CEU eTD Collection POLITICAL ANDRELIGIOUS OFINTERPRETATIONS CONSTRUCTING INTHE ASELF-IMAGE IMAGEOF PIUS II’S LETTER TO MEHMED II PIUS II’SLETTERTO (1461)MEHMED MA Thesis in Medieval Studies in Medieval Thesis MA Central Central University European OZDEN MERCAN THE OTHER: May 2008 Budapest CEU eTD Collection CEU eTD Collection Central European University, Budapest, in partial fulfillment of the requirements CONSTRUCTING A SELF-IMAGE IN THE IMAGE OF THE OTHER: POLITICAL ANDRELIGIOUS INTERPRETATIONSOF Thesis submitted to the Department of Medieval Studies, Accepted in conformance with the standards of the CEU POPE PIUS II’S LETTER TO MEHMED II (1461) ______of the Master of Arts degree in Medieval Studies Chair, Examination Committee Examination Chair, OZDEN MERCAN Thesis Supervisor May 2008 Examiner Examiner Budapest () by CEU eTD Collection Central European University, Budapest, in partial fulfillment of the requirements CONSTRUCTING A SELF-IMAGE IN THE IMAGE OF THE OTHER: POLITICAL ANDRELIGIOUS INTERPRETATIONSOF Thesis submitted to the Department of Medieval Studies, Accepted in conformance with the standards of the CEU POPE PIUS II’S LETTER TO MEHMED II (1461) ______of the Master of Arts degree in Medieval Studies OZDEN MERCAN External Examiner May 2008 Budapest (Turkey) by CEU eTD Collection attitudes of the fifteenth century humanists in the face of the Ottoman peril. and theconcerns of representative isfascinating a letter Pius’ rhetoric, humanist Islamimage of .Combining and attitudes medieval Ottomans the towards with the through aEuropean self-image andconstructed Islam against rhetoric polemical revive the incrusading Pius spirit Pope made princes Christian medieval useof to order In Ottomans. the against fight their in Christians for support ideological and Pope more than that, letter, Pius asa letter planneda conversion this propaganda tool and its comparisonled towith debates the previousamong has letter this ambiguities, to these Due rather problematic. of letter the purpose the scholars papal aboutletters its only deathof the Pius.after ThisfactmakesPope intended the audience and main written purpose. to MuslimA inclosewritten 1461,however itwas never sentto Mehmed anditmadewas publicin analysisrulers revealsof thesultan Mehmed in the Conqueror toconvertorder Christianity. him was to Thisletter letter External Reader: John V. Tolan (Université de Nantes) Thesis Supervisors: Aziz Al-Azmeh, Marcell Sebök This study This study writtenanalyzes puzzlingletter the Piusby Pope IIto Ottomanthe Constructing aSelf-Image intheImage of the Other: Pope Pius II’s Letter to Mehmed II (1461) Political and Religious Interpretations of Ozden Mercan Ozden (Turkey) Mercan ABSTRACT CEU eTD Collection Budapest, 26 May Budapest, 2008 forinstitution of an higher education academic degree. in any form submitted noto part ofhasother this I also been that thesis the declare andof nopart of infringes institution’sothers, thesisthe or any person’s copyright. on nounidentifiedbibliography. use Ideclare illegitimate that was made and work the of on based my as and innotes information properly credited research and only such external work, own my exclusively is thesis present the that herewith declare Studies undersigned, I, the OZDEN MERCAN , candidate for the MA degree in Medieval ______Signature CEU eTD Collection BIBLIOGRAPHY: CONCLUSION: PIUS II’S LETTER IN THE CONTEXT OF ANTI-ISLAMIC POLEMICAL TEXTS CHAPTER III: PIUS II’S LETTER IN COMPARISON WITH PREVIOUS PAPAL LETTERS CHAPTER II: POPE PIUS II’S ATTITUDE TOWARDS THEOTTOMANS CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS General Themes Related toIslam Related Themes General Sources of Pope Pius II Evaluation of Pope Pius’ Letter in the Context of Previous Letters (1179) II Kilij Arslan to III Alexander of Letter Letter of Gregory VII to al-Nasir (1076) Pope Pius II, European Politics and the Fifteenth-Century Idea of Crusade Previous Arguments Concerning the Letter TABLE OFCONTENTS TABLE i 60 58 39 21 46 40 28 24 22 13 39 21 II 4 1 7 4 CEU eTD Collection them. mefor dedicateit is andlove, to support and thesis this apleasure to encouragement duringLastly, mystay at Budapest. I would like tothank for their my parents endless Unige Bencze, Edina Adam and Goran Vidovic who became “the family” for me tomy gratitude SedaErkoç, Divnaspecial friends, very LukaSpoljaric, Manolova, I wanttoexpressmy Moreover, mydeepest as toreadandrevise text. patient English I am also grateful to Assistant Professors Paul Latimer and Judith Rasson who were as process. my thesis-writing throughout encouragement and contribution with generous also like tothank JanosBak has Professor who been incrediblysupportive and Al-Azmeh for his guidance, contribution and throughout patience study.wouldthis I I wouldlike toexpress tomy mygratitude Aziz supervisor Professor thesis ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii CEU eTD Collection (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004). book, her in fully more Frassettoed. Michael David (London:and Blanks Macmillan, 1999)185-207. discusses issue She this religious treatises in which the traditional themes of medieval Christian polemics Christian medieval of themes traditional the which in treatises religious became apriority for papacy. the this was Forsake,a remarkable there production of After all, necessity period, duringthe this organizeto Ottomansthe acrusadeagainst circles. in ecclesiastical produced those to especially period, the of works literary the discourse” “more secular andina of the Ottomans a newresulted theperceptions Turksput the on dimension civilization. Western of the destroyer barbarian as enemy new the presented thus, and barbarian the and civilized inbetweenmade the distinction rooted cultural alsostereotypes ancient the useof religious byidentifying perception Ottomansthe enemiesas the but of they faith,the medieval the employ they did only Not Ottomans. the to stereotypes similar applied in various concerns expressedtheir The humanists inEurope. presence newalien caused by the ways. Drawing andfears worries contemporary the thatreflects literature of immense production on earlierOttomans the it became morehumanistwith urgent, especially appealed to circle an examples, the nearby.organizingWhile acrusadeagainst of Ottoman question the threat both a growing to considerably Europeans attention the of the and attracted deeply ancient and medieval, they inthe Fifteenth-Century ,” in 1 Nancy Bisaha, “New Barbarian” or Worthy Adversary?: Humanist Constructs of the Ottoman Turks Ottoman of the Constructs Humanist Adversary?: Worthy or “New Barbarian” Bisaha, Nancy Although the recent scholarship argues that the emphasis on the barbarity of The conquest of The conquest of Constantinople by Ottoman the Empire in 1453 stirred Europe Creating West:Creating East and Renaissance Humanists andtheOttoman Turks 1 on on Ottomans,the itis hardtostretch this all assumption to the Western Views ofIslam in Medieval and Early Modern Europe INTRODUCTION: 1 , CEU eTD Collection Dumbarton Oaks Papers 3 and tr. Albert R. Baca (New York: PeterLang, 1990). examples of continuity between medieval and Renaissance perceptions of the Other. the of perceptions Renaissance and medieval between continuity of examples images and rhetoricpolemics of against Islam, prevailing especially, represent The Other. the of perceptions Renaissance and medieval between break a sharp not Christianity, Ottoman sultan example.to agood provides Mehmed seemingly II’s letter to purpose II,the with of written the converting Pius Pope infidels.sense, this totheOttomansascontemporary In directly adapted against Islam maintained its dominance and the medieval rhetoric on the Saracens was 2 Islam. against polemics Christian of context in the be examined will letter the Lastly, letters. those samecategory can as inthe be placed letter whether Pius’ will show written and letters to Muslim Pius’ Such previouspapal a comparison rulers. letter In order to add a new dimension to the study, there will be also acomparison between in the lightof Pius’ generalattitude towards Ottomansthe andhis crusading activities. letter examine the beto will objectives the of one this sake, For his of times. context arguments and intentions the of Pius re-consider inthe Pope and political religious re-evaluate concerning all beto focusstudy this these of sincerity. its will The manyscholars among hasdebates ledto letter this this For reason, its purpose. about duringpublic in Europe Pius’ lifetime makesit reach difficult to any judgmentprecise madenotMehmed wasneverto and even letter sent fact this that The period. the playof in intended Piushave to context the kindof letter might been of rolePope the humanists’ “secularized crusading literature.” crusading “secularized humanists’ context of its period, thisletter does notseem carryto any theof characteristics of the James Hankins, “Renaissance Crusaders : Humanist Crusade Literature in the Age of Mehmed II,” Mehmed of Age the in Literature Crusade Humanist : Crusaders “Renaissance Hankins, James Aeneas Silvius (Pope Pius II), In the light of these arguments, the purpose of this study is to investigate what is study of to this purpose the arguments, of In thelight these 49 (1995): 111-207. Epistolaad Mahomatem II 2 3 It rather demonstrates that there was ( 2 When inthe evaluated EpistleMohammed to II ), ed. ), CEU eTD Collection interpretations andinterpretations concerning Pius’ aims propositions such aletter. with some offering beyond go not will study this Therefore, letter. his writing in intentions letter indicate that same necessarilyof all suggestingthe without parts indicate that aparticular that purpose purpose. After all, it is impossible to know Pope Pius’ real The intended aim of such a study is to point out certain aspects of letter the pointaspects certain is out to ofsuch a study aim The intended 3 CEU eTD Collection Impact 4 Holy Scriptures and the annihilate utterly and Christian defeatpeoples all to Mehmed resolved Turks, the the divine law of Scythia,Christ besieged Constantinople and sacked it. According to Piccolomini, the ruler of because, as from eastern which hadoncemigrated “race,” how this showed asheretical. He Islam, a nation, the Turksdestroyers were of the ancientlongest andthemost famous. Inthis, Piccolomini theTurksas described the Greek heritage and civilization and despised their religion, own. died toembarkhe inAncona in1464,about thecrusade had onhis upon organized not yield anyresults, but pope the proceeded with his plans. These ended infailure; he meeting did The crusade. alarge-scale organizing aim Mantuaof the with princes at 1458, one of his first inWhen leadthe Turks. IIItoorganizehe became pope, Calixtus or acrusadeagainst acts was to assemblein 1436.After the , he wrote letters to the Popesa Nicholas conferenceV and opponentof of the Turks. He first emphasizeda the Ottomannumber threat at the Council of of ChristianRenaissance attitudes towards the Ottomans. Throughout his life he was an unyielding in understanding examination close deserve activities whose century fifteenth of the Renaissance and the most passionate supporter of the idea of crusade in the rhetorical, diplomatic, and political Nancy Bisaha, “Pope Pius II and the Crusade,” in 4 , ed., Norman Housley (Houndmills: Palgrave,2004), 39-52. Pius as scholarskills II, a humanistandpope,usedallhis Pope Pius Pope figures Piccolomini) oneof II(AeneasSilvius outstanding the was Among his works, autobiographical POPE PIUS II’S ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE OTTOMANS — CHAPTER I: to promote the idea of promote crusade. the ideaof the to 4 Crusading in the Fifteenth Century: Message and Commentaries (1458-1464) is the (1458-1464) — literary, CEU eTD Collection Zweder Von Martels Von Zweder Turks Turks by developing anhistorical narrative ofidentity placedthat Turksfirmly the highlight amission to barbarity the the of the humanists undertook onwards back tothe Scythians and emphasized their barbarous and violent nature. In fact, from Thought,” in Political and Geography Renaissance in ofAsia Reinventions Scythia: to Samarkand “From Meserve, Margaret unwritten. remained Land Holy and Syria to Arabia and Persia India, on part the unfinished; kingdoms of Parthia, Armenia, and Mediterraneanthe provinces of Minor. This work was Seres, through passing Scythia the countries and of endingCaucasus, with and the the ancient Solinus. about Asia from animpressive range of Classical authorities including Strabo, Ptolemy, Pliny, and Europe. doctrine” Pius, “monstrous influence the madeitsthis of way into Turks with the was divine and that He suffered the agony deathof for ourredemption.” According to inspired by God, born of Christ was that law admitted Although a Mahomet’s sensual pleasure. to tended , and able to performmagic andmiracles, by permitting lust and it incest denied he easily won thatoverthat of medievalthe Christiancommon“He polemicists. people, For him, the Prophetwho Mahometmade use of Savior. the abandon them Christ, law andto givenew them a persuade angelstalked toandhe castsuchaspell ignorantpeoples over hewasableto that andthat he wasaprophet that heclaimed both; them he perverted but Testament, 7 6 and int. Leona Gabel (Northampton: Smith College Studies in History,1940), Bk. II,116. Nestorianism and Arianism.” and Nestorianism imbued with gentile error and Jewish perfidy,listened who Christiansto infected with “foes of the .” They followed a certain false prophet called Mahomet, “an Arab 5 Pius wrote Ibid. Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini (Pope Pius II), In another work, Concerning Islam, Pope Pius followed a similar pattern of of Piusargumentation to pattern asimilar followed Concerning Islam,Pope Asia 6 Thus, the victory over the Turks seemed to him a task for all . traverses the continent from east towest, starting with the distant lands of the ancient Pius II,“el piu expeditivo pontifice”: Selected Studies onAeneas Silvius Piccolomini, Asia between 1461 and 1462, after his election to the papacy. He drew his knowledge his He drew papacy. the to election his after 1462, and 1461 between (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 17. Asia, 5 or Mahomet was acquainted with the Old and the New Cosmographia The Commentaries ofPius II 5 7 Pius traced theorigins of Turks the , tr. Florence Alden Gragg ed. CEU eTD Collection Century: Messageand Impact 11 10 expedition against them.Nancy Bisaha, “Pope Pius IIand the Crusade,” 46. to vilify the Turks as barbarianScythians and thus to strengthen his case formounting a military 9 Century Italy,”197-203. Fifteenth- the in Turks Ottoman the of Constructs Humanist Adversary?: Worthy or Barbarian” “New and what is even more horrifying aborted human fetuses.” human aborted horrifying more is even what and vultures wolves, mares, of flesh the things: detestable ate who brothels, of frequenters and ignominious people, fornicators, engaging in all manner of lewdness and between connection and Turks the describing Scythians, as“a Scythians the the fierce beyond ancient civilizations. 8 natural gifts.” glory of your deeds, endowed with a great empire, and eminent because ofyour many by saying “you, an man,excellentillustrious scion of noble famous ancestors, for the for ancestry hisnobleScythian because Mehmed toTurks Pius praises hostile attitude become him sounds liketo aChristian.in It aturning point generally pope’s the written1461. This Sultan (1451-1481) in Mehmed wasaletter to topersuade II order barbarity. Ottoman and civilization Western between distinction clear a drew it and Cross, of the enemies the and infidels asthe depicted image, already Turkish tothe color addedadifferent Turks barbarity the Thisof onthe backward. emphasis contributed association theirpeoplewith Turks the Scythianssavage and uncouth and asa a great deal to constructing the image of the Turks as immoralthe Turks. Pius II wasand one of provetheuncivilizedandinborn ancestry savagecharacter intended to enterprise of the originators scholarly This behavior. barbarous of pattern of established inan this history early their attempt. In his offers him the legitimate rule of the whole Eastern kingdom forin “abit little rulereturn Eastern kingdom of whole him the offers legitimate the Pius’ reasons for inquiring into the geography and history of Scythia was certainly due to his concern Margaret Meserve, “Italian Humanists and the Problem of the Crusade,” in Crusade,” the of Problem the and Humanists “Italian Meserve, Margaret Nancy Bisaha, Nancy Epistolaad Mahomatem II Pius’ most interesting andproblematic writing on in Turkswas the written 11 Creating East andWest: Renaissance Humanists and the Ottoman Turks Moreover, he compares Mehmed with and Great the Constantine with Mehmed compares he Moreover, , 38. , ed. Norman Housley (Houndmills: Palgrave, 2004), 27; Nancy Bisaha, 8 They located the ancient Turks in Scythia and fixed and in Scythia Turks ancient the located They 6 9 Crusading in the Fifteenth The description of Thedescription Asia , he drew a , 85-7. 