Garrison

Humboldt State University

Humboldt's Uncivil War

Submitted to Humboldt State University

History Department Faculty

For Consideration for the

2014

Charles R. Barnum Award

By

Jim Garrison

7 March 2014

1 Garrison

Humboldt's Uncivil War

The American Civil War, though fought far from the river valleys and fog-shrouded redwoods of Humboldt County, had devastating effects on the residents of this pioneer community. While North and South fought it out in the east, people in Northern California were embroiled in a series of conflicts with the local Indian tribes. Despite having entered the Union as a free state, California's legislature enacted laws that legalized Indian slavery, exacerbating an already hostile relationship with native peoples. The Federal Government sent troops to keep the peace, but delayed creating a working reservation system for many years. When companies from the U.S. Army's 4th Infantry stationed at Fort Humboldt were called away in 1861, after the start of the Civil War, California volunteer companies were created to fill in for the regulars. When these troops left in 1863, local troops were raised to handle the Indian conflicts. This amounted to leaving the foxes in charge of the henhouse; many of these volunteer companies were comprised of men determined to eliminate the Indian presence in the county once and for all. An absence of accountability allowed these men to solve the Indian problem as they saw fit; by engaging in the wholesale slaughter of innocent people in a style of warfare that could be more accurately described as hunting. The departure of the regulars and the California volunteers from

Ft. Humboldt left the prosecution of the Indian affairs to locally raised Mountaineer battalions comprised largely of local thugs, and ultimately resulted in the death of many Native Americans.

The people who came here looking for a new start, or for their fortunes, brought with

them the desire, the skills and the intestinal fortitude needed to shape their new homes from the wilderness of northern California. They also brought with them a sense of entitlement. On

reaching , the white settlers immediately began taking whatever they wanted with

no regard for the native inhabitants. Under the auspices of military land-grant bounties and the

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Preemption Act of 1841 they appropriated choice property. They also commandeered trails, and turned prairies previously used for hunting and gathering into rangeland for cattle. Less than a month after the arrival of the first whites looking to settle the area violence would ensue. Two

Indian youths were killed and a settlement was burned by members of the Union

Company, allegedly in retaliation for the theft of some rope, setting the tone for relations between the newcomers and the local Indians. When two "perfectly harmless"1 whites were subsequently killed on the Eel River, the newcomers felt justified in launching a retributive strike against the Wiyot people. This pattern of revenge and violence would set the stage for Indian- white relations in Humboldt County for decades. 2

In 1850 California's first legislature passed the Act for the Government and Protection of

Indians. Despite its misleading title, this law denied California Indians any rights or citizenship and essentially legalized their enslavement. This created a lucrative business for organized bands of kidnappers who would mount attacks against Indians, or simply follow troops engaged in raids against Indian Rancherias, and scoop up any women and children they found.3 One trader reportedly made $15,000 in 1861, selling Indian children4 "Refusal of an Indian to give up his

1 Jerry Rohde, "The Sonoma Gang: Remembering the Genocidal Scum Who Built Arcata", The North Coast Journal (September 11, 2008): accessed November 17, 2013, http://www.northcoastjoumal.com/humboldt/the-- sonoma-gang/Content?oid=2127928. 2 Jerry Rohde, "The Sonoma Gang", The North Coast Journal (September 11, 2008). 3 Lynwood Carranco and Estle Beard, Genocide and Vendetta: the Round Valley Wars of Northern California (Norman: University of Oklahoma Pr, 1981), 110; Capt. Thomas Ketcham in: George W. Davis, Leslie J. Perry, and Joseph W. Kirkley, eds., The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, Part One: Reports, Correspondence, Etc. 1 (Washington D.C.: U.S. War Dept., 1897), 50: 982.accessed November 28, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/ld4qrz7. 4 Capt. Thomas Ketcham in: George W. Davis, Leslie J. Perry, and Joseph W. Kirkley, eds., The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, Part One: Reports, Correspondence, Etc. 1 (Washington D.C.: U.S. War Dept., 1897), 50: 982.accessed November 28, 2013, http://tinyurl.comild4qrz7.

