. thanothers,farther andseethingsbefore others He andtheyalllosttheirlives.trip did nothavetheenergy orsuppliesforthereturn destination, butdidnotachieveitsgoal. The team r Amundsen andhisteamachievedtheirgoal ing team members to carry extra weight. ing teammemberstocarry when adequatesupplieswere notavailable orask- decisions suchastakinganextra teammember supplies orgear. He madespurofthemoment was unworkable. He didnotprepare adequate andchoseameansoftransportation that experts ities ofhisteam.In contrast, Scottdidnotconsult esolution ofconflicts, role-playing activitiesthat eturned home.eturned Scott’s expeditiondidreach its tudent answers willvary. Examples includepeer

describes themasoptimistic,realistic,describes pre- says thatleadersseemore thanotherssee, see 115 Answer Key

conflict resolution in a nonaggressive manner. newspaper articles describing the case, and an 7. Student answers will vary. Examples include par- opinion column calling for the conviction of the ent education about their role in the aggressive- defendant. ness of their children and support groups for par- 3. The opinion column created the attitude in the ents who are struggling with difficult issues in reader that the defendant was guilty by strongly their own lives. stating the writer’s opinion (which ran against the 8. Answers will vary. Students may point to the defendant’s innocence) and calling for the defen- amount of violence in the movies, on TV, or in dant’s conviction. video games. They may mention increased stress 4. Jurors were to make their judgments individually. or increased drug use or other social pressures as Researchers wanted to test the effects of pretrial well. publicity, not group conformity. 5. More than three-quarters of the pretrial publicity group voted for conviction. Less than a majority Chapter 20, Reading of the control and suspicion groups voted for 1. Some investors lost money, while others, especial- conviction. ly day traders, made a profit. 6. The American justice system depends on juries 2. They spread by word of mouth from person to considering only the evidence presented at the person or by posting the item on bulletin boards. trial in making jury decisions, not media coverage 3. Tommy Hilfiger was hurt by the story that he stat- and opinions of the case. ed on Oprah that the company did not want 7. Pretrial publicity can prejudice a jury by creating minorities to purchase its expensive clothing. the idea of guilt or innocence in people’s minds Hilfiger has never appeared on the show, but that before the actual evidence is presented. has not stopped the rumor from persisting. Statements made in the media may be presented 4. Rumors multiply because they tap into deep soci- as facts, even though they could not be presented etal fears and stroke egos. at the trial as facts. The media may also create an 5. A diving rumor is a tale that is repeatedly exposed impression of the defendant that is prejudicial. as false but refuses to die. The prejudice can be lessened by changing the site 6. Student answers will vary. Some students will like- of the trial to a location that has not received the ly see little reason to avoid these myths; they enjoy same pretrial publicity. The judge can also instruct the tabloid approach to information. Others will the jury not to consider any information except point out that if it sounds unbelievable, you that presented at the trial. In a real juror situation, should investigate the facts as thoroughly as possi- the verdict must be unanimous. Therefore, if one ble before passing the legend along. or two people can focus on the facts of the trial 7. Student answers will vary. Although some students only, the defendant can receive a fair trial. may say they would simply laugh it off, challenge them to think of something that could really hurt them or one of their friends. For some types of Chapter 21, Reading rumors, it may be best not to respond because 1. In 1973, he lost control of his pitches. He had no Co that encourages the rumor to stay alive. If, howev- physical problems, and he could not find any py ri er, the content could really harm you or someone mechanical problems with his pitches. ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. close to you, you may need to take aggressive 2. It was popularized in the late 1960s by Soviet and action to try to find the source and expose him or East German doctors in their work with Olympic her. athletes. 8. Answers will vary. Once attitudes are formed they 3. He cautions that psychologists do not provide become difficult to change. Information that sup- magic cures. Hypnosis and other therapies may ports existing attitudes tends to be believed. help, but they take time to work. He also warns Information that refutes our attitudes tends to be that you can overload an athlete with too much discounted. analysis, which leads to confusion. 4. Before the high salaries paid to professional base- ball players, the players had to worry about sup- Chapter 20, Case Study porting their families during the off season when 1. The hypothesis was that jurors are influenced by they received no money. Today, the stress results pretrial publicity about a case. The influence, how- from not having sufficient motivation, being con- ever, can be mitigated when suspicion is raised stantly scrutinized in the media, and increased about the motives of the media. expectations that accompany the large salaries. 2. The researchers created a transcript of the trial, 5. Student answers will vary. Hypnosis and medita-

116 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 3. 2. 1. Chapter 21,CaseStudy 6. Answer Key expected? How satisfiedare you withtheservice wait todayshorter, longer, oraboutaslongyou today before you reached thechecker? Was your ing wouldalsobeagoodrecommendation. that changesaperson’s inaccurate waysofthink- tion are widelyusedtreatments. Cognitive therapy How has waitedinline. length oftimethatthecustomerthinksheorshe spent standinginline. Perceived waittimeisthe Objective waittimeistheactual,measurable time that theircustomerbasewouldnotoverlap. T we theirbest.Afterall, keep focusedonperforming psychologist onstaff.Hesports canhelpplayers student mightsay “I thinkit’s agreat ideatohavea Formake theirpointsclearandbrief. example, a S tudent answers willvary. Encourage themto wo supermarkets werewo supermarkets so selected,35milesapart

do wanttheteamtowin.”

long doyou thinkyou were standinginline 7. 6. 5. 4. and outgoing,aswell asefficient. management lookforcandidateswhoare friendly longer, thepsychologist couldrecommend that slow timeeventhoughtheobjectivewaitwas S “r out lanessothatcustomerswillhavesomethingto watch. Supermarkets placetabloidracks incheck- screens that patrons inthelongwaitinglinescan Answers willvary. Theme parks installvideo customer satisfaction. wait time, factorin animportant itiscertainly satisfaction maybebasedonthingsotherthan satisfied, theywillgoelsewhere toshop. Although for thestore. If customersbecomesufficientlydis- C which increased times. boththewaitandserve ting withcustomerswhenthestore wasnotbusy, It store? y ou received today?How satisfiedare you withthe ince customer satisfaction was high during the ince customersatisfactionwashighduring ustomer satisfactionresults inreturn business

ead.” This maylessentheperceived waittime. appears thatthecheckersspentmore timechat- 117 Teacher’s Notes Co py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

118 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. T eacher’s Notes 119 Teacher’s Notes Co py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

120 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. T eacher’s Notes 121 Teacher’s Notes Co py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

122 Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. T eacher’s Notes 123 Teacher’s Notes Co py ri ght © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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