10 CEU eTD Collection who is one of the most important Ottoman specialists on the age of . sources mentions the story hisof receptionlife, Pope Pius did notmention this letter. Moreover, none of the Ottoman of such a letter by the sultan. (Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1978) but also through my conversationwith Prof. Halil Inalc Christendom. According to James Hankins, “in a mood of despair and within a well- a within and despair of mood a “in Hankins, James to According Christendom. was written as a sincere attemptPrevious Arguments Concerning the Letter to bring peaceChristianity, hasled todebates among scholars its about main purpose. to Easternambiguities, Europe this letter,and these ratherproblematic. Dueto oftheletter and purpose intended audience seeminglyto unify written with the aim of converting Mehmed II to and Tursun Beg Tursun and Kritovoulos 14 1470, Treviso inRome 1475, in 1477. 13 statements to the sultan in his letter. is Ottomans, popeagainstthe the it he indeedpuzzlingsuchlaudatory that put of hostility fierce the of context the in considered When injustice. and force by taken East;” the Greeksand the over him “ruler the world “who can surpassbe if will . this, there anyleader inthe not Mehmed that Heproclaims receives him in gloryin belief to or and rites equalChristian to brought and baptized be might he him which by water” of in power” and they will call 12 death. Pius’ after only known became it interestingly and him, to sent never was it II, Mehmed was letter Althoughto addressed it is this in genuine. thatwritten 1461 and I reached this conclusion not only by my own examination of some Ottoman sources such as such sources Ottoman ofsome examination own by my only not conclusion this Ireached letter The was published first inCologne inother 1464, editions subsequentlyare Colognein in Epistolaad Mahomatem II 13 Some scholars argue that Pius’ letter was directly addressed to Mehmed and wasdirectly to Pius’addressed letter arguethat Some scholars As to the date and the authenticity of the letter, there is no doubt that it was it that doubt no is there letter, the of authenticity the and date the to As Even inhis Even History ofMehmed the Conqueror, The History ofMehmedthe Conqueror longest andmost enduring the work, , 18. tr. CharlesRiggs T. (Princeton: PrincetonUP, 1954) 7 12 he will legitimately possess what he had he what possess legitimately hewill , tr. Halil Inalc Commentaries 14 Õ This fact makes the k and Rhoads Murphey , which is the is which , Õ k CEU eTD Collection Mehmed’sit mother wasChristian, shehimin was claimedthat educated Christian factthat tothe due Christianity.Moreover, inclination towards had sultan the an principles of Christian teaching at the request of of Mehmed. request the at teaching of Christian principles the a summarizing hadtreatise composed Gennadius Piusheard that Pope Franz Babinger. His reasons are more interestingquickly.to change so his attitude than Hankins’.beginning was thepope about crusadingbezealous it and quitehim for strange would According the from clearly Thus, to Turks. the against him,fight would he that vow a made already go to war against the Turks, he summoned Philip, Duke of Burgundy, who had and more closely now Pannonia, now Dalmatia in unremitting war.” inunremitting Dalmatia now Pannonia, now more closely and more besetting were sitinactive the Turks while “he ashamed to was that his cardinals told anewcrusade.He toorganize his intention declared and his cardinals assembled he letter, this wrote pope the after soon in 1462, Moreover, Europe. Western and Christendom show of convert superiority the to than to persuade someone to meant less was it that demonstrate whole the on language and content its sent; be to intended was it that assumes one if even sent, never was letter this is that however, solve what heemploy he methodsto decidedto peaceful So Turks. organizing againstthe acrusade saw as an Ottoman disappointmentof Council the of mightMantua, the pope have felthopeless about problem. the after reasonablebecause first,convert thisseems quite him. At argument tried to One point established missionary tradition,” Hankins seems to ignore, Mehmed ordered it to be written, it is not knownwhether a copy of it remains extant. 17 on Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini in Deeds” and Words Eloquent between Balance 16 129. 15 Nothing is known about this treatise of Gennadius. Although most secondary sources mention that Delicate the and Piccolomini Silvius Aeneas Art’. Less and Matter “‘More Martels, Von Zweder II,” Mehmed of Age the in Literature Crusade Humanist : Crusaders “Renaissance Hankins, James Another scholar who takes this letter as a sincere attempt of conversion is conversion attempt of asasincere thistakes letter scholar who Another (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 224. 15 wrote pope the this indeed letter Mehmed to and Pius II, “el piu expeditivo pontifice”: Selected Studies 8 17 This rumor implied that implied rumor This 16 Determined to Determined CEU eTD Collection 21 of Modern History 20 de Graaf, 1967), 16. 19 the defense. the support to refused even and the with compromise to refused Byzantines many intellectuals, Greek some for except Constantinople, of conquest Ottoman the of eve the On Byzantines. Orthodox the among Catholics towards resistance strong already was because there task adifficult not was this fact, In Christianity. Western and opponent of the union of churches, Mehmed tried tosever all the ties between Eastern strong a was who someone by choosing Therefore, pope. the by influenced be might with decision his dangerRome. His was ameasurethe subjects against that Christian considered the fact that Gennadiushimself whoappointed aspatriarch, andinthis choice, Mehmed GennadiusMehmed was It unlikely. wassomewhat seems argument this theconsideration, into taken chief opponent of an ecumenical union of the superiority of Christian teachings over Islam. for inwrite Babingerpope decided Thus, the to toconvincethis letter Mehmed order increased possibility the alreadyhavingbeenChristianity.Mehmed of converted to Roman Church and were in error,” were and Church Roman PiusPope in described aspeople, his letter who“had unity abandonedthe the of whom Christians Orthodox the with Ottomans the of relations close the sense, that In turban prevailing in the midst of the City rather than the tiara of the Latin cardinal.” councilor,expresses this enmity very iswell: “Itus preferable to to see Turkish the the recite and“hecould teachings 18 to write it. Georgiades Arnakis, “The Greek Church of Constantinople and the Ottoman Empire,” Ottoman the and of Constantinople Church Greek “The Arnakis, Georgiades Robert Schwoebel, Franz Babinger, Epistolaad Mahomatem II, When the relationship between Orthodox and Latin Christians at that time is time that at Christians Latin and Orthodox between relationship the When 19 The famous dictum of Lucas Notaras, the last emperor’s chief 24, No.3 (1952): 236. Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time The Shadow Crescent: Theof the RenaissanceImage of the Turk 17. Pater Noster Pater 21 could have hardly been a motive for his attempt 9 (Princeton: Princeton UP, 1978), 198-99. by heart” as a child. All these claims these All child. a as heart” by 18 (Nieuwkoop: B. The Journal 20 CEU eTD Collection Turkey, 24 23 Halil Inalc 22 andHocazade. Hüsrev influenced byMolla world’s most powerful empire.all, he Hewas an Ottomanreceived Muslim an Islamic educationof Mehmed to take an interest in and evenand to patronize his non-Muslimhe subjects. After was mostly politic and view of point religious a Muslim from justifiable both was It well. as Jews large Christian includingpopulation, Christian various not groups, to mention the Christianity or Western culture. Mehmed was simply conscious that he was sultan of a Christian from religion a qualified person. the of he principles learn the could so that onChristianity compose atreatise to to paint frescoes for the palace and his own portrait, and he ordered Gennadius from Bellini Gentile invited he works; Greek and Latin Classical of library palace Amirutzes of andCiriacusTrebizond, of Critobolus Imbros ; he of a created suchas scholars andItalian in Greek his hegathered that nodoubt palace is historians to regard him as a true Renaissance ruler and even a crypto-Christian. There ledsome andChristianity culture Renaissance in Italian interest His historians. European by made been have assumptions of kind every whom about sultans Ottoman is leading of perhapsone the Christianity.Mehmed theConqueror inclination towards world emerged precisely from “a desire to become its conqueror andbecome ruler.” itsconqueror “a desireto from world emergedprecisely caliphs,” four first sincethe sovereign Islamic as“the greatest for asultan known sense, Halil Inalc Halil Inalc Other Muslim intellectuals were Molla Gurani, Molla Iyas, Siraceddin Halebi and Molla Abdülkadir. vol. I(Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1991), 59. However, it is misleading to interpret all these efforts as a sort of emulation of emulation of sort a as efforts all these interpret to misleading is it However, of Mehmed’s assumption hereis the needs explanation issue that Another 24 Õ k, “Mehmed II”, in itis hardimagine to the possibility of a leaning Christianity. towards Õ Õ k, , k, The Ottoman Empire, TheOttoman The Ottoman Empire Islam Ansiklopedisi 56; Stanford Shaw, (London: Phoenix, 1994), 181. ghazi sovereign, whose rule aimed to establish the 10 , vol.7, 506-535. 22 Therefore, his interest in the Christian in the interest his Therefore, HistoryOttomanof the Empireand Modern 23 In this In CEU eTD Collection 1978), 233. 27 26 25 a humanist, written with “the attempt of persuasion.” of composition” “magnificent the it sees as Richard Southern letter. of this intentions intimidation, underlining that if the Christian princes did not give support to the pope tothe notgiveif support princes intimidation, Christian did that the underlining asperhaps akindan or Piusthis wrote that of letter warning Schwoebel suggests, as is, interpretation one this: from be derived can that interpretations possible aretwo There Ottomans. the against calls for acrusade pope’s disregarded the Muslims.the Christian constitutedspecifically This audience had princes the who as a propaganda forletter Christians tool support in fight againsttheirand ideological plannedthis probably pope the letter, more aconversion than that can be proposed It of leadingthe Christendom, Pius mindof in his II, Pope the dealings with Ottomans. letter. This will be examined in indetail followingthe chapter. Muslim rulers. Both their content and rhetoric show to other written letters with papal previous letter greatthe isof comparison the argument difference from Pope Pius’ intentionfrom invite evidence an revealing The conversion. strongest to against this is letter far content of the the asalready emphasized, isthat, arguments with all these arrangement of arguments aiming to persuade Mehmedfor conversion.” that the letter was written as “an exercise in the art of rhetoric and the skillful only he could be made to understand that Christunderstand redeemer.” wasthe that heonly be madeto could “if be converted Mehmed might thought thatPius heMehmed suggests convertto as attempt sincere as a letter this regards also He argument. in his different no is Setton Kenneth Setton, R. J. Mitchell, Richard Southern, Hankins andBabingerarenotthe only arguingscholars for genuine the A close analysis of the letter gives an insight into the approaches and methods and approaches the into insight an gives letter the of analysis A close Laurel and theTiara Papacyand theLevant, Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages (London: Harvill Press, 1962), 171. vol. II(Philadelphia: The AmericanPhilosophical Society, 11 (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1978), 99. 25 Keith Mitchell also suggests 27 The problem 26 Kenneth CEU eTD Collection work,” in “Pope Pius II’sLetter toMehmed II: A Reexamination,” but according to her,it should be “lessread asapapal pronouncement thana humanistic rhetorical 29 66. against the Turks, the against for hisconversion to Christianity, in frightenthe of rulers West to legitimize byproposing the the sultan’s conquest ofByzantiumin return towards Turks, this28 letter is an exception. As Andwas more theheadit prominent. of religiousthe inwas authority Europe, Western about its purpose he suggestssuperiority of theWest againstthat the East. But in hisinterpretations thereligious motivation Pope and hoped civilization of images the in constructing to role important an played certainly contrary. tothe so muchconfront evidence fails Bisaha argues, to as work, rhetorical humanistic as a only letter this totake However, letter. conversion quarrels andpolitical their out sort toto princes unifyChristian for need the underline to skills rhetorical against the common enemy by Hecleverly pope. used his the diplomatic maneuvering assmartconsidered through a text masquerading canbe this Turks, the letter against for action acrusade take necessity to zealously the as a perceptions of the other. While in all his speeches, works, and letters Pius emphasized Renaissance and medieval of synthesis the of representative wascertainly letter this remainsan open question. keep it secret; isand that why,it his only was spreadthrough Europe death. after Still, letter the was weak too to stir Christian Mehmed; princes against hethus, preferred to orthat letter, such a of reception the for propitious not were conditions contemporary that considered have may pope the case, any In ways. in different interpretations Mehmed II.Clearly,conflicting makespresents letter and messages the this it open to encourage to Christianprincesthe by them powerfulpresenting forcesas against wanted pope the that be might interpretation Another Europe. inEastern authority his Nancy Bisaha also adopts the idea that the letter was not written with the aim of converting Mehmed Robert Schwoebel claims that compared to Pius’s other works, which have a derisive attitude Written either as a warning or encouragement for a Christian audience, the audience, Christian a for encouragement or warning a as either Written 28 he would turn hefavorto theirturn Mehmed, would him, and enemy, recognize The Shadow Crescent:of the the Renaissance image ofthe Turk 12 1(2002): 198. 29 Pius’ rhetoric Pius’ , CEU eTD Collection pontificate. In fact, his obsession with crusading was interpreted in ways by Infact, various was interpreted his pontificate. with crusading obsession Ottomans, leadingthe in thisaim became and was underlined motif Pius’s entire , to his dramatic death at Ancona for the sake of taking the cross against the Pope Pius II, European Politics and the Fifteenth-Century Idea of Crusade action. forfor hisrespect hearts and touch commandcalls theirintendedChristian princes’ to ideological tothe military support With thisletter,endeavor. theprobably pope him way seemed ingiving best of the to this writingtradition can bearguedthat whomedieval had polemical produced concerningpredecessors it Islam.texts Thus, of arguments the hehis hisechoed approach which certainly In Islam. characterized to giveChristians aclearer idea of masscontradictions the andinconsistencies of Islam andin argumentation against discourse of order self-presentation asystematic a ideas”, ashe inhisletter in infidel; thisthe caseasa“crusadeof developed but inthis sense, his attemptcan this letter be metaphorically as a taken crusade against In Christendom. to threat as adirect advance see Ottoman the for to him natural quite 30 them.” against war anddeclaring Turks the against of Christians rousing that dearer than Commentaries his hismain In wasalways Ottomans objective. life, against the acrusade agenda of Popehidden the in understanding Piusimportant quite is time the of context II political the of in writing his letter.An write it. analysis popeto the for prepared the stage ofthatcourse events political As already emphasized, throughout his The Commentaries of Pius II 30 Before delving intothe analysis of the letter itself,it isimportant to look at the From From Congressthe of , assembledsoon after his coming papal tothe , he assures us that “among all the purposes none heart, hewas “among hadat all purposes the , heassuresusthat , BkII, 115. 