3 Garrison wife, his daughter, or his land resulted in the shooting of enough Indian males to secure the desired results."5

These assaults on natives and their livelihood triggered an escalating series of reciprocal revenge killings. Seth Kinman, the eccentric frontiersman, hunter, and chair-builder, noted that

"...a great many white men, who were without the instincts of common decency and morality, did satyr-like abuse, kidnap and maltreat their squaws and this undoubtedly added to their flame of revenge."6 In some areas, bounties were offered for the scalps of Indian men, as well7 In the opinion of Lt. Daniel Lynn, who served in Humboldt in the 6th Regiment California Infantry in

1860-61, these kidnappings and abuses were "calculated to produce retaliatory depredations on the part of the Indians,"8 in order to stymie efforts at finding peaceful solutions. The murder of a white man or the killing of stock in retaliation was used as justification for the massacre of the first group of Indians found.9

Many of the state's new citizens were vehemently opposed to "giving valuable land to savages" by creating reservations. Reservations established on the Klamath, and later at Smith

River were never adequately provided for and Indians were compelled by hunger and abuse at the hands of whites to go back to their homes.10 As federal and state governments looked the other way, white settlers took it upon themselves to remove the Indians by whatever means, and

5 Chad L. Hoopes, "Fort Humboldt: Explorations of the Humboldt Bay Region and Founding of the Military Fort" (master's thesis, University, 1964), 37. 6 Seth Kinman's Manuscript and Scrapbook, ed. Geo. M. Richmond and Richard H. Roberts (Ferndale, CA: Ferndale Museum, 2010), 28. 7 Robert F. Heizer, ed., The Destruction of California Indians: a Collection of Documents from the Period 1847 to 1865 in Which Are Described Some of the Things That Happened to Some of the Indians of California (Lincoln, Neb.: Bison Books, 1993), 268-269. 8 Lt. Daniel Lynn in: Robert F. Heizer, ed., The Destruction of California Indians: a Collection of Documents from the Period 1847 to 1865 in Which Are Described Some of the Things That Happened to Some of the Indians of California (Lincoln, Neb.: Bison Books, 1993), 229. 9 Lynwood Carranco, Genocide and Vendetta, 155. 10 Lynwood Carranco, Genocide and Vendetta, 42, 78. 4 Garrison having no land set aside for them, tribes throughout the Humboldt district were pushed to the wall and forced to fight, flee, or die.

Death, sadly, was the most common fate for California's native population, whether at the hands of whites or from starvation and disease. Some chose to flee, many to the reservations, trusting or hoping the white soldiers would provide for and protect them. There were a few who chose to fight. Lassic was one such man- and was one of few Indians named in records from this time.11 Lassic's people inhabited a broad area which included the drainages of the Eel, and Van

Duzen rivers, the Headwaters of the Mad River, and Larrabee and Dobbyns creeks. Not much is known about Lassic's people; however, Lassic himself led the most feared band of warriors in the county in countless raids against whites and their property.12

In response to cries for protection from miners and settlers, Federal troops were stationed at Fort Humboldt in 1853. These troops were used to chastise groups of Indians like Lassic's, who had reportedly committed acts of violence or predation on white settlers. There were few

Indian troubles for the soldiers to manage at first, but as the feud between Indians and whites escalated the officers were increasingly called upon to solve these problems.13 Some, like

General , who served in Northern California in the 1850s as a lieutenant, held the

opinion that the troops were needed to protect not only the interests of the settlers, but the lives

of the natives as well.

The Indians would confide in us as friends, and we had to witness this unjust treatment of them without the power to help them. Then when they were pushed beyond endurance and would go on the war path we had to fight them, when our sympathies were with the Indians.14

11 Alternate spellings include: Lassik, Las-Sic, Lassux, Lasseck, and Lassac. 12 Lynwood Carranco, Genocide and Vendetta, 145. 13 Chad L. Hoopes, "Fort Humboldt", 76. 14 Kurt R. Nelson, Treaties and Treachery: the Northwest Indians' Resistance to Conquest (Caldwell, ID: Caxton Press, 2011), 62.

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In response to the local cries for relief from Indian attacks, the troops at Fort Humboldt continuously patrolled the backwoods, sometimes joined by groups of volunteers formed from members of various communities throughout the county. These volunteers served as guides for the troops. Some of these volunteers were disreputable and violent men who killed Indians for sport. Their methods left much to be desired by the officers at Ft. Humboldt. Referred to by some as "Leatherstockings" and "Buckskin Gentry," or simply "thugs" by others, these were men intent on carving a piece of the wilderness for themselves by exploiting and murdering Indians.15

Men like Henry P. Larabee, and Wallace M. Hagans were notorious for their hatred and violence toward Indians.16 These men were held in contempt by many of the officers at Ft.

