The Politics of Research Ethics in Social Work: Reflections from a First-Time Researcher

The Politics of Research Ethics in Social Work: Reflections From a First-time Researcher

Michele Jarldorn, BSW(Hons), BSP, Ph.D Candidate Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia [email protected]

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Abstract Researchers must also ensure that research par- This paper reflects upon the experiences of a ticipants have informed consent and that their novice researcher negotiating ethical concerns information is treated confidentially, while aiming that arose while interviewing women survivors to publish research that promotes social change of intimate partner violence. I begin with a (AASW, 2010, pp. 36-38). brief history of research ethics and feminist contributions to social science research. Drawing 2. A Brief History of Ethics in the from my Honours project I reflect on interviewing Social Sciences friends, boundaries, managing distressing By configuring research ‘subjects’ in par- disclosures and the personal politics of research. ticular and limited ways, ethical review procedures are not only often problematic for social justice Keywords: research ethics, feminist research, researchers but fail to consider ethical questions interviewing friends, research politics, boundaries that are vitally important to them such as voice, representation and collaboration (Brown & Strega, 1. Introduction 2005, p. 4). ...research in the social sciences is first and foremost a moral activity (Hallowell, Lawton & More thorough ethical review boards were Gregory, 2005, p. 142) established after some well documented medical experiments challenged the ethical boundaries of According to Shamoo and Dunigan (2000, research. One of the most well-known unethical p. 205) “ethics as a discipline deals with the studies took place in Alabama, USA. Known as the broader value system of our society that encom- Tuskegee Study, the purpose of the research was to passes the consensual agreement on what is right observe the “natural course of untreated syphilis” and wrong”. In Australia, social workers are bound (Brandt, 1978, p. 22). Beginning in 1932, nearly by the Australian Social Workers (AASW) Code of four hundred poor, rural, black men were recruited Ethics which promotes respect for persons, social to the study without the knowledge of the true pur- justice and professional integrity as core values pose of the research. Years after a cure for syphilis (AASW, 2010). For social work researchers, abid- was found, they still did not receive treatment for ing by this Code of Ethics means that research the disease. Instead the men were subjected to proposals should have merit and integrity, promote numerous invasive tests and experiments that were community participation, be respectful of partici- initially proposed as a six month study, but went pants’ privacy and honour Indigenous cultures. on for decades.

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2014, Vol. 11, No. 2 - page 52 The Politics of Research Ethics in Social Work: Reflections From a First-time Researcher Findings from the Tuskegee Study were years after the experiments had been discontinued published in over a dozen peer reviewed journals, (Hughes, 2004). Commenting on this in an edito- including the Journal of Chronic Diseases in 1955. rial in the Medical Journal of Australia, Larkins The article, Untreated syphilis in the male Negro (1997) wrote that the doctors conducting the trials described in its methods section what would be were well meaning due to “the huge burden of the considered unethical practices today. The men infectious disease”, that “they made no attempt to were recruited directly by a health worker and cover up the procedure” and that “the details were were promised the incentive of “free medicine (for published in the most widely read Australian medi- diseases other than syphilis)” (Schuman, Olank- cal journals” (Larkins, 1997, p. 60). However it sky, Rivers, Smith & Rambo, 1955, p. 545). The is unlikely that these medical journals were either paper goes on to report that nine of the men did accessible or widely read by anyone other than not ‘cooperate’ in the second step of the research the medical profession, therefore close scrutiny by but as “news of their illness or disability is read- outsiders was hardly possible. Unethical medical ily available” they [the researchers] were still able research like the examples discussed above has led to observe them (1955, p. 546). These ‘experi- to far closer examination of current ethical proce- ments’ continued until 1964 until Peter Buxton (a dures in the research process. social worker) and his allies, brought the unethi- Today, in-house university-based eth- cal research practice to an end. Meetings with the ics committees (or boards) are commonplace. In authorities who governed medical research had Australia, research undertaken within the social proved futile. It was only when they approached and behavioural sciences is required to comply the media that sufficient pressure was applied to with the National Health and Medical Research end the research (Rubin & Babbie, 2001; Blaskett, Council’s National Statement on Ethical Conduct 1998; Brandt, 1978). Brandt (1978) asserts that in Human Research (2007). The role of an eth- white privilege and racism were instrumental in ics committee is to consider the ethical validity of the development of the project and in allowing it proposed projects involving human subjects, with to continue as long as it did. If proposed today, it particular attention paid to the merit and integrity is unlikely that the study would gain ethical clear- of a project, plus a focus on justice, beneficence ance due to the with-holding of treatment for a and respect for participants. Sometimes the com- deadly and communicable disease, direct coercion mittees play a range of conflicting roles. A basic of participants by someone in a position of power task is to vet projects for potential poor treatment over them and non-consensual observation of men of those involved in the research. While protecting who had chosen to withdraw from participating. the interests of research participants, they also seek During the 20th century unethical medi- to protect universities from allegations of unethical research practices also took place in Austra- cal conduct, which can have serious financial, lia. From the end of World War 2 until the early legal and reputational consequences if pursued and 1970s, research was being undertaken on babies proven (National Statement on Ethical Conduct in and children living in institutions and orphanages Human Research, 2007, p. 29) in Victoria (Blaskett, 1998, p.20). Tests were done More recently, questions are asked about to trial possible vaccines to prevent communicable choice of research methodology, involvement of diseases like herpes simplex. By current standards participants (rather than subjects) and dissemina- issues such as informed consent were treated with tion of findings to include those from whom the re- little ethical consideration. Similar to the Tuskegee search data was gained (Truman, 2003). Compared Study, it was a media attention after an investi- to even ten years ago, the level of detail required gation by journalists at the Age newspaper that of applicants has increased, with attention given drew the research to the public’s notice, albeit 20 to perceptions of risks and proposed contingencies