13 CEU eTD Collection Europe, 1400-1536 of of Queen a childGiovanna IIwithout in1435 resulted inviolentconflicts between the 32 38. (Oxford: Blackwell,2001) M.Meserve, and Humanists“Italian and Problemthe Crusade,”31- of the remained passivewhenitcame quite totaking action. he threat, Ottoman the to regard with of ally be an to appeared Frederick Although imperial authority. force of root, weakened the heresiestook and Taborite with Regionalisthis electors. movements in Hungary and , where Hussite struggling hehe ruled; wasconstantly territories the over his control notexertcould much different. from muchgiving as help as he had The proposed. situation in was notCentral Europe The ruler of thehim crusade,continuingown borders with support tothe onhis kept France troubles Holy Roman Empire,against potential the Although Burgundy frequentlyenemy.Philip of hisoffered Frederick leave to defenseless settled. hiscountry willing neither sidewas not were still Indeed, III of Habsburg, 1453. Both powers rejected afightagainst the Turksas therelations them between in War Years’ theHundred of conclusion after the out worn already were France, important Christian England most powers The themselves. two of princes Europe, and Christian fruitless proved launching forrulers a crusade. response involvements among Christian diplomatic His the princes. various with intended the neverreceived crusade pope’s a the zeal for showthat his period regain the leadership of Europe for thepapacy. of leadership Europe regain the it to was mainaimbehind the that hold while others crusader a great real struggle of it interpreted as the have historians: some as well present-day his contemporaries restore the authoritysupporters of argumentthis that the pope’s insistence oncrusading was largely because of desire his to of the papacy.31 For this, see F. Cardini, Kenneth Setton, Among present-day historians, Franco Cardini and Margaret Meserve can be considered as the as be considered can Meserve Margaret and Cardini Franco historians, present-day Among There were conflicts within Italy as well. In the kingdom of death the , of kingdom the well. In Italy as within conflicts There were One of the main reasons for this was the long-lasting discord among the (Oxford: Oxford UP, 2002), 64-69. The Papacy and the Levant , 108-137;, Norman Housley, 14 31 In any case, the political events of Europe and Islam 32 , tr. Caroline Beamish Religious WarfareReligious in CEU eTD Collection Cambridge UP), 9. 35 Papacy and the Levant austriacarum [FRA], II. Abt., vol.68 (, 1918), Florence, Venice and , signed a peace treaty among themselves at Lodi, with the Italian ceasethe In momentarily states, internal 1454, theirto They attempted strife. blood.” Christian of shedding the by satisfied never is thirst whose death, of son and perdition of son Satan, of son “the church, of Christ’s persecutor cruelest the II Mehmed Inithe Turks. called againstthe all acrusade urging Christians 1453 to September, issued a bullon30 recovery PopeNicholas the crusade for Constantinople. of 34 Marcello Simonetta (London: Harvard University Press, 2003), x-xii. letter to Nicholas V: to letter a hewrote news, the heheard When of bishop heSiena. was time this deeply. During and Constantinople Christians, shook in1453reachedEurope Piccolomini, especially fall of news of going in the the were on Europe, conflicts Whilethese strife. internal territories. disputed on claims assert to in order crisis of state constant the from benefit within local andStates barons Papal the each other were strugglingto princes against forces ofAnjou andAragon, and this continued until the papacy Piusof II. Moreover, 33 Charles Frazee, Charles Rudolf ed., Wolkan, Margaret Meserve, “Introduction,” in “Introduction,” Meserve, Margaret According to Piccolomini the only solution was to organize an to organizePiccolomini effective was an only solution According to the 35 heads. very our over hangs Turk the Now us. among reigns Mohammed out…Now blotted Greece was that glory the all overthrown, empire eastern of seat the behold We extinguished. Christendom of lights two a second is death here for Homer Alas, and for Plato in Constantinople? too…Now were wewhich see one Latins, of the the to unknown yet as books, countless the of say I shall What Mohammed. of defilement or desolation the beneath lie should skill, wondrous with built number, without basilicas ’ that I grieve polluted. or ruined been Sophia,St. I grieve that most the famous churchinallthe has world, The fall of ConstantinopleEuropean shook and princes republics as well. 33 On the whole, the general picture in Europe was one of chaos and 34 Catholics and Sultans: The Church and the Ottoman Empire 1453-1923 , 150. Der Briefwechsel des Eneas Silvius Piccolomini Pius IICommentaries 15 Ep . 109, p. 200-1. Quoted in Kenneth Setton, , ed. and tr. by Margaret Meserve and , in the Fontes rerum (London: The CEU eTD Collection 38 the past. formingEurope a of image medieval The crusade. a new to resources and men commit to lost their influence and were unablepersuade to crowds. No one wanted tobe the first already had crusade the with closely associated most institutions two his The time. papacy authority Pius’in imperial comments and thegeneralimageof the the provide reluctance of the German princes to support a crusade in the face of a Turkish threat: 37 papal and imperial authorities. In his In authorities. imperial and papal crusading stand-point. The main reason was the distrust of the crusading policy of the 1454 was below expectations and the princes who came showed a poor spiritfrom the fact, Piccolomini was rightin his remarks, as the attendance at the diet of Frankfurt in princes. There was no order in the army, no military discipline, and no obedience.no and military discipline, in no order no army, the was There princes. the emperor was given his due. Every city-state had its own ruler and there were many nor pontiff supreme the Neither obey. might all whom head no had Christendom that diets todiscuss theproblem. Philip crusader’sthe Burgundy took of Frederick vowand convened aseries III of hope of presenting a united front against the infidel enemy. In the same year, Duke 36 Kenneth Setton, Kenneth Margaret Meserve, “Introduction,” in “Introduction,” Meserve, Margaret The Commentaries of Pius II For Piccolomini this was quite disappointing; in one of his letters he suggested he letters his of in one disappointing; quite was this Piccolomini For divide the profits between them. between profits divide the barbarians.money Thesemight proclaim the Turks, of that acrusadetrick,was afine to sort against twobe extortedgraspingwere false and greedy torakeinand wanted gold, notmake war; this fromlordsbear to the hearof AsGermans if the theirthe ears had been infectedworldname with some poison, they could notofby thewereartful emperor planning wilesor of the toas pope, from who they said, The Papacy and the Levant Respublica Christiana , Bk. I, 72. 36 But no action was taken. Pius II Commentaries , 153. 38 under the guidance of papacy was a thing of 16 Commentaries , xii-xv. Piccolomini criticized the criticized Piccolomini 37 In CEU eTD Collection Crossroad, 1993), 310-311. 40 39 includingandof its was Venice, all present future there possessions, to bepeace and peace with the Ottomans. The treaty provided that between the sultan and the signoria made the Venetians Constantinople conquered Ottomans when the Turks, against the Christian interests. Although Venetiansthe had many given of pope the aid promises working against seen generally attitude of as atreacherous, crusade. The was Venice appeals forothers domination. for them, especially Amongto deaf quite was Venice the against andstates each wasstruggling five large Therewere was still complicated. moving and appeals. zealous of crusadeidea,refused the with any pope,histhe cooperation andhis congress, Christian important power. antagonizing most the Italian inpeninsula. hisdecision resultedconflict However, France with andled to in the power of balance a achieved had which Lodi, of Peace the with conformity against France; he wantedFerrante and Sforza chose Pius to keepTherefore, Milan. thethreaten not could outsiderFrance way, at a distance. His attitude was because in Ferrante’salso claims duke of Sforza, this Naples. Francesco Milan, supported in against the Ottomans.solve first problemsthe in This forming waspreliminary Italy. to aunified resistance He allied with Milan PiusbeganhehisEntering decided verymomentto the upon hispapacy. pontificate, in support of Ferrante of a newcrusade. on the throne of cause the to princes Christian indifferent the stir could Capistrano preacher Giovanni mendicant the of sermons moving nor the of Cardinal diplomacy wise northe III of Calixtus propaganda passionate Neither the forces advanced. Ottoman Karl August Fink, “Pius II,” in Margaret Meserve, “Introduction,” in “Introduction,” Meserve, Margaret Pius’ call for a crusade by the Italian powers was futile. Pius’ by Italian foracrusade InItaly situation call was powers the the as indifference Christian princes’ the fivewatched years,Piccolomini For 39 Still,it as cause Piccolominiwas this hiswhich adopted ownat The Medieval and Church Pius II Commentaries 17 40 , xiv. France, once the proud defender proud the France,once , ed. Hubert Jedin (New York: CEU eTD Collection 43 42 ancient Scythians, the Turks’ supposed ancestors. His focus shifted to religiousfocus His ancient to shifted Scythians,ancestors. theTurks’supposed didinto he detail the Nor learningculture. and Western go to about barbaric threat asa Turks reference to the no speechcontained almost Mantua Pius’ Unlike before, failure of the congress of Mantua. In fact, Pius’s speech at Mantua is quite revealing: of each dynasty prevented it from allying with the others. interests The personal powers. other nor neither Venice from response hoped-for the forreceived call zealous acrusade the Hence, prevailed. interests Venice commercial Venetian fleet, the forWithout an butundertaking magnitude of was any unthinkable, Turks with theirlips butcondemned in it their because: hearts Pius says thisabout inhis any into Turks. never enter against pledgeditfriendship. the Venice would alliance 41 Ibid., Bk. III, 192. Charles Frazee, Charles The Commentaries of Pius II In Europe there was a temporary loss of zeal, which can be clearly seen in the seen beclearly can losszeal, which of therewasatemporary In Europe Christ’s gospel. Christ’s incur the least expense nor endure the smallestThe Turks do not hardship hesitate todiefor their most vileforfaith, butthe we cannot sake of luxury given to over arekeptaway by others and pleasure; avarice. are Some indifferent. areso Christians that ashamed Weare vain. defend to Christendom. counsel Wetake came full together of hopemight we and we grieve that tofindpeoples and it in princes summoned inavert place; this we evil;wecalledthought to aCongress this took We Faith. our of destruction the it with bring must that calamity wouldbe Germans,the Italians,andindeed all a subdued, Europe conquered, were Hungarians the once feared that believed…We as we religion about concerned so not are Christians mistaken. been have We East. in the and haveDalmatia to sovereignty republic Venetian allow the not would princes freed western Greece was the after ceaseandthat livelihood depended would East,on which their the with theirtrade all Turks, the if against that weredeclared thought war aims which cannot noble be from achieved without shrinks expense.usually The gain, Venetianson intent nature, whose merchants mostly They are projects. splendid embrace people who not They are Catholics and Sultans, 43 , Bk., III, 257. Commentaries 12. 18 that Venetians favored the war against the waragainst the favored Venetians that 42 41 CEU eTD Collection “Renaissance Crusaders,” 113. Hankins, James 315; 1989), Press, ofWisconsin University The (Wisconsin: Setton Kenneth ed. 6, 45 Renaissance. to period medieval from ideal crusade ofthe transformation the well very explains which II” ofMehmed Age the 2006), 829. See also James Hankins’ article “Renaissance Crusaders: Humanist Crusade Literature in of Constantinople and the expulsion of the Turks from Europe. from Turks the of expulsion the and Constantinople of places,but of holy longerthe deliverance no the goal a crusadewas of The immediate state and that Islamic a forceful crusadea from danger in direct was itself Christendom Western wouldnow that have to defend Europe was thisnewphase of defining The characteristic of Europe. activities crusading the and its Christian civilization. had to undertake had undertake to to avoid itsat overthrow hands the of Turk. the Christendom Western which operation a defense crusadewas ForPius, the matters. 44 superioritythe Christendom.of Perhaps he thoughthismessage was utopian, ashe and Europe Christian hislanguage heproclaimed aunited and thefluency intellectof ofhis With thestrength his activities. with previous was consistent Hisquite attempt princes. Christian in the spirit crusade of revival the for desire his reflected it spirit which atfaceinvitation value wasan MehmedChristianity, toconvertin to to but adopta differentto method of his persuading theChristian and hewrote princes letter, attractiveness and significance, the bulwark image of Europe was misleading. itsall himself. For pope thisthe to Mantua demonstrated even II’s congress at Pius of failure large scale.The on a military action mobilizing of longerno capable was headof activities, crusading papacy,as titular became the that It attack. obvious aserioushis stimulate failed counter- reactions ruined. However, to heritage of Christ the danger, in church the lamentation: of polemic traditional more a maintained considerably. Halil Inalc Halil Christopher Tyerman, It wasduring period this of anddisappointment Pius desperation decided that decline Crusading didnot 1291as after thoughtbutchanged was previously Õ k, “The Ottomank, Turks theCrusades,and 1451-1522,” in 44 The conquest of Constantinople opened a new phase in the history The innew history Constantinople of conquest the a phase of opened God’s War: ANew History ofthe Crusades 19 A History of the CrusadesA History ofthe (Cambridge: Belknap Press, Belknap (Cambridge: 45 For this reason, Pius , Vol. CEU eTD Collection 47 what we say. Like insolvent believes amassNo one gold. is sole to object “People thinkour avarice. charge of tradesmen we are wasEurope ignored; issuingthe indulgences of toraise money broughtforth the without credit.” Mantua showed it to be useless; the appeal of papal envoys for aid from the courts of pursued in vain.idea The of he which aim an monarchs, Christian of efforts united the require would Turks and European political systems. Thus, he did not reveal his letter. Italian the of realities the by limited were plans lofty his that experience from knew 46 following will chapter intendedreveal its purposes. in letter itself the the of analysis Aclose Ottomans. the pope the towards of attitude context of his previous works and such activities, a letter perfectly fits theconsistent acrusadeprincespromote against and considered Turks.Moreover, in to the the part of Pius’ agenda in totriggerorder for acrusade preparations among Christian the wasa letter this that itcan beargued contrary, Onthe conversion. at attempt sincere crusade himself, despite his failinghealth. climax of his endeavorsfollowdecided strategy, another to whichwas toleada crusade personally. Thus, the was reached through his expedition to Ancona to lead the but“Power, not despair. will,hasbeen lacking.” hisadmitted inactivity in the enterprise,promoting giving asareason not indifference Acknowledging the criticism beingleveledhim against with regard toacrusade, he of group incardinals 1462,Pius early sincerely his disclosed perplexities. own Ibid., Bk. XII, 823. The Commentaries of Pius II All this taken into consideration, it is hardly plausible to accept this letter as a as letter this accept to plausible is hardly it consideration, into taken this All Soon after he wrote this letter, in one of his speeches addressed to a small , Bk. VII, 515. Respublica Christiana 20 46 was already dead. The congress of To fight successfully against the 47 For this reason he CEU eTD Collection 49 48 and adopting ancient techniques of rhetorical argumentation, the humanists developed humanists the argumentation, of rhetorical techniques ancient andadopting letter. terms asa“fictional” itin can belong, Constable’s described the rules of the epistolary genre. However, as this letter was never sent and is quite including Pope Piusincluding Pope IIwerehumanist of scholars considerable standing. andof in them,liberal some hadarts secretaries the abackground Quattrocento likerhetoric,through fact, in his all humanistsecretaries In most period. other argue amiss ininspiring Piccolominithat was to andpersuading experienced quite itis counseloras advocate, and not andambassador, his propaganda served patron lettersduring persuasive his and composed orations, service forms other of and III of imperialFrederick court in histhe as a secretary he career started fact that prepared him fight to his battles own rhetorical byvarious Considering methods. the by his professional background. it simply as a treatise. This can be explained as a part ofThis humanist makes us wonder rhetoric why Pius wrote his as textwell in the asletter-format rather than writing methods aimedof had propaganda fruitless. atthem,them proved asother persuading epistolary formserve explicitly,to other More purposes. Pius beassumedPope it used that can the forwritten but Mehmed to the sent be to intended not was which form, purposein epistolary treatise of the instruction of the Christian princes and as Nancy Bisaha, Nancy Giles Constable, PIUS II’S LETTER PAPALLETTERS PREVIOUS IN COMPARISON WITH PIUS II’SLETTER Pope Pius’ work was written in theform of a letter, adhering someto extent to Above all, Pius’ training in Classical rhetoric and literature and his career had his career and literature and rhetoric in Classical training Pius’ Above all, Creating East and West Letters and Letter-Collections , 8. CHAPTER II: (Turnhout: Brepols,1976), 13. 