Migration, Culture and Work: A study of Indonesian Domestic Workers in Hong Kong I SO Yuen-man A Thesis submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of ！ Master of Philosophy in Anthropology © The Chinese University of Hong Kong May 2005 The Chinese University of Hong Kong holds the copyright of the thesis. Any person(s) Intending to use a part of whole of the materials in the thesis in a proposed publication must seek copyright release from the Dean of the Graduate School H 1 s KC jlj iJfiS?^ /M/J 、、...."一 Content Abstract (English) i Abstract (Chinese) ii Acknowledgement iii Chapter One: Introduction 1 1. Orientation 1 2. Literature Review 5 2.1 Domestic work and Migration in the New Economy 6 2.1.1 The increased demand for migrant domestic workers 6 2.1.2 The migration of domestic workers 8 2.1.3 The labor migration of Indonesian domestic workers in Hong Kong 13 2.2 The labor migration of Indonesian domestic workers in Hong Kong 15 2.2.1 The Subordinate status of migrant domestic workers 16 2.2.2 The Resistance and Negotiation of migrant domestic workers 18 3. Thesis Outline 20 4. Methodology 23 4.1 Getting general information 23 4.2 Interviews 23 4.3 Observation 25 4.4 Ethical Issues 25 Chapter Two: The Demand for Domestic Workers in Hong Kong 26 1. The increasing need for domestic workers 27 1.1 Increased participation of women in the workforce 27 1.2 A strategy to negotiate on conventional family relationships 30 1.2.1 To protect the nuclear family from extended family's intervention 31 1.2.2 To fulfill the conventional filial responsibilities of caring for elderly parents 35 2. The changing domestic labor market in Hong Kong 38 2.1 The position of Indonesian workers in the domestic labor market 40 2.1.1 The formation of racial stereotypes of foreign domestic workers 43 Chapter Three: Labor Migration in Indonesia 50 1. The economic incentives to migrate abroad 51 1.1 Economic development and the labor market in Indonesia 52 2. The feminization of migrant workers 54 2.1 Migration as a household strategy to cope with family crises 56 2.2 Migration as a tool to negotiate change in traditional views on marriage 60 2.3 Migration as a strategy to enjoy independence 64 3. Chapter summery 66 Chapter Four: Employment Process 69 1. The administrative structure of migration 69 2. The role of employment agency in Indonesia 72 2.1 Live-in training camp in Indonesia 73 2.2 Personal negotiation in the training camp: developing a network of ^^ assistance 3. The role of job placement agency in Hong Kong 81 3.1 Personal negotiations with the employment agent: getting their own passports oJ 4. Chapter summery 88 Chapter Five: On the Job - Neither Resistance Nor Domination 91 1 .Domestic work in Hong Kong 95 1.1 Working time and working space 95 1.2 Social isolation 99 1.3 Cultural adjustments 103 1.4 The emotional aspects of deference 109 2. Personal negotiation at work 113 2.1 Playing with emotional displays 115 2.2 Manipulative emotional bonding 123 2.3 Developing local support networks 130 3. Chapter summery 13 2 Chapter Six: Common Gathering Places 134 1. The feeling of subordination in Hong Kong 134 2. Formal support: NGOs and shelters 137 2.1 Union leader 138 2.2 Labor cases 140 2.3 Demonstration 143 2.4 General members 145 3. Informal support: Victoria Park and other gathering places 148 3.1 Solidarity among Indonesian workers in the gathering places 151 3.1.1 Gaining informal support to adapt to the public environment of Hong Kong 152 3.1.2 Gaining support to improve working conditions 154 3.1.3 Gaining strength to interact with the general public 155 3.1.4 Self-monitoring behavior in the gathering places 157 4. Suspicion and alienation in the gathering places 158 5. Gathering places as a platform for redefining identity 163 6. Chapter summery 166 Chapter Seven: Conclusion 168 1. Domestic work and migration in the new economy 168 2. The migration experiences of Indonesian domestic workers in Hong 口� Kong 3. Self-reflection 174 Appendix 178 1. Details of informants (Domestic workers) 178 2. Details of informants (Employers) 179 \ Bibliography 180 Abstract The Philippines has long provided most of the foreign domestic helpers in Hong Kong. However, the foreign domestic market has seen significant changes in recent years. There are more and more households willing to employ Indonesian women as domestic helpers. At the end of June 2002, Indonesians comprised one-third of the foreign domestic workforce and became the second largest ethnic category in this profession in Hong Kong. Indonesian domestic workers are less known and researched even though they are increasing in number, and their socio-demographic characteristics and situation are different from their Filipina counterparts. Why has there been a significant increase in the number of Indonesian workers in recent years? What kind of experiences have they encountered in the migration process, as well as on the job at their employers' homes and in public places? How do they adapt and react to their situation in Hong Kong. In this research, I attempt to examine both economic and social factors in explaining the increasing number of Indonesian domestic workers in Hong Kong and to document their lives in Hong Kong. 