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2014, Vol. 11, No. 2 - page 53 The Politics of Research Ethics in Social Work: Reflections From a First-time Researcher (Truman, 2003). Blaskett (1998) suggests that the occurring in research and how that bias was ob- profession of social work with its core value of scuring true data representation (Gilligan, 1982; social justice for all members of the community Cotterill, 1992). The principals of feminist re- has a lot to offer the ethics review process. search are to produce relationships between the Even though ethics committees’ endorse- researcher and the researched that are “non-hierar- ment of approved projects can lend credibility to chical and non-manipulative” (Cotterill, 1992, p. both researchers and their findings, some research- 253). Known as participatory research (Reinharz, ers still see ethical review processes as a nuisance 1983), this can be achieved by making interviews or irritation (Blaskett, 1998, p. 21). Others see eth- an “interactive experience”—where the researcher ics applications as a form of censorship, a “bureau- builds rapport or friendships and shares her own cratic exercise in form-filling” (Hallowell et al, knowledge and common experiences with the par- 2005, p. 144) or a hurdle to beginning the research ticipant (Cotterill, 1992, p. 594). process (Guillemin & Gillam, 2004, p. 263). Once Over the last few decades feminist con- a project has gained ethical clearance, there is cur- tributions to university ethics processes has been rently no guarantee of whether the research under- mixed. Many feminist researchers have had a taken, analysed and reported adhered to the ethical positive influence on the ethical considerations of processes promised (Pich, Carne, Arnaiz, Gomez, research in the social sciences. Issues of power Trilla & Rodes, 2003; Dickson-Swift, James, Kip- relations and empowerment of participants are pen & Liamputtong, 2006). now routinely considered, while feminist research Annual reports are sometimes required but methods have influenced ethics review board’s even they can be carefully constructed to sidestep policies (Gottlieb & Bombyk, 1987), even if this is having to explain any deviations or complications not made explicit. Yet this influence has not neces- from proposed processes. From a feminist or anti- sarily extended to ethics committees respect for oppressive practice perspective (Dominelli, 2002) the many non-positivist research methods many however, I knew that such a dismissive stance was feminists prefer. Ethics committee members may simply unethical and as a first time researcher, even show antagonism “towards research informed learning how to negotiate the ethics procedure by feminist or other critical theory approaches to proved to be a valuable learning experience which social enquiry” (Blaskett, 1998, p. 21), making helped define the parameters of my project. ethics applications potentially more complicated for social work researchers operating from an anti- 3. Feminist Contributions to Ethical, oppressive practice perspective. Social Science Research Like some forms of frontline social work, Traditionally, research has also been an some forms of social work research projects are expression of power where the researchers are shaped by anti-oppressive practice perspectives, viewed as being in a position of authority or power where empowering participants in the research over research participants. More recently there process in emphasised (Dominelli, 2002; Blas- have been significant challenges to the notion kett, 1998, p. 20). Feminist scholars operating of researching down towards a more egalitarian from an anti-oppressive practice perspective have framework based in researching with rather than questioned the power imbalances often operating on communities. This has been especially reflected between researchers and the researched (Rein- by feminist researchers and the paradigm of femi- harz, 1992), urging researchers to think through nist research (Smith & Pitts, 2007, pp. 9-10) the many ethical issues likely to beset them, including but not limited to ‘researching down’ or Second wave feminist researchers brought with people with lower social status, who might to the attention of academia the gendered bias feel compelled to participate or make particular