21 48 It is more like a 49 By studying CEU eTD Collection 452]. 53 52 ColumbiaUP, 1992), 104. 51 VII’s short missive to a Muslim ruler, the Hammadite Emir al-Nasir (1076) al-Nasir to VII Gregory of Letter written Muslimto other previous papalletters rulers. that can sustain this argument is certainly the comparison of this letter with the writeallowed toless more Pius or he The mostwanted. what convincingevidence subjects. literary for document butalso often expression on scholarly philosophical a tool and merely wasnot letter a personal atthat time, andthe literature” humanist branch of most “the extensive was argued, epistolography audience.AsKristeller Christian his Islam voiceideasto and concerning histhe Ottomans thehim to opportunity with Rather, his epistolary forcethe Mehmed with of letter. provided genre rhetorical the In this context, it is hard to imagine that Pope Pius really intended toappeal to an effective for of usein device struggles power for contemporary political survival. 50 1076. so he was concerned about “the Christianin Sicily,Spain, andAnatolia. Forhim, they peoplewere “the ungodly haters of Christians” living under the great hatred ofMuslims. Inhis writings, Gregoryother Pope often histheexpressed dislike ofMuslims (Bougie). Itwasquite friendly in compared tone Gregory’s to generalattitude towards Bijaya of community Christian the of subject the on written been have to seems Gregory inVII, “EpistolaXXI,” Epistolae et diplomatapontificia printedinPL vol. 148, coll. [450- Al-Nasirwas the ruler of Hammadids in Algeria from 1062 to 1088. P. O.Kristeller, Margaret Meserve, “Introduction,” in “Introduction,” Meserve, Margaret 53 This letter, little more than the letter of accreditation for two emissaries, for two letter of more accreditation little than the letter, This One of these papal letters that can be analyzed in this sense is Pope Gregory 51 In it can this flexibility sense, the be suggestedthat epistolary the genre of Medieval Aspects ofRenaissanceLearning Pius II Commentaries 22 , xv-xviii. , tr. Edwardtr. , Mahoney (New York: 52 of Algeria in Algeria of 50 CEU eTD Collection linga linga hujus vitae spatia te perducat corde etore rogamus futura vita desideramus. Atque utipse Deus sinumin beatitudinis sanctissimi patriarchae Abrahaepost 57 56 Creatorem saeculorum et gubernatorem hujus mundi quotidie laudamus et veneramur caeteris gentibus debemus,unum qui Deum,licet diverso modo,credimus etconfitemur, quieum 55 ungodly Saracens.” ungodly 54 a share in the growing trade of theChristian port communities of Bijaya in North in Africa al-Nasir’s and perhaps to secure toguarantee of protection the itinorder wrote pope the As suggests, used. Hourani domains. the merchants of Rome ways, and we praise and worship Him every day as creator and ruler of this world.” in though because andconfess peoples,other we believe different singleone God, The pope wrote: “there is a kind of love which we owe to each other more than to blessing of blessing most holy the Abraham.” patriarch lead word after of longin the our life,God of youthat embrace the period this strive for your honor in this life and in the future on. And we pray, with our heart and Christianity. and Islam between points common emphasized that ruler a Muslim to letter a write time to atthat pope intention to convert the Muslim ruler an of thereisnoimplication letter of the in thecontent to because purposes political Christianity. Still, it was quite unusual it wrote for pope the isthat it apparent in explicit letter, not the were reasons these for a his objectives in Islamic lands more easily. Compared to the general attitude towards attitude general tothe more Compared lands easily. inIslamic his objectives pope the wanted avoidto any of contention sort with al-Nasirfor sake the of attaining by is recognizedalso diplomatic quite andvenerated Muslims. Thisattitude as clearly is Abraham that knowing Christ, than rather Abraham with blessing his ends pope Gregory VII, “Epistola452:XXI,” Albert Hourani, Albert Gregory VII, “Epistola XXI,” 451; XXI,” “Epistola VII, Gregory H.E.J. Cowdrey, There were practical reasons for the warm and friendly whichGregory warm friendly tone for the and reasons practical There were Pope Gregory Pope concludesletter with his blessing:this “Godknows we that Islam in European Thought Pope Gregory VII, 1073-1085 54 In this letter, however, he took a different diplomatic stance. diplomatic adifferent he took however, letter, Inthis Scitenim Deus quiapure adhonoremtuuminpraesentiet in Hancitaque charitatem nos et vosspecialibus nobis quam (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1992), 14. (Oxford: ClarendonPress, 1998), 488. 23 57 . It is important to emphasize that the . 56 Although 55 CEU eTD Collection prepared to convert and also convert to his subjects toChristianity in order to obtain a was Arslan Kilij that period the of chronicles the of in one suggested is it hand, other the On conversion. to intention sincere a than rather purposes political some due to been completely mighthave Kilij Arslan of request the that becan assumed day for political reasons. with of KilijClaude Cahen,Icorresponded ArslanIIandKaykhusraw the their recipient. It is unknown why the sultan would have made such a request. According to on the Christian faith, and in contrast to Pius’ letter, it was actually sent toits declared instruction forthe KilijArslan of request the to as aresponse itwas written letter, the Blois in andat pope’sname the As thepope’s request. emphasized beginning atthe of History c. 1071-1330 the Byzantine clergy forinfluence over their Greek subjects.” bad, the sultans could see no harm in it if “Latin propagandists came to compete with in order to convert him toconvertin toChristianity. order in Alexander III sultan1179 tothe ArslanIconium of Kilij (Konya), II (1156-1192), Letter ofAlexanderIII toKilij Arslan II (1179) isruler unusual.quite Muslimsthe hisit during period,can be saidGregory’s that tactfulness the Muslim to 60 from 1205 to 1211. 1196, when struggled he against brothershis for controlthe of sultanate the and he finally ruled again 59 vol.207, coll. [1069-78]. 58 Claude Cahen, Claude Kaykhusraw was youngest ofI II; the succeeded sonhe Kilij 1192 Arslan fatherin until and his ruled AlexanderIII, “De Instructione Fidei Catholicae,”Petrus in Blessensis,Opera omnia printedPL in Another example, much closer in spirit to Pius’ letter, is the letter written by written letter the is letter, Pius’ to spirit in closer much example, Another Pre-Ottoman Turkey: AGeneral Surveyof Materialand Spiritual the Culture and , tr. J. Jones-Williams (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1968), 214. 59 Whether the relations with the Byzantines were good or good were Byzantines the with relations the Whether 58 24 In fact, this letter was written by Peter of by waswritten Peter thisletter Infact, 60 From this argument, it CEU eTD Collection habet fidei meritum, quanto difficilior est ad credendum 63 sed nec memoria est intelligentia, vel voluntas. dicimus intelligentiam, mentem dicimus voluntatem; memoria, intelligentia et voluntas suntuna mens; to this period, the real motives behind Kilidj Arslan’s act are not known for sure. for known not are act Arslan’s 62 Kilidj behind motives real the period, this to Komenos marriage alliance with Frederick Barbarossa. Frederick with alliance marriage 61 Trinity Christ from the Virgin Mary, the divine and human sides of Christ, his resurrection, his Christ, of sides human and divine the Mary, Virgin the from Christ Togetherin.” be believed with to deserves it charmingly more the belief, for isthis it complicated idea of the Trinity,difficult tocomprehend and it exceeds the power of human reason,Peter but the moreis Trinity] of idea [the “it says he mind; human of the of understanding Blois the beyond alsois Christianity of talks doctrine this that aware was Blois of Peter Still, aboutcomprehended. the birth of and be Holy equal Son aredivinely the equal status and without or cannot Spirit as mind, there are three persons within the God: Father, Son and Holy Spirit. All have will.” or intelligence mind memory, “wefor instance,be call hesuggests, illustrations; areonlyintendedexplanations to intelligence, elaborates on this theme.proofs and Heshows from Scriptures, hisrational and will,Christianity but and brought Islam between difference of points basic the of theyOne out Christianity. of tenets is the areidea of theone Holy Trinity.mind; In the butletter, memoryPeter in faith. Catholic instruction the of Blois is not forseriously prospect sultan’s the enthusiastically request andto responded died.might wasnotmarriage realizedhave ashis daughter pope Thus, taken the this Ibid.; Alexander III, “De Instructione Fidei Catholicae,” 1071; Catholicae,” Fidei “De Instructione III, Alexander Otto of Blaisen, res quidem difficilis est intellectu,aciem et rationis humanae transcendit,sed tanto elegantius Looking at the content of Peter of Blois’ letter, its themes focus on the main — (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1993), 100-105. Due to the scarcity of Seljukid sources related justlike mind,which intelligencewithout ormemory cannot be described Chronica 62 So, through this metaphor, he tries to explain the idea of the , ed. A. Hofmeister, cited in Paul Magdalino, Paul in cited Hofmeister, A. ed. , 25 61 . Frederick reluctantly agreedbutthis Frederick reluctantly mentem autem vocamus memoriam, mentem The Empire ofManuel I 63 CEU eTD Collection si Christus Deus fuit, quomodo potuit mori! Si homo, quomodo resurgere? 65 opus est, mortis periculo desiderabiliter non exponit. misericordiam ejus non recolit, qui Dominum tam clementem exaffectu non diligit, qui sepro eo, si Christianity andsays Peter nothingIslam about Islamic teachings.or his redemption of mankind, and so on. Basically the focus is on the main doctrines of 64 between points biblical Islam While figuresand to Christianity. referring John such as implicit explicit or attack on Islam.On the contrary, Peter tries toemphasize common between Christian and Muslim theologians. Still, these two examples apart, there is no issues controversial already were which points emphasizes Peter faith, Catholic is letter the while in the maintenetsof farfrom tone introducing polemical the to Muslims, as they are the ones who reject the divine nature of Christ. Thus, although couldhe haveresurrected?” how man, a If died? have he could how a God, was Christ if insanities: these into natures of Christ.He says, “the infidels and the sinners willbe ashamed,whoburst aggressive when he tone about whoquestion wrote those divinethe andhuman may have meant to criticize this belief in an implicit way. Moreover, he usedPeter an here Thus, directly. heaven to ascended he them, to according crucified; really In Islam, Christis recognized as a prophet but Muslims donotbelieve that Christ was of Christ, he says: crucifixion atone the rebuke. Concerning of heinstance, adopted insome places, For Trinity divine and the andformedessence of his accordingly.Christ, ownarguments aware of the fact that Muslims rejected these doctrines, especially the idea of the Ibid., 1076: AlexanderIII, “De Instructione Fidei Catholicae,” 1075: Such an attempt can be interpreted; however, as that Peter of of was already Blois however, asthatPeter can beinterpreted; attemptSuch an death, iffor Him.death, necessary, expose peril notthe himself does of feelings, to onewho true andthe compassion, appreciate does His isnot Indeed inhuman theonewho and cruel the one who does not love such a merciful Lord out of erubescant infidelis et praevaricatores,qui inordinate haec in prorumpunt deliramenta: 65 Here, the words “infidels” and “sinners” probably refer and words “infidels” Here,the “sinners” probably 64 26 Sane inhumanusqui estetcrudelis, CEU eTD Collection 69 triedit torefute “using the tools of anti-heretical argument.” asaheresy”“Islam and alsoclassified theVenerable Peter sect, Islam as aheretical Eastern Christians, who seriously as a than threatrather religious hadsimply treatingitlike pagan idolatry. as Just already established timeWest, onwards inthebegan Christians learnIslam it to andtotake about a long tradition this From Islam. about inLatin works ofscholarly first the polemicswere Collection, Toledan the against 68 to convert to Christianity. Contra sectam sive haeresim Saracenorum haeresis Saracenorum 67 redemption, and the resurrection of Christ, but accept the virgin birth and the and birth virgin the accept but Christ, of resurrection the and redemption, the incarnation, deny the Muslims clearly that out pointed Venerable the Peter difference between Christianity and Islam saying that: his In Islam. to Ages, these translations and this refutation were used as authorities for studies related andarefutation. teachings Islamic of asummary wrote also himself He Latin. into Koran the translate to Ketton of Robert commissioned 1142 around of who Cluny, learned Venerable, the teaching. Islamic basic familiar with sultan. the Baptist and Isaiah, he underlines that these prophets are also accepted by the 66 James Kritzeck, James John Tolan, one, first the translations: these using treatises two composed Venerable the Peter Alexander III,“De Instructione Fidei Catholicae,” 1071-2; 66 It can be suggested that his familiarity came from the translations of the of Peter translations the from hiscame that familiarity It canbesuggested wanted tokill wanted him, heheavens. tothe ascended that heborn without afather,having andnever diedbecause itfitting wasnot shouldprophet, die. mostHoly the of conceived true, though OnChrist, Spirit, that believe not do thefree [Muslims] They fromis contrary,the all sonfalsehood of God, andor God,theysin, butthe believeson[only of Mary,that he is]that, a good when Jews This clearly shows that when writing this letter Peter of Blois was already was Blois of Peter letter this writing when that shows clearly This Saracens: Islam inthe Medieval Imagination Peter the Venerable and Islam Summa describes Islam and degrades it to a Christian audience; the second one is , Peter the Venerable established basic points of similarity and similarity of points basic established Venerable the Peter , 67 These twoworks, together with the translations known as inwhich hetried to refute Islam andcommanded Muslims (Princeton: Princeton UP, 1964), 119-20. 