DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 197 998 SE 034 179 TTTLE Energy: What Can We Do Right Now? Easy Energy Reader, Book III. TNSTTTUTION Information Planning Associates, Inc., Rockville, Md. SPONS AGENCY Department of Energy, Washington, D.C. Cffice of Consumer Affairs. FFPORT NO EDM-1139 PUB DAT? May 80 CONTRACT EU-75-C-01-6497 NOTE 67p.: For related documents, see SE 034 177 -130. Photographs may not reproduce well. - AVAILABLE FROM Department of Energy, "lechnical Information Center, P.O. Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN 37330 (free). EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage. nESCRIPTOPS *Content Area Reading: *Energy: *Environmental Education: *Interdisciplinary Approach: JuniorHigh Schools: Opinions: *Reading Materials; Science Education: *Social Studies ABSTRACT Highlighted in this collection of five articleson the nation's energy problemsare the viewpoints of black people, environmentalists, consumers, and utility executives. Alsoincluded is a group of statements to help the reader developa personal energy policy. Intended for iunior high school languagearts classes, this is the third in a series of four bookson energy. Each article is rated for readability according to the GunningFog Index. By referrina to these scores, a teacher can providestudents with increasingly more challenging reading material.An energy glossary and list of related readings follow the articles. (WB)

********************************************************************* Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best thatcan be made from the original document. ********************************************************************** EDM-1139 May 1980 U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE NATIONAL. INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEENREPRO- DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM Tx!: PERSON OR ORGANIZATIONOR IGIN- S.TING IT POINTS OF VIEW OROPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILYREPRE- SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTEOF EDUCAT;ON POSITION OR POLICY

V BOOK III EASY ENERGY READER

ENERGY: WHAT CAN WE DO RIGHT NOW? This unit was prepared b y Information Planning Associates, Inc. as an account of work sponsored by the United States Government. Neither the United States nor the United States Department of Energy, nor any of their employees, nor any of their contractors, subcontractors, or their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness or any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately awned rights. Copies of this unit may be obtained from:

U.S. Department of Energy Technical Information Center P.O. Box 62 Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830 4

BOOK III EASY ENERGY READER

ENERGY: WHAT CAN WE DO RIGHT NOW?

Prepared by lnfort:nation Planning Associates,Inc. Under Contract No. EU-78-C-01-6497 for The Department of Energy Office of Consumer Affairs The Education Programs Division Washington, D.C. 20585 BOOK 3 ENERGY: WHAT CANWE DO RIGHT NOW? panels being installed in the roof of an elementary school in All

PREFACE TO THE INSTRUCTOR

As current issues havecome to play a greater The Gunning Fog Index, with slight modifi- role in the language arts curriculum, the needfor cations, proved to be the most useful in scoring up-to-date materialson the technical and social entries for the Reader. We elected to applythe foundations of these issues has increased. This has index to a 300 word sample ratherthan the 100 been a particular problem for the instructorof word sample cited in the instructionsto ensure the junior-high and middle school students, whomay accuracy of the results. Also, certain three-or- find that debate manuals andsource books do not more syllable words were not counted, as the for- adequately consider the reading skillsof the mula suggests, because of their frequentrecur- younger reader. Nowhere is this more evident than rence and the obvious ease of the word, suchas in the area ofenergy. The Easy Energy Reader energy, conservation,etc. On occasion,it was has therefore been developed to help fill thisinfor- necessary for the researcher to use his discretion mation gap as wellas to direct instructors and in adding a pointor subtracting a point because of students toward other useful materials. the importance average sentence length plays. If it To facilitate reading, the Reader has been was noticed that sentences in certain articleswere divided into four volumes. Book 1 discusses what rather short but the text complicated,a point was energy is, where it comes from, how it is stored, added in mostcases. Whereas if the reverse was and how it is transported; Book 2 talks aboutthe true, i.e., long sentences but uncomplicated text,a history of energy and how it hascome to play such point was then subtracted, thus producinga more an important role in our daily lives; Book 3ana- accurate readability level for that article. lyzes the causes of the nation's currentenergy- The formula that we used worksas follows' : related problems and offers possible solutions;and Book 4 providesan insightful look at future 1.Select a sample of 300 words. energy technologies. 2. Find the average sentence length. 3.Count the number of words of three syl- The readings in these bookswere selected on lables or over (Do not countproper the basis of theircurrency, their importance to the nouns, easy compound words like "book- student's understanding ofenergy issues, and keeper," recurring familiar words such their readability. The articles chosen providea wide range of readability levels, which willaccom- modate the wide range of abilities found in middle Editor's Note: Adapted from Toward World Literacy, by FrankC. Laubach and Robert S.Laubach, Copyright 1960, Syracuse school and junior high classrooms. University Press. ii

as "automobile" or "energy," or verb By providing an array of readings in the forms in which the third syllable is four books of this series, we hope to make the merely the ending,as,for example, Reader more useful to the teacher who wishes to "directed.") Divide by 3. individualize instruction or to develop a curricu- 4. Add average sentence length to thenum- lum of increasingly more challenging reading. ber of "hard (three-or-more syllable) Students can be encouraged to increase their words." energy vocabularies by studying the glossary at 5.Multiply the sum by .4 (four-tenths). the back of each book. This gives the Fog Index, Many of the readings lend themselves to The equation for steps 4 and 5 is: problems in distinguishing between fact and opin- ion, and may be useful as background for mini- Number = Average x .4 = The Fog Index debates. Role-playing activities in which students of "hardnumber represent the positions of consumer, environmen- words" of words talist, or electrical utility executive could also be per drawn from most of the articles, or current news- sentence paper editorials might be analyzed according to The table below lists in increasing order of whether the Reader's authors would agreeor dis- difficulty the articles thatare included in Book 3, agree. Students might also be encouraged to write Energy: What Can We Do Right Now? their own letters to the editor in reply. Sirhulated news broadcasts and interviews TITLE FOG INDEX* could be prepared using this material, or the read- We Can Produce Lots of Cheap ings could be used as preparation for interviewing Energy, If Only 6.0 people from the community, such as representa- Stops Taking Us for Fools 6.5 tives of the solar equipment industry, utilities, Let's Keep Our Energy Clean 9.0 alternate energy activists and school personnel Make Your Own Energy Policy 9.0 responsible for reducingenergy use. Energy Policy and Black People 11.0 There are of course many other uses for the Reader, both as part of the regular curriculum and as a resource for independent study. For example, * Rounded to nearest .5. it provides a number of good models of technical 111

writing, a skill which is usually not taughtuntil would appreciateyour ideas and comments and the student's senioryear or college, if then. Yet those of your students. Please address them.to: educators have observed that the best time( the `teachable moment') to help students communicate about a subject is while theyare discovering their Education Programp interest in it rather than after they have become Office of Consumer Affairs immersed in its jargon and shorthand. We hope U.S D epaatment of Energy the Reader can help achieve that objective. We Washington, D .0.20585 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Introduction vii

Energy Policy And Black People 1

Viewpoints 11 Consumer "Stop Taking Us For Fools"

Viewpoints 17 Environmentalist

"Let's Keep Our Energy Clean"

Viewpoints 23 Ekictric Utility Executive

"We CAN Produce Lots of Cheap Energy,

If Only..."

Make Your Own Energy Policy 27

Check Your Energy Vocabulary: 33 A Glossary of Terms

Suggested Reading 47

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Just Imagine It simply didn' c exist. Yet peoplestayed dry and warm by burnir,g oil. Many homes are still heated Imagine that it is night, and everything that way. around you thatruns on electricity has stopped What about the days before oil? We burned forever. The lights. The heating and air condition- coal. Many homes in the world still do. A lot offac- ing. The television and radio. Therefrigerator. tories do, too. And coal, like oil andgas, is now Street lights and stop lights and clotheswashers burned to make electricity. And how didwe keep and driers, stoves and toasters and hairdriers and warm before coal? We burned wood. stereos. What else has stopped? Couldyou pick up In fact, all through, historywe have found the phone to call someone and findout why every- thing that uses electricity has stopped? ways to keep ourselves warm and dry and to cook our food and to make enough light to How wouldyou see? How would you stay see by. We have usedmany, many sources of energy. warm in winter and cool in summer? How ,-could you send messages and be entertained at home? This Book Is About Energy How would you wash and dryyour clothes and This book is about theenergy that runs cook your food? machines and lights and furnacesand electric You would look for otherways to do these blankets and automobiles. It isabout how we get things; you would look for other kindsand sources energy from many sources, and whatwe can do of energy. You might find thatyou could get along when one sourceor several sources begin to run just fine withoutmany machines. Just because out. This book will helpyou understand why it is your electric toothbrush wouldn't buzzany more important not to wasteenergy, as well as point out would not meanyou had to stop brushing your some of the things we can do tosave it. It will help teeth. And you might discover thatyou could do' you til;nk about what you want to do to help make without a clothes dryer by lettingthe sun do the sure there will always be plenty ofenergy for all frying. of us. Tr to think of other ways to replace elec- This Book Has Man: Authors ;rieity in your daily life. The chapters of this book t Wouldn't Be The First Time come from many different books and magazines. Eachchapter is Just about everyone knows thatthere was a about a different part of the subjectof energy: pime whenwe had no electric heat for our homed. what it is, where itcomes from, why some kinds