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2014, Vol. 11, No. 2 - page 54 The Politics of Research Ethics in Social Work: Reflections From a First-time Researcher utterances, unless care is taken to ensure consent Below are my personal reflections about is properly informed (see Brown & Strega, 2005). conducting a research project for my Honours From an anti-oppressive perspective, the values of thesis in Social Work. I interviewed five women social justice, self-determination and empathy are over forty years of age who had experienced not just important to frontline social work but also intimate partner violence in their early years. The in research design, resourcing and implementation. aim of the project was to discover how the women Studies involving equals or peers are included in fared years after their relationship had ended, to the broad repertoire of possibilities (for more on recognise their strengths and to better understand interviewing peers, see Tang, 2002). the coping methods they had used post separation. As will be described later in this paper, There were many ethical issues that I encoun- the women I interviewed for my research could tered throughout my research project, but for the be considered as equals, peers and friends. This purpose of this paper I have chosen to discuss the simplified some aspects of my research, for ex- issues that follow on the basis of them being more ample in recruiting participants (especially as they common to feminist research projects. All names were not being paid), being of similar age, class used in this paper are pseudonyms chosen by the background and having ‘shared experiences’. It participants. also meant that our interviews were open and relaxed, rather than being guarded, as interactions 4.1 Interviewing ‘Jane’ with strangers can sometimes be. Yet other issues Over lunch one day at university early in complicated my research, such as those discussed my Honours year, a woman who I had occasion- in Dickson-Swift et al’s (2006) study of qualitative ally studied with asked about my Honours research researchers of sensitive topics—such as intimate project. When I explained, she said that she fit the partner violence—where they found a range of criteria and that she had some friends who may be ethical conflicts between building rapport with par- willing to be interviewed as well. We exchanged ticipants and the disclosure of distressing accounts contact details and after the final ethics approval which can create ongoing physical and mental came through, I sent her the relevant information health problems for researchers. Cotterill (1992) and consent forms. We arranged a day where I also raises some possible ethical problems that would travel to her home in the country to conduct could occur in relation to ‘interviewing friends’, the interviews. I spent a full day there, interview- such as that women may not identify with each ing her (she later became known as ‘Marie’) and other based on gender alone and the moral and two of her friends (‘Jane’ and ‘Sandra’). ethical matter of possible or perceived exploitation In recognition of Marie offering to open (p. 595). her home to me for the day, I arranged that I would make a pot of soup for lunch while Marie 4. My Research Project offered to provide coffee and biscuits. The shar- …most researchers will first encounter ing of food can often “lighten the atmosphere” fieldwork while engaged on a dissertation that is and be a distraction to the enormity of the topic mostly a solo enterprise with relatively unstruc- at hand (Irizarry, 2011, pp. 165-168). On this day tured observation, deep involvement in the setting it really helped me ‘break the ice’. As we ate, I and a strong identification with the researched. talked about my research and we shared some of This can mean that the researcher is unavoidably our experiences of intimate partner violence. The vulnerable and that there is a considerably larger mood was up; we were a group of working class element of risk and uncertainty than with more women of a similar age who were survivors rather formal methods (Punch, 1994, p. 84). than victims. Despite our difficult histories we all recounted funny stories from our younger days.