27 (New York: Columbia UP, 2002), 137. quem recipis 69 68 . Throughout the Middle the Throughout Summa totius CEU eTD Collection Evaluation of Pope Pius’ Letter in the Context of Previous Letters conversion. aim of sincere the with waswritten which ofBlois of Peter letter from deal the a great Mehmed becometo Christian, both the style and content of the letter as a whole differ for enough () was water” of bit“a little that is itemphasized also letter, light from darkness he should bebaptized and become a Although inChristian. Pius’ the end of his letter, Peter of Blois suggests to the sultan thatin order to come to the At Venerable. the Peter of and translations theworks he to hadaccess that possible quite was it well, as letter in his points these elaborated Blois of As Peter Ascension. 70 He states: souls. of him,For these are confessing andbelievingin and God, beliefone in immortality the well. as letter in Pius’ be seen can Christianity and Islam between points common on parallels with both of them become apparentin Pius’ letter. For instance, the emphasis certain letters, two lightof in these the letter Pius’ evaluates one When Muslims. the towards approach peaceful and constructive a adopted them of both reasons different for but Islam, and Christianity between time their of issues polemical Epistolaad Mahomatem II In both of the previous papal letters, the popes were clearly aware of the awareof wereclearly popes the letters, papal of previous the In both your religion holds but the same. prophets, the and Testament New in our written only is not This good receive ahappy andabode bad the off areborne punishment.to the where regions other to taken are they bodies our leave they when not think you are unaware that human souls are immortal and thatWe do fashioned inthe world. He cares foreverything andearth who Weyou think confess that andbelieve who in one God createdthe , 29. 70 28 CEU eTD Collection 74 73 72 peak whenhe states: by faithwhose had for concern Pius’s heresies. Mehmedreachesits been corrupted one but asindeedaChristian andMehmed religion, monotheistic aseparate rather superiority of Christianity. of superiority be explainedwith authorities ancient ideathat the provided a forprove key Piusthe to God. and souls, of immortality the world, the of governance the concerning Christians of views the claimed, Pius shared Plato, andAristotle who, such as Socrates, ancientmakesGreek philosophers he to reference these points While discussing also 71 Lord’sthe fold.” lamb,but claims he “wentastray and fed beyond hishome in pastures other far from conciliatory attitude. However, Pius still regards Mehmed as a creature of God and his a imply also they but truth, some involve only not Christianity and in Islam points Christianity and Islam do not differ. On the whole, the whobelievestatementsworshipthose that idolsUp areingrievous error. to this Pius point, says, related to common for agreat hismiracles. prophet andfamous God, and Daniel. He is aware thatTestament and accept the prophets Moses,Mehmed David, Solomon, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, also admits Christ as a holy man inspired by Ibid. Ibid., 38. Ibid., 41. Epistola ad Mahomatem II 71 In fact this association of Christian beliefs with ancient Greek philosophy can philosophy Greek ancient with beliefs Christian of association this fact In Pius also emphasizes that both Christians and Muslims believe in the Old in the believe Muslims and Christians both that emphasizes also Pius you back. holds truth the of ignorance The good. is nature your that faith have we whoperish you. with believe We donot astray yougo willingly since His law. We feel for you and deplore the unhappiness of your subjects Lord, the of paths in the walk not do man, do excellent an notyou, that grieve We know his commandments, and do not live according to 73 74 From this, it can be concluded that Pius regards Islam as a heresy asa regardsIslam Pius that it beconcluded can From this, , 30. 29 72 Christians and Muslims also both also Muslims and Christians CEU eTD Collection 1453-1683 78 77 76 75 delay.” you like himself couldenteredwithout you the way andall have opened which not mention through examplethe the of amongConstantine, rulers: other “But whydowedelay and greatest Christianity examples. advantages Hedefends conversion andof reputation to the example of all? The Emperor and Monarch Constantine also possiblealso for Mehmed if he simply converts. Christianity. By comparing Constantine with Mehmed, Pius implies that such glory is origins of the Turks: “compared to effeminate “compared Arabs, Turks unwarlike origins Egyptians and of to Turks: the Scythian the praising by Muslims other and Ottomans the between distinction clear a makes he Moreover, strength. and bravery his of in respect Great the Constantine hand, PiusMehmedwith Ottomans.the one compares the praise On about spite and of remarks between division isambiguous an there theletter, Throughout Ottomans,forthcoming of warningthem Christian rage. againstthe Turkish a rulers with suggests, of “heroification the Mehmed” asSoykut However, of Mehmed. aheroicimage create seems to sultan Ottoman the and antiquity of heroes the between drawn analogy The interests. own his promote works. barbaricorigins Turksinhispreviouswhenfor werecall pope’s the the of the claims become Mehmed.” with Christians says, “justHe Ottomans. the with Romans as the of association the the to refers also Constantine Romanswith became Christians with their emperor, so the Turks will Mustafa Soykut, Nancy Bisaha, Nancy Epistolaad Mahomatem II Epistolaad Mahomatem II 75 The beginning atthe attitude istolerant by historical of letter Pius’ reinforced The use of historical examples provided Pius with a rhetorical arena in order to Pius depicts Constantine as a ruler who achieved glory by converting to byconverting achieved glory who a ruler as Constantine depicts Pius (Berlin: Klaus Schwarz Verlag, 2001), 25. Creating East and West Image of the “Turk”Image of Italy:the in AHistory“Other”the of Modern inEarly Europe, , 27. , 25. , 148-9. 77 This is approach especially surprising, quite 30 76 In fact, this association of of Mehmed association Infact,this Pius rather aimed to trigger aimedthe rather Pius to 78 CEU eTD Collection 83 82 81 with combined forces arms will be taken up against a common enemy.” acommon upagainst forces betaken armswill with combined with great, strong forces, for all private hatreds will whenstop a threat to all is sensed; “Youdo cannot anything for peace better among than Christians invade Christendom together if everhear that Mehmedisheartlandthey approaching theChristendom. of Italy.” of inwarfare experience and energy wealth, the and Hungary, of tenacity the , spirit of France, the vast populace of , the bravery of Britain, the boldness warlike of the Spain, with strength “thecompete for hecannot of Christian people, the Moreover, hechallenges Mehmed, sayingthathe shouldbe aware of greatnessthe of regards Mehmed from For instance,condescending towards and beginning he Islam. the Mehmed more and harsher becomes tone Pius’ where many containspassages as letter whole the the enemy of Christendomcommon solid stand against the common enemy. remarks function foras reminders Christian should they that princes unifyandtakea andconflicting These faith. Christian the of arch-enemy the as Mehmed persecutordenounces of Christians. 80 the Italian states and arousing the longed-for crusading spirit, he says: of hope encouraging With the Italians. the of invincibility the especially emphasizes are originally Scythians who were known for their bravery.” 79 Ibid. Ibid., 13. Ibid., 12. Ibid., Epistolaad Mahomatem II 81 11. Despite afew remarks which can be interpreted positively at face value, on the which is called the sinews of war. Italy isbe andallof subjugated ruling to cannot are used different. They who now are Italy of courage and talent, filledstrength, nature, men…The with fighting are you realize will with you Italy invading on insist you if and horsesYour andancestors men. never It possesseddoes not or saw lack Italy. Youof havemoney no right to it Moreover, he is quite threatening when he says that all Christians will come will Christians all that hesays when threatening he isquite Moreover, , 74. 83 31 79 On the other hand, Pius 82 Pius 80 CEU eTD Collection were weary of conquest,whengreat odds, they bytoo overpowered betrayed unless or been defeated never had Christians the and Turks the or to terror a been always had because Christians of courage the the Lord was angry at their sins. But if they of the letter shows that the same idea exists in the letter as well. writings of the humanist proponents of crusade, into which hedid not include Pius’ letter, the analysis 84 won.” for undertakingand waragainst Turk, the the ease victorieswith which couldbe necessity the on emphasis “the letter: in Pius’ themes main the of is one This Empire. Ottoman Islamic the over authority and power European evoke asenseof to purport Ottomans,his emphasison superiority the Westthe of andChristendom certainly Although fifteenth-century time. hadno powerorsuperiority over the Europe powerful and unifiedimage of Italy Ottomans.the against itremarks,is encourage Pius Italiansthe that possible byconstructing aimed to a the Ottomans, by likeposed that threat inof outside contextthe the Even impossible. desiredunity theambitions todominate Italy led toconflicts and among fights them and made long-the idea inhis notably Italianother antipathiestoward states, Florence.Venice and Their of unity they that never sacrificed individual for advantage mutual gain. is This illustrated well remained states European with his relations knew from Pius himselfalready divided Europe. intangible.a against rule andunified represented acentralized Ottoman Empire timethat the European Therefore,powers was far from thisenough image toof “thecope strongwith unity”.the throughstrong Ottomans. werenot states Italian the aware that hewasalso However, letter. inhis again On the contrary, The real at picture of sensebeing of anItalianthese and of againItalian superiority, is which demonstrated and the Italian states and all the JamesHankins, “Renaissance Crusaders,”Although 120. derived Hankins theme from this the 84 Pius wrote his letter in order to represent the concerns and attitudes ofhis concerns andthe attitudes represent in to hisorder letter Pius wrote Pius’ reflection on Italian unity and strength was unrealistic. He had a strong In fact, he emphasizes the same point in his point same the he emphasizes fact, In 32 Commentaries as well. For him, CEU eTD Collection 88 87 in Europe whathis hadin done with Europe ancestors Pius’ Byzantines. the towards attitude the this, no one would be eager to leave his religion and Mehmed wouldnotbe able doto 86 the foreign foe.” rather than public wrongs and to assailChristians themselves, “whopreferredby one anothertoavengeattacking the private household of the Faith more fiercelyAccording him, to helped nothingmuch the enemyso as dissensions among than Turks. the out wipe could united, if shewere Italy but alone, wideprovinces, would gather their notonly strength, manyall of Christendom, whichcomprised so 85 faith.” orthodox the in die to want [Christians] all and master a non-Christian to be subject to wants who one is no “there because Christians mother. hoped togainthe havingbewon daughterhealso daughterof the Rome and the to Constantinople believed that sultan the reported Sanguindo, Niccolo contemporary, Italy.on military One attack a toorganize Mehmedwasplanning baseless, because not Pius’ anxiety was fact, In warning. asubtle be as taken can of a possibility such conquest of Italy and askingtheChristian tounify princes and preventrealizationthe Mehmed’s of possibility the highlighting hand, other the On them. defeat could they Turks againstthe if unified theprinces underlining asencouragement, that interpreted indeedaddress intendedChristian to than princes rather Mehmed. They canbe Mehmed died, the plan could not be carried out. and it. However,since AhmetOtranto took Gedik leadership the Pasha, occupied of Halil Inalc Charles Frazee, Charles Epistolaad Mahomatem II, The Commentaries of Pius II In his letter In hisPius letter warns Mehmed, saying that he subjugatethe can never was Pius’letter that demonstrate They revealing. arequite Thesepassages 86 Sanguindo was right to acertain extent, asin 1480 the Ottoman army, under Õ k,“The Ottoman Turksand Crusades,the 1451-1522,” 330-31. Catholics and Sultans 85 14. , Bk., III, 214-215. , 17. 33 87 88 If Mehmed attempted to do CEU eTD Collection the 93 92 91 and Roman papacy. In the end it failed as most of the Byzantines were against this union. 90 truth of the , all are imbued with error to some degree.” to error imbued with all are NewTestament, of the truth schismatic. He says, Christians“very few areas their the Christiansbeliefsbe considered as they that cannot saying andMaronites, Greeks, Armenians,Jacobites are not underconsonant the criticizes he hand, one On the yourletter. the throughout withambivalent ruleis quite Byzantines the who correct walk infaith the and that they are 89 Constantinople and they had not accepted accepted Florentine Agreement. the andthey had not Constantinople of fall the after Church Roman the of unity the abandoned had especially, are compelled to renounce theirreligion torenounce are compelled them of many and to driven are Christians that says He Mehmed. of rule the of miserableEastern Christians. and oppressedunder Christians Hedrawsapicture Ottoman rule as they insisted on doctrinal errors and resisted papal authority. live under to deserved theByzantines forin faith. Pius away, Thus, correct the their beliefs about the Holy Spirit and the fires of Purgatory were not consistent with in such procedures asthe insuch procedures forcefulthrough methods. Heassociatesand cruel Turkswiththe uncivilized behavior faith Christian theChristiansanddestroy subjugate the to desire unappeasable had Muslims an asfanatical who animage Ottomans Here, Pius provides the of This refers to the levy of Christian children to be trained for posts in the palace, the administration or Ibid., TheCouncilof (1438-45)attemptedFlorence to a realize betweenunion EasternOrtodox Church Epistolaad Mahomatem II, Epistolaad Mahomatem II kapikulu 24-5. Pius, however, declared that he was also concerned with the plight of the the rites of of rites the Mohammed. Theirthem. lose they sons, their raise boysthey after Moreover, children. and are taken off todeath without are exposed and weapons, aredeprivedof their wives to the palace,afflicted with injustices daily. They are led off to war against their will,circumcised and instructed in They are looked upon and upon as thevilestheavy property, pay They arelooked are tribute military corps. military , 17. 23. devsirme 92 . 93 By presentingsuch an image, Pius again tried to 91 and he adds: 34 89 90 TheGreeks, Moreover, CEU eTD Collection 98 97 Imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East 96 95 communities ( communities Jews allowing them to exercise their religion freely and form autonomous religious Christians and Jews. Theymade compromises andgaveChristians guarantees to and and toleranttoward conciliatory particularly became conditions, under special from the yoke of the Ottomans. inspire contemporary princes to take action in order to save their fellow Christians 94 holders their conquests were integrated into the Ottoman military class as Christian previously previously possessed. institutions. only butalsotheir Church organization customs, their andlocal taxes pre-conquest years of the empire, early the in especially Balkans, in the subjects they Christian many had rulers Ottoman won over the Christians inwere this permittedregion by maintaining to continueinternally. not practicing their faith, but with some restrictions. As the approach approach serves his main of purpose reviving the crusading spiritbetter. this fact, In rule. Ottoman of aspects the in knowing Pius of part the on interest of it shows alack much situation; correspond rather, actual notto the did Ottoman rule discussing regardsIslam Islam.Pius apromoter as of anddiscord whilechaos of friendly popehardly the itsreflects and kindly attitudes seeming to addressee while Halil Inalc Halil Inalc Halil Stanford Shaw, Stanford Timar Dhimmi refers to a fief whose revenues were given in return for military service. military for inreturn given were revenues whose fief a to refers 97 A large part of Pius’ letter comprises a detailed refutation of of tone Islam. The refutation comprises adetailed letter of Pius’ A largepart It isimportant to emphasize, however, that the Ottomans building their empire is is the term used for non-Muslim subjectsunder living Ottoman the rule. and in most cases these Christians maintained the privileges that they had they that privileges the maintained Christians these cases most in and 94 Õ k, “The Meaning of Legacy,” Õ 96 In exchange tax,Christians aspecial forpaying and Jews, or k, “The Meaning of Legacy: The Ottoman Case,” in Case,” Ottoman The of Legacy: Meaning “The k, Moreover, the Christians who cooperated with Christians Moreover, the whocooperated Ottomans during the History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey millets ), in which religious issues and civil suits were solved were suits civil and issues religious in which ), 98 Thus, the image created by Pius of the Christians under 24. , ed. L. Carl Brown(New York: ColumbiaUP, 1996), 23-4. 