1 are becoming very expensive,how different people energy words at tile end of this book tohelp you feel about it, and many other topics. Remember, build your vocabulary,) When you find a chapter these are not official opinions of the United States you especially like, you may want to read thebook Department of Energy. Instead, the chapters will from which it came. The first page of each chapter give you an idea of what many different people will tell you its source. Then look in the list of sug- are saying about energy. Youwill see that people gested reading for information that will help you disagree about how to make sure there will always find the original book or magazine. If it is not in be enough energy. But everyone agrees that each your school library, your librarian may be able to of us will have to make important choices about help you get it from another library. Another way energy. That is why wehope you will find this to us..1 this book is to close it up every so often and book useful. look around you at what energy does. Think about which uses of energy are really necessary and This Book Can Be Used In Many War which are not. Think about what you would be willing to give up for a gallon of gasoline or the This book can help you learn to read about comfort of an air-conditioned building. Then, energy. Some chapters are harder thanothers, and when you are finished with this book, pass it on to your teacher can suggest the chapters to startwith a friend. By putting our energies together, we can and the ones to read next. ( There is also a list of help to assure a bright energy future for everyone. -71a ter 4.*

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. : Energy PolicyAnd BlackPeople ParticipatingIn The Solutions

Rarely, if ever, hasour nation been con- and other minorities since the inception of the fronted with a major policy issueso little under- energy crisis back in 1974. stood by so many people. Americans have been Just about everyoneagrees on some basic exhorted to respond to an energy crisis which many principles governingenergy discussions.Itis doubt exists, and which few pretendto compre- recognized that our advanced industrialeconomy hend. Many sectors ofour society have advanced depends on an assured supply ofenergy sources; proposals, produced massive tomes of documents, that there is a need to makeour use of energy as and argued fiercely. Buteven after years of this, efficient as possible; that development ofrenew- the public still has the feeling of giants groping able energy sources is desirable, and that lessened in the dark. dependence on importedenergy is vital. And amid this confusion, black people and How we reach those goals isa matter of de- poor people have seen their fuel costs rise, their bate, and while passions have been inflamed in the jobs endangered, and their interests ignored. It is process of debate, we should remember that rea- only within the past few weeks that the media sonable people may differ, and differ profoundly. has paid any attention to the black stake in the Honest opinions may diverge, interestsmay clash, energy debate, and public policy-makers have and legitimate social and economic considerations never shown even passing interest in the black may be pursued. So let us recognize this at the role in energy policies. outset, and let us also recognize that the interests Tonight I would like to talk aboutsome of of America's poor must be granted equal weight the major issues in theenergy crisis and state with those of other interestgroups in the course some of the major factors the National Urban of this national debate. League believes should bepart of national energy policies. The energy crisis consists of the damaging effects caused by risingenergy prices and of long- By way of preface to my remarks, I want to term depletion of non-renewableenergy sources point out that the National UrbanLeague has such as oil. Theera of industrial development been active in proposingenergy policies and speak- powered by cheap fuel isover. There is no free ing out on the impact of such policieson blacks

Reprinted with permission from the March 15, 1978, issue ofVital Note: Delivered at the Northern States Power CompanyCon- Speeches of the Day.Copyright '11 1978 by Cit: News Publishing sumer/Utility Conference, Minneapolis, Minnesota, January 20, 1978. Company. 7 2

market for oilthe market iseffectively con- ments needed for energy development are tremen- trolled by the OPEC monopoly. Cheaper domestic dous, both in physical costs and in the costs of resources are rising to meet artificially high world the skills, labor, materials and other aspects of prices. At the same time, more intensive use ac- development. celerates their depletion. World energy resources Whether financed by private industry or by are still enormous. No one knows for sure how the government, traditional energy sources will much oil there is, but it is reasonable to assume impose unbearable financial burdens on our econ- that present reserves are vastly understated, and omy. They would create sharp inflationary pres- that new fields are certain to be discovered. Since sures and would drain from other sectors of the the inception of the energy crisis in late 1973, economy the dollars and skills they need. massive fields have been developed in Alaska, Industry seems prepared to cope with this. Mexico and the North Sea. As one exput has said, Calls for deregulation and for price rises as incen-

"The crunch...is like the horizonit recedes as tives to produce more oil, gas, and other energy you approach it." sources treat energy as if it were a typical con- But oil is a finite resource. Sooner or later sumer item. If prices rise for, let us say, widgets, it will be depleted. Sooner, if demand increases at you and I could decide whether or not we want to the rate it has beenthis nation uses twice as buy widgets and act accordingly. Widgetmanu- much oil today as it did in 1963. Clearly, that can- facturers would point to the highest pricesas be- not continue. ing an incentive to them to makemore widgets, Oil and gas prices have risen to the point and if volume declines then their profit marginson where other energy sources have to be part of a those that are sold could well induce them to keep national energy plan. Coal, nuclear energy, and their prices high. others are most often mentioned. But traditional But energy is different. Most of us have no energy sources require immense amounts of cap- choice about heating our homes or driving our ital for their development. cars. Industry can't run its plants without energy. We all understand the higher prices we are Higher pricesno matter how much people cut paying for current supplies. But the glib expecta- backof necessity I :lust work their way through tions that drilling more oil fields, digging more the economy and affect all prices of all products. mines, or building more reactors will mitigate this So deregulation does not seem to me to be inflationary impact are false. The capital require- the route to go. Energy is different; its importance IS 3

is manifest. It has to' be treated differently.De- This plan is flawed in that the specifics ofits regulation and allowing domestic pricesto rise to proposals on conservation and priceare matched the OPEC monopoly levels would indeedprovide by the vagueness about the rebateswhowould more incomemuch more incometo oil andgas get them and how they would work. Nor has Con- producers, but at an intolerable cost to the rest of gress adequately dealt with the issue. Ifwe can ,us. And there is a healthy suspicion that present be sure about anything in this unpredictable price levels offer enough incentivesto industry. world, it is that thepoor will suffer from whatever Gas and oil prices have risen sharplyover previ- energy plan emerges from Washington in 1978. ous levels and the companies engaged inresource production are doing well. Their claimthat cur- I have already discussed how pricerises and rent profits are not high enough to meet future capital costs associated with developmentof tradi- capital needs has to be taken seriously. Butat the tional energy sources will inevitably leadto an in- same time, we must realize that investment is flationary spiral that would devastatethe poor never financed solely from profits. Profits need and minority community whilecripplingthe only be high enough to attract andcover debt and economy. Unemployment would be likely to in- equity funds over the long term. crease, especially for underemployed and unskilled workers. Therefore, I oppose deregulation, and fur- ther suggest that price controls and regulationsbe Black people havea stake in national eco- extended to all domesticgas and oil and to intra- nomic growth. Our piece of the pie hasalways de- state natural gas as well. Prices should be high pended' to an unjust extenton the growth of the enough to ensure reasonable profits and incentives national economic pie. A shrinkingeconomy in- for development ofnew fields, consistent with the evitably means compounded blackdisadvantage. public's need for reasonably-pricedenergy. Economic growth and soundenergy policy The Administration has attemptedto meet are not incompatible. Economic growth andcon- national energy needs witha program that would servation are not incompatible. Economic growth encourageconservation,continuetoregulate and the development of renewableenergy re- prices while imposing massivetax increases that sources are not incompatible. Economic growth would bringconsumer prices to world levels, and and measures to shieldpoor people from the then rebate those taxes to cushiontheir inflation- negative effects ofan energy policy are not ary impact. innpatible. Continuedand increasednationaleco- administrators and industries come to grips with nomic growth must be the central element of a this, the better it will be for all. national energy plan. There can be no compromise, Phasing in such regulations can be arrived no adoption of slower national economic growth as at with a due understanding that industry needs the cost of implementing energy policies. assistance to readj ust to an energy-scarce environ- And, in my view, the three pillars of a ment, and incentives to do so voluntarily. Above sound energy policy include conservation, develop- all, the national pri6rity of economic growth must ment of renewable energy resources, and shield- be central to our efforts to help industry's conser- ing the poor from negative fallout effects of vation efforts. ?nergy policies. These three pillars must support I disagree with those who say conservation ;he structure of continued economic growth with must mean slower economic growth. Conservation ?mphasis on including the poor and minorities in means rational use of limited resources. It means that growth. using different forms of energy for uses to which they are best suited. It means eliminating waste. The first pillar of a sound energy policy Per capita energy usage in the United States is ;hould be conservation. We are familiar with ex- typically several times that of other highly indus- iortations to save energy but often refuse to bite trialized nations with high living standards. We ;he bullet and implement programs that will lead as a nation must not fall into the trap of assum- ,o energy conservation. Distasteful as it may be ing that slower growth of energy usage means many of us, our cars and trucks will have to be slower economic growth or no growth at all. nade more fuel-efficient, our homes insulated, our ,ransit systems improved, and our materials re- The major attraction of conservation is that ycled. It is of relatively little importance whether it offers the greatest savings at the least cost. Some leadlines to meet specific requirements are set for experts claim that conservation and application of .980 or 1983, or even 1987. The point is that such low-cost technical aids could nearly double the 'equirements are inevitable and they'll have to be efficiency with which we use energy. Changes in mplemented, the sooner the better. Where im- building design and modification of existing struc- position of such requirements may be economically tures could save significant portions of our energy insettling in short term, they should be delayed use while saving huge capital sums that would r compensated for in some fashion. But there is otherwise be expended on non-productive fuel way they can be totally avoided. The sooner costs. 20 5