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2014, Vol. 11, No. 2 - page 55 The Politics of Research Ethics in Social Work: Reflections From a First-time Researcher Proving that Adelaide is indeed a small place, it had planned to cover when designing my research turned out that Jane and I had worked in the same project. But I knew that for my project to be ethi- industry for many years and at different times we cal and valid, I had to include what the participants had both worked for the same employer. deemed important (Massat & Lundy, 1997). I was After lunch, Jane and I began our inter- having great difficulty coming to terms with Jane’s view. I explained to Jane about how I would re- story and this was causing my ‘writers block’. I spect her anonymity. Her reply was “I am happy to felt cross with her, not for returning to her partner tell you anything—I have nothing to hide, anyway all those times they had broken up previously, but we are friends now”. Jane went on to tell me a for remaining in a relationship with this man after confronting and tragic account of years of physical the death of her daughter which she unmistakably and emotional abuse suffered at the hands of her described as his fault. intimate partner from the age of fifteen. As a result I tossed this experience around in my mind of the violence, their four year old daughter died every day from that first interview with Jane, leav- after being hit by a car while running to protect ing working on the chapter till last, always finding Jane from her father’s abuse (see Jarldorn, 2011; ways to tweak the other chapters rather than write Fraser & Jarldorn, forthcoming). I found it difficult the chapter on how children can be affected when to hide my emotion at this disclosure and even their mother experiences abuse and violence from more so when she went on to reveal that she went a father figure. Eventually, I began to come to back to him after their daughter’s funeral and even terms with Jane’s experience and felt disappointed years after they broke up for the last time she kept in myself. I now understand that I had placed some in contact with him via social media. of the blame on Jane for her daughter’s death—I As I drove home that afternoon, I could not realised that was blaming the victim of abuse rath- get Jane’s story out of my head. A heavy smoker er than the perpetrator. This revelation came after for over forty years, Jane has a distinctive voice reading research critiques about the policy con- that I can still hear as easily as I can picture her struct of ‘failure to protect’ that helped me to see sitting across from me at Marie’s kitchen table. what should have been so clear from the start (see That night I was reminded that conducting re- Magen, 1999; Strega, 2012). This led me write up search can be lonely work (Punch, 1994). While I the ‘children’s chapter’ and to also provide some spent that night with my family, ethical consider- practical considerations for social workers in my ations of confidentiality meant that I could not talk conclusion. about Jane and could only say I had a rough day. I needed time to process the revelations I heard from 4.2 Interviewing ‘Barbara’ the three interviews I did that day. That night, for Two weeks after interviewing Jane, I the first time ever, I took a sleeping tablet and felt conducted my final interview for the project with a relieved as my recollections of the day began to woman I had known for around five years. We met leave my mind and I drifted into a dreamless sleep. at our children’s school and saw each other fleet- Unfortunately, sleeping tablets don’t stop the ingly at the school gate, at children’s birthday par- thoughts from coming back—Jane’s story troubled ties and other school events. ‘Barbara’ asked about me for a long time later. my research when we went on a school excursion Around four weeks into the writing up pro- together and offered to participate. In contrast to cess of my thesis, I realised that I had been avoid- Jane, Barbara did not recount horrifically physical- ing writing a chapter in the women’s stories about ly violent experiences but instead spoke at length how they felt intimate partner violence had affect- about control and emotional abuse. Over the last ed their children. All five women I spoke to had ten years, Barbara had accessed feminist based raised this issue, even though it was not a topic I counselling—the only participant that had—and as

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2014, Vol. 11, No. 2 - page 56 The Politics of Research Ethics in Social Work: Reflections From a First-time Researcher a result she had a nuanced understanding of gender those conventions being that social workers will inequality, power, coercion and control, so was “accurately and fully disseminate research find- able to articulate her insights with some powerful ings” (AASW, 2010, p. 37). Having been involved stories. As I wrote up my findings I found I was in producing articles for publication in the past, I giving a lot of space to Barbara, believing some of know that this can be an emotional roller coaster her quotes to be feminist inspired ‘gems’. ride for the writer/researcher, but I also understand Whether it was Barbara or any other that pursuing publication is a way of recognising woman, it can be a nerve racking experience por- the gift of knowledge and trust these five women traying individuals in an official document, such gave me. Ultimately, the knowledge they have as a thesis. When Barbara asked if I had finished gifted me is more about me as a researcher than writing my thesis I printed her out a copy and car- it was about them, a gift for which I am eternally ried it around for a couple of days before finally grateful. Writing this paper is part of my ongoing giving it to her. I was worried about what she reflections and dissemination of findings. would think about how I had represented her. I had used many quotes from Barbara throughout my 5. Ethical Considerations and thesis and I believe I represented her—and the four Reflections on Interviewing other women—fairly and accurately. However I ‘Friends’ still feared that she may disagree with my analysis ...relationships between researchers and of her experiences. When I did see her some weeks participants rest at the heart of feminist ethical later I was still feeling nervous about what her re- concerns in research (Gringeri, Wahab & Ander- action may have been. To my delight, she thanked son-Nathe, 2010, p. 393). me for how I represented her in my thesis. She said no one had ever listened to her like I had and The two interviews described above were validated her stories the way I did. She said she both made possible because of friendships. Bar- appreciated how it was written in a way that was bara was already a friend due in part to our chil- easy to read and that she had put it away for the dren’s shared place of learning. Jane however, felt future, hoping her children would read it one day. that our past shared experiences made us friends. Finally she told me that she felt the experience had While Jane had stated that she was happy to have given her closure from the events of the past. I am her identity made public, my promises to our eth- pleased that she got so much out of participating in ics committee meant that could not happen and as this project and felt energised about the prospect of a result I could not meet that request. My pre- undertaking further research. existing relationship with Marie had made possible It was tempting to put my completed the interviews with the other women. Without thesis up on the shelf in my study and to move on Marie vouching for my character as an equal rather to other projects. However, Dickson-Swift et al than a university researcher, they were not likely to (2006) reminds qualitative researchers that it is have occurred. Our shared lunch provided a friend- important to confront issues such as the blurring of ly ‘warm up’ to break down barriers and provide boundaries, the concept of friendships in research a comfortable interview space that would follow. and to consider the effect that distressing disclo- Our ‘friendships’ helped strengthen my research by sures can have upon researchers. I have decided allowing for a deeper account of private lives that to reflect upon these issues that have the potential may not occur in interviews with unknown women to impact heavily upon researchers, especially as (see Cotterill, 1992 and Harris, 2002). We had a one of the ethical responsibilities of social work “social and collective identity” (Lamont & Molnar, research is to “observe the conventions of ethical 2002, pp.169-177) that cemented our trust in each scholarly enquiry” (AASW, 2010, p. 36), one of other, allowing rich and thick accounts of personal