Humboldt.17 Larabee and Hagans, who owned property near Kettenshaw Valley and in the

Larabee creek drainage, had reportedly tied an Indian man, known to be friendly and helpful to the Ft. Humboldt troops, to a tree and shot him in cold blood. Larabee in his own right was guilty of far worse. He was criticized most heavily for his murder of an Indian boy along with the boy's family, and rafting their bodies downriver to his neighbor as a warning against providing aid and comfort to the native people.18 Seth Kinman, who himself admits to killing Indians while serving as a guide for troops out of Ft. Humboldt, condemned Larabee's brutality; "...bodies of slaughtered Indians came down the Eel River like driftwood, all with Larabee's mark on them, to

15 Capt. Charles S. Lovell and Lt. Daniel D Lynn in: George W. Davis, Leslie J. Perry, and Joseph W. Kirkley, eds., The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, Part II: Correspondence, Etc. 1 (Washington D.C.: U.S. War Dept., 1897), 50:9, accessed November 28, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/kxutfxm. 16 Capt. Chas. S. Lovell in: George W. Davis, Leslie J. Perry, and Joseph W. Kirkley, eds., The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, Part One: Reports, Correspondence, Etc. 1 (Washington D.C.: U.S. War Dept., 1897), 50:8, accessed November 28, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/ld4qrz7. 17 Lt. Daniel D. Lynn in: George W. Davis, The War of the Rebellion, Part One, 10-11. 18 Jerry Rohde, "Genocide and Extortion: 150 Years Later, the Hidden Motive Behind the Indian Island Massacre", The North Coast Journal (February 25, 2010): accessed November 17, 2013, http://wwvv.northcoastjournal.com/humboldt/genocide-and-extortion/Content?oid=2130748.

6 Garrison wit: literally ripped and slit open from their throat down to their belly."19 There would be worse atrocities to follow.

In the darkest hours of the morning on 26 February 1860, a group of men silently rowed out to Indian Island and murdered every man, woman, and child they found. Similar attacks were coordinated at Table Bluff, and on the Eel River. As horrific as this event was, if it weren't for

Bret Harte, who worked at a local paper before going on to much greater literary achievements, it might have remained just another all-but-forgotten massacre. The story subsequently received national attention in the press.20 No real attempt was made to identify those responsible. It is clear, however, that the crime was the work of unscrupulous ranchers and the buckskin gentry.

The commander at Fort Humboldt, Major Gabriel J. Raines, was unpopular with many local settlers; owing to his reluctance to engage in all out war against the Indians. He knew that whites had been killed, but also knew that most of the bad blood was started by whites who mistreated Indians and sought their extermination.21 Raines condemned the incident as murder and stated that the Indians killed were the "most inoffensive" he'd ever seen. He believed that some of the men responsible belonged to Seman Wright's Hydesville Volunteers. This group of vigilante ranchers and settlers had formed in 1859 after conflicts with Indians in their area.22

For the next few months, the newspapers in and around Humboldt mirrored the fears and excitement of the area's white citizens. Austin Wiley, editor of the Humboldt Times, called the massacre a "terrible and indiscriminate slaughter," but justified the act as a case of preemptive self defense, prophesying that events such as this would continue until the Indians were

19 Seth Kinman, 31-33. 20 Lynwood Carranco, Genocide and Vendetta, 129. 21 William B. Secrest, When the Great Spirit Died: the Destruction of the California Indians, 1850-1860 (Sanger, CA: Word Dancer Press, 2003), 314. 22 Lynwood Carranco, Genocide and Vendetta, 129-130.