In general, sound conservation policies could tion. Thereare also serious safety considerations: lead to efficientuse of energy at no loss of jobs or there is no knownway in which radioactive nu- major lifestyle compromises,while avoiding the in- clear wastescan be safely disposed. This is not an flationary impacton energy costs. idle consideration; the health andsafety of the na- The second pillar ofa sound energy policy tion are involved. Other objectionsto expansion of should be massive development of non-renewable nuclear energy include internationalproliferation, resources and nonconventional technologies. terrorist attacks, health andsafety risks, and the There is plenty ofgas, oil and coal in the irreversibility of nuclear dependenceonce it is de- ground and under thesea. But whatever the price veloped ona wide scale. and whoever develops them,they are finite and Other forms ofenergy also have serious ultimately will be used up. The closer we get to drawbacks, butmay be more amenable to tech- exploiting the marginal wells and mines, the higher nological solutions. Coal, for the cost. Present example, has been out energy resources have to be seen of favor because of air pollution as aids in the transition to renewable considerations. energy re- But there now exist technologiesthat can burn sources, and not as limitless ends in themselves. coal cleanly,use it more efficiently, and to raise Nuclear development has oftenbeen cited as steam and to power turbines, all at farlower costs eventually supplanting themore traditional energy than conventionalpower stations. iources. Ever since the first atomic bomb went off, Co-generationis another majorarea of nankind has been hypnotizedby the possibilities adapting technology to the needsof the economy. )f peaceful developmentof the atom, and nuclear This is the term used for generatingelectricity as weeder reactors have been looked upon as the long- a by-product of the steam normally produced in twaited technical fix that willfree us from de- many industrial plants. A study by inhstryecon- )endence on finitegas, oil and coal. omists estimates that half of theelectricity needs But there are serious objections to nuclear of American industry could bemet by co-genera- nergy that should lead us to stress otherenergy tion within the decade. This isyet another example ources. One of these is cost. Reactorsare the most of how growth and jobscan be reconciled with xpensive way to meetenergy needs. Their con- sound energyuse. truction and development imposeprice restraints This also suggests that non-conventional lat must be considered. Expanded nuclear energy energy sources utilizing new technologiescan pro- arries with it capital costs that encourage infla- vide much of the nation'senergy needs at only a 21 fraction of the immense capital outlays required are not suited. It has been said, for example, that for oil exploration and for nuclear development. electricity meets 13 percent of the nation's low- The energy debate has largely ignored this. grade end use needs, and generating that electric- It has focused on traditional energy sources at the ity takes up 29 percent of our fossil fuels. expense of solar. wind and other natural, renew- Black people have a major stake in the de- able energy sources. Yet such sources do exist, the velopment of renewable energy sources, first be- technologies required to develop them are either cause they would likely mean far lower fuel and in existence already or would be with adequate re- heating costs, and second, because of their eco- search funds, and many are at the brink of com- nomic potential. mercial viability. Development of renewable energy sources A national energy policy that stressed re- amounts to creation of a new sector of the energy newable energy resources, not for some distant industry, an industry in which black participation future, but here and now, could well bring the has been minimal. Adaptation of new energy tech- potential of such sources to fruition. nologies typically requireslesscapital, fewer I believe we should regard the claims of the skills, and are more labor intensive. Neighborhood- active supporters of renewable energy with the based heating installations, rooftop solar devices same suspicions with which the claims of vested and community-based energy technologies are industry interests are regarded. Both groups tend suited to small scale business development and to to promise so much that we wonder if they really the training and employment of poor people and can deliver. But even looking at renewable energy minorities. So too, are programs of insulation and conservatively, it is clear that the potential is im- of modifying existing structures to make them pressive and should be supported by a massive re- more energy-efficient. search, development and implementation program. Here again, it is clear that economic growth A national energy pattern that uses energy and sound energy policy are not mutually exclu- sources based on their applicability to intended use sive but mutually reinforcing. is vital. More traditional, high-cost energy will The third pillar of sound national energy still be needed for many uses. But for many other strategy has to be assistance to poor people. This energy uses, low-cost renewable sources are more means not only maintenance of economic growth rational. This is especially so since fossil fuels are and preservation of jobs, but assurance that consumed for low-grade purposes for which they energy considerations will not jeopardize jobs in industries with concentrations of minority lies. So poor families don'thave to be lectured workers. It also means that effective measures about conservation; they'realready forced to do must be taken to shield the poor from the effects without the energy-guzzlersregarded by most of high energy prices and shortages. Americans as essential. This relates directly to utility pricing prac- At the same time,poor families are forced tices. Various demonstration projects are nowun- to use their higher-pricedenergy in inefficient der way to determine the modification of rate de- ways. Three-fourths of the poor don't havestorm signs to encourage conservation, shift usage pat- windows or doors and half haveno insulation. The terns for more efficient use of power capacity and federal weatherizationprogram is notorious for ameliorate the effect of utility prices onconsumers. its failure to be effective inassisting poor families Such measures should move beyond the demonstra- to insulate their homes. Formany poor people in tion stage with all possible speed. urban ghettos, there isno adequate heat and hot The poor spenda disproportionate percent- water, and rents reflect higher fuelcosts, even age of their meager incomeon heating their when servicesare erratically supplied. Tomes. Typically, residential users pay more per So it should be clearto all that massive fed- mit of energy used than do large-scale users, Poor eral assistance to meet theenergy needs of the louseholds paidan average of over seven percent poor is a necessity. I have little confidence thatany nore per unit for their oil and natural gas than rebate system will effectivelycompensate lower- lid more affluent households,because rates decline income, families for thedamage done by higher is usage increases. Price structures operate to prices and taxes. It may well be thatmore innova- reate hardships on those least able to afford them. tive meansare needed. A system of energy stamps n effect, poor people are penalized for using less may be required, or some other form of effective inergy. income transfer adopted. Vaguepromises ofre- The Federal EnergyAdministration re- bates have to be replaced withcertainassurances )orted in 1976 thata typical poor family of four of payments that fullycover increased costs. onsumed four times less energy than a smaller Further, indirectmeans of assisting lower- 'wilily with an income of $20,000. Onlya quarter income families to maketheir homes more fuel- if the poor have clothes dryers; only four percent efficient should be replacedby directprograms ave air-conditioners; poor families use about a that train and employcommunity-basedopera- ourth of the gasoline used bymore affluent fami- tions to do the job. 23 Energy is an enormously complicated issue but we also need to be healthy enough to hold those touching on every aspect of our national existence. jobs, and that means adopting energy sources that Decisions made now will affect us for generations will minimize pollution. And we need jobs, not only to come. The central thrust of energy policy should in the plants and factories of America, but at be to foster economic growth. Continued reliance policy-making levels at the Department of Energy on non-renewable energy sources inevitably means and environmental offices, where policies affecting high inflation and fewer job opportunities. A our lives are set. sound program of conservation, development of Above all, we must remember that a na- non-conventional technologies and renewable re- tional energy policy cannot be framed in a vacuum. sources, and massive assistance tocushiOn low- It cannot be shaped by powerful interests to the income families and neighborhoods from negative exclusion of groups traditionally left out of policy effects of energy policies are essential elements of formula'cion. The President has called develop- a sound energy program. ment of anational energy policy "the moral We should not allow ourselves to get locked equivalent of war," and like war, we cannot be into a stance that sacrifices growth for fossil successful if a significant portion of our people energy. We should not get caught into sacrificing are excluded from full participation in all aspects real long-term energy policy for short-term waste, of that policy. We should avoid accepting as irreconcilable thQ To date, black people and low-income fami- need for jobs and the need for energy. lies have been allowed to participate to the ex- We should be pragmatic, and flexible. We tent of bearing the burdens of energy prices. It is should preserve the environment. Black people, now for those groups to participate inframing the most urbanized group in the nation, haVe a the policies as well, so that their interests, their stake in clean air and water too. We need jobs, concerns, and their needs may behonored.