摘要 菲律賓一向是香港外藉家庭勞工的最大輸入國。但近來，香港的外藉家 庭勞工市場起了顯著的變化。越來越多香港家庭聘請印尼藉女傭。到了二零零 二年六月底，印尼藉女傭已經佔了三分之一的外藉家庭勞工人口，成爲這個行 業的第二大族群。相對於菲藉女傭，香港的印尼藉女傭較少被關注和硏究，雖 然她們的來港人數持續增加而且她們的社會背景和處境都跟菲傭有差別。爲何 印尼藉女傭越來越受香港的雇主歡迎？她們在來港的過程中、在香港的工作環 境和公共領域裡的處境如何？她們如何適應和面對這些處境呢？本硏究旨在試 探香港的印尼藉女傭人數持續增加背後的經濟和社會因素並紀錄她們移民來港 工作的生活。 Acknowledgement I would like to thank a number of people who have helped me a lot in this research. First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Tan Chee-Beng. He provided me guidance and continuous encouragement in my research and writing of this thesis. I would also like to thank the other-members of my thesis committee, namely, Dr. Joseph Bosco and Dr. Gordon Mathews. They offered valuable criticisms and suggestions on my drafts. I am grateful to them for their patience and advice. The Forum Komunikasi Mu'minat Peduli Umat (FKMPU), Hong Kong Coalition of Indonesian Migrant Workers Organization (KOTHKIHO), Indonesian Migrant Workers Union (IMWU), Asian Migrants Center (AMC), and Christian Action kindly provided me information on Indonesian workers in Hong Kong. I am grateful to them all. I am indebted to all the Indonesian workers, employers, and employment agents, whom I have known and interviewed in my research. They prefer to remain anonymous. I was so touched that the Indonesian workers treated me as their friends and spent their valuable time talking to me as well as bringing me into their communities. Without their kindness and openness in talking to me, I would not have been able to write this thesis at all. Finally I wish to express my gratitude to my family members and best friends for their support and encouragement. I am particularly thankful to my mother and my sister for giving me emotional support when I encountered difficulties in the research. I am also grateful to Franco Lai, Sharon Li, Echo Ng, Heidi Ip and Noel Chow who spent hours discussing with me and giving me many insightful suggestions. Chapter One Introduction 1. Orientation Many households in Hong Kong hire foreign domestic workers. They are highly visible in public areas. We can see them at family gatherings and taking care of their employers' children and the elderly. Hong Kong people know that Statue Square in Central is a popular gathering place of foreign domestic workers on Sundays and public holidays. Tourists even go there on Sunday to photograph the crowd of domestic workers. Employment agencies for foreign domestic workers and their advertisements are all around. TV soap operas and commercials often feature a foreign domestic worker in the family. Even with the recent economic downturn, the number of foreign domestic helpers coming to Hong Kong continues to grow according to Immigration Department figures. ^ There were 213,891 foreign domestic workers in Hong Kong at the end of July, 2003. All these examples show how essential foreign domestic workers are to Hong Kong life. During the economic downturn, government policies and public opinion towards domestic workers began to change as the domestic labor market became more competitive. Indonesian workers as well as other foreign domestic workers faced wage cuts. From October 1, 2003 onwards, employers who employ or renew a contract with a foreign domestic worker will have to pay a levy of HK$400 per month for the whole of the contract period. This was offset by foreign domestic workers taking an 11% wage cut from April 2003, reducing the minimum wage from 1 Hong Kong Government. “The Entry of Foreign Domestic Helpers ". At http://www. info.gov.hk/info/entry-dom.htm accessed at IFebuary 2004. 1 HK$3，670 to HK$3,270. As many unskilled and poorly educated local people lost their jobs in the economic recession, the levy will be used for the training and retraining of the local workforce and related promotional activities to enhance their employment opportunities in Hong Kong. The Philippines has long provided most of the foreign domestic helpers in Hong Kong. In 1990，Filipinas accounted for more than 85% of the total. Many Hong Kong people use the term Ban Muih (Filipina sister) for all foreign domestic workers. However, the foreign domestic market has seen significant changes in recent years. There are increasing numbers of local Chinese women working as part-time domestic helpers. Furthermore, Filipina workers face increasing competition from other foreign nationals, especially Indonesians.