7 Garrison eliminated from the county.23 The citizens of Hydesville petitioned Governor John Gately

Downey, 7th governor of California, to fund their volunteer company, and a flood of affidavits from men, including Larabee, Hagans, and Wright, testified to the Indians depredations.24 They were refused a commission to raise a company when the Governor determined, based on reports coming out of Ft. Humboldt, that assistance of this kind was unnecessary.25

Like Wiley, many in the county believed that the only solution to their problem was in removing the Indians, either alive or dead. Many also believed that the soldiers at Ft. Humboldt had not done enough to prevent Indian raids on settlements and were not competent to prosecute the war on the Indians to their satisfaction.26 Competence was not the issue however, but willingness. Seth Kinman noted with disdain the reluctance of the regular army soldiers to fire on an encampment of Indians, and characterized them as too disciplined and regimented to be effective Indian fighters.27

Other voices protested against the violence and questioned the lack of justice for the

Indians. Many felt that the Indian predations were greatly exaggerated and that the troubles had been started, and were being prolonged by the horrendous behavior and intolerance of men like

Larabee.28 Concerned citizens and military officers voiced their alarm at the atrocities, criticizing the barbarous behavior of the settlers and the inaction of the government.29 A quarrel had been brewing between the citizens and the military officers, stemming from the fact that the officers

23 "Indian Massacre," Humboldt Times, March 3, 1860. 24 Henry Larabee, Seman Wright, and William Hagans, Inventory of the Military Department. Adjutant General. Indian War Papers: Affidavits from Humboldt, March 8-9, in the Online Archive of California, accessed November 30, 2013, http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf4779n694/dsc/?query=Seman#c01-1.3.5.30. 25 Lynwood Carranco, Genocide and Vendetta, 130. 26 "Indian Troubles,"Humboldt Times, March 17, 1860. 27 Seth Kinman, 30. 28 Jack Norton, Genocide in Northwestern California: When Our Worlds Cried (San Francisco: Indian Historian Press, 1979), 88-89. 29 Edmund Dillon, "Our Sacramento Correspondence," Daily Alta California, February 10, 1860, accessed November 29, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/ovssks1

8 Garrison refused to wantonly kill Indians without proof of their guilt in some crime, whereas the angry citizens simply wanted the army to sweep across the countryside and exterminate or remove every Indian.30

Many Humboldt Bay Indians, fearful of another massacre, left their Rancherias and sought shelter at the fort. Major Raines also fearing further atrocities, sheltered over 300 Indians for nearly three months after this event, before seeing them moved to the Klamath Reservation.31

Raines was transferred shortly after.

After Raines departed, the command of Ft. Humboldt was given to Capt. Charles S.

Lovell. Like his predecessor, Lovell had little knowledge of, or stomach for, the sort of warfare that Wright's volunteers employed and advocated. He likened the tactics used by these local vigilantes to "wolf hunting."32 Before Lovell had even taken command, the Indians who had been removed to the reservation began escaping and straggling back into their old territory.

Citizens called on Lovell to round them up once more and remove them again to a reservation, and more appeals were made to Governor Downey. Eventually Downey authorized the formation of a thirty-man volunteer company comprised of Humboldt's "buckskin gentry," which included

Corporal Henry Larabee, Private William Hagans, and other men implicated in the Indian Island massacre.

Lovell sent these men into the Larabee Creek area and by June they had killed 117

Indians.33 This company was instrumental in educating their fellow soldiers in how to hunt and kill Indians in Humboldt's backwoods. The intense harassment of the Indians sparked retaliation and within a week of the volunteer guards finishing their bloody enlistments, fresh attacks had

30 Lynwood Carranco, Genocide and Vendetta, 130. 31 Chad L. Hoopes, "Fort Humboldt", 104-105. 32 Capt. Chas. S. Lovell in: George W. Davis, The War of the Rebellion, Part One, 8. 33 Lynwood Carranco, Genocide and Vendetta, 131-133.

9 Garrison been made against Cooper's mill in Yager Creek, near Hydesville.34 Fort Seward was established on the Eel River by Lovell and 60 men, all of whom were subsequently called away to duty in the Civil War, and were replaced by companies of California Volunteer Regiments. These companies, comprised of men from other parts of the state were joined in the field by companies of the buckskin gentry's Home Guard.