24 9

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Viewpoints Consumer

27 ZE:4k;allt,'4,--otte 1 "Stop TakingUs ForFools"

My name is Charlie Simmons. I'm 42 and made record profits. Youdon't have to bea math the father ofa 15-year-old girl and a 13-year-old genius to figure out that thoseoil companies must boy. I work as an insurance salesman. Iown a nice be chargingmore for their products than they house on a quiet street in a suburb of New York really need to. As Isee it, it's not just the Middle City. If you wantto call me an "average Ameri- East oil nations thatare squeezing money out of can," it's OK byme. I'm proud of it. I've worked us consumers. Our own companiesseem to be do- hard to get where Iam. ing thesame. What's my view of thecountry's energy But whoever isat fault, theconsumer is problems? First, let me tell you what I want and caught in the middle.Energy is like food, clothing, what I think every American deserves. I think or housing. You can't live withoutit. every citizen is entitled toa guaranteed supply of energy at the lowest possible price. It's justas im- "I'M STUCK" portant as havinga police or fire departmentor a But, inone way, energy is very different school foryour kids. from other necessities. If Idon't like the quality Now, as tomy idea of what's goingon. All or the price of lamb chops atone store, I can go right, I know that theprice of imported oil has to another store. If I needa new coat, I can look risen by 4001in the last fouryears. Boy, do I around foran after-Christmas sale. But what know it! My heating billwas $110 last month. choice do I have when itcomes to heating or light- That's more than double whatI paid lastyear, but ing my home? The utilitycompany has no com- my salary hasn't goneup that much. Don't get me petition. And they don't have"bargain sales." So wrong; I'm willing topay my fair share. The point I'm stuck. is, I get that sinking feeling that Iam paying You think I'm exaggerating?Well, doyou more than my share. I have the feeling Iam being rememberone of the things President Carter said taken for a sucker, a fool. about energy? He said thathis governmentwas You wantan example? Oil company profits going tosee to it that there would beno "excess in the third quarter of1977 were the highest profits" madeas a result of putting a national they've been inyears. That's profits, mindyou, energy plan into effect. But it looksto me as not just thegross amount of money taken in. After they paid all of theirworkers, plus all of the millions of dollars in Reprinted by permission of ScholasticMagazine, Inc. from Senior other expenses, they still Scholastic, Copyright1978 by Scholastic Magazines, Inc. 14

though that has already begun, even before a na- other energy-eaters. Okay, I know everything tional energy plan has gone into effect. can't be done overnight. But if there is a crisis, There are already reports from around the let's start acting like there is. country of people getting cheated by fly-by-night But you haven't heard the last yet, friend. insulation salesmen. Every time you turn around Let me tell you what happened to about eight you hear the familiar message :"insulate your million of us consumers here in the New York home, save energy, save money." People are doing City area. that. But what is happening? Shady operators are For years, the electric company here in New selling inferior materials. There are reports from York spent piles of money to tell people to use all over the U.S. of home fires resulting from cheap more electricity.You couldn't open a newspaper insulating materials. There should be strong fed- without seeing an advertisement from the electric eral laws preventing this sort of thing. But, no, company telling you to buy airconditioners, elec- once again it is the consumer who getshit. tric heaters, blenders, dishwashers, and dozens of Another thing: There seems to be no coor- other "conveniences of modern life." dination in this whole energy mess. You look one Then, out of the blue, they stop all the ads. way and you are told to save energy, youlook the They say we've got to save energy. It worked. other way and you see energy being wasted. People did as they were asked. They cut energy Last winter, for example, we went out to use. Guess whathappened? The power company visit my brother and his family in Ohio. Well, it said that, because people had cut their energy use, was just about a year agothat they had a horrible bills had gone down. The company wasn't making energy crisis in Ohio.My niece and nephew were enough money. So they raised the rates! out of school because the schools wereclosedno heat. Tom, my brother, was out of work for two I'll tell you what it all boils down to. Con- weeks because the factory where he works had sumers will do their part. But therehas got to be the same problem. a pay-off. People will cooperate,but they must But you knew what you saw on TV and in know what it is they are going to receive in return the newspapers? Ads for gas-guzzling cars,elec- for their sacrifices. We are not going to be made tric carving knives, dishwashers andloads of fools of. 30 s t". y 32 Viewpoints Environmentalist

AjoHoLfromGARBAGE t.. :hat

33

"Lets Keep OurEnergyClean"

My name's Carrie Sandusky. When I tell The coal people pointout thatwe have an people I'man environmentalist, I watch their abundant supply of coal,and we know howto ex- faces. Imay see anger or admiration, friendliness tract and use it. But Iobject. or distrust. Sometimes, I'm accused of being Surface (strip) miningdestroys the land "anti-people." Other times, I'm praised for try- and everything thatgrows on it. At best, restoring ing tosave the human race. surface-mined land isa long and costly job. I can remember theafternoon in 1969 when Underground mining is badfor otherreasons. I becamean environmentalist. I picked up a copy Thousands of miners eachyear are injured in the of a magazine, andwhat I saw forever changed underground mines. Manydie. Countless others my thinking. The photographs showed birds and suffer from black lungdisease caused byyears of beaches caked with thickblack oil. An oil well breathing coal dust.When high-sulfur coalis had burst off the California coast. Masses of black burned to produceenergy, it gives off sulfur- slime spread onto the beach. To me, the lessonwas dioxide pollution thatcan harm humans. clear. In its hunger for more energy, the United Nuclear power is probablyour greatest States was not giving enough thought to the dan- threat. Nuclear plantsmight leak radioactive gers of ruining the environment. chemicals,endangeringour health. And re- What scares me most is that it looks as if searchers haven't inventeda safe way to dispose of things will get worse. The government is trying to nuclear waste, whichalso is radioactive. Nuclear reduce ouruse of oil and natural gas. That's good. plants discharge heatedwater. In some places, the I'm all for it. The lessoil we import or drill, the discharge water has causedhuge fish kills. less oil we'll have to clean up from spills. And the The hydroelectric-powerpeople like to point less oil and natural gas we refine, the less air pol- out that the dams ti:ey buildare great because they lution we'll have. create lakeswhich providerecreation fora lot What I don't like, however,are the proposed of people. But creatinga lake also drowns whole alternatives to oil and naturalgas. The Carter environments of plants andanimals. administrationsays that, for the next 25 to 30 What would./ do? years, we'll have to use more coal, nuclear power, We should launchan all-out campaign to de- and hydroelectric power: I say, if we do that, we'll velop cleanenergy sources. Solar energy is the be tradingsome forms of environmentalmess for other, possiblymore harmful, ones. Reprinted by permissionof Scholastic Magazine, Inc.from Senior Scholastic, Copyright ©1978 byScholastic Magazines, Inc. 20

ideal source. It's clean to produce, clean to use. Un- ernment to relax the antipollution laws that exist, fortunately, it will be a while before solar-energy and to block further environmental regulations. technology can be widely used. They complain such regulations cost too much. The answer is conservation. If we don't stop the pollution of our air, This means we'll have to tighten our belts water, and land, the costs will be great.I'm not use our cars less, cut down onenergy-guzzling just talking about wilderness and wildlife. I'm items such as air conditioners, turn more to talking about the cost in human lives. energy savers such as insulation. Already, pollution has taken its deadly toll. On a large scale, we can promote conserva- We spew out 360,000 tons of gaseous waste into tion by building fewer highways and more mass the air each dayfrom industries, as well as from transit systems, which use energy more efficient- motor vehicles. Most of this waste is invisibleand ly. We can plan cities that provide shopping areas odorless. But it can be harmful. Studies show that within walking distance of most homes, thus re- Americans spend, each year, from $122 million ducing .the need to waste gasoline in driving to to $244 million on health problemsdue to smog. shops. We can ban, or curb, unnecessary packag- The National Academy of Sciences suggeststhat, ing that takes a lot of energy to produceand each year, auto exhaust may cause 4,000 deaths. often ends up as litter, anyway. We can recycle In the most practical terms, air pollution solid wastes and use them to provide more fuel. can be a "businessexpense." Up to four million of scientistsdevelopcleanenergy While the sick days Americans take Each year maybe sources, and consumers conserve, energysuppliers due to air pollution. can take someresponsibility, too. Electric utili- ties should be forced to switch, even more, from Sure, let's decrease our dependence on oil burning high-sulfur coal to low-sulfur coal.Or, and natural gas--and all other polluting energy they should install the very best sulfur-scrubbing sources. Let's step upresearch on solar and other equipment that reduces pollution. Nuclear plants clean forms of energy. In the meantime, let's stop should cool waste water before discharging it into wasting energy, and clean up our energy-produc- nearby streams and lakes. ing process. In the long run, we'll be saving our From what I've said, you can see why the environmentand our health. That will be good energy people might oppcme. They want gov- for peopleand our natural heritage. :

t

Deep mining near Marissa, Illinois, is once again attract needed to increase the nation's future coal production. rig young workers. An increasing