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2014, Vol. 11, No. 2 - page 57 The Politics of Research Ethics in Social Work: Reflections From a First-time Researcher histories that are rarely shared with strangers. immersed in the literature, trying to answer my I think I was able to bridge the power own questions that I was becoming re-traumatised. imbalances that are possible in the researcher/ I was not sleeping well and was probably not the researched relationship, mostly by interview- best parent or partner throughout this research ing women who I considered equals. McRobbie project. By the time I went out into the field, I (1982) argues that as a feminist researcher I should was not treating this as an emotionless experience acknowledge my own history to maintain a bal- as textbooks instruct us to do (Oakley, 1981) but ance of power. In disclosing my experiences or my felt angry with perpetrators all over again. Upon “use of self” I was able to build rapport with the further reflection, I believe that a lot of this an- women, but later had to subject myself to “criti- ger came from the realisation at just how much cal scrutiny” of my own politics and ethics (Zu- research has been undertaken on the dynamics of brzycki, 2002, p. 352). Nevertheless, I was at times intimate partner violence, yet it felt that within challenged by the way the women had handled Australian society, little has changed. their experiences and the choices they made. On I agree with Rubin and Babbie (2001) who closer reflection, I would guess that parts of my suggest that no research in the social sciences story would challenge them too. I learned from is ever conducted without the researcher having this process that not everyone’s experience will be pre-conceived opinions, personal morals and his- the same as mine and the decisions others make tory. This is especially true, given that academics will probably be different than mine (for more see recommend novice researchers choose a topic that Fraser & Jarldorn, forthcoming). will ‘sustain their interest” (Fraser, 2009, p. 88). While there are many similarities between the 6. Personal and Feminist Politics in research interview and a therapeutic interview, I Research found the biggest difference was the time I spent The ‘cookbooks’ of research methods large- reflecting on the content of the interview and its ly ignore the political context of research, although process, particularly as I used a narrative analysis some make asides about its ‘ethical dilemmas’ as my research method. The time spent listening, (Oakley, 1981, p. 55). transcribing, reading and reviewing the interviews embedded the women’s stories (and my reactions) According to historical, scientific research into the forefront of my daily thoughts well past values of objectivity and neutrality (Longino, the submission date of my thesis. Dickson-Swift et 1990), I should not allow my own political values al (2006) suggest that given the complex issues in influence my scientific research. Yet without my qualitative research like those I experienced, fur- political values, I would not have approached the ther attention from researchers, their supervisors research design, literature review, interviews and and ethics committees needs to be paid developing data analysis in the ways that I did. Under this protocols to better manage the effects of the blur- cloud, figuring out the extent to which my values ring of boundaries (p. 867). and beliefs could influence the ideas and processes I used was not easy. Early into the research process 7. Conclusion I realised I was being led by my heightened emo- No research is carried out in a vacuum tions. My personal and feminist politics had taken (McRobbie, 1982, p. 48) over in the quest to understand more about why men can perpetrate violence against the women Along with Morley (2009), I have come who love them and why the women persevered away from this feminist, social work research with their relationships as long as they did. Be- wondering what good I have done for the women fore I undertook the interviews I had become so I worked with on this project. Will it produce any

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