35 , 59. Imperial Legacy: The Ottoman dhimmis timar- , 95 CEU eTD Collection invention of Devil to replace and destroy isirrational, regardedas invention toreplace anddestroy Christianity.of It Devil is as an reflected It sexual violence,perversion. and religion of cruelty, deception, Other dichotomy. While Christianity is founded on reason, Islam is presented as a says: faith, and“nor have adds you, uptonowlearned enough.” about understanding sufficient no had Mohammed Prophet that asserts he addition, In associated with Christianity over the Ottomans and Islam. For instance, he says: between Eastandthe West the whilesuperiority is justifying European which convert. persuade Mehmed to 102 101 100 rhetoric concerning rhetoric concerning all issues such as a person Pius for beit Mehmed.After arguedthat all,can towards morethan persuasive critical Mohammedan Law. Under Christian Law it can easily come about.” isforChristianityplace stands for unity impossible take the peace.“Itunder to 99 Epistolaad Mahomatem II, Ibid., 20. Pope Pius develops this point more fully in the following chapters. Ibid., 35. Ibid., 41. Throughout the letter all the arguments are constructed on the basis of the self- From beginningPiusthe based his on arguments an essential distinction but of but of philosophy well.as scripture divine of only not arguments the by fortified are and in arms excel sincetheyboth inby deceived can be arguments, defeated war or instead areno fearsChristians There but, defeat. who debate reasoned on the doctrineYour supported by isnot arguments orreasons,butisforce based of arms alone; it does not hope to convinceand witnesses. throughWeears toGodandalive. lendour areguided byholy proofs writings, a living being,Christ, whoeven in your teachings, isin tobe admitted believe we miracles; without purpose, no to witnesses, without died You believe only Muhammad and his Koran. You follow a man who 100 — 20. who was skilled in oratory whowas skilled in andoratory his famous for persuasive — the rhetoric in is letter this tooweak convinceto or 102 36 101 Concerning Islam, Pius Islam, Concerning 99 His approach is approach His CEU eTD Collection will will morebe fully analyzed in the following chapter. which texts, and polemical themedieval letter pope’s the between topical continuity many themof going back theto ninth century or even earlier. There islarge degree of regardingof ofnegativea richliterature drewupon Islam, Pius crusading. stereotypes the Islamicenemyforaimedremarks purpose toIslam atdemonizing the were related since it allow refuses to disputepublicly Christians Muslims. to All these with medieval polemicists, he torefute rathertries understand than is whatIslam basically to similarly doctrines, Islamic discussing While princes. Christian the among spirit crusading medieval revive to aims and Christendom, Latin and Christianity for construct image asuperior rather tries to become but aChristian, persuade Mehmed to attempted conversion. than category different in a completely be should placed letter Pius’ intention, Pius does not bother its “Other” through Christianity. to establish a religiousPius adopted rhetoric inhisletter and establishedreligiousself-image European and dialoguebarbarism — — of againstcivilization defense the outlook onasecular his arguments or basing than Rather to argument. this proves letter Pius’ that say to hard is it barbarian, the and civilized the between distinction ancient in the rooted stereotypes cultural from Ottomansthe coming isamixturestereotypes Middle of the Agesand religious Christianity.Although scholarship that has recent the humanistargued perceptions of identity inframeworka European constructprovided for Pius respectof the to vis-à-vis Islam Ottomans. the aEuropean self-image definedconstruct assuperior is to rather letter aiminPius’ seems this that It bythe sultan. received positively truly intendedbe to sentMehmed,it to hardlyis likely it have that would been From this discussion, it can be concluded that in terms of its approach and was it and conversion of aim the with written really was letter if this Even 37 CEU eTD Collection perceptions of Ottomans. andthe Islam of perceptions understanding Pius’ Pope intention actual butalso in the roots seeing of Renaissance in only not revealing, more be certainly will texts polemic medieval with it compare about. Thus, to evaluate this letter in the context of Christian-Muslim polemics and to 38 CEU eTD Collection gained access to literature. gained richmedieval the accessto polemical in connection with medieval anti-Islamic polemics, itis necessary discussto how Pius in letter Pius’ thegeneral themes on Islam. analyzing medieval Before the discourse Prophet and his religion. In that lessmore or touching upon all points that had beenthe leveled repeatedly the against respect, his views can be takenhefirst, defendedhe ChristianIslam, elaborately certain doctrines refuted and then as a continuation of 103 followed by as devised weregenerally texts polemical position. another’s of falsity the showing or refuting Islamic polemical texts. anti- to asbelonging letter, as aconversion camouflaged Pius’ writing, evaluate describing Islamand the Mohammed.Prophet Inthisitis sense, more convincing to in devices polemical medieval common on draws mostly He polemicists. medieval as Pius.PiusWhile onsimilarpoints part of focuses with Islam,Pope dealing muchmedievaluse demonstrate innovation of rhetoric donot polemical on and the conversion. Such references to the Ottomans and Islam rather reflect the influence and of aim the with written been have to considered be hardly can comments, in scathing view portraying thatPius’ letter, asan Mehmed enemy faithof the and refuting Islam PIUS II’S LETTER INTHE CONTEXT OFANTI-ISLAMIC POLEMICAL Norman Daniel, Norman As a term, The close analysis of the letter in the previous chapter seems to confirm the polemics Islam and the West: The Making of an Image polemic (attacks on Islam). Pope Pius’ letter also stands in this tradition: refers to argumentation composed with the intent of CHAPTER III: TEXTS 39 apology (defense of (defense is Christianity)which of (Oxford: Oneworld, 1993), 294-95. 103 The medieval anti-Islamic medieval The CEU eTD Collection adds that together with theBasel Koran, the translationhe had a chance of topolemical In his sources. introductionthe the heto work, that suggests he obtained in acquire Koran whichthe translation was done by Robertof Al- of Ketton. evil. Mohammed’s from stemmed was false all that whereas Gospel, the from taken were necessarily Christianity parts accordedwith prove which those that aimsChristianity. to text His itsinto various elements and find to trying the issuesin itwhich separateIslam and up it breaking by in detail Koran the of analysis a systematic out carries He doctrines. the In earlier. centuries hadthree the Venerable as Peter of just Islam errors the demonstrate to basically 106 vol.12 (1965): 175-179. translation translation and interpretation; for arevised need sothe and Koran, of the understanding a clear of necessity Arthur J.Banning Press,1990) 965. Turks,” the Against Crusade the and Conversion “Coexistance, Schwoebel, God. It is true that both John of both Segovia John of is It that true God. the Koran, acknowledgingdoctrines. Some scholars the interpret hisMuslim attitudeIslamic in and this Christian work between as a points respectful beliefdifferent and approachcommon the show to to trying that it contained thePius himself. Nicholas work, this In ofCusa examined theKoran by point point, revealed word of inat 1460by German the ofCusacardinal,(1401-1464) requestof the Nicholas Pope Sources ofPope Pius II end he end could not achieveRichard this. Southern, 104 105 , John of Segovia spent many years on a revised and accurate translation of the Koran, though in the R. Southern, While composing his Nicholaswork, of Cusa borrowed largely from medieval One of One Pius’ for of mainsources the Pope is letter the Western Views ofIslam De Pace Fidei and Fidei De Pace Cribratio 105 however it can be said that their concern was Cribratio Alkorani, , Nicholas of , Nicholas Cusa deals of anditsonly with Islam , 88-90;N. Bisaha, Western Views ofIslam in the Middle Ages 40 104 and of Nicholas Cusabelieved in the ed. Jasper Hopkins (Minneapolis: The Creating East andWest Cribratio Alkorani Studies inthe Renaissance 106 , 103-4. He also , 144; R. written , CEU eTD Collection scholars. the among discussion of matter a still is this though Al-Kindi Christian Arab came source,this from which involved criticism of Islam and tothe wasattributed Mohammed Prophet the and Islam of knew Christians Western the what of much 15). This provided him with thechance to acquire first-hand knowledge of Muslim beliefs and the chief financial administrators of Umayyadthe caliphs Abd (685-705) al-Malik of and Walid I(705- one also was He issues. theological of variety a on wrote he and and presbyter Melkite a was 110 centuries. following the in purposes different for Venerable. the ofPeter patronage under the Toledo of by Peter in the West in the mid-twelfth century, when it was translated from Arabic into Latin accurately transmitted and preserved. accurately transmitted been not had text the that says he Moreover, al-Ahbar. Ka’b and Sallam b. Allah with the help of a hereticalKoran’s be claim to the Word claiming of itGod, that was composed by Mohammed Christian monkspread his by religion only swordthe andviolence. Al-Kindi also questions the Sergius (Nestorius) as prophet he didhave not any signsanddivine perform not did any miracles, andhe and two Jews, Abd attacks on differentof number a launching while doctrines Christian justifies aspects He Islam. of refutation of Islam. According to Al-Kindi, Mohammed was not a John of Damascus of writings the in Pera convent Dominican in the found had he in 1437 refutingConstantinople Islam. Nicholas of Cusa. Especially the portrayal of Islam in the important because they were used by various later Christian polemicists against Islam, including 108 109 Documents from the First Three Islamic Centuries Kindi’s 377. Concerning the discussions related to the authorship of the authorship the to related discussions the Concerning 377. Commentary A collection of Documents from the First ThreeIslamic Centuries, 632-900AD:Translations and Apology of Al-Kindi: An Essay on its Age and Authorship,” in response to a conversion-to-Islam letterfrom a Muslim friend, al-Hashimi. William Muir, “The 107 John of Damascus was one of the most influential anti-Muslim writers during the eighth century. He These two works, the translation of the Koran and the and Koran of the translation the works, two These Itis assumed that Al-Kindi wrote his The Apology of Al-Kindi Besides these sources, Nicholas of Cusa also claims that during his mission to mission his during that claims also Cusa of Nicholas sources, these Besides Apology 107 , ed. N. A. Newman (Hatfield: Interdisciplinary BiblicalResearch Institute, 1993), 365- In his work, Al-Kindi Inhis work, presents adefenseof Christianity and adetailed . The Apology , tr. Anton Tien in or Risalah Apology 110 108 John of Damascus wrote The Early Christian-Muslim Dialogue: A Collection of The around 830at Caliphal-Ma’mun courtas the ofthe a of Al-Kindi was verya important source, as 41 , 381-516. Apology Apology of Al-Kindi only became known Apology Apology The Early Christian-Muslim Dialogue: of Al-Kindi was elaborated usedand , see J. Tolan, J. , see of Al-Kindi, are particularly are of Al-Kindi, 109 Fount ofKnowledge Saracens , 40-68. CEU eTD Collection de Montecroce and de Montecroce the Venerable. the by Peter especially treatises, polemical made of largely earlier use Montecroce text. sacred asa Koran the of refutation a comprehensive present aimed to de Montecroce heresies and the errors of Muhammad with logical arguments. In his work, Riccoldo Spanish (later John the whichforNicholasthe de Torquemada, refuted cardinal) Cribratio Alkorani tools of argument. anti-heretical Nicholas of Cusa and Pope Pius. In their writings, they triedincluding to refute polemicists, Islam Renaissance using and themedieval following many by employed own. through an Arian monk and with helpthe monk of this heformed a heresy hisof OldNewTestaments and the to Mohammed came that he asserted Moreover, heresy. crucified--butnot was this oneof thatmade mainpoints the Islam himinterpret a as conceived miraculously His and servant, of God as the Word Christ recognized Koran Knowledge his In Islam. to response Christian apologetic an of formation the and 113 2002), 137. 112 133-141. Islam asaChristianHugh heresy.Goddard, demonstrated differences and similarities these that concluded he this, From differed. communities suggested that Muslims had some commonbeliefs withChristians, however, on most points the two religious practices, including some acquaintance withthe Koran. Onthe basis of this familiarity he heresim Saracenorum Saracenorum 111 Amsterdam Books, 2000),38-39. Ibid., 251. Peter the Venerable himself also wrote workstwo onIslam, the Tolan, John John of DamascusJohn of onIslam:The Heresy of the Ishmaelites, Disputation between a Saracen and a Christian Disputation between aSaracenand 111 Other polemical texts Nicholas of Cusa mentioned in the introduction to The description of Mohammed as an Arian or Nestorian heretic was , he wrote a part entitled apart hewrote , (The Summary of the Entire Heresy of the Saracens) and the and Saracens) ofthe Heresy Entire the of Summary (The Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination 113 His work became one of the most widely read anti-Islamic treatises readanti-Islamic widely most of one the became His work (The Refutation of the Sect or Heresy of the Saracens). The titles of the two of the titles The Saracens). ofthe Heresy or Sect of the Refutation (The were Contra errores perfidiMachometi Contra LegemSarracenorum 112 A HistoryChristian-Muslim of Relations On the Heresies, the On 42 , which contributed a great deal to tr. Sahas Daniel (Leiden: Brill, 1972), , the work of a Dominican , aDominican of work , the by a Dominican friar, Riccoldo friar, aDominican by and there he stated that the that stated he there and (New York: Columbia UP, Liber contra sectam sive sectam contra Liber Summa totius heresis (Chicago: New Fount of CEU eTD Collection Nicholas maintains thatasMuhammadnot defend couldhis teachings with argument topos spread Islam. to inviolence order force and role to gaveanessential his law.Herather forbade discussing Mohammed the Koran is not the Word of God but a man-made text. It was for this reason that intentions. evil or ignorance eitherMohammed’s dueto false was was that all whereas from the taken necessarily beliefs were with Christian the thataccorded points in a Christian way and tries to find in it traces of Christian beliefs. For him, all the glory, power, andwealth. power, glory, Koran by from itderiving Christian and Jewish material and he did forthis his own advisors. laterChristians introduced by influencewere under Mohammed Jewish of the the against written were that Koran in the sentiments some however, Christianity; Nestorian idolatry Mohammedmonkto whoconverted from Sergius called by a developed heresy a Nestorian Islamas Cusa regards of Venerable, Nicholas Cusa in various ways and they were used in his 115 by force by was adopted many following polemicists. be overcome only can and reason to resistant are who believers irrational and violent as Muslims the of portrayal His century. sixteenth the to century fourteenth the from 117 116 114 heresy. Nestorian specifically heresy, Christian a as Islam regarded Peter Al-Kindi, like that, clearly indicate works Nicholas of Cusa, Ibid., 968. Ibid., 1068. J. Tolan, in medieval polemical literature. Like Al-Kindi and other following polemicists, following other and Al-Kindi Like literature. polemical medieval in In fact, Nicholas of Cusa’s approach was not new, as this theme was already a wasalready theme new, asthis not was approach of Cusa’s Nicholas fact, In Apparently, all these medieval polemical texts became availableNicholas to of 115 Saracens 117 Therefore, Nicholas of Cusa points out that Mohammed composed the composed Mohammed that out points Cusa of Nicholas Therefore, Taking this argument as a basis, Nicholas of Cusa tries to establish that Cribratio Alkorani , 254. 