37 21

1A

)ung miners will be A turtle is fitted with a heartbeat sensor and radio transi.atter as part of waste heat from electric generating facilities. facts on animals of

"We CANProduce ts 99 Cheap Energy, Ifnly fi it 1.111111111111MNIIMIIMINI=1

I'm Dr. Elizabeth Barlow. But just callme It seems thatno matter what we've wanted Beth. All my friends do. to do in research and developmentor in planning I'm a vice-president ofan electric-utility and building for the futurethegovernment has company called NRG Electric Power and Light. hit us with rules and regulations,red tape, and My job is to keep up with R&D. That stands know-nothing bureaucrats who couldn'tcare less. for research and development of future energy Back in the 1950's, price controlswere programs. clamped on the naturalgas producers, Those con- People are always askingme, "Is there an trols ate away at profits. A lot ofus pointed out energy crisis?" And my answer is always yes. You that if thegas producers couldn't make a fair can call it anything you wanta crisis, challenge, profit, they wouldn't be ableto attract investors. problem, or dilemmabut it allamounts to the Without investors'money, they couldn't afford to same thing. And it could cause very serious prob- seek out sources ofmore gas. And that would mean lems for everyone, muchsooner than they may shortages. Well,you saw what happened last think. winter. Some citieswere almost shut down com- The National Electric Reliability Council, pletely for lack of naturalgas. People were out of whose members represent the nation'selectric work for daysor weeks. It all goes back to those companies, have just madea report. It warns that price controls! electri,:al utilities could be forced to make big Natural-gas companies haveto pay higher cutbaci s of poweras early :s 1979. If so, I think and higherwages to workers, higher and higher everybody will agree that blackouts and brown- prices for equipment and maintenance.They have outs arc, a "crisis." to plan ahead. But they can't chargethe fair price for the The funny thing is that energy they give the consumer. Is that we electric-power fair? companies been warning about possible energy problems for at least 10 years. We have Price controls are just part of it. We'retold to shift to coal, also been calling fora sensible national energy our most abundant natural energy resource. But we're hindered all along the policy. Warnings have been coming from the other way. The coal people have energy suppliers, toothe oil, coal, and natural so many rules and regula- tions to follow that deep coal gas people, for example. But it seems nobody has miningmining way wanted to listen tous energy people. They'd Reprinted by permission of Scholastic Magazine,Inc, from Senior rather hinder than helpus. eicholastic, Copyright 0 1978 by ScholasticMak-Azines, Inc. x1 26

below the earth's surfaceis barely profitable. Conservation of energy byeveryone is fine and Surface mining strip miningis often a "no-no" necessary. But it doesn't solve the problem, it only because of environmental concerns about the land- keeps delaying it. During the delay, theenergy scape and nature. If you do somehow manage to suppliers must be as free as possible to pursue get the coal, you have to make sure, when you R&D, to build for the future. You can't do that if burn it, you don't, violate very rigid air-pollution you can't raise the money and get some kind of standards. There'san urgent need forcoal- incentiveor if the consumer isn't payinga fair burning electric-power plantsbut all theseregu- share. You can't do that if anti-pollution lawsare lations can cause a 10-year delay in buildinga new so strict. one. And meeting regulations, plus delays, costs a lot of money. Up to now, the government rules for us have Nuclear plants? They can build one in three mostly boiled down to: You can't. My hope is that years or so in Japan. But in the U.S., the regula- the new Department of Energy will start saying: tions can cause delays of up to 14 years. You can. Then, we'll produce lots ofenergy as Clearly, something or somebody has to give. cheaply as we can. MAKE YOUR OWN ENERGY POLICY! By Elizabeth Dowling

Consumers. Environmentalists, Energysup- cuse to try to avoid meeting safety standards, pliers. Each has different viewpointson the energy which increase the suppliers'costs. problemand different suggestions to solve it. 6.Finding energysources for human use Where do you stand? What doyou think should be comes first, then wildlife. done? 7.The cog of energy toconsumers should To find out whereyou stand, look at the be carefully controlled. Otherwise, supplierswill statements below. Each statement is most likely charge consumers as muchas they can. to have been made only by one of three speakers 8.Suppliers should be allowedto charge as consumer, environmentalist, energy supplier. De- much as they need in orderto expand their cide if you agree or disagree with each of the state- energy-producing capacity, and stepup the search ments. [Pull out a sheet of paper and] write A for new sources. They can't do this if theydon't (agree) or D (disagree) after [the number for] make profits. ,each statement. Then turn topage 28 to find 9.Sunliers raiseconsumer bills not be- which speaker made the statement. Which speaker cause they need the money, but because they did you agree with most? greedily want more profits. From the statementsyou agree with, write 10. Consumers should conservebutI doubt your own view of the energy crisis. Propose it will do any good. moves that might relieve or solve some of the 11.Conservation is only part of the solution. problems.... We need to produce more energy. 1. My greatest concern is staying free of 12. Conservation is essential. Ifwe conserve, government regulations, so that I can provide we'll need less energy, and we'll have lesswaste services for my customers and makea profit. and pollution. 2. My greatest concern is getting all the 13.Businesses should pay for anti-pollution energy I need, at a reasonable cost, equipment, because theyare responsible for clean- 3. My greatest concern is preservingour ing up tia,Ar own pollution. land, which provides us with irreplaceable beauty 1e::. Suppliers should be allowed to perform and is our major source of food. as any business doesto make profits without 4. Energy suppliersuse the crisis as an ex- cuse to raise prices. Reprinted with permission of Scholastic Magazine, Inc. from 5.Suppliers use energy shortagesas an ex- Senior Scholastic, Copyright 1978 by Scholastic Magazines, Inc. et 28

having to apologize, and to raise prices when their the government forbids them to raise prices. costs for labor and raw materials rise. 17.It's more important to preserve the na- 15.Because they are a monopoly, suppliers tural beauty of the land than it is to increase have consumers in an unfair bind and can charge energy production, which might lead to pollution. whatever they want to. 18.Businesses should have to prove that 16.Suppliers are in a bind. Their costs rise what they produce is more important than the due to inflation and anti-pollution regulations, but damage they do to the environment.

ANSWERS The statement was most likely made by a consumer (c), an en- vironmentalist (e) or an energy supplier (s) :1-s; 2-c; 3-e; 4-c; 5-e; 6-s; 7-c; 8-s; 9-c; 10-c; 11-s; 12-e; 13e; 14-s; 16-s: 1.7-e; 18-e.