With Lovell's departure Col. Francis J. Lippitt was placed in command of Ft. Humboldt and of the Humboldt Military District. As with officers preceding him, Lippitt was constrained by orders and would not authorize the slaughter of Indians without evidence of guilt. Lippitt and the officers under him shared the opinion of previous officers at Humboldt, and attempted to find peaceful resolution, ordering their men to not to kill any Indians except in self defense.35 The buckskin gentry had no such limitations and the violence continued. The settlers and newspaper editors voiced their displeasure with the performance of the troops and praised the accomplishments of the volunteer companies in butchering the natives.36 In the face of overwhelming criticism Lippitt rescinded his order, and after an attack on whites near Arcata, ordered his men to "inflict a terrible punishment."37 Lippitt would attempt to pursue a more vigorous war from this point; and focused on disarming and removing Indians one way or another.38

The circular pattern of depredations and reprisals continued, forcing Lippitt to put every man he could lay his hands on into the field. By the summer of 1862 over 800 Indians had been captured and were being held on the Samoa Peninsula. Among them were Lassic and some of his men, who had been captured at the end of July. These prisoners were shipped to the Smith River

34 Lynwood Carranco, Genocide and Vendetta, 134-135. 35 Chad L. Hoopes, "Fort Humboldt", 113. 36 Chad L. Hoopes, "Fort Humboldt", 116. 37 Lynwood Carranco, Genocide and Vendetta, 139. 38 Chad L. Hoopes, "Fort Humboldt", 113. 10 Garrison

Reservation.39 By the end of September over half of them had escaped starvation and exposure in the reservation and had begun their long walk home, including Lassic and his men.40

Lassic led his band back to their home ground, and likely resumed his reign of terror on the outlying settlers and the buckskin gentry. He would again be taken prisoner late in 1862 at Ft.

Baker, on the Van Duzen, and from there was moved with 40 of his men to Ft. Seward. They were to be moved by troops under the command of Capt. Charles D. Douglas, 2nd California

Infantry, to the Round Valley Reservation.41 Capt. Douglas stated in one report that "these

Indians should be punished, as they are, and according to all reports always were, bad Indians," later reporting to authorities that Lassic and his men "took cold and died" on the journey.42 The

Humboldt Times reported stories of his demise several times during January of 1863. These reports repeated the story that Lassic and his men had "caught cold" and died before making it to the reservation, adding that the "cold" that had killed them was likely "cold lead."43 An account of the event was given many years later by Lassic's niece, T'tcetsa, or Lucy Young as she came to be known. According to Lucy, who was also taken to Ft. Seward, the men were shot in cold blood and their bodies burned in a giant funeral pyre.44

Lippitt was replaced in July 1863 by Stephen G. Whipple the newspaper editor who Bret

Harte worked for until his reporting of the Indian Island Massacre. Whipple had fanned the

flames of hostility in his editorials for years, advocating for "extermination or removal."

Whipple was a man with at least one finger in every pie; he was a newspaper editor, Indian

39 Lynwood Carranco, Genocide and Vendetta, 139. 4° Lynwood Carranco, Genocide and Vendetta, 140. 41 nitanahkohe, "150 Years Ago Today," Before I Lose My Style, January 20, 2013, accessed December 1, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/qhadkp5. 42 nitanahkohe, "150 Years Ago Today," 2013, http://tinyurl.com/qhadkp5. 43 "All Right," Humboldt Times, January 3, 1863; "Lassic," Humboldt Times, January 23, 1863. 44 Lucy Young and Edith V. A. Murphey, "Out of the Past: A True Indian Story Told by Lucy Young, of Round Valley Indian Reservation", California Historical Society Quarterly 20, no. 4 (Dec., 1941): 354. accessed September 22, 2013, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25160964. 11 Garrison

Agent, State Assemblyman, and commander of Ft. Humboldt and the Mountaineer Battalion.45

He was replaced in the office of Indian Agent in 1864 by Austin Wiley, the other Indian hating newspaper editor.

After the conduct of the hostilities turned to favor the extreme approach of the buckskin gentry, leniency and any pretense of punishing only the guilty was abandoned. No longer was there any reluctance on the part of the soldiers to fire into crowds of defenseless and unsuspecting Indians. These companies, in the closing years of the Indian War, would be composed of a different breed than those who had preceded them. When Leland Stanford was elected Governor of California in 1862, he did what Downey had been unwilling to do; he allowed the locals to form more companies of Indian fighters. Six new companies, known as the

Mountaineer Battalion, were formed from the citizens of the Humboldt Military District. As these local companies took over, the regular companies of California Volunteers withdrew, taking with them all semblance of military law, order, and discipline which had overseen operations against the Indians under previous commands.

Seth Kinman praised the efficiency with which these home-grown companies killed

Indians and credited their loose discipline as the key to their success.46 Led by undisciplined and

unprincipled men, these companies suffered fewer restrictions on, or repercussions for, their

actions than those who had come before them, and so were free to hunt Indians, like Lassic's

people and others, to practical extinction. All out war would come to a close in Humboldt after

the opening of the Hoopa Indian Reservation and the removal of most of the remaining Indians

to that location and others in 1864.