116 Throughout the Throughout , 969-70. 43 Cribratio Cribratio. 114 , Nicholas interprets the Koran Like Al-Kindi and Peter the CEU eTD Collection sensible things and intellectual things. is between asthere Paradise Christian and Paradise Islamic between much difference the Islamic conception heavenof in the Koran as example. He suggests that there is as condemns Mohammed for promoting sensuality and worldliness. Forthis, he gives accuses Mohammed ofbeing dishonestand promotingviolence. he Moreover, use forcespread his Nicholas him to kindof arguments religion.this Through to suggests thatMohammed, takingGod commanded asjustification, this arguedthat And neither would believe miracles, exceptbysword…” believed.have who not of eyes those the before cities says destroyed “wehave God and discussion he resorted to arms and deceived his people, claiming that in the Koran 118 in Paradise many andadds: in times Paradise finally he concludes Koran the that mentions maidens and lustful copulation physical parts Nicholas of andpoint, givesmany from of Koran different the quotations Cusa pleasures his Muslims,it formeans for spiritual Tosupport satisfaction Christians. 120 119 it Thus, canbesaidthat texts. anti-Islamic inthemedieval idea commonplace a was carnal pleasures promotes Islam idea that The his adultery. excuse to tried Mohammed he wanted, him pleasures to whatever permitted God saying that in tovalidate his order immoral lustful and attitudes. Moreover, Nicholas by adds, Nicholas of Cusa, Ibid., 1046. Ibid., 1043. According Nicholas to such Cusa, in Mohammedstatements of put Koran the vileness. speaks sovilely isof such vile thingsunless he fullof all such nobe one law asaprophet…For are saidof esteem Mohammed this to Arabs, Egyptians, andwise Persians virtuous Turkswho Moors, and wrote it and attributes its authority God,to thenhimself if he I am or amazed that those vileness, of full book this God to ascribes Mohammed myself:read I saidto If vile things.And these I wasashamedto 120 Cribratio Alkorani , 1061. 119 While the idea of heaven refers to physical 44 118 Thus, Nicholas of Cusa CEU eTD Collection Pope PiusPope by influenced while treatise hisletter. composing was also Torquemada’s collections of collections the or Koran the than rather information second-hand on based was Prophet mistakes of heretics.” of all mistakes much to tell hisso thathe “not wrote inahurry, treatise Even Juan states himself de Torquemada Muhammad’sfor theprinces. andpraise glory, of promises references, Biblical full of this treatise history asorder to stir these princes with both political andto religious reasons, Torquemada wrote demonstrate chapter, weresupposed princesfrom all over Europe attendto council, this in and that and his sect. his faith containedMuhammad’swritein him aworkabout Pius errors Mantua ordered to 1458, Pope the duringsupporters Mantua. thatof Itis of Council the suggested Councilof the orderedby popes. varied successive the subjects most on the assemblies speeches gave and all on,heattended important this moment Machometi also heavily influenced by Juan de Torquemada’s work, Fortress ofFaith Fortress following pages. the in fully more bediscussed will This Islam. against texts polemical medieval rich that Piusthat derived most of themesfrom the Cusa’s Cribratio Alkorani in his polemics anti-Islamic medieval earlier echoed mostly Cusa of Nicholas 123 122 (Leiden: Brill, 1999) 43. 121 Juan de Torquemada, Ibid., 45. Ana Echevarria, In addition to Nicholas of Cusa’s work, the (1459).In1431Torquemada was papal from appointed theologian and, 122 , 45. Hadith The purpose was quite practical: as already mentioned in the first mentioned inthe already as was purpose The practical: quite The Fortress of Faith:TheAttitude towards Fifteenth Muslims in the Century Spain . A close look at the general themes in Pius’ letter demonstrates letter inPius’ themes general atthe look A close . . His work was the summing up of Peter the Venerable’s views. Contra Errores Perfidi Machometi 123 Mostof Torquemada’s knowledge aboutIslam and the 45 Cribratio Cribratio Alkorani , 3-8.Citedfrom Ana Echevarria’s 121 Torquemada was one of the , whichwas a mixture of Contraerrores perfidi , Pope Pius was The CEU eTD Collection 126 the Holy Spiritis one.” the Holy Spiritis not the Father or the Son. The essence of the Father,and of Father, thethe Son,not is of Son the Son, the not is father the yet eternity; from God one are explains the idea of the Trinity saying, “We assert that the Father, Son and Holy Spirit General ThemesRelatedto Islam letter. This be outwhen will pointed in regarding thegeneral discussing hisIslam themes 124 125 were God. isunity. worship blasphemousIt to by Jesus,ahumanbeing asifGod, he created God’s and monotheism is against Trinity the of idea the belief, Islamic to According inand arethreepersons there notGod gods, three thought. falsely asMohammed eternal and an incomprehensible spirit. “As God generates the Word, we call Father, wecall theWord, generates “As God spirit. incomprehensible eternal an and hands and other limbs to God.” to limbs other and hands filth. It is Saracens throughwho can believea union withsuch a Christmeanof Christians gives wastheSon donot God, a thatGod birthinamarriage woman.thing since“We Christians they attribute are not a body,so witless head, asattributes. to admit such depriving the divinity and Word the of Muslims the Spirit, his deprive Godof key by that proposes this,Pius As aresponseto polemicistsvigorously them. refuted J. Tolan, Epistolaad Mahomatem II, Epistolaad Mahomatem II, The first theme Pius deals with in his letter is the idea of the Holy Trinity. Pius Pius argues against Muslims’ rejection of Holy bysaying that PiusTrinity the Muslims’of arguesagainst rejection Saracens 125 These two central doctrines are attacked in the Quran, and Muslim in and Quran, the attacked central are doctrines These two , 36. 124 44. 48. Pius also emphasizes that the Christian religion teaches that 126 Pius is maintains God that immortal, incorporeal, 46 CEU eTD Collection and utterance of the Word itself we call the generation of Son.” of the thegeneration itself wecall of Word the and utterance 130 129 128 127 the sin of sinthe Adammankind and of into fell Eve, andit sin is to for only God suitable of man.Because of thesalvation for suffered man and wasmade God that heasserts neither that God became flesh nor that He was crucified or died.” lawyour in recognizes Further, his place. elsewaskilled someone and that teaches the Incarnation and crucifixion of Christ: samepattern. Pius the followed “Your law denies theincarnation. Christ’s the relationshippersons,and the problem between of three the execution of Christ dogma, Christian the of discussion the to whole chapters devoted andtherefore error, of thisissue Muhammad’s deTorquemada. They main as Cusa andJuan regarded defense of the idea of the Trinity was heavily dealt with alsoin the works of Nicholas discovered itwith helpthe of his teacher, and Sergius, diffused itwidely.” virus lurkedhidden for along time among theEgyptians and Arabs;Mohammed “Their thisArius, error. produced but that andMacedonius Mohammed, Nestorius, insisted on denying truth: this andScripture divine it testimonies, should be but Ariusthat obeyed, and Mohammed in Holy is established Holy Trinity of the idea thatasthe asserts it. He explain that space to proving the truth of the Trinity through citations from Bible and analogies Ibid., 55. Ibid., 47. Ibid., 45. Epistolaad Mahomatem II In connection to the idea of the Trinity, Pius suggests that Islam also rejects Pius stresses that the rejection of the idea of Holystubbornness. Trinity was not original of humbly learning truth the from Thisothers. is stupid anddestructive to instead everywhere advance their nonsense to elected They ignorance. confess to than rather truth the deny to elected they mystery, Since and Arius understand did Mohammed not deep,profoundthis 128 , 44. 47 130 127 In answer to this, to answer In Pius muchgives 129 The CEU eTD Collection religion follows themexcept Aristippus and Epicurus, asfor them “the highestgoodis pleasure,” and “your who were the dregs andIn his refutation, argues Pius thateven hold didpagan philosophers not such aview, foul filth of all philosophers.” inventioncarnal Mohammed, it this inboth world. next of andpleasures the promotes Christianthe perception. Pius thatsince suggests Islam a divineis not religion butan with heaven of perception Islamic the compares lifeand eternal of idea the discusses delights of the spirit. Pius says, mindforand the peaceof striving in Christians’ tothe — garden of contrast delights well. death; after however, Muslimslook for this happiness of kind inthenext world as life in a believe not did they because view this held philosophers these that explains foolishness never heard anywhere before!” killed on the cross but was lifted up to heaven, and adds: “what wretched audacity and figure. About the death creature thefounderof God, prophet, of agreatChristianity, butnot and adivine of Christ, he suggestsas a Christ accept They human andqualities. death be shareother subjectto cannot that Muslims believeMuslims, Incarnationis difficult accept to because GodisChrist absolutely transcendent and was not rescue mankind from sin as He is“the merciful omnipotent, and just.” 135 134 133 132 131 this.” “as your know about religion itChristnot does shouldit not acceptdoes what know but time, the of end the at return will and heaven, to ascended again, rose but buried thisby statement saying that theGospels Christ affirm died onthecross and was Ibid. Ibid., 62. Ibid. Ibid., 57. Epistola ad Mahomatem II, 135 133 , 60. From this point onwards, Pius’ treatise moves more from defense toattack. He They are deeply struck by the physical nature of the Islamic paradise — a 55. 48 132 He explains the falsity he ascribes to 131 134 For He CEU eTD Collection sources. which put togetherJews and Christians elements — among perverse advice of certain the took Mohammed Judaism. Christianity and mixture of whom was Sergius from — and producedLikethe Al-Kindi a thirdOld and Peterreligion and the Venerable, fame, and byallowing andpromoting attracted pleasures manyNew his to false religion. PiusTestaments considers Islam wholackedimpostor asbut guidance, divine established for areligion gain worldly and a sect born outand of a someMohammed about asan medieval arguments of Herepeats Mohammed. prophethood other Venerable. the andPeter ofAl-Kindi that addressed by almost all the medieval polemicists. Here, Pius’ attitude is quite closesuperiority to that wouldhelp them to adhere totheir Christianity. Infact this theme was comparison Pius probably hoped to evoke in his audience a sense of religious religion worldthis promotingof sensualandvilepleasures. identifying Christianity as a spiritual which religion offers eternallife andIslam as a by heaven of conceptions the of interms Christianity and Islam between distinction prove the Law of Mohammed?” The roots Al-Kindi’s the Lawprove of ofMohammed?”back to polemic roots this The go which miracles are the what signs, are the “What miracles. of force lacked the he 136 138 137 the first three Islamic centuries Ibid., 65. Epistolaad Mahomatem II, The Apology of Al-Kindi In his handling of the issue, Pius uses a scathing tone. He draws aclear Hedraws tone. ascathing Pius uses issue, the of In hishandling Another issue which Pius deals sternly with is the refutation of isissue the Another the of dealssternly with refutation Pius which 138 of of a man! not anass, or an ox of paradise is the This flesh desires. the all that relations with virgins, angels to assist in these foul pursuits; world,in plentiful as as foods, well delicate shortwomen and concubines, Your religion promises rivers of milk, honey and wine in the next Moreover, Pius asserts that Mohammed received no divine signs andthatnodivine thatMohammed received Pius asserts Moreover, 136 in The Early Christian-Muslim Dialogue: a collection of documents from 61. , 453-55; J. Kritzeck, 49 Peter the Venerable and Islam 137 , 129. Through Through this CEU eTD Collection catalogue of fifteen of catalogue Mohammed’s wives. is a there and men forty of powers sexual the have to is presented Mohammed Pius, this was used to portray Mohammed as a lustful man: lustful asa Mohammed portray to used was this Pius, text. 142 141 140 139 maidens.” and wives many with consort I and loins my in men forty of strength the have I for adultery by sayingthem“marry and have asmanywives asyouconcubines please, commit his followers to encouraged thatMohammed adds Pius grew tiredthem. of followers to marry as many women as they Pius thatMohammedpleasures lust. his hispromotion and suggests permitted of wished and to put them aside when they Ottomans. draw such convertmotivationscan be onethat of to forMehmed. himto ratherthe It proposed images of seemsletter have in in Pius’ motivation unlikely to been theConsidered this context, the Ottomansfalse andheresy,as superstition,invention sect, religion,a error, an of devil.the and Islamletter,Throughout the Piusinfidels describes theOttomans as andIslam and enemies; was to justify a war against the and tried toseducemankind from idolatry:Christianity to the with he Mohammed rejected divinity becauseChrist lacked himself it devil.the of Ibid., 90. Epistola ad Mahomatem II, The Apology of Al-Kindi, The Apology of Al-Kindi, 139 Refuting the prophethood basis, him of Refuting associates the prophethood this Mohammed on Pius living inliving filthy amongpleasures good Mohammedthings. promotes lawgiverYour fornication,belly, serving hasplacedadultery, the Another common theme concerning Mohammed was his tendency to carnal Law? and Gospel Mosaic to the contrary majesty and that his fashionedcounsel and persuasion your religion same?the devil the ChristThat andhisenvies from detracts glory and youDo see not your theargumentthat of prophet and demonsthe is of 141 Pius seems to derive this from the 432. 452. 80. 142 50 For many For includingChristian polemicists, 140 Apology of al-Kindi, in which in al-Kindi, of CEU eTD Collection 143 145 ed. H.A.R. Gibb (Leiden, in 1986-) “Tahrif” article the in is on this detail More Scriptures. their to done have to 144 man, in one place, and at one time, it contains one doctrine and all Christians have the have Christians all and doctrine one contains it time, one at and place, in one man, on to defend the originality of the New Testament. Although it wasnotwritten by one Pius concludes the that Koran is “a foul invention” of Mohammed. different from all the others,of Christians, and of Muslims. Heargues that among these versions,which only the Koran is shows Romans, the and Greeks the of Hebrews, the clearlyof versions: four has Testament Old The that it is the false one.itlanguages,was corrupted as not it still agrees with Greekandthe Latin translations. From this, the first law, there was no reason to change it. Although it was translated into many asitwas is that, Asfor hisargument the Torah corrupted. Bible are of the rest the nor Pius assails this argument in a most decisive way. He argues that neither the Torah ( Muslim polemicists, and Christians falsified Jewsdeliberately their scriptures According falsification to argumentMuslims,against of Scriptures. the of charge the authority of the Koran Muslims as licentious and immoral people. as a sacred Mohammedbook. was alsoAl-Kindi reflected image lustful the of many attract people.Therefore, to pleasure, hislawwasable on his believerswas theand resultedAs firstMohammed in the perceptionto propose ofallowed all this his followers to take part in every kind of passion and tahrif Epistolaad Mahomatem II, Epistolaad Mahomatem II Tahrif ), easily. good with and turpitude even only he mixing shameful the advances practices, the bad, the way heretics do, in order to deceive more After the refutation of the prophethood of of questionsthe Mohammed,Afterprophethood of Pius refutation the the 144 refers to change,alteration and is used with regard towhat Jews Christians and supposedare omitting prophecies relating to Mohammed from the Torah and Gospel. 