CHECK YOUR ENERGY VOCABULARY

John M. Fowler and KingC. Kryger PROPULSION BATTERY

ISOLINE ENGINE

ELECTRIC MOTOR

48 A GLOSSARY OF TERMS amperageA measure of the volume of flow of an biomass- -Plant materials inany form from algae electrical current. to wood. anthracite"Hard coal," lowin volatile matter, bituminous coalSoft coal;coal that is high in high in carboncontent, with a heat value of carbonaceous and volatilematter.Itis 6.40 million Calories/ton. "younger" and of lowerheat value thanan- thracite or "hard coal." atomConsists ofa heavy center or nucleus, Heat value, 5.92 mil- lion Calories/ton. made up of protons andneutrons, around which revolve blurs ofenergy called electrons, black lungA respiratoryailment, similar toem- physema, which is caused atomic number ofan atomThe number ofpro- by inhalation of coal tons in the nucleus. dust. Identifiedas a contributing cause in the deaths of many undergroundcoal miners. atomic ovenAnother name for atomic furnace. bottoming cycleA Sometimes calleda uranium pile or a nuclear means of using the low- reactor. temperature heatenergy exhausted from a heat engine,a steam turbine, for instance,to atomic pileA nuclearreactor, arranged to get increase the overallefficiency. It usuallyem- energy out of the nuclei of atoms. Theenergy ploys a low-boilingpoint liquidas working appears as heat. fluid.

breeder reactorAnuclear reactorso designed barrel (bbl) A liquidmeasure of oil,usually that it producesmore fuel than it crude oil, equal to 42 gallonsor about 306 uses. Ura- pounds. nium 238 (92 U238)or thorium 232 (90 Thm) can be converted to the fissile fuel,plutonium 239 (94 Pu"°) base loadThe minimumload ofa utility (elec- or uranium 233 (92 IP"), by the neutrons tric or gas)over a given period of time. produced within thebreeder reactor core. bioconversionA generalterm describing thecon- version of one form of energy into another by 'Editor's Note: This material plants or microorganisms. was produced in part by the Na- It usually refers to tional Science Teachers Association undercontract with the U.S. the conversion of solarenergy by photo- Energy Research and Development Administration,now a com- synthesis. ponent of the Department of Energy. Thefacts, statistics, pro- 49jections, and conclusionsare those of the authors. British Thermal Unit (Btu) ---A unit of energy catalystA substance which changes the speed of commonly used to measure heat energy or a chemicalreaction withoutitself being chemical energy. The heat required to raise changed. the temperature of one pound of water 1°F, catalytic converterA device added to the ex- it is usually written Btu, and is equal to 778 haust system of an automobile that converts foot-pounds of work or energy. the air pollutants carbon monoxide ( CO) and CalorieThe amount of heat required to raise the hydrocarbons (HC) to carbon dioxide ( CO') temperature of one gram of water one degree and water. A similar conversion also removes celsius. nitrogen oxides (Nth). capacity factorA measure of the ratio of the CelsiusThe metric temperature scale in which electrical energy actually produced at a gen- the temperature of melting ice is set at 0°, erating plant to the maximum design capacity the temperature of boiling water at 100°. One of the plant. degree Celsius is 9/5 of a degree Fahrenheit. The Celsius scale is also known as the Centi- capital intensiveRequiring heavy capitalin- grade scale. vestment. The energy industry, for example, is said to be capital intensive rather than labor CentigradeSee Celsius. intensive because it employs relatively more dollars than people. chain reactionA reaction that stimulates its own repetition. In a fission chain reaction a :arbon dioxide (CO )A compound of carbon and fissionable nucleus absorbs a neutron and oxygen formed whenever carbon is completely splits in two, releasing additional neutrons. burned (oxidized). These in turn can be absorbed by other fission- :arbors monoxide (C0)A compound of carbon able nuclei, releasing still more neutrons and and oxygen produced by the incomplete com- maintaining the reaction. bustion of carbon. It is emited by automobiles charA porous, solid, nearly pure carbon residue and is, as far as total weight is concerned, the resulting from the incomplete combustion of major' air pollutant. organic material. If produced from coal, it is carcinogenA substance or agent producing or called coke; if produced from wood or bone, it inciting cancerous growth. is called charcoal. 50 35

chemical energyA kind ofenergystored cooling towersDevices for thecooling of water inside the molecules ofmatter, which may used in power plants. Thereare two types: be releasedor absorbed as their atoms are wet towers, in which thewarm water is al- rearranged. lowed to runover a Plaice at the base of a coal gasification.L-The conversionof coal to agas tower and is cooled by evaporation; anddry suitable foruse as a fuel. towers, in which the waterruns through a system of cooling fans and is not incontact coal liquefactionTheconversion of coal into with the air. liquid hydrocarbons andrelated compounds, usually by the addition of hydrogen. critical massThe smallestmass of fissionable material that will supporta self-sustaining coal tarA gummy, black substance produced as chin reaction under statedconditions. a by-product when coal is distilled. crude oilA mixture ofhydrocarbons in liquid cokeDegassed coal (see char). form found in natural undergroundpetroleum commutatorA set of electricalcontacts that can reservoirs. It hasa heat content of 1.46 mil- convey electrical current between stationary lion Calories/barrel and isthe raw material and rotating devices. from which most refined petroleumproducts are made. conduction (of heat) Thetransmission of energy current The flow of electricity, directly from moleculeto molecule. comparable to the flow of a stream ofwater. confinement time(in fusion) Thetime during cyclotronA machine for splittingatoms on a which the reacting materials (deuterium and small scale and undercontrolled conditions, tritium, for instance) are physically confined so that the process can be studied. at proper density to react. declining block rateAmethod of charging for convection (of heat) The transfer ofenergy by electricity whereinartain number of kilo- moving masses of matter, suchas the circula- watt hours (the first block)is sold ata rela- tion of a liquidor gas. tively high rate andsucceeding blocksare sold at lower and lower rates. Thus thecharge for converting energyChangingenergy from one energy decreases as the amount consumed in- form to another. creases. (See "inverted block rate.") 51 deuteriumA non-radioactive isotope of hydro- of the transfer and rearrangement of elec- gen whose nucleus contains one neutron and trons between atoms. one proton and is therefore about twice as electrostatic precipitatorA device that removes heavy as the nucleus of normal hydrogen, the bulk of particulate matter from the ex- which consists of a single proton. Deuterium haust of power plants. Particles are attracted is often referred to as "heavy hydrogen "; it to electrically charged plates and the accumu- occurs in nature as 1 atom to 6500 atoms of lation can then be washed away. normal hydrogen. energyA quantity having the dimensions of a fficiency of conversionThe amount of actual force times a distance. It is conserved in all energy derived, by any technique in relation interactions within a closed system. It exists to the total quantity of energy existing in any in many forms and can be converted from one sourcebeingtapped;expressedasa form to anther. Common units are Calories, ',n,reentage. joules, Btus, and kilowatt-hours. 4asiii; energyThe energy involved in the change energy intensiveness (EI)A measure of energy of a piece of matter from its original shape utilization per unit of output. For passenger which tends to restore this shapeas when a transport, for example, it is a measure of Cal- spring is stretched or a ball is compressed. ories used per passenger mile. lectrical energyA kind of energy that arises enrichmentA process whereby the percentage of because of electrical forces between particles a given isotope present in a material is arti- of matters such as electrons. fically increased, so that it is higher than the percentage of that isotope naturally found in lectrolysis The decomposition of a substance by the material. Enriched uranium contains means of an electric current as in the produc- more of the fissionable isotope uranium 235 tion of hydrogen and oxygen from water. than thenaturallyoccurring percentage lectronAn elementary particle with a negative (0.7%). charge that orbits the nucleus of an atom. Its exothermic reactionA reaction which releases mass at rest is approximately 9 x 10' kg, more energy than is required to start it. The and it composes only a tiny fraction of the combustion reaction (burning) is an example mass of an atom. Chemical reactions consist as are fission and fusion reactions. 52 37

external combustion enginesAn enginein which fuel cellA device for combiningfuel and oxygen the fuel is burned outside thecylinders. in an electrochemical reactionto generate FahrenheitA temperature scale inwhich the electricity.Chemical energyisconverted temperature of melting iceis set at 32° and directlyintoelectricalenergywithout the temperature of boilingwater at 212°. One combu-tion. Fahrenheit degree is equal to five-ninths of a fuel reprocessingA recyclingoperation. Fission- Celsius degree. able uranium and plutoniumare recovered fertile nucleus (or "fertile materials") --A ma- from uranium fuel rods whichhave under- terial, not itself fissionable bythermal neu- gone intense neutron bombardment ina nu- trons, which can be converted intoa fissile clearreactor andfissionproductsare material by irradiation ina reactor. There removed. are two basic fertile materials, uranium 238 fusionThe formation ofa heavier nucleus by and thorium 232. When thesefertile mate- combining two lighterones. In the reaction rials capture neutrons, theyare converted under study asa source of energy hydrogen into fissile plutonium 239 and uranium233 (or helium 3) nuclei combineto form helium respectively. 4 with a subsequent release ofenergy. First Law of ThermodynamicsAlsocalled the gasolineA petroleum productconsisting pri- Law of Conservation of Energy.It states : marily of light hydrocarbons.Some natural Energy can neither be creatednor destroyed. gasoline is present in crude oil butmost gaso- line is formed by "cracking"and refining issionThe splitting of atoms. crude oil. It hasa heat value of 1.32 million Calories/barrel. luidized bedA furnace designin which the fuel is buoyed up by air and some other gas. It generating capacityThe capacity ofa power offers advantages in the removalof sulfur plant to generate electricity.Usually meas- during combustion. ured in megawatts (Mw). ossil fuelsFuels such as coal, crude, oil, or nat- geopressured reservoirGeothermal reservoir ural gas, formed from the fossil remainsof consisting ofporous sands containing water organic materials. or brine at high temperature or pressure. 53 geothermal energyThe heatenergy inthe heat valueThe energy released by burning a Earth's crust whose source is the Earth's given amount of the substance; also energy molten interior. When this energyoccurs as equivalent. steam,it can be used directly in steam Helium 3 (211e3)A rare, non-radioactive isotope turbines. of helium. greenhouse effectThe warming effect of carbon Helium 4 (;He')The common isotope of helium. dioxide, CO2, and water vapor in the atmo- sphere. These molecules are transparent to in- horsepowerA unit of power equal to 550 foot- coming sunlight but absorb and reradiate the pounds of work per second. infrared (heat) radiation from the Earth. hot rock reservoirA potential source of geother- half lifeThe time in which half the atoms ofa mal power. The "hot rock" system requires particular radioactive substance disintegrate drilling deep enough to reach heated rock then to another nuclear form. Measured half-lives fracturing it to create a reservoir into which vary from millionths of a second to billions of water can be pumped. years. hydrocarbonsMolecules composed of carbon and heat A form of kinetic energy that flows from hydrogen atoms in various proportions. They one body to another because of a temperature are usually derived from living materials. difference between them. The effects of heat result from the motion of molecules. Heat is hydroelectricProducing electrical power by the usually measured in Calories or British Ther- extraction of energy from the force of moving mal Units (Btu's). (usually falling) water. teat engineAny device that converts thermal heat energy into mechanical energy. hydroelectric plantAn electric power plant in which the energy of falling water is converted Led pumpA device that transfers heat from a into electrical energy by a turbine generator. cooler region to a warmer one (or vice versa) by the expenditure of mechanical or electric hydrogenationThe addition of hydrogen to an energy. Heat pumps work on the same general organic molecule to increase the ratio of hy- principle as refrigerators and air condi- drogen to carbon, for instance in the produc- tioners. tion of oil from coal or from organic waste. 39