45Eric Krabbe-Smith, "Lucy Young or T'tcetsa: Indian/white Relations in Northwest California, 1846-1944" (master's thesis, UC Santa Cruz, 1990), 11. 46 Seth Kinman, 31. 12 Garrison

The period of the American Civil War saw an escalation and acceleration of violence against native peoples in this region. Before the departure of men like Raines and Lovell, some attempt had been made to prevent the soldiers from joining in the slaughter of Indians with the local thugs. As things heated up in the East however, competent men were called away and replaced by men more willing to bend to the desires of the local citizenry and adopt the methods employed by vigilante Indian killers like Larabee. With nobody in authority to look to the interests of the Indians, the buckskin gentry were left to take care of the very people they wished to see exterminated.

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Bibliography

Primary Sources Davis, George W., Leslie J. Perry, and Joseph W. Kirkley, eds. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Vol. 50. Part One: Reports, Correspondence, Etc. 1. Washington D.C.: U.S. War Dept., 1897. Accessed November 28, 2013. http://tinyurl.comild4qrz7.

Davis, George W., Leslie J. Perry, and Joseph W. Kirkley, eds. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Vol. 50. Part II: Correspondence, Etc. 1. Washington D.C.: U.S. War Dept., 1897. Accessed November 28, 2013. http://tinyurl.com/kxutfxm.

Young, Lucy, and Edith V. A. Murphey. "Out of the Past: A True Indian Story Told by Lucy Young, of Round Valley Indian Reservation." California Historical Society Quarterly 20, no. 4 (Dec., 1941): page nr. Accessed September 22, 2013. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25160964.

Secondary Sources Bledsoe, Anthony Jennings. Indian Wars of the Northwest. San Francisco: Bacon & Company, 1885.

Carranco, Lynwood, and Estle Beard. Genocide and Vendetta: the Round Valley Wars of Northern California. Norman: Univ of Oklahoma Press, 1981.

Heizer, Robert F., ed. The Destruction of California Indians: a Collection of Documents from the Period 1847 to 1865 in Which Are Described Some of the Things That Happened to Some of the Indians of California. Lincoln, Neb.: Bison Books, 1993.

Hoopes, Chad L. "Fort Humboldt: Explorations of the Humboldt Bay Region and Founding of the Military Fort." Master's thesis, Brigham Young University, 1964.

Hunt, Aurora. The Army of the Pacific: Its Operations in California, Texas, Arizona, , Utah, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, Plains Region, Mexico, Etc., 1860-1866. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2004.

Krabbe-Smith, Eric. "Lucy Young or T'tcetsa: Indian/white Relations in Northwest California, 1846-1944." Master's thesis, UC Santa Cruz, 1990.

Nelson, Kurt R. Treaties and Treachery: the Northwest Indians' Resistance to Conquest. Caldwell, ID: Caxton Press, 2011.

Niebuhr, H. Seth Kinmans Manuscript and Scrapbook. Edited by Geo. M. Richmond and Richard H. Roberts. Ferndale, CA: Ferndale Museum, 2010.

Nitanahkohe. "150 Years Ago Today." Before I Lose My Style. January 20, 2013. Accessed

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December 1, 2013. http://tinyurl.com/qhadkp5.

Norton, Jack. Genocide in Northwestern California: When Our Worlds Cried. San Francisco: Indian Historian Press, 1979.

Online Archive of California. http://www.oac.cdlib.org/.

Rohde, Jerry. "Genocide and Extortion: 150 Years Later, the Hidden Motive Behind the Indian Island Massacre." The North Coast Journal (February 25, 2010): page nr. Accessed November 17, 2013. http://www.northcoastjournal.com/humboldt/genocide-and-- extortion/Content?oid=2130748.

"The Sonoma Gang: Remembering the Genocidal Scum Who Built Arcata." The North Coast Journal (September 11, 2008): page nr. Accessed November 17, 2013. http://www.northcoastjournal.com/humboldt/the-sonoma-gang/Content?oid=2127928.

Secrest, William B. When the Great Spirit Died: the Destruction of the California Indians, 1850- 1860. Sanger, CA: Word Dancer Press, 2003.

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