143 , 78. 90. 51 Encyclopedia of Islam 145 Pius thengoes , CEU eTD Collection an example of an example of although this: were Assyrians by conquered they the and bythe Hegives as Jews faith of conqueror. notmeanthe conqueredacceptthe the does that numbers.” in superiority a vast without them won never you them; about miraculous Christians were being punishedby for theirGod “Yoursins. victories have nothing because but strong, were Ottomans the because is not it Christians, over victories 149 148 Kritzeck, James sword.” would be he exposed, todefendprohibitedand debates ordered the religion by According to Pius, as Mohammed was afraid that in discussion “the vanity of his law polemicists, dospreadas fornot them, Word the through prophets sword. the pagan the duringArabs thespreadof bymanyChristian Islam reproached was against of Prophet the success military force.and political The butthrough persuasion like thatIslam suggests his sword.Pius,the notthrough predecessors, expanded arguments gleaned from gleanedfrom the arguments 147 of Faith Fortress The about their sacred Scriptures. their about Christians and Jews due to their hatred for each other and the different views they had issue, saying discusses this Torquemada also from his of In that Torquemada. argument treatise that Bible could notwithin the tradition of the Church beFathers, Muslims depart from it and pervert it. forged sameand version. corrupted Therefore, Piusat states,the whilesame Christians time preserveby the Law and remain 146 Ibid. Al-Kindi and Peter the Venerable dealt with this issue in detail: in issue this with dealt Venerable the Peter and Al-Kindi Juande Torquemada, Epistle to Mohammad II Another common theme coming from medieval times is Islam as a religion of religion asa is Islam times medieval from coming theme common Another In fact, concerning the transmission of sacred texts Pius did not use a different 148 149 After this, Pius writes to Mehmed Afteralthough writes Pius toOttomansthe this, that wonmany Pius also asserts that conquest with the sword and to expand an empire an expand to and sword the with conquest that asserts also Pius Peter the Venerable and Islam , 149. Contra Errores Perfidi Machometi , 84. Apology 146 Thus, bothTorquemada and employed Pius the same of , 162. Al-Kindi. 52 , 115-121.Cited from Echevarria’s Ana The Apology of Al-Kindi, of Apology The 481; 147 CEU eTD Collection to defeats andto defeats Hesays: oppression. religion. their to true remained they slavery, into off led and oppressed were and Romans 150 growth. He says: he this addsanew dimension to ideaby intellectual Islamasabarrier to presenting uparmsdisputing insteadand he ittook but of reason. Pius emphasizes also pointthis sure about law,Mohammed he his the truth wasnot from prohibited hisfollowers of as that assumption the on argument their based They polemicists. Christian the among perception medieval common a was Islam of irrationality the fact, In irrationality. and ignorance represents Islam while theology, and arts liberal the philosophy, irrationalagainst Pius, According Islam. study the Christianity to promotes of sultan. Ottoman the persuade to attempts than rather audience a Christian to exhortations armsto and fliesfrom every of kind thinking.” the your whoentrusts hisyoudefensenor prophet, agree with religion wouldof this, meanevennot Hechallengesdo his “not toMehmed, is that saying: religion better. not abandon those who call upon Him. He also asserts that the triumphs of an enemy 152 151 Ibid. Ibid., 87. Epistolaad Mahomatem II, Mohammedof Law the since ever But Asia. and Syria won throughout known were us the to down day, come have names whose men learned its few of many Alexandria; have attained inof flourishing school Thereandphilosophers wasonce agreat renown for revealing the However, Piusdespair Christiansas adds, should is not merciful God and does true to the traditions of the Holy Fathers. God good punishes us likechildren for sins our when we donotremain a We think that disasters. with other afflicted are in or war conquered are we when it blame or religion our abandon not do Christians, We, The final stream of Pius’ polemic is a defense of the rationality of Christianity of rationality the of defense is a polemic Pius’ of stream final The 150 Here Pius implicitly warns Christians not to lose faith in Christianity due Christianity in faith lose to not Christians warns implicitly Pius Here 85. 53 151 152 All these remarks can be taken as All canbetaken these remarks CEU eTD Collection Jerusalem in no more than an hour. There Mohammed ascended to heaven heaven saw andmore to ascended in no There Mohammed hour. than Jerusalem an on an ox which could speakin a human voice and enabled Muhammad to reach Muhammad inhis dream from house travelled his in Jerusalem Mecca to with Gabriel in mocking that a way,this details the of event saying Pius narrates Later, Jerusalem. chapter of Koran the of chapter story of Mohammed’s celestial voyage ( voyage celestial Mohammed’s of story contrast to the supposed wickedness and ignorance of Muslims. learningpromoter of andcreatesavision of andinvirtue European enlightenment By drawing an image of Islam that rests on ignorance, Pius constructs Christianity as asserts that: He development. intellectual to opposition its to Islam of irrationality the of idea of Islam “Miradj,” Heaven: to away carried was Mohammed that suggestion is no there however, 157 156 155 154 153 precedent. medieval than thought humanist of product a more be to appears century fifteenth the learning According andthe Bisaha,arts. to emphasis onintellectual the in questions In Koran, the Bisaha, Miradj Epistle to Mohammad II Epistolaad Mahomatem II , Vol. 7,97-105. While discussing the irrationality of Islam Pius also makes reference to the to reference makes also Pius Islam of irrationality the discussing While wisdom to those lacking it. lacking those to wisdom which is founded on pleasure and maintained by sword,the imparts yourlaw, is your nor neither This of secrets nature. prophet because to understand the truth in our religion. in our truth the understand to cities….Christiansinstruct have a deepdesire and to uninstructed the in manyof Italy’s arefound schools literary Famous ignored. public. Theology is intaught universities. Nobranch of learning is The study flourishes liberal of arts among us.Philosophy is read in It is clear that here Pius develops a discourse about the Muslims as inimical to refers to the Prophet’s ascension to Heaven. to ascension Prophet’s to the refers Creating East and West 154 Therefore, different from his medieval predecessors, Pius extends the extends Pius predecessors, medieval his from different Therefore, miradj is described as a vision in which a divine messenger appears to Mohammed; to appears messenger divine a which in vision a as described is 157 , 91. Mohammed argued that God carried him from carriedhim from Mecca to arguedthatGod Mohammed , 91. , 169. 153 Miradj 54 155 ). 156 He suggests that in He beginning suggests that the Encyclopedia CEU eTD Collection 161 160 saying that: angels After and givingGod. the story, Pius questions thefeasibility eventthis of 159 158 around 1264. around similar points as medieval Christian polemicists did. He regarded Islam as a heresy a as Islam regarded He did. polemicists Christian medieval as points similar irrational. is Islam that argument his suit it made and letter in his source deformed deliberately from originated that a usedthis account likePius, his medievalpredecessors, Mohammedthis workto asthis wouldfor solid provide their ground polemics. Scalae Daniel, to the II.According Pius and JuandeTorquemada by wasused version the sources, favorite their of one absurdities of Mohammed’s teachings. They derived the information about it from Miradj of people. account The uneducated deceived Muhammad dreams ridiculous these centuries aswell. centuries translated this text, although other versions Arabic the of this text were made in the following Norman Daniel, Norman Ana Echevarria, Ana Norman Daniel, Norman Epistle to Mohammad II was used by Christian polemicists to mock Islamic beliefs and they attributed they and beliefs Islamic mock to polemicists Christian by used was was a famous topic among medieval Christian polemicists to show the On the whole, it can be said that while discussing Islam Pius emphasized Pius Islam while discussing itcan be said that On whole, the Through this kindof the refutes Pius question story and suggests thatwith these things. these where did heWhere itdid go? Wherecover was it? Mohammed had hour? notin an risen years to heaven so fifty-thousand of sojourney a covered ox much the that space?...Mohammedthat a she-ass did and the pagans say that a cow did; but what the claim Let ussays not findnothing fault aboutthat the ox spoke, because our sacred texts state Kitab al-Miradj 159 The Jewish doctor Abraham de Toledo and Bonaventura de de Bonaventura and Toledo de Abraham doctor Jewish The Islam and the West: The Making of an Image Islam and the West: The Making of an Image The Fortress ofFaith The Fortress 160 158 One of them was made by Riccoldo de Montecroce and this de Montecroce by Riccoldo made Onewas them of , 93-4. (Account of Mohammed’s Night Journey to Heaven) Liber scalaeMachometi , 93. 55 , 263. , 29. , which was translated from Liber 161 CEU eTD Collection texts, echoing the similar themes in the refutation of Islam. polemical anti-Islamic medieval of characteristics the more carried letter Pius’ letter, aconversion as written ostensibly although that has Pius’demonstrated letter Pope and their main aim was not the conversion of the Ottomans. The close analysis of therefore, it is hard to make any precise explanations about his motivations. It is his motivations. It about explanations make isprecise any it hardto therefore, 163 convert him to the true path, declared aim of polemics traditionthe medievalwasof anti-Islamic it Although polemics. is suggested thatthe to convince the other Ottomanof the threat error most of the worksof hisdevoted waysto Islam andand the Ottomansto were written in over Muslimsubjects.” over Christians from converting to Islam, orout, a need to justify “the the rule of Christian desire eachprinces polemical text was produced.to In general,justify however, of changedpolitical the behind time the according andsocial to events attitude this these were, as Tolan pointed a war againstdestroy a heresy ofMohammedmotivations true faith,the aimed to Christianity. The a Muslimwhite claims. The reason for this attitudestate, was to convince the Christians that Islam as arguments against its religious enemy and byformulating the harshestblack-and- an attempt tried torefute Islam in looking all by ways possible for themost destructive to dissuade and polemicists.Middle During the Ages,de Montecroce Christian other polemicists Riccoldo Venerable, the of Al-Kindi, Peter that similar to apattern followed he this, originality of the Koran as the Word of God and the rationality of Islam. While doing foundedpleasure on andforce; prophethood heof the Muhammad, the questioned 162 Nancy Bisaha, Nancy J. Tolan, As already emphasized, Pius did not reveal his letter during his lifetime; his during letter his reveal not did Pius emphasized, already As During the fifteenth century duetoa a inDuringperception of growing the fifteenth century Europe Saracens Creating East and West , 281. 162 163 the intended audience for these works was Christians was works these for audience intended the , 145. 56 CEU eTD Collection declaredintention of converting the Ottoman sultan Christianity.Mehmed to itscan bemany interpretations except its concerning subject to possible purposes, letter Pius’ Clearly, heresy. Islamic the to yielding of dangers the against Christians motivation tojustifyorder an and for glorify action crusadeagainst Ottomans. the Another might haveto confront been the Ottomans. that Throughto show Christians thehe that a usecrusade or ofsome wrote typepolemics, of military aimed have might responseletter Pius’ in was Islam of the onlyherefutation way detailed demonizes the period, medieval the this the enemy letter in in case aswasthe Moreover, beliefs. religious its own of superiority the of reassured in order themto instructdisgust and in address Christians andinspire meantto carry with to rather Mehmed; weight Pius ridicule fellow for Islam. wereunlikely letter Islaminthe concerning all arguments the however,that evident, In this way the Christian audience was to be 57 CEU eTD Collection In this letter notonly sense, Pius’ reveals the Renaissance of perceptions Ottoman the Latin Christians and Christianity, arguing for European superiority over the Ottomans. Mehmed II as a ruler and the image of Islam, Pius tried to construct the self-image of of image the Mehmed. Through towards rhetoric deprecatory even andsometimes a more polemical inhisPius letter adopted letters, intheir rulers Muslim the towards popes previous of rhetoric and attitude and respectful conciliatory the to contrast in that, comparison Muslima rulers.Such demonstrated letters to previous papal wasChristians. letter of the intended audience the that indicated letter the of examination the case, any In Ottomans. the against action take aimed Christian encourage to powers princes to theEuropean concerning his hand,flattering other the Mehmed andrecognize On authority. the remarks that if they continued toignore his callsfor crusade the pope wouldfavor their enemy stressing princes, Christian warn the to intended Mehmed about of Pius statements Thepositive possible two presented interpretations. in letter the remarks conflicting idealwhatPius against apparently asagrowing The Ottoman perceived threat. effort among Christian princes reviveto the spiritof Christian unity and the crusading a aimedtofunction propagandistic as letter Pius’ viewthat the evaluation offered Suchan Pius. of Pope literary activities and of political inthecontextthe evaluated was theletter firststep, Inthe wasexamined inthreeletter steps. the purposes, In theseto reveal order serveotherpurposes. was intendedbutChristianity, to to II Mehmed convert intention to sincere the composed with not was letter this that In the second step of the study, Pius’ letter was examined in the context of in context the wasexamined letter Pius’ study, the of step In thesecond The close analysis of Pius’ letter to Mehmed II has revealed in many revealedinmany Mehmedrespects to IIhas letter Pius’ The close of analysis CONCLUSION: 58 CEU eTD Collection of other. of the other, but alsoindicates the process of the constructing aself-image through an image face of the Ottoman peril. face oftheOttoman inthe humanists fifteenth century of the itandattitudes the represents concerns Turk, prospectholding the of out couldbe Christians unitedwhat againstthe if achieved religion, asserting in the primacy of the strugglewithreligion and Turk, the leadership inthestruggle with pride Turks,asserting Christian the inhaving a many asserting papal such as Appealing to aspects of Ottoman the discourse Other. a and rhetoric, humanist Islam, on themes medieval of combination fascinating of Muslims. the perceptions medieval andRenaissance the between continuity indicates which polemicists, medieval the of arguments the echoed certainly Pius approach his In period. medieval the of polemicists Christian the thatPius’ demonstrated polemicalIslam towards carry works parallels attitudes with medieval and Renaissance with letter Pius’ of comparison The texts. polemical the third part of this thesis Pius’ letter was evaluated in the context of anti-Islamic Over all, the final conclusion that can be drawn is that Pius’ letter isa letter Pius’ that is drawn be can that conclusion final the all, Over in Islam, of refutation detailed dealswith a letter of the alargepart Because 59 CEU eTD Collection Babinger, F. 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