hydrothermal reservoirOne ofthe forms ofgeo- bottom of the region, from which itcan be re- thermal reservoir systems. Consists of nat- covered by a well. There also hasbeen some urally circulating hot water or steam ("wet experimentation with in situ conversionof steam") or those which containmostly vapor coal. ("dry steam ") The lattertype of hydrother- mal reservoir is themost desirable type with inverted block rateA methodof selling electric- present technology. ity whereina first "block" of kilowatt hours is offered at low cost and pricesincrease with inertial confinement--Oneof two major tech- increased consumption. niques used in nuclear fissionexperimenta- ionizationRemoval ofsome or all electrons from tion.(See"Magnetic Confinement ".)A an atom or molecule, leaving the atomor mole- frozen pellet of deuteriumand tritium is cule with a positive charge,or the addition of bombarded from allsides byan energy one or more electrons, resulting ina negative sourcea laser beam of charged particles. charge. The resulting implosionof the pellet results in high temperature anddensity which allows ionsAtoms or molecules withelectric charges ignition of the fusion reactionand the pellet caused by the additionor removal of electrons. explodes. isotopeAny of twoor more species of atoms internal combustionengineAn engine in which having thesame number of protons in the power is generated withinone or more cylin- nucleus, of thesame atomic number, but with ders by the burning ofa mixture of air and differing numbers of neutrons.All isotopes of fuel, and converted intomechanical work by an element have identical chemical properties, means of a piston. The automobile engine isa but the different nuclearmasses produce dif- common example. ferent physical properties.Since nuclear stability is governed by nuclearmass, one or in situIn the naturalor original position or loca- more isotopes of the same elementmay be un- tion. In situ conversionof oil shale, for in stable ( radioactive). stance, is an experimental techniquein which a region of shale is drilled, fractured, andset jouleA metric unit of workor energy; the on fire. The volatile gases burn off, the oil energy produced by a force ofone newton op- vaporizes, then condenses anti collects at the erating through a distance ofone meter. One 40

Btu = 1055 joules, and one Calorie = 4.185 Law of Conservation of EnergySee First Law joules. of Thermodynamics. -keroseneA petroleum distillate with a heat value Lawson CriterionA rough measure of success in of 1.43 million Calories/barrel presently used fusion. For a self-sustaining fusion reaction in gas turbines and jet engines. to take place, the product of the confinement kilocalorieSee Calorie. time (in seconds), and the particle density (in particles per cm3) must be about 10". kilowatt (kw) A unit of power, usually used for electric power, equal to 1,000 watts, or to life cycle costsThe total cost of an item includ- energy consumption at a rate of 1,000 joules ing initial purchase price as well as cost of operation, maintenance, etc. over the life of per second. the item. kilowatt-hour (kw-hr)A unitof work or lithiumThe lightest metal; a silver-white alkali energy. Equivalent to the expenditure of one metal. Lithium 6 is of interest as a source of kilowatt in one hour, about 853 Calories tritium for the generation of energy from a Ynetic energyThe energy ofotion. The ability controlled fusion reaction. Molten lithium will of an object to do work because of its motion. also be the heat exchanger. land subsidenceThe sinking of a land surface as liquified natural gas (LNG)Natural gasthat the result of the withdrawal of underground has been cooled to approximately 160°C, a material. It results from umderground mining temperature at which it is'' uid. Sincelique- and is a hazard of the development of geo- faction greatly reduces the volume of the gas, thermal fields. the costs of storage and shipment are reduced. langleyThe amount of energy from solar radia- tion that, falling on an area of one square load factorsThe percentage of capacity actually Centimeter facing the sun on a clear day, utilized. For example, the average number of passengers for a certain size car divided by equals one calorie of heat. the passenger capacity of that Eize car. laserA device for producing an intense beam of coherent, sharply focused, light. The name is magnetic confinementA confinement technique an acronym for Light Amplification by Stim- used in nuclear fusion in which electrons are ulated Emission of Radiation. stripped from the reacting nuclei ( deuterium 56 4]

andtritium,for example)forming a from the combustion offuels without going "plasma" which can be controlled by amag- through an intermediarysteam turbine. Hot, netic field. There are several different types partially ionizedgases move through a mag- of magnetic confinement systems under devel- netic field, andare separated by charge,gen- opment. ( See "Tokamak," "magnetic mirror," erating a current that isthen collected by and "magnetic pinch device.") electrodes lining the expansionchambers. magnetic energyA kind ofenergy that arises mechanical energyOne formof energy. It is ob- when electrons or other charged particles servable as the motion ofan object. move. megawatt (mw) A unit ofpower. A megawatt magnetic mirror (See above)Consists of linear equals 1,000 kilowatts,or 1 million watts. tubes in which the magneticfield confininga "plasma" is shapedso as to turn particles Methane Gas (CH4)A lighthydrocarbon ;an in- flammable natural around at each end,as a mirror does a light gas with a heat value of 257 Calories/cubic feet. beam. The most successfulof these devices is Forms explosive mix- tures with air. It is the major the 2X-HB at the LawrenceLivermore Lab- part of marsh gas and natural oratory of the University ofCalifornia. gas but can be manufactured from crude petroleumor other organic ma- magnetic pinch device(See above)An inte- terials. (See coal gasification.) rior space is filled withplasma which is then Mev.One million (or10') electron voltsa "pinched," or compressed bya magnetic field. unit of energy. It isequivalent to 1.6 Thisisaccomplished by increasingthe x 10' joules. strength of the field andforcing the plasma toward the center ofa tube. The Scyllac at MHD generator Seemagnetohydrodynamic Los Alamos is the major pinchdevice. generator. millA tenth of nagnetic storageAfuturistic c6ncept in which a cent. The cost of electricity is often given in mills energy can be stored ina magnetic field per kilowatt hour. around a superconductingmaterial. moderatorA materia`i, asedin a nuclear reactor to slow the speed of neutronsand thus control lagnetohydrodynamic (MHD) generatorAn the rate of fission.Common moderatorsare expansion in which electricity is generated graphite, water, deuterium,and beryllium. 57 42

moleculeAtoms combined to form the smallest mass of an atom, but fills only atiny fraction natural unit of a substance. For example, the of the atomic volume. water molecule is composed of two atoms of ocean thermal energy conversion(OTEC) A hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. process of generatingelectrical energy by neutronAn elementary particle which is present harnessing the temperature differences be- in all atomic nuclei except for the most com- tween surface waters and ocean depths. is approxi- mon isotope of hydrogen. Its mass "off-peak" powerPower generated during a pe- mately that of a proton, but it has no electric riod of low demand. charge. Neutrons are released in fission and fusion reactions. oil shaleA sedimentary rock containing a solid organic material called kerogen. When oil Oxides (NOx) Compounds formed Nitrous shale is heated at high temperatures, the oil whenever combustion occurs in air (in the is driven out and can be recovered. presence of nitrogen). An air pollutantand component of "photochemical smog." OPECThe Organization of Petroleum Export- ing Countries. An organization of countries nuclear converter reactorA reactor in which the in the Middle East, North Africa, and South major process is the conversion of fissionable America which aims at developing common fuel into energy as distinguished from a oil-marketing policiPs. "breeder reactor" which produces more fuel particulates The small soot and ash particles than it uses. A converter reactor also "con- produced by combustion. verts" some fertile material into fissionable fuel but produces less fissionable fuel than it peak demand periodThat time of day when the consumes. demand for electricity from a power plant is nuclear energyThe energy released during re- at its greatest. actions of atomic nuclei. peak loadThe maximum amount of power de- nuclear reactorA device in which a fission chain livered during a stated period of time. reaction can be initiated, maintained, and peak load pricingCharging more for the deliv- controlled. ery of power during the daily period inwhich nucleusThe extremely dense, positively charged demand is the greatest. (See "peak demand core of an atom. It contains almostthe entire period". ) 59 43

petroleum (or oil) an oily, flammable liquid that Plutonium (Pu) A heavy,radioactive, man- may vary from almost colorless to black and made, metallic element withatomic number occurs in many places in the upper strata of 94. Its most important isotope isfissionable the Earth. It isa complex mixture of hydro- plutonium 239 (94 PIP), producedby neu- carbons and is the raw material for many tron irradiation of uranium 238. Itis used products. for reactor fuel and inweapons. photoelectric-- Pertaining to electric effectspro- potential energy"Stored"energy. Energy in duced by light. any form not associated with motionsuch as photonA quantum (thesmallest unit) of elec- that stored in chemicalor nuclear bonds, or tromagnetic radiation. It hasno rest mass or energy associated with the relative position electric charge, but behaveslike both apar- of one body to another. ticle and awave in its interactions with other power The rate at which work is doneor energy particles. expended. It is measured inunits of energy photosynthesisThe process by which green per unit of time such as Caloriesper second, plants convert radiantenergy (sunlight) into and in units suchas watts and horsepower. chemical potentialenergy. power gasA mixture of carbon monoxideand PhotovoltaicProvidinga source of electric cur- hydrogen which hasa low heat value (25-75 rent under the influence of light. Calories/cubic feet) andis of mostuse as Photovoltaic generationDirectand continuous power plant fuel. generation of electricalenergy by a material primary energyEnergyinits whenever it is illuminatedby light; this is naturally- occurring formcoal, oil,uranium, etc. accomplished without breakdownofthe material. before conversion to end-useforms. plasmaAn electrically neutral,gaseous mixture protonAn elementary particlepresent in all of positive and negativeions. Sometimes atomic nuclei. It hasa positive electric charge. called the "fourth state ofmatter," since it Its mass is approximately1,840 times that of behaves differently from solids,liquids and an electron. The nucleus ofa hydrogen atom. gases. High temperature plasmas are used in PSIAbbreviation for "poundsper square inch." controlled fusion experiments. A measure ofpressure. 59 44

pumped storageAn energy storage system in reserveThat portion of a resource that has been which reversible pump turbines are used to actually discovered but not yet exploited pump water uphill into a storage reservoir. which is presently technically and econrmi- The water can then be used to turn the tur- cally extractable. bines when it runs downhill. secondary recoveryRecovery techniquesused PyrolysisHeating in the absence of oxygen. Also after some of the oil and gas has been re- called "destructive distillation "; pyrolysis of moved and the natural pressure within the coal produces three fuels : high Btu or pipe- reservoir has decreased. line gas, a synthetic crude oil (syncrude ), and Second Law of ThermodynamicsOne of the two char, a carbon residue. Also used in the con- "limit laws" which govern the conversion of version of organic wastes to fuel. energy. Referred to sometimes as the "heat radioactive decayThe spontaneous transforma- tax," it can be stated in several equivalent tion of an atomic nucleus during which it forms, all of which describe the inevitable changes from one nuclear species to another passage of some energy from a useful to a less with the emission of particles and energy. useful form in any cyclic energy conversion. Also called "radioactive disintegration." Second Law of EfficiencyThe ratio of the mini- mum amount of work or energy necessary to reactor years--One year's operation of a nuclear accomplish a task to the actual amount used. reactor. solar cellsPhotovoltaic generators thatyield recoverable resourceThat portion of a resource electrical current when exposed to certain expected to be recovered by present-day tech- wavelengths of light. niques and under present economic conditions. solarenergyThe electromagneticradiation Includes geologically expected but uncon- emitted by the sun. The Earth receives about firmed resources as well as identified reserves. 4,200 trillion kilowatt-hours per day. regenerative brakingBrakinginwhichthe solvent refined coal (SRC) A tar-like fuel pro- energy is recovered either mechanically, 5n a duced from coal when it is crushed and mixed flywheel for instance, or electrically. This with a hydrocarbon solvent at high tempera- energy can then be used in subsequent ture and pressure. It is higher in energy value acceleration. and contains less sulfur or ash than coal. 60 45

Stirling engineAn external combustionengine synthetic naturalgas (SNG)A gaseous fuel in which air (or hydrogen in the newer ver- manufactured from coal. Itcontains almost sions)is alternately heated and cooled to pure methane, CH4, and can be produced bya drive the pistonup and down. It is claimed to number of coal gasification schemes.The basic be non-polluting andniore efficient than the chemical reactionsare C + H2O + heat internal combustion engine. -----> CO + H2; 3CH2 + CO stratified charge engineAn enginein which the CH4 + H20. amount of charge, fuel plus air, is adjusted to tar sandA sandy geologic deposit in which low engine conditions, directed to the area where grade, heavy oil is found. The oil binds the it will burn best and fired at just the precise sand together. instant. tertiary recovery techniquesUse ofheat and Strontium 90 (38Sr")A hazardousisotope pro- other methods to augment oilrecovery (pre- duced in theprocess of nuclear fission. Stron- sumably occuring after secondaryrecovery). tium 90 has a "half-life" of 28years. Thus it takes 28 years to reduce thismaterial to half thermal storageA system which utilizesceramic its original amount, 56years to one quarter, brick or other materials tostore heat energy. 84 years toone eighth, and so on. Strontium 90 typifies problems ofradioactive waste thermodynamicsThe science and studyof the relationship between heat and storage which are faced in producingpower other forms of by means of nuclear fission. energy. ulfur smog (classical smog)Thissmog is com- thermostatA temperature-sensitive device posed of smoke particles, sulfuroxides ( S0x), which turns heating and coolingequipment and high humidity (fog). Thesulfur oxide on and off at set temperatures. (SOO reacts with waterto form sulfuric acid Thorium (Th)A naturally radioactiveelement (h2SO4) droplets, the majorcause of damage. with atomic number 90, andas found in na- uperconductorA material whichat very low ture, an atomic weight of approximately 232. temperatures, near absolute zero, has no elec- The fertile thorium 232 (90Th232)isotope can trical resistance and thus can carry large be transmuted to fissionable uranium233 electrical currents without resistance losses. (92U233) by neutron irradiation. 61 46

Tokamak (toroidal magnetic chamber) The Rus- one proton and two neutrons. It may be used sian adaptation of the toroidal or "doughnut" as a fuel in the early fusion reactors. geometry. The plasma is confined in the cen- voltageA measure of the force of an electric tral region of an evacuated doughnut-shaped current. vesscd by a magnetic field provided by cur- rent,-carrying windings around the outside. watt (w)- -A metric unit of power usually used in A separate set of windings produce a heating electric measurements which gives the rate at current in the plasma. American examples which work is done or energy expended. One are the PLT (Princeton Large Torus) and watt equals one joule of work per second. the ORMAC (Oak Ridge Tokamak). workEnergy that is transferred from one body topping cycleA means to use high-temperature to another in such a way that a difference in heat energy that cannot be used in a conven- temperature is not directly involved. The tional steam turbine. A gas turbine, for in- product of an external force times the dis- stance, might operate as a topping cycle on tance an object moves in the direction of the furnace gases of 2000°F and its exhaust force. could then heat steam for a turbine operating working fluidThe material, usually a gas or a at 1000°F. liquid, whose absorption of heat and subse- total energy system A packaged energy system quent expansion drives a heat engine. Steam of high efficiency, utilizing gas fired turbines is the "working fluid" of a steam engine. or engines which produce electrical energy yellowcakeThe material which results from the and utilize exhaust heat in applications such first processing (milling) of uranium ore. It as heating and cooling. is sometimes called "artificial carnotite" and TritiumA radioactive isotope of hydrogen with is about 53 uranium, a mixture of UO2 and a half life of 12.5 years. The nucleus contains U0a. 41 `rt GGESTED READING

49

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